MECHANICS  DEPT 


THE 

UNIVERSAL   ASSISTANT, 

COMPLETE  MECHANIC 


OVER 


ONE  MILLION  INDUSTRIAL  FACT* 

IAICULATIOHS,  RESEIPTS,  PROCESSES,  TRADE  SECRETS,  RULES, 

BUSINESS  FORMS,  LEGAL  ITEMS,  ETC.,  IN  EVERY 

OCCUPATION,  FROM  THE 

HOUSEHOLD  TO  THE  MANUFACTORY, 

BY  R.  MOORE. 


Illustrated  with  SOO  Engravings. 


IM  have  Pacts,  real,  certain,    unmistakable    Pacts,  there 
no  Science  without  them."— ROBERT  DICK. 


NEW  YORK: 
3.  S.  OGILVIE  PUBLISHING  COMPANY, 

57  ROSE  STREET. 


Alaska,  7  25  A.M. 


Albany.  12  13  P.M. 


Atlanta,  11  JO  A.M. 
Augusta,  Ga.,  1139  A.M. 
Baltimore, Mu., 1202  P.M 


Bangor,  Me..  1233  P.M. 

Bath,  Me.,  11'  29  P.M. 

Boston,  Mass.,  12  24  P.fo 
Bu5'ak>,  NA  .  11  52  A.M. 
'Jamo  se,Aia.sa.,l224p.M 


;  Charlest'n,&.  J. ,11 43A.M 
Chicago,  111  .  11  17  A.M. 
Cincinnati, U.,  11  30  A.M, 


Cleveland,  P.,  11  41  A  M 
Columbia,S.C. ,  11 44  A.M 


Columbus,  O..  11  3*  A<M 


Danville,  Va.,  1150  A.M, 


Denver,  Col.,  1008A.M. 
Detroit,  Mich.,  11 36  A.M 


Dubuque.  la.,  11  05  A.M 

•Galveston,Tex.,1049A.M 


Halifax,  N.  S.,  1254  p.r:, 
Hamilton,Ont.,ll  49  A.M. 
Hannibal,  Mo.,  1107  A.M 


Hartford.  Ct.,  12  17  P.M. 
Havana,  Cuba,  11 38  A.M. 


Houston,  Tex.,  1044  A.M. 
Indianap's.Ind.ll  24A.M, 


Jacksonv'e,Ill.,ll  07  A.M, 


JefTnCity,Mo.,1059A.M, 
Kalama,  W.  T..  8  58  A.M. 


Kansas  Cy,Mo., 1049  A.M, 
Knoxr'e.Tenn.,11  32  A.M 


Laramie,WyT.  ,10 12  A.M 


LouisvUle,Ky..ll  26  A.M 
Lincoln,  Neb.,  10 41  A.M. 


Little  Rock,  Ak. 10  59A.M 


London,  Ener  ,  5  08P.M. 


Macon.  Ga.,  11  37  A.M. 


Memp's,  Teun.,1108  A.M 


eridian,Miss.,1114A.M 
exico,  10  32  A  M. 


Milwau'e,Wis.. 11 16A.M. 


Minneapolis,  1055  A  M. 
•Mobile,  Ala.  11 18  A  M. 


FOR  MEASUREMENT  OF  TIME 
SEE  PAGE  773. 

Table  showing  the  Time  in 

various;  parts  elf  the 

world,  when- \\  Is!  noon  at 

Washington,  D^  C. 


|Moncton,N.B.,124Sp.M 
Montreal  .  Luu..l  J  1  4  P.M. 
JN'ashv'e.Tenn.,  11  21A.M. 


Copyright,  1907,  by  David  R.  Moore. 


jX.  Haven,  Ct.,  12 

N.  London,  Ct.  1220P.M. 


New  York,  12  12  P.M. 


N  .Orleans.  La., 11 08  A.M. 


Omaha  "NVb  ,  10  44  A.M.  • 


Ottawa,  Can.,  VL  05  P.M. , 


Paducah,  Ky.,  11  16  A.M. 
Panama.  II  50  A.M. 


Paris,  France,  5  17  P.M. 
Pensacola,Ma..ll  19P.M. 


Philada..Pa..  1207P.M. 
Pittsbur-T,  Pa  ,  11  48  A.M. 
Fort  Hope.Can.ll  54A.M. 
Pt.Huron.Mch.il  34A.M. 
Portland,  Me..  12  27  P.M. 
Portsm'th,  Va.,  12  03r.M. 
Proyide"rce,R.I.1222  P.M. 
Quebec,  C  an.,  12  23  P.M. 
Quincy,  111. .11  07  A.M. 
Richmond  Va.,  11 58  A.M. 
Rome,  Ga..  11  32  A.M. 
St.  John,  N.B..  1244 P.M. 
St.  Johns.  N.F.,  ?  37  P.M. 
St.Joseph,Mo..  1050  A.M. 
St.  Louis,  Mo.,  1107  A^M: 
St.Paul,Minn.,1056A.M. 
St.Steph'^N.B.^  39A.M. 
Salt  Lake  City,  9  40  A.M. 
Santa  Fe,  1004A.M. 
San  Francisco.  8  58  A.M. 
Sault  St. Marie,  11  .A  A.M, 
[Savannah, Ga..  11  44  '"3^ 
ISelma.  Ala.,  11  20  A.fci, 


Shreveport,La..lO  57A.M. 
Sioux  City.  la..  10  42  A.M. 
Terre  Haute.  11 18  A.M. 
Toronto.  Can.,  11  51  A.M. 
Vincennes.Ind.,lt  17A.M. 


VeraCruz,  104HA.M. 
Vicksb'g,Miss.  11  '35  A.M. 
Wi:rning:t'n,NC.ll  58A.M 


Active  Agents  furnished  with  permanent  and  profitable  employment 
everywhere  selling  our  Publications.  New  Illustrated  Catalogue,  with 
Contents  of  the  Universal  Assistant  and  Complete  Mechanie9 
Terms,  etc.,  to  Agents,  sent  free  to  any  address. 


'11 


neering 
brary 


PREFACEo 


This  work  is  issued  with  the  design  of  supplying  very 
important  omissions  in  the  author's  antecedent  writings 
.and  compilations.  His  most  fervid  acknowledgments 
are  due  for  the  great  encouragement  accorded  to  his 
previous  efforts,  and  the  favorable  opinions  expressed  re- 
garding them.  The  result  has  been  that,  stimulated  by 
the  experience  of  the  past,  he  has,  in  the  present  work, 
made  special  exertions  to  present  an  immense  array  of 
rare  and  most  valuable  information  relating  to  Com- 
merce and  the  Industrial  Arts.  The  vital  concerns  of 
liealth,  home,  domestic  felicity,  and  other  all-important 
interests,  have  also  received  due  attention,  and  to  make 
the  information  more  comprehensive  and  complete,  .he 
has  quoted  largely  from  his  previously  published  works, 
wherever  he  judged  it  necessary  to  do  so.  These  extracts 
include  a  few  items  for  machinists'  use,  and  the  dia- 
grams for  saw-filing,  selected  from  the  "Boston  Machin- 
ist" and  Halley's  work  "On  Saw-filing,"  by  permission  of 
the  publishers,  John  Wiley  &  Son,  of  New  York,  together 

5 


54 


6  PREFACE. 

with  a  f«w  extracts  from  the  "  Watchmakers'  Manual,"  09 
permission  of  the  Publishers,  Jesse  Haney  &  Co,  New  York* 
In  addition  to  the  matter  above  alluded  to,  many  valuable 
table*  are  now  published  for  the  first  time,  together  with 
much  new  and  most  important  matter  specially  adapted  for 
the  use  of  commercial,  manufacturing,  and  mechanical  men 
ir  ~K>th  hemispheres.  A  past  experience  of  many  years. 
cU*«ted  to  the  welcome  task  of  supplying  technical  informa* 
tion  to  business  men,  mechanics,  &c.,  has  qualified  th* 
author  to  judge  regarding  their  wants,  and  to  act  intelli- 
gently in  endeavoring  to  supply  them.  His  effort  has  been 
to  act  as  the  harbinger  of  mechanical  improvements  and 
general  progress,  and  he  can  say  without  ostentation,  thafc 
the  present  work  is  the  result  of  prolonged  and  continuous 
Jabor ;  the  best  authorities  have  been  consulted,  and  endea* 
vors  have  been  made  to  make  it  plain,  easily  understood, 
and  commensurate  with  the  exacting  requirements  «f  tht 


COMPLETE  INDEX  OF 
UNIVERSAL  ASSISTANT. 


Housekeeping  Department. 


Sauce 27 

29 
10tol4 

Biscuit 20-21-22 

Baking  powder 22 

Beef ! 27 

Butter 27 

plane  u»ange. 

Crackerg 

Cakes. 


..   14 
15-18 

Custards....... 25-27 

Creams 26 

Chickens 25-26 

Chariottw  dt,  niwso 29 

Citron 29 

Pucks 26 

Dmnplinn. 28 

27 
25 

Fish 37 

Fruit   extract 30 

Geese .'  26 

Hash ,.     ., 25 

Honey s.,., 30 

Ice  cream 
Ices. 


20 
28 
Jellies...  ..  29 


Jams ..30 

Muffins... 


..........................  21 

Marmalade  ...........................  29-30 

Molasses   preserves  .....................  30 

Measures  for   Housekeepers  ............  30 

Pies  ...............................  18-20-22 

Puddings  ...............................  22 

Pudding  sauces  ............  .  ...........  24 

Pigeons  .................................  26 

Pork  .........   ..........................  27 


,  boned 


Poultry 

Rolls , 21 

Roast  meats 27 

Rate,  to  get  rid  of 86 

Sponge,  setting 10 

Sauces 24 

Soups ...  24-25 

Seasonings 24 

Salads 25 

Succotash 25 

Sausage.. 

Stews 

Tomatoes 25 

Turkey 26-28 


Turnips 26 

Wine  Jelly 29 

Yeast 9-10 


Farmers'  Department. 


Axle  greas« 57 

Bee-keepiiij, 61-74 

Birds,  food  for . 52 

Bugs  on  plants 59 

Butter 52 

Cows,  treatment  for 50 


Cattle, 


food  for. 


GO 


Cheese 51 

Eye  water  for  animals 52 

Fertilizers 44-45-46-47-48-54-58-59 

Fruit,  to  pa»k 49 

Food  for  animals 50 

Grafting 49 

Hay,  straw  equal  to 48 

**   cost   of  , 57 

Eorses'  check  rein . .  37 

feeding 37-38-41 

diagrams 41-42 

raising    and   training 31-32 


liniments 


83-38 


shoeing 34-43 


kicking 36 

broken  legs 36 

diseases 36-38 

medicines  and  treatments  in  case 

of  sickness 39-43-44 

to   tame 43 

oils 33-38 

ointments 38 


Horses'  harness  galls 44 

epizootic 53 

points  of  a  good 53 

age 53-54 

Lir.io,  to  burn 53 

Moths,  to  destroy 51 

Milk. 


51 

Meat,  to  pickle , ..'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.  54 

Onions , 50 

Orchards,  to  renew  old 50-58 

Oats 59 

Potatoes 49-59 

Ploughing 57 

Rules,   to  reckon  cost  of  articles 57 

Rats,  how  to  drive  out 52 

Rubber,  artificial 54 

Stump  machine .'  50 

Sheep 51-53-60 


Salt. 

Springs,  how  to  form 


Seed,  required  to  plant 57-58 

Threshing  by  etenm 55-56 


Carpentry,    British 

Construction  of  roof  a 99-100 

cutter's  camp 75 

cost  of  supplies  for  cutter's  camp. .  97 
sitting 76 


Tobacco,  to  cultivate 49 

Turnips 51 

Trapping  game 52 

Trees 49-52 

Vermin  on  animals 49 

trees 49-52 

Vinegar .  .  .  51 

Wheat 59 

Lumber  Department. 

Logs,  loading 7T 

1     breaking  a  jam  of 78 

qualities  of 71WW 

spruce .     .     t» 


,  twelve  processes  of. 


Lumbe 


82 

"     slides 118 

"     impairment  of,  and  causes 82 

' '     number  of  cub^c  feet  in  a  ton 83 

Lumber,  weight  of  per  thousand  feet, 

board  measure  642 

Saw  mills 87-89-90-91-92-93 

Bcantling  timber  and  logs 'reduced  to 

I       one  inch  board  measure 617 

618-619-620-621-622-727 
Scantlings,  joists,  planks,  sills,    boards, 

etc,  to  measure 666 

Shingles,  to  find  number  required  for  a 

;        roof 695 

frees,  age  of .84 


out.— Continued. 

Trees,  growth  of •  - 118 

Timber,  comparative  resilience  of 88 

"        for  posts 118 

Tree  nails 106- 

Timber  work,  weight  of 686 

Wood,  to  prevent  from  cracking 74 

heavier  than  water 1014 

to  bend 74 

fireproofing  for „ 74jj 

relative  hardness  of  : lly , 

comparative  value  of 83 ' 

crushing  strength  of 101 

tensile  strength  of 85-101 

increase  in  strength  01  uy  sea- 
soning    88 

transverse  strength  of 88 


Scientific  Facts. 


Animals,  age  of 119 

Bricks,  table  to  find  quantity  required.  .132 

Builders,  facts  for 132 

Birds,  mel9dy   of 120 

"       various 120 

Coins,  scripture 129 

Carriage-tops,  oiling 13j 

Expansion  and  contraction 133 

Facts  of  great  value 120  to  125 

Gestation,  periods  of 119 


fleat  and  cold 

Implements,  decay  of 134 

Dyers'  and  Bleachers'  Department. 


Mountains,  heighth  of 119 

Metals,  value  of 123 

"       weight  of 127 

Measures,   various 126-157-128 

of  length 127-129-130 

Strength,  tensile,  of  various  materials...  131 

"       crushing,  of  materials 131 

Vegetables,  yiela  of  various  per  acre 117 

Paris  green  for 117 

Weights,  sundry  commercial 127 


scripture 129-t 

Water  Falls 1191 


Aniline  colors,  to  render  soluble 141 

"  "  new  mordant  for 142 

Clothing  renovator 146 

Cloth  purser 137-147 

"  waterproof 146 

"  to  raise  nap  on 146 

"  black,  reviver  lor 147 

Dyes,  various 134-135-136-137-138 

139-140-141 

Feathers, 143-145 


Flowers ,   „  145 

Felt  hats,  to  dye,  stif^n  c id  oie?.^ 633 

Furs,  to  clean 144 

"        to  dye 146 

"       moths 145 

Straw  goods,  to  change  or  dye. .  143-144-145 

Silks,  to  renew  old 146 

Wool,  to  cleanse 140-146 

"        to  prevent  moths 145 

Washing  fluids 144 


Barbers'  Department 153-154-155 

Medical  Department. 

Cherry  pectoral,  Ayer's 150 

Court  piaster 155 


Accidents  ..................  186-187-188-194 

Apoplexy  ..............................  180 

Arrowroot  ..............................  159 

Asthma  .................................  191 

Ague  ...............................  160-195 

Apparent  death  ....     ...................  187 

Bay  rum  ............  ...................  155 

Balsam  ...............     .............  ...194 

kBloom  of  youth  ........  ,  .  .  .  .............  153 


beauty  .........................  153 

Bug  poison  .............................  160 

Buchn,  extract  of  ............   ........  162 

Bathing  and  baths  ........  147-158-172  to  17 

Bites,  snake  ..............          .....  157 

Cod  liver  oil  ...........  '.  ................  156 

Calomel,  vegetable  substitute  for  ........  156 

Castor  oil  .....  ....   .....................  159 

Cholera  ........   -  .................  159-194 

Croup....-,-.    ............  152-159-164-185 

Corns  ........  ...................  159-165 

Colors,  f  o?  druggists  ....................  159 

Cancer  ........  77.  .......................  164 

153-155-156 
153 


Colds 148-156-160-163-164 

Cold  cream 153-163 

Consumption 148-159-189 

Chilblains 165 

Cerebro-spinal  meningitis 184 

Chloroform 185 

Cold,  numbness  from 187. 

Carbonic  oxide  gas 185 

Cancer  cure 189 

Cemen, 189 

Carminative 195 

Children,  diseases  and  signs  of  in..  195 

to  201 

"       whooping   cough 196 

diarrhoea 196 

"       colic 196 

"       fever 197-198-299-001 

rickets 197 

scrofula 197 

"       fits X97 

197 


spasms 

brain,  enlargement  of. 


.19* 


(2) 


Medical  Department.— Continued. 

Thildren,  water  in  the  head. 197-198  ]  Pills 149- J50-192 

"        mumps 198    Pnlmonic  wafers 15* 

"        scarlet  fever 198  ;  Powders 159 

'•       meaeels 200    Piles,  cures  and  ointment 168 

"        typhoid  fever 200  !  Plasters 192 

i          "        typhus  fever 201    Roses,  oil  of 153 

Pe-utist!?'  compositions  and  dept. . .  151-1  j;.,  j  Razor  strop  paste 153 

Diphtheria,  remedy  for ~ 149    Rules  for  action 147 

Drunkenness,  cure  for 150  i  Radway's  remedies 150 

Druggists'  colors 159    Rheumatism 165-189-191 

:  Drowning 187-188  |  Rat  exterminator 160' 

Deafness 189    Root  beer 189 


\  Diarrhoea. ..  195 


.    Dropsy  .................................  192 

Diuretics  ...........................  191-192 

Essential  oils,  to  extract  ................  189 

.  Earache  ................................  189 

Essence  .................................  159 

-  Embalming,  new  method  ...............  152 

Female  complaints  .........  161-162-163-183 


Felons 


165 


Frozen  limbs 187 

Fumigating  paper 189 

Flypaper ...159 

Freckle  cure 153 

Food,  power  of : •/: : -179 

"  Fevers ..163 

••    Glycerine  preparation 154 

Gonorrhoea,  cure  for 163 

Gout,  cure  for 164480 

*  Headache,  remedy  for 148-165-194 

Hair  dyes,  etc.,  etc 153-154-155 

•  Health,  and  how  to  keep  it 166-181 

j   India  cholagogue. 156 

j   Injuries 186 

\   Jaundice 191 

!    Kidney  disease 161-172-180 

T  Lockjaw,  cure  for 152 

j    Lungs 148 

Liniments 156-164-165-189-190 

Menstruation 160-161 

Nitrate  of  silver 152 

Neuralgia,  remedy  for 148-194 


Stammering...  ...163 


g 

Sweating  drops 
Spasms  .................................  150 

Shampooing  ........................  153-155 

Shaving  .................................  153 

Shaving  soaps  ...........................  153 

Small  pox  remedies  ....................  158 

Syrups  ...........  149-150-156-165-185-190-192- 

Soothing  syrup  ....................  149-156 

Salve  ...........................  151-163-164 

Snuff  ....................................  164 

Smelling  salts  ...........................  160 

Seidlitz  powders  ........................  160 

Scarlet  Fever  .......................  163-19$ 

Spitting  of  blood  .......................  183 

Swellings  .........  ...  .  ..................  194 

Sleep  ...................................  195 

Trichinae  ...............  ................  149 

Troches,  Brown's  bronchial  .............  150- 

Teeth,  to  fill,  extract  and  clean  ......  151-160 


artificial 


152- 
Tapeworm  .....  ,  ..............  .*.  ........  19& 

Tinctures  ....................  .-  ..........  1591 

Tumors  .....  .  ..........  ,  .............  1,90- 

Vermifuges  .........................  150-193. 

Voice  ...................................  195. 

Washes  .............................  189-190 

Warts  ..............................  159-1B5 

Worm  lozenges  .........................  149" 

Wine  ..................................  156- 

Waters,  vichy,  and  others  ...............  160 


Whooping  cough  ..................  164-196- 

Weak  back  .............................  180 

Wiens  ................................  194 


Oxygen  gas 188 

Ointments 149-190-191 

j  Oils 193 

!  Pain  killer 150-152 

^  Grocers'  and  Confectioners'  Department. 

Ether,  various  kinds 
Fire  kindlers 

Bluing , 216    Flour 

Blacking 216 

-  Bread 213 

Butter....  209-214 


Baking  powder. 202 

Cigars'.*..          213 

Candied  lemon  peel 202 

Candles 1.304 

Qoffee. 212-213 


Catsup. 
Dyea... 


.214 
.224 

,202  j 


213-214' 

Flavoring  extracts 207-213-223 

Fruit,  preserving. , 207-209-217-218, 


Ginger  die 208 


Hams % 216. 

Honey 239' 

Ice  chest 202: 

Ice  cream 230 

Inks 215-216 

Jelly 238 

Kindlers 210» 


Mustard. „ '. ,2if 

Meats,  etc.,  to  preserve  ana  cook 2$ 


pik, 


Grocers'  and  Confectioners'  ^Department— Continued, 

...  514-219  I 


fucilage. 


202  I  Star«h  pollsu 219 

Soap 203-204 

ffls 214    Sauces 217-219 

'owders 219  I  Tobacco .....213 

•ercentage  in  selling  goods 210-211    Tallow 204 

'ickles 


218-219    Tea 212 


"reserving . 
miff... 


,.239 
..213 


Vinegar 201 

Weights  and  measures 205-206-208 

Wax,  various  kinds  of •....215 


tanners,  Curriers,  Boot,  Shoe  and  Rubber  Manufacturers,  Marble 
Workers'  and  Bookbinders'  Department. 


-drometers 252 

Hacking,  various 240-241-246 

iuffer  rings 242 

iookbinders'  varnish , 248 

sprinkles 248 

*'  marbling 247-248 

"  gilding 249 

'ement 241 

240 
..247 


loloring... 

urriers'  size,  paste,  skirting. . . 


£40  247-250 

tfue,  to  make 249 

[arness  oil,  varnish,  etc 241 

[eel  balls 241 

[ose  Composition 242 

[orn  in  imitation  of  tortoise  shell. .  251-274 

rory,  etching  fluid  for 251 

"      working 251 

apan  liquid  for  leather 241 

,eather,  patent 246 


Leather  scraps,  to  utilize 243 

Leathc  -  finish 245 

Marbling  b<x>ks 247 

.Marble,  to  cut,  polish,  cement  for,  to 

stain,  ink  for,  to  gild,  etc.,  etc 252 

Packing  for  engines,  valves  etc 242 

Parchment,  to  make 249 

Pearl,  mother  of,  work 230-273 

"        working 253 

Rubber  goods 2448-243 

Sizing  for  boots  and  ehoes 240 

Stains  for  tert-er 241 

Springs,  lig  r;  j'uffer 249 

Springs  and  washes 242-243 

Tanning,  various  methods  of..  243-244-245 

246 
Trappers'  and  anglers'  secret  for  game 

and  fish 25S 

Varnishes,  various 240-241 

Vulcanite  or  ebonite 242-243 


Painters,  Cabinet-makers,  Gilders,  Bronzers'  and  Glass  Stainers' 
Department. 


Ironzing,  gold  powder  for 2&; 

directions  for 285-286 

!hina,  drilling 2J7 

!ompound  colors ...  253 

blorings 257-258-301 

'arriage  painting 279-282 

"       gilding 280 

"        bronzing 280 

>yes  for  veneers 272-273 

>rying 632 

Ingravings,  to  clean 290 

Itching .  T. , 275 

'urniture,  to  polish,  ebonize,  etc...  291-292 

'illing  composition 267 

Hit  fraxnea,  reviver  for 292 

Hazing  colored  potters 297 

travel  houses,  how  to  build 306 

Masses,  to  silver  lookin  j 294 

Hass,  best  window 396-297 

soluble 292 

bottle  . SP-S 

gilding 276 

"       to  stain  or  color 295 

"       dmsn^on t — 276 

"        fitaining... ....  293-294 

"       drilling 277 

Wders'  ormolu. .. 286 


clay. 

•  •  stopping  composition. . 
mouldings  to  whiten. . . , 


Sliders  in  oil 

water  and  oil 

Graining 

Glue .. 273 

Glue,  white ,...,286 

Gilding,  gold  size  for ,261 

"        on  wood  and  glass. . .  261-275-276-277 

Glass,  ground,  imitation  of 263 

painting  on .263 

pencils  for  writing  on .268 

"        grinding 275 

Japan  drier 282 

Kalsomin®,  silver  polish 299 

Mirrors,  to  repair  silvering  of 268 

Mounting,  best  material 290 

Mortar  and  Plaster,  22  kinds ....  297-298-299 
Measurements  of  stone  or  brick  work. .  .299 

Milk,  painting  in  30C 

Oilfinfshes  263 

to  bleach 281 

boiled , 632 

paint,  to  reduce 282-283 

factitious  linseed 283 

paintings,  to  revive  colors  of .290 

to  preserve  and  varnish 220-291 

Ornament,  to  copy  on  , .  .281 

compositions  for 287* 

Pearl  work 273 

Putty.'. . . , . , 860-281 

Polishes...  „ .;;.  ...2fi6 


Painters,  Cabinet-makers,  Gilders,  Bronzers'and  Glass  Stalncr? 
Department.— Continued. 

Painting,  house — 256 

I  "  Bigns,  how  to 260-261-263-263 

Painters,  hints  to 256-257-277 

Paint,  stonecolor 258 

<  "  marble  imitation 274 

«       tomix 258 

"       invisible  green 259 

"  for  knotting 259 

,  "  v.-hitelead.  259-266 

1  "  to  cure  damp  walls 260 

"       various  260-632-633 

**       transparent  cloth 262 

•"       banners,  etc 261-274 

"       imitation  of  ground  glass 262 

•'       hard  drying 263 

"  stains  for  wood 258-269-271-272 

fancy  figures  on 269 

transparent,  for  window  shades.  .273 

61  magic  lantern  slides  274 

)"<  marine,  for  metals  in  saltwater.  .274 

',**  oilcloU 274 

I*'  for  wagons  and  carriages....  280-281 

<-'       to  remove  old 281 

*'       farmers' 300 

•'       durable  outside 300 

**       without  oil  or  lead 300-301 

-f       green 300 

•»       milk 301 

•'  for  walls 301 

-  "  flexible,  for  canvas 283 

Porcelain  finish 28? 

colors 294-295 

Painters  cream 283 

Polish  brush 289 


Polish  reviver 289 ! 

Polishes  for  furniture 891-293 

Polishing  brass  and  stone JBJJ8 

Plaster,  estimate  of  materials  and  labor 

for  100  square  yards  of  lath  and 800 

casts,  to  varnish 306 

"       casts,  to  bronze 306 

casts,  to  whiten 290 

"       ofParis 306-307 

"       22  kinds 297-298-299 

Paris  green 301 

Putty 632, 

Roofing 305: 

Size,  bad  smell  from  animal 292 

Staircases 632 

Space 633 

Size 286 

gilders,  parchment 286 

"       matt,  gold 286 

"        burnished  gold 286 

"       gold  for  gilding , 286 

Stains  for  various  articles . . . . .    S58-269-271 

872-273 

Smflt s 283 

Terra  cctta  manufacture 305 

Varnishes 272-275-279-283-284-285-306 

"       cabinet-makers 289 

Vermilion 281 

Window  glass,  to  incrust  with  jewels. .  .2^8 

Wood,  to  polish 292 

"        to  stain 258-269-271-272-289-290 

"        stains  for 292 

"Wash  for  barns  and  houses 299 

Whitewash...  301-305 


Builders'  Calculations,  and  Important  Information  for. 

Calculations,  etc.,  for  builders,  giving  estimate  for  cost  of  material,   cost  of  labor, 
*  quantity  of  material  necessary,  and  various  other  information  of  practical  utility, 
which  builders  will  consult  their  own  interests  by  perusing 300-302-303-305^30i 

Watchmakers,  Gilders,  Jewelers,  etc.,  Tables  and  Receipts. 

Gold  French  plate , 239  \ 

1     from  gilt  metal 541  : 

1     polishing  powder 3 11 

'     sovereigns,  to  reduce 3  f2 

'     dust,  to  fuse , 3,fc> 

'     lost  m  coloring 3j{6 

1     compositions 337 

'     artificial 337 

;     to  find  the  number  of  karats  IB  ...  338 
1     valuable  receipts  for  smiths..  331-333 

'     melting  and  refining 332 

'     reflneosweepings 333 

'     quantity  required  to  make  alloys . .  332 

'     alloys 833-335-336-337-338 

1     alloys,  dry  coloring  for 333 

"       wet  coloring  for 334 

"       table  showing  proportion 

of  in *.;.... 836 

'     to  make  brittle  strong ....343 

1     plated  stock,  to  make 343 

1     from  the  surface  of  silver 344 

;     to  separate  *rom  lace  '. 344 

1     tarnish  on  plated  goods 344 

'     tinge ". 344 

to  refine 344-350-351 

to  cleanse  tarnished  in  »oldering.  .345 

amalgam,  tomato 348 

'     enameling «^»»i 352-353 

Gilding  metal." «.»*  » • 837-34f 

349 


'Alloys 333-335-336-a37-338-339-35l 

Artificial  pearls 341 

AciQ,  to  destroy  the  effect  of 349 

Burnishers,  to  make 320 

Burnisher,  to  prepare  forpolishiug 320 

Brass,  to  temper 327 

Brushes,  to  clean 349 

Cannon  pinion,  to  tighten 312 

Clock,  to  clean  a 330 

'     '  to  brush ,330 

|      '       tooilproperly 331 

to  make  strike  correctly 331 

'       effects  to  look  after 331 

:       dials,  figures  on 331 

"       hands,  to  re-black 349 

"       faces,  to  silver 350 

Copper,  *o  refine 345 

.Diamonds,  to  make  brooches . . .329 

jeweling 329 

"  to  make  files 329 

"          mill,  to  make 829-330 

"  dust,  to  make 330 

"          polishing 354 

enameling 852-353 

Tiles,  to  make  diamond 329 

"       "        "     pivot 329 

4k>ld,  American  standard  for 342-343 

"     to  remove  tin  from  stock 343 

"     British  standard  for 342 

*«    fleriing  value  of 342 


Watchmakers,    Gilders,    Jewelers,    et—-    Tables    and     Receipts.-^ 

Continued. 


GiJding 337-349-353 

Iron,  to  caise  harden 312 

"    to  remove  rust  from 320 

-  Jewelers  soldering  fluid 337 

alloys 338 

"       cement,  various  kinds 344 

Jewelry,  coloring  of 339-340 

"       reviver  for  old 341 

Nickel  plating 346-353 

51ating 34(5-347-348-349-353-354 
ivot,  wood .  .309 

Pinion,  to  determine  correct  diameter 

of  a 312 

Polishing  brooching  to  make 319 

Polish  steel,  to 319 

Polishing,  crocus  powder  for 319-320 

Pinions,  to  preserve 330 

to  remedy  worn 331 

Polishing  diamonds 35£ 

Plates 354 

-    Refining 344-345 

Springs,  producing  isochronism  in..  813-314 

315 

Stee..  to  remove  rust  from. , 320 

"      tv  drill  into  hard 311 

i     "     tc  temper 328-329 

|     "     tc  remove  bluing  from 329 

v  Spectacles,  to  determine  focal  distance. 331 

Silver,  alloy  for 337-338 

'       "       solders 339-340 

I      "      English  standard  for : 

"       smiths 340 

«*       articles,  dead  white  on 340 

"       pickle  for  whitening 340-341 

•*       plating 353 

*'       ornamental  designs  on 341 

"       to  extract  from  waste 341 

**       to  frost  polished 341 

*       plating  fluid 341 

»      •'       plated  stock 343 

u       to  refine 344 

"       to  cleanse,  tarnished  in  soldering.346 

••       ware,  to  wash 349 

i       "       refining 350-351 

}   4  4t       platers  stripping  liquid 350 


Silvering  hooks  and  eyes 341 

"         various  metals 34S 

shells ....350 

44         clock  facer 350 

"         glass  globes,  etc 35C 

Soldering,  various  kinds  of :«y-340-341 

345- 

Time,  measurement  of 77& 

Tempering  brass , 327 

drills 327 

springs , 328 

clicks,  ratchets,  etc 328 

44  to  draw  tempe;  from  steel 

328-329 
staffs,  cylinders  or  pinions. 328- 

Watch  cleaning 307-308-309- 

Watches,  pith  for  cleaning 3091 

14        to  pivot     309 

"        levers  of 309-311 

compensation  balance 310 

spring  manufacture 310-311 

u        spring  tempering 311 

44        hands 311 

wheels,  to  put  in 311 

movements,  to  frost 312-326 

44        adjustments  to  position .  .316-317 

44       regulating  31<-318-320 

44        compensation isl8-319 

"        rules  for  determining  accu- 
racy of  workmanship  in. 320 

list  of  trains  of 321-326 

44        to  put  in  beat 326 

*       dials 326 

to  make  keep  good  time 326 

"         to  prevent  a  chain  running  off 

fusee  327 

to  weaken  the  hairspring 327 

to  tighten  a  ruby  pin 327 

to  blue  screws 3291 

alloy  for  pinion  sockets 33d 

makers  oil 354 

main  springs 1015 

oil,  to  purify 101$ 

"         wheels,  to  restore  lustre 1G1& 


Machinists'  and  Engineers  Department. 


Ancnors,  to  make - 480 

\nvile,  making  and  repairing 480-481 

^xle  trees  and  boxes,  hardening 503 

Antimony,  to  obtain  commercial 504 

Alloys  and  their  melting  heats 520 

/  Artisans,  suggestions  to 634 

*  Anvils,  to  temper 669 

Bronze,  black,  for  iron  or  steel 517-518 

Braes  and  copper,  to  tin 515 

Brass,  to  clean 513-515 

I  "  dead  appearance  of 513 

-  /  "  to  lacquer 513 

"  solution 510 

Brassing  iron 510-513 

Baldwin's  locomotive  "iron  «ides," 421 

Borax,  substitute  for 458-460 

<  Boring  holes 486 

"  tools  for 486 

'  Belting  and  friction 488 

Searings  self -lubricating  anti-friction  for488 


Burglar  alarm 4^9 

Belting,  to  find  length  of  when  rolled 6&6 

Bronze  platinum 48* W 

"        malleable 4 

"        paint,  for  iron 516 

492-512 

Brass,  yellow  for   steam  engines 491 

"      for  machinery 492 

"      turnings,  to  melt 669 

"      tubes 568 

polish  for , 512 

for  casting - 492 

for  gilding 492 

"      to  cast  solid...  ....498 


manufacture  of 

work  for  lenses     518 

zinc  tinning  acid , .  .515 

or  copper  tubes,  to  bend 518 

cheap 491 

solution 51ft 


Machinists'  and  Engineers'  Depar::^';      Continue :e 


Bell  metal 492 

to  repair  cracked ..497 

ffelack  lead  polish  liquid 501 

IJronz-ing  composition  32  kinds ...  508-509 

"          metal...  ...671 

"  liquids 509-510-516 

and  gas  fittings 523 

Buffer,  india-rubber 529 

Benzine,  to  deodorize 554 

Belts,  to  remedy  slip  of  driving 556 

Blasting  powders 556 

"         rocko 557 

to  make  dualin  for 557 

Belting,  experiments  with  rubber  and 

leather 559 

Button  manufacture 566-567 

Barometer,  to  construct  a 585-586 

Cements,  various 87 

Carol,  artificial 575 

Cement 379-381-422-423-424-425-426-512 

Cotton  waste,  to  clean 424-477-664 

presses 441-669 

"       ginning 447 

"       to  make  gun 498 

factory 559-560 

size  for  dressing 560 

"       seed,  proceeds  of  one  ton  of 687 

Chains  manufacturing 481 

Copper,  to  enamel 501-580 

plates  or  reds 510 

or  zinc  solution  of 510 

M        and  brass,  to  tin 515 

"        hardening 524 

"         welding 525 

Cooling  compound 389 

Chuck  rest,  to  set  the < 476 

"       pulleys 476 

Crucibles,  composition  to; 491-502 

Coal,  stowage  of 558 

Compass,  the  marine *   560 

Colored  fires,  improved —     .   ,  562 

Cloth  Macintosh 563-564 

Corn  starch,  manufacture  oi 565 

Cutlery  manufacture 568-569 

Coal  and  iron,  memoranda  concerning 

6^-628 

Coai,  to  find  consumption  ot  per  hour. .  .662 
Cone,  to  strike  out  the  frustrum  of  a.. 672 

Drills 449-450 

and  planers,  care  oi . 468 

"        (Spiral 471 

Drill-proof  diamond  chill 460 

sockets,  to  make 476-477 

"       to  Iorge  a  twist 486-487 

Drilling 485-486 

Dysiot 491 

Dams,  mill 505 

"       rock 508 

"       frame 506-507 

"       log 506 

"       )«Tish  or  log 507 

damaskeening 544-545 

Decalcomine  and  pictures 547 

Die  sinking 548 

Diee  and  moulds 550 

Digging  earth 558 

Engineers,  instructions  to...  3M-&55-356-357 
358-359-395-396-397-398-309-400-401  -402-403-404 
memoranda  of  tempera- 
tures for 663 

'*       signals,,,,,  ,,.,,,, ,,,,.,,, 4fl8 


:  '< 

Engineers'  and  macfrinjsts^tafclgs.  - .  .510 ; 

Engine,  blowing. ..  I^TThV**.  •«" « »•  •••627 1 
II  portable -400 

"       power  of 404 

fire  cement  for 406 

•'       dummy 418 

"       high-pressure 436-437 

to  set  valve  of 361 

"       valves,  various  instructions  in 

regard  to 361-362-363' 

proportion  of  various   parts  of369 

cylinders 369 

stroke  of 370 

horse-power  of 370* 

balance  wheels 370 

to  reverse  an 370 

marine  beam 371-372-373-374 

duties  to  marine  and  other.  .374-375 
**        dimensions  of  chimney  for  a 

land 664 

lever .395 

works,  theWaterousCompany'6.430 

"       the  waterous 430-431-432 

Engravers  border  wax  and  cement .550 

Engravings,  cast 560 

Earth  digging 558 

1     weight  of 558 

Explosive,  force  of  various  substances 


Evaporative  powers  of  fuel , 

Emery  wheels  for  polishing 501 

Electrotype  plates .  .545 

Engraving  on  wood,  steel   and  metals 

548-549-550-580 

Etching  fluids 550 

Ellipse,  to  find  the  area  of  an 672 

Freight  tables,  English 104-105-106 

Flanges,  to  stand  brazing 379 

Fire  clay  for  boiler  furnaces ..383 

;     escapes 387 

Filing  and  finishing 485-529 

File  a  hole  square,  to 489 

manufacture 571 

Fluxes 502-520 

Fishing 514 

Fuel,  value  of .561 

properties  of 627 

gain  in 659 

consumption  of 662-663 

ratio  of  combustion  of  per  hour  664 

Fire  aunihilator «. 565 

Freight,  by  water  and  rail  comparative 

cost  of 6f  -j 

Grindstones,  to  make  from  sand. '. '. 874 

Glue,  various  kinds  of 87i 

Gravities  and  weights  of  metals,  liquids        • 

woods,  etc 624-525 

Gold  leaf 579-580 

Glass  tubes,  to  bend 564 

Gravity,  specific 562 

Gauge  for  wire 456 

Gedge's  matal 3?9 

Gauges 418 

Giffard's  injector,  and  mode  of  operation 

of 419-420 

Glue 423-424-425 

Gear-cutting 434 

Guns,  to  remedy  scattering  shot ..648 

Bronzing  fluid  for 548 

"     bluing  on ^543 


(7) 


Machinists9  and  Engineers9 

fitm,  barrels,   browning  for 543-544 

"      stocks,  varnish  for 544 

"      barrels,  boring 544 

Glass  door  plates,  to  make 552 

Hose,  to  repair 424 

Heat,  effect  of   on  various  bodies 497 

Hay.. 557 

Harp,  to  construct  an   ^Eolian —  564 

Iron  and  steel,  breaking  and  crushing 

strains  of 663 

-  "       weight  of  square  and  round  cast 

608-609 

tube  manufacture 567-568 

retorts,  to  mend 541 

stoves,  cracked . .  .526 

to  copper ..518 

smoke  pipe,  paint  for 518 

castings,  to  coat  with  gold  01  sil- 
ver  516 

wire  brassing 513 

cast,  to  tin 515-516 

to  prevent  from  rusting 516-66* 

wire  silvering 513 

brassing 510-515-516 

to  galvanize 497-503-517 

railings,  coimmg'te 503 

malleable  cast 508-503 

castings,  burning  together 502 

cast,  copperas  dip  for 501 

to  coat  with  emery 424 

vessels,  to  mend 425 

rusting,  to  prevent 425-517 

to  polish  like  steel 468 

to  improve  poor , .     -  .462 

case  hardening 462-463 

malleable 4C2-463 

scrape  cast,  smooth.  % 476 

squaring  cast  surfaces 486 

work,  black  varnish  for .489 

to  turn  chilled .489 

drilling  holes  in  cast 489 

casts  and  castings 491 

manufacture  of 496 

cast,  brazing 563 

pipes,  weight  of  cast  of  differed 

sizes 606-607 

to  chill  cast  499 

to  harden  cast 499 

moulding  patterns,  varnish  for... 499 

black  polish  for 499 

varnish  for 499 

to  soften  cast .499 

cast  ornaments 499 

cannons,  to  break 499 

Dowlais  Works 500 

to  enamel  cast 500-501 

rusher  sheet  501 

boats  to  clean  grease  from 664 

work  and  pipes,  to  varnish 671 

notes  on  f  orgings 672 

to  restore  burnt 672 

production,  cost  of 684 

works,  various 684-686 

work,  engines  for 685 

to  test  quality  of 686 

mould,  to  remove  from  marble. . .  .687 

Inventors,  special  to 683 

Ice .„ 557 

1x&. 550-551-579-1016 

"     various  kinds  of,  and  how  to  make 

546-633 
*    printers,  to  remove  from  paper 578  I 


Department.— Continued. 

Japanning 

Keys «» 

"      howtofit , 485 

Lightning  calculator 10T  to  115 

Life-saving 86-116-117 

Locomotive  breakdowns  on  the  road, 

temporary  repairs  in 427-428-429 

a  Crampton 418-419 

engines,  table  showing  pro- 


iler s,  proportions  of 404 

405-406 

extraordinary  duty  of 660 

average  proportion  of  the 

various  parts  of 406-407  " 

rule  to  find  the  horse  power 

of  a 407 

Stephenson's  "  Rocket"407-108 
adhesion  of  on  rails . . .  411-412 
engine,  Baldwin's  Standard 

Passenger 41S 

engineer,  Geo.  Stephenson 

414-415 

valves 531 

''•  sparks  from  the 417 

French 417 

American 417 

Lathe,  to  net  a 466 

Lathes,  care  of 468 

Lining  boxes  with  Babbitt  metal 485 

Lead  ore,  flux  for  reducing 499 

"    shot 517 

"    pipr-V  various  information  in  re- 
gard to 518-519 

;<    pencu       nlack 564-565 

'    pipe 568 

"    polish,  liquid  black 587   , 

'    pipe,  weight  of  different  sizes 611 

Lacquers,  colorings,  etc 510-511-520 

Labels,  gum  for  backing 546 

Lubricators,  economic  .". 556-1014-1015  , 

Laboi    -n  embankments  557 

Linen,  dicing  for 560 

Lubricant  for  turning  tools 573~ 

Light,  the  Drnmmonl 580 

Liquids,  gravities  aiic  weights  of 624 

"       expansion  oi  in  volume 623 

Machinery,  velocity  oi  woodworking...  9S 

"        ••    wheels 98   " 

"       lubricante 389-39(? 

Mill  for  spinning  and  weaving 559 

Mucilage 426 

Mills,  various 441  , 

"       sugar 441-668 

"      oil 441 

"       fulling 441 

"       indelible  ink  for  cotton   and 

woolen 441 

"       wind 442 

••       flour 442-505-506-643 

"       saw  and  grist , 444 

Meerschaum,  artificial 456 

Machines,  putting  together 485 

Metals  to  harden 458 

"      to  plane 483-484 

"      to  dye 488 

"      sundry  compositions 494-495-496 

refining  fluxes  for 502  •' 

"      paint  for 514 

paste  for  cleaning 516 

fancy  colors  on -..,..  .510 

"     writing  inscriptions  on.,,., 539 


Machinists'  and  Engineers'  JJepartment.— Continued. 


tals,  gravities  and  weights  of 634 

"       lineal  expansion  of 632 

Metal,  anti-friction 490-491 

brazing 491 

tough  type 491 

superior  cell 492 

good  Britannia 493-494 

castings,  shrinkage  or 497 

reflector 500 

for  gilt  ware 500 

for  type 500 

work  to  cloud 515 

workers,  sheet  diagrams  *or  and 

explanations  of 623-531 

elbows 523 

Mildew  on  tails 498 

Mirrors,  amalgam  for 500 

Machines,  electrical  amalgam  for 500 

Moulding,  sand  for  502 

Millstones 504-505 

Milldams 505 

Machinery,  colors  for  painting 514 

Mechanical  drawing,  colors  for 514 

drawing,  tracing  paper 514 

Mosquito  bar 520 

Moulds  and  dies 550 

•  Matches 562 

'  Metronome,  to  construct  a 564 

Microscope,  to  make  a 575 

Mills  and  milling 643  to  652-654-657 

Moulders  and  patternmakers  table 609 

Machinists,  hint  to 669 

Mechanical  movements 674  to  682 

Manufacturers,  profits  of 687 

Nails,  number  of  American  machine 

made  cut  in  a  pound 672 

"Needle  manufacture 569-570-571 

Nickel  plating 671-672-686-687 

Oil  canisters 670 

>   "    to  bleach  fixed 555 

for  fine  mechanism 555 

to  make  linseed  and  cotton 655-556 

to  make  coal 556 

lubricators 556 

neats  foot 556 

to  purify - 554 

to  prevent  sperm  gumming 389 

patent  lubricating 522 

paintkigs,  to  clean  and  renew 551 

"    kerosene  and  carbon,  manufacture. . .  553 

Oxides,  to  reduce 496 

Pumps,  feed,  for  engines 629 

Pump,  nautical 103 

Ports,  to  ascertain  the  breadth  of 664 

Piston,  stroke  of . . .   363 

rings 387-388-389 

effective  pressure  of  steam  on. .  .412 

Putty,  Frenc'a 424 

"        imperishable 426 

Pulleys,  to  chuck 476 

paper  friction 487-488 

"        hardening  wood  for 490 

Pulley,  to  find  size  required 498 

Printers'  rollers 545-578 

colored  inks 579 

and  publishers'  table 577 

Printing  on  glass 545-546 

in  bronze 579 

"       in  gold 579 

Pen  making 571-572 

Pens,  gold 572 

Papier  mache 574 


Paper  coloring  and  sizing  of 647 

to  transfer  pictures  from 547 

for  draughtsmen 547 

making 547-578-579 

colored 578 

magic 551 

Picture,  to  printa 551 

Photographers^  formulae  for 552 

Photograph  painting  in  oil  colors. .  .552-553 

water  colors 554 

Pianos,  to  recover  hammers  in 562 

Powder,  for  percussion 575 


Respirator,  a  fireman's. 

Railway  train  speed  table. 

signals 

passenger  trains,  speed  of. 

cross  ties 

passenger  coach,  the  first. 

Reamer,~to  dip  a  fluted 

Retorts,  to  mend 

"  •     to  purify 

Rubber  hand  stamps 

Rocks,  blasting  and  weight  of. 


....408 
....410 
410-411 
.  ..420 
...421 


....541 
....542 
....551 
557-558 
673 


Railroad  cars,  cost  of 

passenger  cars 673 

locomotive 678 

sleeping  coach 678 

"       box,  baggage,  coal  and  freight 

cars 674 

"       English  carriages 674 

Ships,  anti-fouling  composition  for 101 

Ships,  to  stop  holes  in 86 

Specula,  polishing  powder  for 87 

Saws,   filing 92-93 

to  repair 95-97 

"       speed  of  circular 92-94-95 

Steam  packing 35Q 

**       to  work 


(9) 


expansively 

table  showing  average  pressure  of  360 
"       boilers  on  the  form, strength,  etc., 

of 364-365-366-367-368 

"       boiler  shells 368 

u       boilers,  composition   for  cover- 
ing   368 

boilers,  heat  of  water  in . .   : 561 

boilers,  prevention  of  scale  in. 368-369 

u       boilers  ,  marine  and  other . . .  876-378 

379-660-661 

boiler,  marine,  full  page  cut  of . .  .377 

boiler  tubes,  cleaning 379 

"       PiPei  jacketing 379 

gauges 381-382-383 

"       pipes 383 

"       boiler  leaks 383 

fire  engine. . .....  383-384-385-399-400 

cylinders 387 

boilers,  various 393-394 

u       pipes  and  cylinders,  non-conduc- 
tor for 420 

latent  heat  of 422 

burns  and  scalds 422 

pipe  joints 428 

engine  indicator,  Richard's 498 

power  required  for  various  pur- 
poses  435 

saw  machine,  for  stones 435 

"       engines,  portable 436-437-438-439 

machinerj  inventors.  .413-430-440-574 

Ship,  cost  of  per  ton 116 

to  find  the  meridian 116 

Screw  cutting 483-490 

Ships,  calculations  of  tonnage. .  10B403-U* 


Machinists'  and  Engineers  Department.— Continued. 

Steamer   or   sailing  vessel,   how   to  Too^s,  dipping  when  hardening £» 

'    pea 429  working  steel  for .463 

"        to  make  harden  and  temper 464 


Steamship,  modern  ocean  573 

hums.. 573 

Steei  v  olding 458-459-498 

"  to  drill  hardened 458 

'  c  restore  and  improve 459-460 

*4  oO  soften  iron  or 460 

44  tobicn-e 512 

"  to  prevent  from  rusting 516-662 

14  to  copper 518 

"  plate  engraving 549 

*  t:   tc  test  quality  of 631 

'     springs.          631-632 

or  iron  V'.ue  f  or 517 

weigh  t  o J  iiat  per  foot 609 

Spirit  methylated 488 

f  Silver  aluminum 491 

44        German ..494-513 

'        from  gold,  to  separv.e 523 

44       to  write  with , . . . ,  '15 

"       to  separate  from  copper. ........  .;-'15 

^terro  metal g;>9 

Shaft,  to  calculate  strength  of 326 

Shafts 390-449 

Steam  users,  facts  for 390-392-393 

Safes,  hardening  and   filling,  for   fire- 
proof    478 

Shafting,  to  straighten 486 

44         turning 48G 

Shaft,  to  find  speed  of  a  couirier 498 

Sails,  mildew  on 489 

Soldering 514-515-519-520-521 

Screw  tiireads 477-482 

Saw,  to  braze  a  band ,  . .  .482 

Smelting  cc  poer  and  lead 581 

Silvering,  n^xture  for 51.5 

44          by  heat El.) 

44  powder 51o 

Solder,  removing  zinc  and  iron  from 515 

Stone,  cost,  etc.,  of  hauling. 557 

Size  and  sizing 560 

Sugar,  refining  of 565-566 

Sound,  rapidity  of 575 

Slate,  artificial  writing 580 

Structures,  safe  load  in 623 

permanent  loads  on  bridges .  625 

JBteam,  warming  by 628 

44       boiler  iron  thickness  ol  and  pres- 
sure allowed  by  U.  S.  Laws — 628 

**    *  boiler  plates  and  bolts "'*) 

i    "       boiler,  bursting   or  collapsing 

pressure ti29 

•*  boiler  joints,  strength  of  riveted. 629 
44  boiler  tubes,  to  preserve. . .  662-1014 
**  boiler,  diameter  and  height  of 

chimney  I'CT  any  664 

*  •*       boilers,    calculation    regarding 

dimensions,  power,  etc.,  of.664-665 

"       power,  enormous  results  of 668 

"       engine,  to    get    into   line    and 

square  shaft  of 669 

Tinware,  sizes  of  different  kinds  of 522 

"         gold  varnish  for 426 

Tunnels,  submarine 448 

railway 449-942 

Tempering 457-458-460-461  -462-463-464 

478-479-573-580 

Tempering  $10,000,  or  secret ofU.  S.  Gov- 
ernment   573 

Thpefihing  grain 447 


465-467-468-409-470-471-472-473-474-475 
476-573-580-629 

to  cast  chill  iron 491 

Tool  handles  to  make 489 

Turning  and  boring 485 

Tins  and  tinning 516-517-572 

580-581 

Tintocopper 528 

"    to  separate  from  lead 511 

"    gold  lacquer  for 529 

'    to  crystallize 52$ 

"    to  remove  from  copper  vessels 575 

"    elates,  number,  size,  weight,  length 

and  breadth  of S70 

"    can  tops,  to  strike  out  and  bevel. . . .  .671 

Tacks 559 

Valves,  to  ascertain  pressure  of  slide. . .  .669 


proper  lift  of  poppet. 
L  link  a 


Valve  gear,  Stephenson  link  and ....  409-41C 

Varnish  for  loom  harness 514 

1 '        black  for  coal   buckets 521 

"        for  balloons 575 

"        for  metals 687 

Velocity  of  various  bodies,  table  show- 
ing average 66'" 

Water,  cold,  and  feed  pumps 62k 

to  find  height  of  a  column  of 629 

"        quantity  requisite  for  a  boiler .  629-661 

weight  of 624 

works A3t 

works,  filters  for  43£, 

"        pipes  to  unite S5 

"        wheel 4-&44A 

41        velocity   and   discharge   of  for 

gate  orifices  $44 

t  .nealing 463 

"        gauging  streams  of 558 

41        hea*  of  in  boilers 561 

"        fresh 662-562 

11        horse  power  of  engine  to  raise 

to  a  given  height 664 

"        velocity  to    discharge  a   given 

volume  in  a  given  time 664 

"        heating  power  of 626 

Wood  cuts 545 

"       engraving  on ,  .548 

"      to  petrify 564 

to  render   indestructible 567 

"      gravities  and  weights  of 624  . 

Wheels,  pitch  of 445 

emery 477-482 

"         to  true  corundum 477 

"         strength  of  teeth 62S 

Wheels 487  - 

Wheel  gearing 445-446-44T 

to  compute  weight  of  rim 447 

"        to  compute  dimensions  ef  rim. .  .447 

Welding  various  metal 458-459-463 

Wagon  tires 491    ' 

Weights  and  measures,  table  of  fo 

eign .578 

Washing  powder 588 

Weight  In  tons  required  to  break  bars 

of,  etc.,  of  various  materials 610-68P 

Zinc  to  purify 51V 

'    solution  of 510 

"    oxide  of,  to  reduce 510 

Zincing 614 


Facts  for  Gas  Companies  and  Consumers. 

ffccts  for  Gas  Companies  and  Consu-         I  Gas  wells 

mers 532-533  I     "    engines 

fas,  explosion  of 533-534 

"    pressure  of 534-535 

4*    pipes 535 

4t    tubing  and  burners 535 

"    quality  of  illuminating 535-536 

"    machines 537-538-539 

'  •"    meters 539-540 

"•    water 540 

Useful  Items  for  Daily  Remembrance. 


'       54* 

from  pitch  pine 541 

"    meters,  to  prevent  from  freezing.. . . 542 

"    meter,  how  to  read  the -.542 

"    to  purify 532 

"    to  avoid  waste  of ..543 

Hydro-carbons,  classification  of .  .539 

Tune,  measurement  of 773 


Arithmetical   signs  and   their   signifi- 

cation ...............................  no 

Children  and  home  conversation  ........  589 

Cleanliness  and  ventilation  ........  590-628 

Cribs  and  boxes,  size  and  capacities  of  .611 
/Circles,  diameter,  circumference  and 

areas  of  ....................  612  to  616 

Colors,  symbolic  meaning  of  .......  .....  593 

Cockroach  destroyer  ...................  701 

Coffee,  glaze  for  roast  ................  1016 

Daily  savings  at  compound  interest  .....  587 

Food,  time  required  for  digestion  of 

different  articles  of  ................  623 

"       comparative  value  of  various  .....  623 

Habits  of  a  man  of  business  .............  591 


How  to  make  a  fortune 


591-592-593 


Home  after  business  hours 589 

Horse,  performances  of  a 659 

Inks 1016 

Interest  table 597 

legal  brevities 587 

Light,  loss  of  by  use  of  shades 630 

Laundry  secrets...  ...634 


Married  life,  its  joys  and  sorrows  . 
Measures  for  vanoua  purposes 

Mill  -Carriers,  Mechanics,  etc.,  Department. 


588-589 
631 


Marriage  forms  and  certificates 824-825 

Measures,  tables  showing  value  of  the 

British  and  the  U.  S 624 

"         of  various  nations,  for  a  mile. . .  631 

Manifold  paper 1016 

Profanity 587 

Ready  reckoner 601  to  604-611 

"        reckoner,  2000  Ibs.  to  the  ton 598 

4 '       reckoner,  2240  Ibs.  to  the  ton 599 

Rats,  to  rid  a  house  of 703 

Selfishness 587-588 

Safe  business  rules 590 

Save  a  little. .   594 

Starch,  enamel  silver  polish 1015 

Superior  baking  powder 1015 

Table  conversation 590" 

The  best  things 594 

Value  of  current  coins 82ft 

"     of  foreign  coins 1019 

Well  worthy  of  imitation 590 

Weight,  stature,  etc.,  of  man 605 

Weather,  tables  for  telling  the 630 

Wind,  force  of  the 630 

Wages   table 595-596 


Bolt,  speed  ana  pitch  of 652 

Bolting  cloth 650 

Belt,  to  find  length  of  a  driving 653 

Beil  holes,  where  to  cut  in  noor 653 

Belts  and  belting 654 

Burrs,  to  grind  without  water 654 

"      to  prevent  heating - 652 

Circles,  proportion  of 637-638 

Circumference  of  any  diameter 638 

of  a  circle 638 

|  ki  of  an  ellipse 638 

! Circle  circumference,  and  area  of 638 

Driver,  to  compute  revolutions  of  a 638 

Grain  elevators,  arrangement,  propor- 
tion, capacity  etc.,  of 687 

Zathe  gearing,  a  compound. ...  635-636 

Mitt,  sugar. 668-669 

stones,  to  remove  g-<  ze  from 652 

•*     stones,     speed,    ca-x°.city     and 

power  of .651 

*     stone  dress 650 


Hill,  flour,    sectional   view  of  a  com- 
plete  64S 

hoppers,  hipped  roofs,  etc. .   .  636-655 

' '      grinding  wheat  in 645-646 

•       'our 643-644-845 

jtanda/d  grinding 636 

11      stone,  balancing-     ....  647-648-649-650 

"      portable 649-652 

boltingcloth,  number  of  meshes  in. 650 
-lills,  saw,  power  and  capacity  of..  639-642 

"      saw  filing  for 639-640-641-648 

"     other  Information   in  regard  to. .  .441 
442-444-505-506-643-668 

Oat  meal  kiln,  temperature  of 655. 

Pinion,  to  compute  the  number  of  revolu- 
tions of  a 636 

"       to  compute  the  diameter  of 638 

Pulleys 653-654 

Shafting,  to  prevent  accidents  from 654 

Stream,  horse  power  of 657-658-659 


Wheels,  to  compute  number  of  teeth,  in 

Farm  Buildings,  Agricultural  Tables,  Land  Measurement,  etc. 

Cattle,  to  compute  the  weight  of  live.695-696 


Apples,  potatoes,  etc..  to  find  the  num- 
ber of  bushels  of  in  a  bin 694-718 

Animals,  growth,  life,  etc.,  of  703 

Barrel  or  cask,  to  find  the  contents  of. .  .693 

Bushel,  legal  weight  of  a 707 

Bee  flowers 717-718 

Batter  and  cheese,  amount  of  obtaina- 
ble from  milk 719-720-721 

Corn  in  the  crib,  to  measure. 
Cisterns,  capacities  o£ 


food  for  ....................  696-697 

to  soil  ..........................  714 


Crops,  relative  to 


698-699 


Cheese  manufacture  .............  719  to  722 

Farm  buildings  .....................  688-680 

Fences,  how  to  build  and  quantity  of 
material  required  for  ...........  708-700 

Fertilizers  ................  709-710-711-712-713 

Farmers,  ru^-for 


rand  idea  for 699-700 


Pood,  nutritive  qualities  oi 


Buildings,  Agricultural  Tables,  Land  Measurement,  etc.— 
Continued. 

Banners,  sundry  items  of   interest  to  Land  measurement 704-705 

"  —    Measurements,  various 691-704  705-706 

Manures,  various 709-710-712  713-719 

Potatoes,  quantity  required 714 

Produce,  average  composition  of 716 

Pickles,  cucumber 718 

Roots,  storage  of  in  cellars 694 

Rats,  to  rid  a  house  of 703 

Shingles,  to  find  number  required  for  a 

roof  695 

Sheep,  food  for 696 

Stump  puller 700-701 

Seed,  quantity  required 702-712 

Seeds,  vitality  of 702 

Wagon  beds, 'capacity  of 694 

Wheat,  sowing  of 703 


ri7 

fattening  power  of  722-723 

Grists,  proceeds  of 691 

Grain  bins,  table  exhibiting  capacities  of.  692 

"      oercentage  of  oil  in 718 

"      in  the  granary,  to  measure 692 

Guano 711-712 

Hay,  weight  of 690 

"      measuring  in  bulk 691 

flogs,  gross  and  net  weight  and  price  of  .694 

.Horses,  food  for. 696 

Hens,  winter  treatment  of 697 

.  Ice  house,  to  construct 715 


Geological  Facts  and  Origin  and  Formation  of  the  Earth. 

Origin  of  the  earth  735  to  746 

Age  of  the  earth 775 

Tables  for  Printers. 


..  Geological  facts 728  to  734 

Division  of  the  circle 774 


Inks 740-743-756-757-758-759-1016 

Illustrations 757-758 

Proof  reading  ^52-753-754 

Presses,  performances  of 755 

Patent  Office  Rules,  Charges,  etc.,  etc. 


Posters 759 

Tables,  etc.,  for  printers  and  competitors 

746-747-t48-749-750-751-752-753 


Patents,  duration  of 700 

•'       granting  of 780 

' '       caveats 761 


Patents,  how  to  obtain 

"       foreign 

fees 760-761- 

Facts  Relating  to  Human  Life,  etc.,  etc. 

Pood,  facts  concerning 765 

Long  life 763 

Mortality,   statistics 762-763-764 

Areas  of  Lakes,  Seas,  etc.,  and  Height  of  Mountains,  etc. 

Mountains,  highest 768-768 

Oceans  and  seas,  area  of 766 

Rivers,  length  of 768 


Population  of  the  globe 766 

"          of  various  countries  .770-771-772 


Capacity  of  Churches,  theatres,  opera 

houses,  halls,  etc 772 

Lakes,  area  of  767 


Telegraphy,  Photography,  Hunting  and  Trapping. 


Hunting  and  trapping 785-786-787-788  I  Photography 779-780-781-782-783-784 

789-790  |  Telegraphy : 776-777-778 

Book-keeping  and  Tarious  Business  Rules. 

Interest  table 795-796 

State  and  Provincial  law 827 

Tares  allowed  by  the  jobbers  of  New 

York  City .797 

Tables  of  weights,  measures,  money  ex- 


Book-keeping  791-792-793-794-795 

Business  forms,  legal  and  commercial 

803  to  825 
4 '        to  conduct  a  successful ....  796-799 

Collection  of  debts  in  all  States,  Terri- 
tories and  Canada 82f 

Business  rules,  safe 800-801- 

Special  Laws  of  the  following  States  and  Territories,  etc. 


change  tables,  etc 205-206-207 


Alabama 828 

Arkansas , 831 

California 831 

Colorado 835 

Connecticut 838 

District  of  Columbia 840 

Dakota 842 

Delaware 842 

Florida 845 

Georgia 847 

Idaho 849 

Illinois 850 

Indiana 853 

Xewa 855 


Kansas    t 857 

Kentucky 859 

Louisiana 862 

Maine 864 

Maryland 866 

Massachusetts 861 

Michigan 873 

Minnesota 870 

Mississippi 874 

Missouri 875 

Montana 888 

Nebraska 880 

Nevada 887 

New  Hampshire 88* 


(12) 


Special  Laws  of  the  following  States  and  Territories,  eta— 4 
Continued. 


New  Jersey 886 

New  York 888 

New  Mexico 890 

North  Carolina 890 

/Dhio 892 

Oregon . . 895 

Pennsylvania  898 

Rhode  Island 900 

Sooth  Carolina 902 

Tennessee 904 

'Texas 906 

Ut*h 908 


Vermont 90& 

Virginia 8lO» 

Washington  Territory 913 

West  Virginia 913 

Wisconsin 915 

Wyoming .yj1/ 

CANADA. 

New  Brunswick „ ,  ,..,92i 

Nova   Scotia —  923 

Ontario ......917 

Quebec „ ,.  <>.... ,.92& 


Tables  for  Miners. 


Assaying  and  smelting  metal  .....  451-1009 

'Amalgamation,  Mexican  process  ........  968 

barrel  ............  971  to  976 

Assays  of  minerals  ............  1009  to  1013 

Blow  pipe  assays  ...................  991-994 

Comstock    lode  .....................  ...944 

Cupellation  of  gold  and  silver..  980-981-994 
Dynamics  of  volcanic  force  ----  ........  945 

Geological  epochs  .....................  937 

Gold  and  silver  /nills,  arrangement  of.  „  ."57 
Hydrostatic   balance  ...................  !995 

Lixiviating  tubs  .......................  990 

Miscellaneous  ................  924925-926 

Mines,heat  in  .......................  941 

"       description  of  ................  ...939 

*       height  of  ........................  940 

.     "       exploitation  in  ..................  948 

timbering  of.  .  ..............  952-953 


penetration  ov'  ...................  953 

*«       the  deep  of  jiie  world  ..........  1014 

Mining  in  Colorado  .........  581-582-583-929 

"       nomenclature  .....  ,,  ,c  ..........  936 

•«       flume  ...........  ............  938 

placer,  hydraulic  ..........  458-454 

(13) 


Mining  machinery,...  ...•..„  ......  ...<,45& 

for  gold  ..............  .  .........  667* 

"       details  of  ..............  .  .........  94r 

"       machinery  ......  948  to  951-954-955 

956-961-%2-963-964-9Ga-973-974-976 
Mineral  wealth  of  North  America  ......  930' 

"        veins  and  deposits....  933-934-935 

"       wealth  of  the  world....  ........  946- 

Metals,  characteristic*  ..................  995 

Metallurgy,  synopsis  of  .........  996  to  1003' 

Ores,  roasting  and  mixing...  977-982  to  989 
Ore  furnaces  ....................  982  to  989 

Prospecting  for  gold  ...................  453 

Peru,  wealth  of  .........................  927 

ifctila,  wealth  of  ....................  928-929 

Quartz,  crushing  .......................  455 

Rock,  composition  of  various 


Silver,  smelting  ................  456-969-970 

" 


metallurgy  of.  .960  to  964-1004  to  1008 
ores  ......  965  to  968-970-971-978-97& 

TheSutro  tunnel  ...............  942-943-944 

Treatment  of  gold  ore  .........  .  ,.  .  .  858-«6» 

Test  tubes  .....  . 


BAKING  AND  COOKING  DEPARTMENT. 

NOTE. — The  observant  tradesman  will  notice  that  the  following 
formula  may  be  adapted  for  smaller  quantities,  or  for  household  use, 
in  any  desired  instance,  by  a  proportionate  subdivision  of  the  ma- 
terials used. 

HOP  YEAST. — Boil  9  ozs.  of  hops  with  3  pails  of  water  ;  put  9  IDS. 
:>f  good  flour  in  a  tub,  and  strain  enough  of  the  hop-water  over  it  to 
make  it  into  a  stiff  paste  ;  beat  it  up  thoroughly  ;  strain  in  the  rest  of 
foe  hop-water  into  the  paste  ;  let  it  stand  until  lukewarm  ;  then  add 
4^  qts.  stock  yeast.  It  will  rise  1  to  3  inches,  but  do  not  disturb  it 
until  it  drops. 

STOCK  OB  MALT  YEAST. — Boil  12  ozs.  of  good  hops  with  4  pails  of 
water  for  about  5  minutes;  then  strain  off  enough  of  the  liquid 
among  8  Ibs.  of  good  sifted  flour  in  a  tub,  to  render  it  into  a  stiff 
paste,  working  it  up  thoroughly  with  a  clean  stick  ;  then  add  the  rest 
of  the  liquid  to  the  paste;  let  it  stand  till... lukewarm,  and  pulverize 
any  remaining  lumps  with  your  fingers.  Now  add  about  8  Ibs.  malt 
and  6  qts.  stock  yeast;  allow  it  to  work  in  a  warm  place  till  it  rises 
and  falls  again,  which  will  occupy  from  8  to  12  hours ;  strain  through 
a  hair  sieve  and  stand  in  a  cool  place.  In  warm  weather  4  gals,  cold 
water  might  be  added  to  the  above,  previous  to  stocking  it  away. 

COMPRESSED  YEAST. — This  yeast,  so  extensively  used  in  Europe, 
is  obtained  by  straining  the  common  yeast  in  breweries  and  distil- 
leries until  a  moist  mass  is  obtained,  which  is  then  placed  in  hak 
bags,  and  the  rest  of  the  water  pressed  out  until  the  mass  is  nearly 
v  dry.  It  is  then  sewed  up  in  strong  linen  bags  for  transportation.  It 
Will  keep  a  long  time,  and  is  very  highly  esteemed  by  bakers.  See 
'Vienna  Bread. 

FERMENT.— Boil  2  pecks  of  good  potatoes,  strain,  and  place  them 
in  a  ferment  tub;  add  8  or  9  Ibs.  flour,  ?nd,  with  a  masher,  intermix 
all  thoroughly  together  and  turn  in,  say,  6  or  8  gals,  water,  or  enough 
to  make  it  milkwarm ;  add  2  gals,  stock  yeast,  set  it  in  a  warm  place, 
allowing  it  to  rise  and  fall,  not  letting  it  stand  very  long  after  it  falls, 
7  as  it  is  liable  to  sour  in  warm  weather:  strain,  and  all  is  ready. 

NOTE. — Good  yeast  for  the  purpose  of  renewing  your  old  stock 
may  be  made  by  boiling  a  peck  of  clean  potatoes  in  4  pails  of  water, 
when  about  done,  add  12  ozs.  hops,  and  boil  the  potatoes  until  soft: 
put  12  Ibs.  flour  into  a  clean  tub;  make  into  a  stiff  paste  with  part  of 
She  hop- water;  next  add  the  whole,  including  potatoes  and  hops. 
**u\bing  the  pditatoes  through  a  coarse  sieve,  letting  it  stand  till  lafc^ 


10  BAKING   AND    COOKING   RECEIPTS. 

warm;  then  stock  away.  This  is  for  renewing  your  old  malt  or  h&p 
yeast  when  the  latter  runs  out,  and  not  for  general  use ;  or  it  may  b€ 
substituted  by  yeast  from  another  shop. 

SETTING  .SPONGE.—  For  a  quantity  of,  say,  3  barrels  of  flour,  put  it 
,ir  the  trough;  sift  it  ;  add  4^  pails  of  ferment,  and  about  4£  _  >  water 
[cold  water  during  warm  weather,  and  warm  water  during  coil);  in- 
termix and  work  it  up  smooth,  allowing  it  to  rise  and  fall,  whea  it  is 
rer.dy.  A  delay  in  Ithe  process,  for  the  space  of  30  minutes  or  so, 
raay  be  effected,  if  desired,  by  the  addition  of  a  handful  of  salt  when 
the  sponge  is  being  set.  The  sponge  being  ready,  9  Ibs.  oi  salt,  in- 
cluding the  last  mentioned,  are  now  weighed,  dissolved,  and  turned 
into  the  sponge,  together  with  9  pails  of  water  (of  2£  gals,  to  each 
pail);  mix  all  thoroughly  and  knead  the  dough,  letting  it  get  a  good 
proof,  when  it  will  be  ready  to  mix  up  into  loaves.  A  good  method 
for  warm  weather  to  work  flour  that  is  new  and  soft,  is  to  make  you* 
dough  right  up,  straining  in  all  your  ferment,  salt  and  water,  with- 
out setting  any  sponge.  When  the  dough  rises  well,  work  it  down, 
turning  up  the  sides,  and  allow  it  to  rise  once  more  previous  to> 
throwing  it  out  of  the  trough,  adding  alum  if  desired.  With  flour 
that  works  soft  and  clammy,  requiring  9  Ibs.  of  salt  to  the  batch, 
omit  4^  pounds,  and  substitute  2£  Ibs.  alum,  1  Ib.  of  alum  being; 
equivalent  to  2  Ibs.  salt.  Alum  assists  inferior  flour  in  making  white 
bread.  The  rule  here  laid  down  is  8  ozs.  salt  to  each  pail  of  water, 
but  a  little  more  might  be  used  occasionally  with  benefit. 

LONDON  WHITE  BREAD. — The  common  proportions  used  by  the 
London  bakers,  are:  Flour,  1  sack;  common  salt,  4^  Ibs.;  alum,  5 
ozs. ;  yeast,  4  pts. ;  warm  water  for  the  sponge,  about  3  gals.  Th» 
alum  is  used  for  the  purpose  of  whitening  the  bread,  but  Liebig  has 
demonstrated  that  this  purpose  may  be  better  subserved  by  the  use 
of  clear  lime  water  in  mixing  up  the  dough. 

It  is  the  commendable  ambition  in  the  English  bakers  to  impart 
that  peculiar  tint  so  highly  prized  by  connoisseurs,  and  so  success- 
fully produced  at  Vienna  and  Paris.  At  Vienna,  it  has  long  been 
known  that  if  the  hearth  of  an  oven  be  cleaned  with  a  moistened 
wisp  of  straw,  the  crust  of  bread  baked  in  it  immediately  after  pre- 
sents a  rich  yellow  tint;  the  theory  is  that  the  aqueous  vapor  retained 
in  the  oven  has  a  beneficial  effect. 

The  proper  temperature  of  the  oven  is  between  200°  and  225a 
Centigrade,  equivalent  to  424°  and  480°  Fahr.,  and  may  be  known, 
by  the  emission  of  sparks  from  a  piece  of  wood  rubbed  on  the  oven. 
'The  dough  loses  about  l-7th  of  its  weight  if  baked  in  batches,  but 
fully  J  if  baked  in  small  loaves  and  placed  in  the  oven  separately. 
The  best  bread  contains  about  ll-16ths"oi  its  weight  of  added  water, 
and  common  bread  often  much  more  than  £.  The  proportion  of  wa- 
ter in  the  London  bread  has  greatly  increased  of  late  years,  owing 
to  the  use  of  the  fraudulent  method  of  making  the  dough  with  rice- 
jelly  or  moss  jelly,  in  which  Iceland  moss,  Irish  moss,  or  other  moss- 
es are  used,  by  boiling  7  Ibs.  of  moss  in  10  gals,  of  water,  and  using 
the  resultant  jelly  in  making  70  Ibs.  of  flour  into  dough,  which  i* 
then  fermented  and  baked  in  the  usual  way.  It  is  said  that  flour 
treated  in  this  way  will  yield  fully  double  its  weight  of  good  bread. 
According  to  Heern,  100  Ibs.  of  wheaten  flour  will  yield  at  least  125 
to  126  Ibs.  of  bread— some  say  135  Ibs. ;  100  Ibs.  of  rye  meal,  181  lb«. 
of  braad  A  4  oz.  carbonate  of  magnesia,  added  to  the  HOUT  for  ft 


BAKING   AND    COOKING   BECEIPTB.  1| 

1-lb.  loaf,  materially  improves  the  quality  of  the  bread  even  wliea 
made  from  the  very  worst  seconds  flour. 

PARIS  BAKER'S  WHITE  BREAD. — On  80  Ibs.  of  the  dough  left 
from  the  previous  day's  baking,  as  much  luke-warm  water  is  poured 
as  will  make  320  Ibs.  flour  into  a  rather  thin  dough.  As  soon  as  thia 
nas  risen,  80  Ibs.  are  taken  out  and  reserved  in  a  warm  place  for  next 
day's  baking.  One  pound  of  dry  yeast  dissolved  in  warm  water  i» 
then  added  to  the  remaining  portion,  and  the  wkole  lightly  kneaded 
As  soon  as  it  is  sufficiently  "  risen,"  it  is  then  made  ii  to  loaves,  am* 
shortly  afterwards  baked,  the  loaves  being  placed  in  the  oven  with- 
>at  touching  each  other,  so  that  they  may  be  "  crusted  "  all  round. 

THJB  SECRETS  OF  VIENNA  BREAD.— The  proportions  of  Vienn» 
Nread,  confessedly  inferior  to  none  in  the  world,  are:  Flour  100  Ibs. ; 
crater  and  milk,  9  gals. ;  salt,  6  Ibs.  4  ozs. ;  presssd  yeast,  18  Ibs.  12 
ozs.  According  to  Prof.  Horsford,  good  fresh  middlings  flour  will 
compare  favorably  with  the  average  Hungarian  flour  used  in  Vienna. 
The  fresh  pressed  yeast  is  obtained  by  skimming  the  froth  from  beer 
mash  in  active  fermentation.  This  contains  the  upper  yeast,  which 
must  be  repeatedly  washed  with  cold  water  until  only  the  pure  white 
yeast  settles  clear  from  the  water.  This  soft,  tenacious  mass,  aftei 
the  water  has  been  drawn  off,  is  gathered  into  bags  and  subjected  to 
hydraulic  pressure,  until  there  remains  a  semi-solid,  somewhat  brit- 
tle, dough-like  substance,  still  containing  considerable  water.  This 
is  the  pressed  yeast,  which  will  keep  for  eighty  days  in  summer,  an4 
much  longer  on  ice.  For  use  it  should  be  fresh  and  sweet 

The  mixing  is  commenced  by  emptying  the  flour  sacks  into  a  zin^ 
lined  trough  about  2i  feet  wide  and  8  feet  long,  half  round  in  form. 
Then  with  a  pail  holding  about  5  gals.,  equal  parts  of  milk  and  wa- 
ter are  poured,  pod  left  to  stand  until  the  mixture  attains  the  temper- 
ature of  the  room,  between  70°  and  80°  Fahr  It  is  then  poured  into 
one  end  of  the  trough  and  mixed  with  the  bare  hand  with  a  sm;il? 
portion  of  the  flour  to  form  a  thi»  emulsion.  The  pressed  yeast  ia 
next  crumbled  finely  in  the  hands,  ana  added  in  the  proportion  of  3J 
ozs.  to  every  3  qts.  of  liquid,  and  then  1  oz.  of  salt  hi  same  proper- 
tion  is  intermingled  through  the  mass.  The  trough  is  now  covered 
and  left  undisturbed  for  f  of  an  hour,  and  after  this  the  rest  of  the 
flour  is  incorporated  with  the  mass  in  the  above-named  proportions. 

The  mass  of  dough,  being  allowed  to  rest  for  2^  hours,  becomes  a 
smooth,  tenacious,  puffed  mass  of  yellowish  color,  which  yields  to 
indentation  without  rupture  and  is  elastic.  It  is  now  weighed  into 
pound  masses,  and  each  lump  is  cut  by  machinery  into  12  small 
pieces,  each  f  inch  in  thickness.  Of  each  one  of  these,  the  cornew 
are  brought  together  in  the  centre  and  pinched  to  secure  them.  Then 
the  lump  is  reversed  and  placed  on  a  long  dough  board  for  further 
fermentation,  until  the  whole  batch  is  ready  for  the  oven.  Befon 
being  introduced  into  the  latter,  the  rolls  are  again  reversed  and  re- 
stored to  their  original  position,  having  considerably  increased  in 
volume,  to  be  still  farther  enlarged  in  the  oven  to  at  least  twice  the 
size  of  the  original  dough.  In  the  oven  they  do  not  touch  each  other, 
and  the  baking  occupies  about  15  minutes.  To  glaze  tho  surface  they 
are  touched  in  the  process  of  baking  with  a  sponge  dipped  in  milk, 
which  besides  imparting  to  them  a  smooth  surface,  increases  the 
brilliancy  of  the  slightly  reddish  cinaainoa  color  and  adda  to  the 
grateful  aroma  of  the  crust 


12  BAKING    AND    COOKING   RECEIPTS. 

AERATED  BREAI,.— The  water  used  in  forming  the  dough  is  placed 
fn  a  vessel  capable  of  withstanding  a  high  pressure,  and  carbonic  acid 
gas  is  forced  into  it  to  the  extent  10  or  12  atmospheres.  The  water 
will  absorb  and  retain  it  whatever  may  be  its  density,  in  quantities 
squal  to  its  own  bulk,  so  long  as  it  is  retained  in  a  close  vessel  under ' 
pressure.  The  flour  and  salt,  of  which  the  dough  is  to  be  formed,  is' 
iext  placed  in  another  powerful  vessel  of  a  spheroidal  form,  con- 
jtructed  with  a  simple  kneading  apparatus  working  from  without 
and  operating  through  a  closely  packed  stuffing-box.  Into  this  ves-  . 
*»el  is  forced  a  pressure  equivalent  to  that  in  the  aerated  water  vessel. ' 
then  by  means  of  a  pipe  connecting  the  two  vessels,  the  aerateu 
water  is  drawn  into  the  flour  and  the  kneading  apparatus  is  operated 
at  the  sa.ne  time,  the  water  acting  simply  as  limpid  water  among  the 
flour,  forming  a  pasty  mass  of  the  requisite  tenacity.  The  pressure  is 
now  withdrawn,  and  the  gas  escapes  from  the  water,  and  in  doing  so, 
raises  the  dough  in  a  beautiful  and  rapid  manner,  the  intermixture  being 
thorough  and  complete.  The  mixing  vessel  may  have,  say,  an  inter- 
nal capacity  of  10  bushels  ;  to  fill  this  with  the  inflated  bread  dougb 
only  3|  bushels  of  flour  are  required.  In  the  intermixture  of  water 
jrith  flour  the  pasty  mass  measures  rather  less  than  half  the  bulk  of 
the  original  dry  flour,  or  about  1 J  bushels  instead  of  3^,  the  expand- 
ed dough  represents  nearly  5  parts  gaseous  to  one  solid.  The  subse- 
quent baking  expands  it  to  a  much  greater  extent,  making  the 
proportions  of  gaseous  to  solid  hi  all  nl'out  10  to  1.  It  must  be  self- 
evident  that  this  bread  is  very  pure,  nothing  but  flour,  water,  and 
salt,  being  used,  and  reliable  experiments  have  demonstrated  that 
118  loaves  can  be  made  from  the  same  weight  of  flour  which  by  fer- 
mentation will  make  only  105  or  106,  the  loss  in  the  latter  being 
caused  by  the  emission  of  carbonic  acid  gas  through  the  dough  dur- 
ing the  process  of  fermentation  and  manufacture.  In  baking  thi» 
bread,  it  has  been  found  necessary  to  have  the  heat  admitted  through 
the  bottom  of  the  oven,  with  means  of  regulating  the  heat  of  the  top, 
so  that  the  bread  is  cooked  through  the  bottom,  and  the  heat  subse- 
quently admitted  above  towards  the  last,  in  order  to  perfect  the  top 
srust.  These  precautions  are  taken  owing  to  the  low  temperature  of 
the  dough  when  placed  in  the  oven,  caused  by  the  use,  of  cold  water 
in  the  baking  process,  and  the  sudden  expansion  on  rising  inducing 
a  temperature  of  40°  Fahr.,  lower  than  ordinary  fermented  dough. 
This  in  connection  with  its  slow  springing  until  it  reaches  the  boiling 
point,  renders  it  desirable  to  delay  the  formation  of  the  top  crust 
antil  the  last  moment 

ANOTHER  AERATED  BREAD. — 1.  Dissolve  1  oz.  of  sesqui-carbon/- 
ate  of  ammonia  in  water,  sufficient  to  make  7  Ibs.  of  flour  into  a  dough, 
which  must  be  formed  into  loaves,  and  baked  immediately.  2. 
Divide  3  Ibs.  flour  into  two  portions  :  mix  up  the  first  with  water, 
holding  in  solution  2  ozs.  bicarbonate  of  soda  ;  then  mix  the  second- 
portion  of  flour  with  water,  to  which  1  oz.  of  muriatic  acid  has  been 
added  ;  knead  each  mass  of  the  dough  thoroughly.  When  this  ia 
done,  mix  both  portions  together  as  rapidly  and  perfectly  as  possible 
form  the  mass  into  loaves  and  bake  immediately.  This  bread  con- 
tains no  yeast,  and  is  very  wholesome.  Note. — Carbonate  of  mag- 
nesia and  muriatic  acid  chemically  combined,  form  common  salt 

HEALTHY  MIXED  BREAD.— Boil  3  Ibs.  of  rice  to  a  soft  pulp  ia 
water  ;  pare  and  cook  by  steam  6  Ibs.  of  your  beat  potatoes,  maeis 
y«ur  potatoes  and  rub  them  up  -yith  rice  pulp  ;  add  to  the  whole  9 


1.AK1NG  AND    COOKING   RECEIPTS.  1$ 

0».  flour  ,  make  all  into  a  dough  with  water,  ferment  with  yeast,  tot 
It  stand  a  proper  length  of  time,- and  then  place  it  iu  the  oven  to  bake. 

ANOTHER  EXCELLENT  BREAD. — Knead  21  Ibs.  flour  with  9  Iba  ol 
pared  and  mashed  potatoes,  from  which  the  water  has  been  well 
Bteamed  off  previous  to  mashing  :  mix  together  while  the  potatoes  ar« 
warm,  adding  about  3  or  4  spoonfuls  of  salt.  Then  add  about  3 
l£s.  milk-warm  water,  with  9  large  spoonfuls  of  yeast  gradually  to 
the  potatoes  and  flour  ;  knead  and  work  it  well  into  a  smooth  dou^h, 
and  let  it  stand  4  hours  before  putting  into  the  oven. 

FRENCH  BREAD.— Take  nice  rice,  f  Ib.  ;  tie  it  up  in  a  thick  linen 
bag,  giving  it  enough  room  for  it  to  swell :  boil  from  three  to  foul 
hours  till  it  becomes  a  perfect  paste  ;  mix  while  warm  with  7  Ibs. 
floui  ;  adding  the  usual  quantities  of  yeast,  salt,  and  water.  Allow 
the  dough  to  work  a  proper  time  near  the  fire,  then  divide  into  loaves, 
dust  them  in,  and  knead  vigorously. 

DYSPEPSIA  BREAD. — The  following  receipt  for  making  bread  bias 
proved  highly  salutar-  to  persons  afflicted  with  dyspepsia,  viz.  ;— 3 

?uarts  unbolted  wheat  meal ;  1  quart  soft  water,  warm  but  not  hot ; 
gill  of  fresh  yeast  '  1  gill  molasses,  o;:  not,  as  may  suit  the  taste  ;  1 
teaspoonful  of  saler^ius. 

For  the  sake  of  the  industrious  house-wife,  and  not  for  bakers,  aa 
they  are  supposed  to  know  already,  it  may  be  well  to  state  that  30 
minutes'  baking  will  suffice  for  1  Ib.  loaves  and  cakes  ;  and  15  minutes 
additional  for  every  Ib.  after  the  first  for  larger  ones.  Thus  a  1  Ib. 
ioaf  requires  £  hour,  a  2  Ib.  loaf  £  hour,  and  a  4  Ib.  loaf  1J  hour. 

SUPERIOR  BREAD  FROM  BUCKWHEAT  MEAL.— To  2  qts.  of  sifted 
buckwheat  meal,  add  hot  water  enough  to  wet  the  same,  when  suf~ 
ficiently  cooled,  add  1  teaspoonful  or  more  of  salt,  half  a  pint  of 
yeast,  and  half  a  teaspoonful  of  molasses  ;  then  add  wheat  floue 
enough  to  make  it  into  loaves  (it  should  be  kneaded  well)  ;  and  when 
risen  light,  bake  or  steam  it  three  or  more  hours.  If  this  should  get 
sour  while  rising,  add  a  teaspoonful  of  sugar  and  a  little  saleratus, 
dissolved  hi  water.  For  bread  from  Indian  meal  proceed  in  the  game 
way,  using  it  instead  of  buckwheat  meal. 

CORN-MEAL  BREAD,  No.  1.— Take  2  qts.  of  corn  meal,  with  about 
8,  pint  of  (thin)  bread  sponge,  and  water  enough  to  wet  it  ;  mix  ini 
about  a  half  a  pint  of  wheat  flour,  and  a  tablespoonf  ul  of  salt ;  let  it 
rise  and  then  knead  well  the  second  time  ;  bake  1£  hours. 

CORN-MEAL  BREAD  No.  2.— Mix  2  qts.  of  new  corn-raeal  with, 
three  pints  of  warm  water ;  add  1  tabiespoonf  ul  of  salt,  2  table- 
i  spoonfuls  of  sugar  and  one  large  tablespoon  ful  of  hop  yeast :  let  it 
I  stand  in  a  warm  place  five  hours  to  rise  ;  then  add  1£  teacupfuls  ot 
wheat  flour,  and  a  half  pint  of  warm  water.  Let  it  rise  again  1J 
Jiours,  then  pour  into  ?  pa*"  well  greased  with  sweet  lard,  and  let  it 
.rise  a  few  minutes.  Then  bake  in  a  moderately  hot  oven,  1^  hours- 
»  CORN-MBAL  BRF.A»,  No  3.— Take  2  qts.  of  white  corn-meal,  1 
tablespoonf  ul  of  Ir.^d,  1  pint  of  hot  water  ;  mix  the  lard  in  water  ,. 
•tir  it  well  that  it  may  get  heated  thoroughly,  and  add  one-half  pint 
of  cold  water.  When  the  mixture  is  cool  enough,  add  two  well- 
beaten  eggs,  and  two  tablespoonfuls  of  home-made  yeast.  Bake 
1  hour  in  a  moderately  heated  oven.  If  for  breakfast  make  "*vei 
night. 

BEST  BOSTON  BROWN  BREAD.—  Take  100  Ibg.  of  Indian  me&i ;  50 
Ibs.  rye  meal  ;  and  10  Ibs.  flour  ;  sift  and  intermix  together  in  the 
trough ;  strain  in  four  gals.jnolasses ;  2  gals,  ferment  or  yeast ;  dissolve  1> 


BAKlttd  AND  COOKIwa  RECEIPTS. 


tb.  aoda  and  4  Ibs.  salt  in  water  and  add  that.  Now  add  wat« 
ftnough  to  mix  all  rather  stiff,  mixing  well  and  breaking  all  lumpa. 
flow  mix  in  water  enough  to  form  a  batter  sufficiently  thin  to  remain 
*ven  on  top  :  allow  it  to  stand  2  or  3  hours  after  mixing,  before  put. 
ting  it  into  the  pans  and  oven,  then  bake  from  6  to  10  hours  in  a 
slow  oven. 

BOSTON,  OB  SOFT  CRACKERS.—  First  sift  in  4  baxrelg  erf  flour  inte. 
*  the  trough,  add  2  pails  of  stock-yeast,  and  about  9  pails  of  water  J 
mix  all  into  a  sponge  and  allow  it  to  stand  until  it  rises  and  fall* 
twice.  The  sponge  will  require  about  6  or  8  hours  to  become  ready, 
if  it  sours  a  little,  so  much  the  better.  Usually  it  is  set  about  noon 
for  the  work  next  day,  and  if  set  warm,  for  using  stock  yeast  instead 
of  ferment,  it  will  come  less  rapidly.  The  sponge  being  ready,  add 
to  it  from  8  to  10  pails  more  water  ;  mix  and  break  the  sponge  up 
tvell,  making  a  stiff  dough,  and  let  it  stand  until  next  morning.  It  is 
requisite  that  the  dough  should  be  sour,  to  ensure  good  crackers. 
When  ready,  remove  a  sample  of  it  sufficient  for  one  oyenful  of 
-wackers  ;  take  it  to  another  part  of  the  trough,  and  add  to  it  from  5 
to  6  Ibs.  of  butter  or  lard,  the  proportion  to  be  added  to  be  estimated 
by  the  dimensions  of  the  piece  so  separated  ;  soda  in  solution  is  now 
to  be  added,  made  by  dissolving  soda,  1  Ib.  in  cold  water,  1  qt.,  and 
liie  detached  piece  of  dough  may  be  intermixed  with  1  pt.  of  the 
Uquid,  representing  8  ozs.  of  soda,  but  the  exact  quantity  required 
must  be  ascertained  by  the  acidity  or  age  of  the  dough,  and  the  judg- 
ment of  an  experienced  practitioner.  Vlix  the  soda  and  butter 
thoroughly  into  the  dough,  "and  put  it  through  the  rollers  repeatedly 
•  or  until  smooth.  Place  a  sample  of  this  dough  in  tho  oven  to  deter* 
mine  whether  or  not  it  contains  the  prop  er  quantity  of  soda.  When 
baked,  too  much  soda  will  induce  a  yollow  appearance,  and  more 
dough  without  soda  must  be  added  ;  a  deficiency  of  soda  will  be  in- 
iicated  by  a  sour  smell,  and  in  that  case  more  soda  must  be  added 
-«Vhen  all  is  right,  the  dough  is  put  through  the  machine,  and  the 
succeeding  batch  of  crackers  is  commenced  by  selecting  another 
piece  of  dough  and  proceeding  as  above,  adding  the  butter  and  soda 
in  the  required  proportion  each  batch  requiring  more  soda  on  ac- 
count of  the  increasing  acidity  acquired  by  long  exposure  to  the  air- 
ANOTHER  WAY.  —  Set  the  sponge  on  the  previous  night,  and  the 
next  day  instead  of  making  dough  of  it,  select  a  portion  of  the  sponge, 
adding  it  to  the  butter  and  soda  as  above  directed,  working  them  well 
into  it,  and  adding  flour  enough  to  make  a  stiff  dough,  and  it  is  ready 
for  the  break.  When  you  detach  part  of  the  sponge  to  make  the 
bjvtch,  add  water  enough  to  the  sponge,  and  stir  it  up  with  more 
flouT  ,  thus  continuing  to  renew  the  sponge  as  fast  as  it  is  used. 
,.  SODA  CRACKERS  are  made  by  the  same  process,  of  the  same  dough  ; 
after  using  the  scraps,  add  a  little  more  butter,  rolling  them  thinne* 
and  cutting  them  square. 

OYSTER  CRACKERS  are  made  of  the  same  dough,  using  the  scraps 
also.  Butter,  Sugar,  and  other  crackers  are  made  the  same  way, 
adding  respectively  butter  and  sugar. 

CREAM  CRACKERS.—  Rub  together  14  Ibs.  flour  ana  1  lb-  butter  ; 
'  then  add  1  lb.  pounded  sugar,  48  eggs,  and  flavor  ;  mix  thoroughly, 
-.  and  work  it  quite  stiff  and  smooth  ;  roll  out  quite  thin  ;  cut  them  with  a 
cutter  in  the  form  of  a  oak  leaf  ;  put  them  into  boiling  water  and 
boil  till  they  float  ;  remove  with  a  skimmer  and  dry  them  on  cloths, 
•jttid  bake  on  clean  Dana  without  being  buttered,  in  a  warm  OV«L 


BAKING   AND    COOKING   RECEIPTS.  *ft 

LADY  CAKE. — Break  up  2  Ibs.  "butter,  mix  in  3  Ibs.  sugar, 
nibbing  well  together  for  5  or  10  minutes,  add  2  pts.  whites  of  eggs,  t 
ft  third  at  a  time,  beat  all  up  light,  then  add  4  Ibs.  flour,  and  1  oz.  soda^  ' 
dissolved  in  2  pts.  milk,  and  2  ozs.  cream  tartar  ;  intermix  all  well  to- 
gether, bake  in  pans  about  1£  ins.  deep,  in  loaves  that  will  weigh  from 
2  to  3  Ibs.,  when  baked,  take  out  of  the  pans  and  frost  on  the  under 
•ide.     Mark  in  slices  f  of  an  inch  thick. 

FROST  CAKES.— Beat  2  Ibs.  butter  and  3  Ibs.  sugar  together  until 
quite  light,  add  30  eggs,  10  at  a  time,  beating  after  each  addition,  then 
«,  little  ext  lemon,  add  3  Ibs.  flour,  stir  just  enough  to  mix  ;  put  in  flat, 
square  pans,  greased,  and  bake  in  a  slow  oven,  when  done,  frost  on 
the  under  side  and  mark  in  squares. 

CITRON  FBOST  CAKE  is  made  similar  to  the  above,  with  the  addi- 
tion of  sliced  citron  when  the  flour  is  added,  or  preferably  put  thf 
citron  on  the  batter  after  it  is  in  the  pans.  Bake  as  the  last. 

SHREWSBURY  CAKE. — Rub  2  Ibs.  butter,  and  2  Ibs.  of  sugar  to-   . 
.gether,  add  24  eggs,  6  at  a  time,  beating  them  in,  dissolve  and  ad<J 
twice  as  much  soda  as  will  lie  on  a  dime  in  a  little  water,  mix  in  4  Ibs. 
flour,  roll  and  cut  out  with  any  plain  or  fancy  shaped  cutter,  put  on 
buttered  tins,  and  bake  in  a  moderate  oven. 

LEMON  CAKE. — Rub  together  6  Ibs.  of  light  brown  sugar,  am 
2  Ibs.  of  lard  or  butter,  add  16  eggs,  12qts.  of  milk  with  2  ozs.  of  soda 
dissolved  therein,  2  ozs.  ammonia,  a  few  drops  extract  of  lemon  for 
flavor,  and  flour  sufficient  to  make  a  stiff  batter;  drop  them  either 
with  the  hand  or  with  a  spoon,  into  scalloped  pans,  and  sprinkle  a  few 
currants  on  the  top  of  each,  and  bake  in  a  moderate  oven. 

ROCK  CAKE.— Rub  together  4  Ibs.  sugar,  and  8  Ibs.  of  flour,  make  a 
hollow  in  the  middle,  and  add  6  eggs,  1^  pts.  milk,  1  Ib.  8  oz.  of  but- 
ler,  and  2  oz.  ammonia,  mix  all  together,  roll  out  and  cut  out  with  a 
plain  cutter,  rather  thick,  put  on  pans,  and  witu  a  fork  scratch  the  top 
of  each  until  it  is  quite  rough.  Bake  in  a  moderate  oven. 

CUP  CAKE.— Break  up  2  Ibs.  butter,  add  3  Ibs.  sugar,  and  16  eggs, 
u  third  at  a  time,  beat  up  light,  add  5  Ibs.  flour,  2  pts.  milk,  and 
ammonia  2  ozs.,  make  all  smooth  by  thorough  mixing.  Bake  in 
«mall  pans  in  a  moderate  oven. 

WEDDING:  CAKE.— Rub  4  Ibs.  butter  and  4  Ibs.  light  brown  sugar 
well  together,  adding  40  eggs,  one  quarter  at  a  time,  beating  well,  theii 
add  2  pts.  molasses,  2  pts.  good  brandy,  1  oz.  each  of  mace,  nutmeg, 
•cassia,  and  cloves,  all  well  blended  in  and  mixed  with  the  mass,  thea 
•add  5  Ibs.  flour,  8  Ibs.  currants,  9  Ibs.  stoned  raisins,  and  3  Ibs.  citron, 
.intermix  all  thoroughly,  pat  it  in  pans,  spread  smooth  on  top,  and  it  is 
ready  for  the  oven.  These  materials  will  make  4  loaves  of  9  Ibs.  each, 
and  will  require  careful  baking  for  from  4  to  6  hours  in  a  cool  oven, 
otherwise  it  will  be  burnt  on  the  ou«side.  To  frost  this  amount  of 
cake  beat  up  the  whites  of  10  eggs  in  a  bowl,  with  sufficient  pulverized 
*ugar  to  render  the  mixture  stiff  enough  to  spread  on  the  cake, 
using  a  wooden  spoon  (probably  2^  Ibs.  will  be  required),  beat  all  to- 
gether for  15  or  20  minutes  :  spread  it  on  the  cake,  after  the  latter 
becomes  cool,  and  set  it  away  until  the  next  day,  when  another  coat 
of  the  frosting  composition  must  be  applied,  and  the  cake  set  away 
*intil  the  day  following  to  await  the  final  ornamenting.  This  is  ef- 
fected with  the  assistance  of  ornamenting  tubes,  &c.,  togeeher  with  & 
f  resting  composition  of  a  much  stiff  er  consistence  than  that  previously 
used.  NOTE. — One-half,  or  even  one-quarter  of  the  above  quantity  of 
cake  will  be  found  an^ly  sufficient  tol  most 


16  BAKING    AND    COOKING   TECEIPTS. 

ANOTHER  WEDDING  CAKE.— Use  2  Its.  sugar,  3  Ibs.  flour,  8  nufc 
taegs,  18  eggs,  1  oz.  allspice,  1  oz.  cloves,  3  Ibs.  currants,  2  Ibs.  citron, 
3  Ibs.  sultana  raisins,  a  little  ammouia,  and  1  gill  brandy.  Proceed 
with  the  mixture  as  directed  in  the  foregoing,  and  bake  in  a  slow  oven. 

COCOANTT  CAKES. — To  each  Ib.  of  grated  cocoanuts  add  1  Ib.  of 
powdered  sugar  and  the  whites  of  4  eggs,  put  all  in  a  kettle 
and  cook  on  the  fire  for  about  30  minutes,  stirring  well  all  the 
time,  and  avoid  burning,  cook  to  a  soft  and  mushy  consistence,  turn 
it  out  and  add  to  each  Ib.  of  cocoauut  as  previously  weighed  2  ozs.  01 
flour,  working  it  well  into  the  mixture.  Now  put  it  in  well  greased 
pans,  selecting  a  small  piece  in  your  hands,  rolling  it  round  and  lay- 
ing it  on  the  pans,  putting  them  about  1  inch  apart,  tcxallow  for  spread- 
ing, and  bake  in  a  cool  oven. 

QUEEN  CAKE. — Rub  tc  Aether  2  Ibs.  sugar  and  2  Ibs.  butter,  next 
add  16  eggs,  1  pt.  milk,  1  (  L.  of  ammonia,  stir  all  well  together,  then 
add  the  flour  ;  bake  in  square  pans  with  a  few  currants  on  top. 

DROP  CAKE.— Rub  together  3  Ibs.  sugar  and  \\  Ibs.  of  butter,  add 
13  eggs,  in  3  different  lots,  -3  pts.  of  sour  milk,  \\  ozs.  soda,  1^  ozs.  of 
ammonia,  flavor  with  ext.  lemon,  stir  all  well  together,  add  flour  suffi- 
cient to  make  a  stiff  batter,  drop  on  buttered  pans,  bake  in  a  quick  oven. 

MOLASSES  POUND  CAKE.  —Mix  together  I  gal.  molasses,  3  Ibs.  but- 
ter, 8  eggs,  2  qts.  water,  8  ozs.  of  soda,  and  add  sifted  flour  sufficient 
to  make  a  stiif  batter.  Bake  in  small  scalloped  pans,  in  a  cool  oven. 

CROSS  BUNS.— Work  24  Ibs.  dough,  2  Ibs.  sugar,  2  Ibs.  butter,  12 
eggs  and  a  little  cinnamon  into  the  dough,  and  set  away  to  rise;  then 
pinch  them  off  in  about  2  oz.  pieces;  mould  them  up;  pin  out;  put 
on  pans,  and  mark  them  across  wr'th  a  knife,  or  cross  them  with 
strips  of  dough. 

GOLD  CAKE. — Rub  together  2  ibs.  butter,  and  2£  Ibs.  brown  sugar r 
add  the  yolks  of  30  eggs,  a  few  at  a  time,  beating  all  well  up  ;  add 
1  qt.  milk  with  1  oz.  soda  dissolved  in  it,  stir  well  up  ;  and  add  4  Ibs- 
flour  ;  1  oz.  cream  tartar  ;  a  little  lemon  extract ;  mix  all  up  lightly, 
and  bake  in  small  pans  in  a  warm  oven. 

NEW  YORK  SPONGE  CAKE. — Beat  16  eggs  and  2  Ibs.  sugar  together 
about  5  minutes  ;  next  add  2  ozs.  ammonia,  1  pt.  milk,  and  flavor  ;  mix: 
all ;  add  the  flour,  stirring  carefully,  but  sufficient  to  mix.  Bake  in 
little  round  pans,  in  a  warm  oven. 

LADY  CAKE.— Rub  2  Ibs.  butter  and  4  Ibs.  sugar  together  until  it  i& 
quite  light;  then  add  the  whites  of  60  eggs,  one-fourth  at  a  time, 
beating  well;  next  flavor  with  a  little  oil  of  almonds;  stir  slightly; 
then  add  2  Ibs.  flour  and  1  Ib.  corn  starch,  and  stir  up  lightly.  Bake 
in  a  slow  oven  and  turn  over  and  frost  on  the  under  side. 

GROUND-RICE  CAKES. — Rub  together  2  Ibs.  butter  and  4  Ibs.  sugar; 
add  16  eggs ;  beat  up  thoroughly ;  add  2  pts.  milk,  4  ozs.  ammonia,, 
and  flavor  with  lemon;  stir  all  up;  add  4  Ibs.  of  rice  flour,  and  mix 
thoroughly ;  drop  on  buttered  pans  about  the  size  of  an  egg,  and  bake. 

CREAM  CAKES. — Take  1  qt.  water,  and  1  Ib.  dark  coarse-grained 
lard ;  boil  together  in  a  kettle,  and  then  stir  in  17  ozs.  of  best  quality 
flour;  boil  all  4  or  5  minutes,  or  until  it  is  quite  smooth;  then  turn  it 
out  on  a  board,  and  scrape  the  kettle  with  a  knife;  now  pivt  your 
paste  in  the  kettle  again,  with  10  eggs ;  stir  well  together  until  all  is 
imooth ;  then  add  18  or  20  more  eggs,  or  until  the  batter  is  of  the 
right  thickness ;  next  dissolve  £  oz.  soda  in  a  little  water,  and  mix  in 
thoroughly ;  drop  on  pans  slightly  greased ;  wash  them  0c  top  witb 


BAKING   AND    COOKING    RECEIPTS.  1? 

egg,  and  bake  in  a  quick  oven.  They  will  require  16  t*  18  minutes 
lo  bake  with  a  proper  heat.  When  baked,  remove  from  tl  e  fire ;  split 
them  through  the  centre  and  fill  them  with  the  following  cream: 
Place  on  the  fire  1  qt.  milk  in  a  kettle,  mix  4  oz.  flour,  8  oz.  white 
sugar,  4  eggs,  and  a  little  salt  in  another  vessel;  when  the  milk  boils, 
turn  in  the  mixture,  stirring  briskly ;  when  it  boils,  remove  from  the 
fire,  and  flavor  with  lemon  or  vanilla  as  desired. 

ROCK  CAKES.— Rub  well  together  6  Ibs.  flour,  and  2  Ibs.  butter, 
making  a  cavity  in  the  middle;  put  in  2  Ibs.  sugar,  2  Ibs.  currants,  8" 
eggs,  dissolved  soda,  1  oz.,  arid  a  little  ess.  lemon,  with  milk  sufficient 
to  mix  up  stiff;  now  take  a  four-pronged  forli.  -and  work  of  pieces  of 
dough  the  size  of  walnuts ;  place  on  pans,  and  bake  in  a  cool  oven. 

SNOW  CAKES. — Rub  2  Ibs.  butter  and  2  Ibs.  sugar  well  together; 
then  add  the  whites  of  24  eggs,  3  at  a  time;  beat  up  well;  add  12  ozs. 
flour,  2J  11] s.  of  arrowroot;  add  the  flavor  a~id  mix  lightly.  Make  6 
loaves  of  xhis  quantity,  either  round  or  square;  put  lemon  peel  on 
top,  and  bake  in  a  cool  oven. 

Moss  CAKE. — Rub  6  Ibs.  of  flour  and  3  Ibs.  of  butter  well  together 
then  add  2  Ibs.  sugar,  8  eggs,  and  flavor  with  ess.  of  lemon ;  mix  well 
together  until  smooth  and  stiff.  Now  take  a  piece  the  size  of  an  egg 
push  it  through  a  sieve,  ^nd  form  it  in  bunches  to  resemble  moss 
put  on  buttered  pans,  and  bake  very  carefully  in  a  moderate  oven  to 
a  delicate  brown  color. 

NEW  YORK  LUNCH  CAKE. — Rub  together  14  Ibs.  flour,  2  Ibs.  but- 
ter; then  add  3  qts.  milk,  1  oz.  soda,  1  oz.  tartaric  acid,  and  8  ozs.  ar- 
rowroot; mix  all  quite  stiff,  break  it  well,  and  snap  them  off  about  as 
big  as  walnuts;  pm  them  out;  dock  them  full  of  holes,  and  bake  on. 
clean  pans  in  a  warm  oven. 

TEA  CAKE.— Rub  12  Ibs.  of  flour  and  6  Ibs.  of  butter  togetho-.;  add 
6  Ibs.  sugar,  24  eggs,  2  ozs.  of  soda,  4  ozs.  cream  tartar;  fla.uv  and 
add  milk  sufficient  to  make  a  nice,  soft  dough ;  mix  up  lightly,  roll 
out,  and  cut  with  any  fancy-shaped  cutters,  bake  in  a  warm  oven. 

FANCY  CAKE. — Rub  together  4  Ibs.  sugar  and  3  Ibs.  butter;  add 
10  eggs  in  4  different  lots ;  add  1  oz.  soda  dissolved  in  a  little  milk;, 
mix  well;  then  stir  in  4  Ibs.  of  flour;  1  oz.  cream  tatar;  a  little  ex- 
tract of  lemon;  mixing  all  well  together,  bake  in  a  moderate  oven. 

RAISIN  CAKE.— Rub  together  1  Ib.  butter  and  1£  Ibs.  powdered 
sugar;  add  18  eggs,  one  third  at  a  time,  beating  well  in;  add  J  oz. 
dissolved  soda,  stirring  well  in;  add  a  little  ext.  lemon;  2  Ibs.  2  ozs.  o£ 
flour;  1  Ib.  1  oz.  sultana  raisins;  and  .mix  all  well  together.  Bake  ia 
a  slow  oven  in  pans  about  1^  inches  deep. 

POUND  CAKE. — Break  up  and  well  mix  1  Ib.  of  fresh  butter 
with  1  Ib.  of  powdered  sugar;  add  10  eggs,  a  few  at  a  time,  beating: 
up  lightly;  add  1  Ib.  of  flour  ;  a  very  little  soda  ;  mix  ail  so  as  to  make 
the  flour  smooth ;  bake  in  a  slow  oven. 

SILVER  CAKE. — Rub  together  2  Ibs.  butter  and  i  Ibs.  powdered 
riugar;  add  the  whites  of  30  eggs,  in  3  lots  at  a  time;  beat  up  well; 
add  2  pts.  milk  with  1  oz.  soda;  6  Ibs.  flour,  1  oz.  cream  tartar;  with 
a  little  vanilla  flavor;  mix  up  lightly  and  bake  as  the  last. 

GINGER  SNAPS. — Put  2  qts.  molasses;  1^  Ibs.  of  lard;  3  ozs.  oi 
ground  ginger;  2  ozs.  of  soda,  and  1  pt  water,  into  a  bowl.  Mix  al? 
together;  add  flour  enough  to  make  a  stiff  dough;  then  work  in  2 
Ibs.  sugar;  roll  thin;  cut  in  long  strips  in  rolls  on  the  table;  cut  them 
off  with  ",  knife  or  cutter  the  desired  size;  put  on  buttered  tin&y 
flatten  them  down  a  littl0  with  the  hand,  and  bake  in  a  slow  oven 


|f  BAKING   AND    COOKING   RECEIPTS. 

GINOER  CAKE.— Put  12  eggs  and  2  pts.  cream  on  tke  fir<e  iu  A  oq^ 
per  or  tin  dish;  stir  until  warm;  then  add  2  Ibs.  butter;  2  ibs.  sugar: 
10  ozs.  ginger;  allow  it  to  stay  on  a  slow  fire  and  continue  stirring  till 
the  butter  is  melted;  then  set  off;  when  cold  add  8  Ibs.  flour;  mix  up 
>mooth ;  roll  out  thin,  and  cut  with  a  circular  cutter ;  place  on  paper,  f 
ind  bake  in  a  hot  oven. 

CINNAMON  CAKES.— Put  12  eggs  and  6  dessert  spoonfuls  of  rose*- 
water  into  a  bowl ;  whisk  together,  and  add  2  Ibs.  fine  sugar,  and  1 
oz.  of  ground  cinnamon  and  flour  sufficient  to  make  a  nice  stiff  paste; 
loll  them  out;  cut  into  any  desired  shape,  and  bake  them  on  paper, 
in  a  slow  oven. 

SEED  CAKES.— Rub  together  1  Ib.  butter  and  2  Ibs.  flour;  then  into 
•  hollow  in  the  centre;  put  4  Ibs.  sugar;  2  qts.  milk;  4  ozs.  caraway 
•eeds,  and  a  little  ammonia ;  mix  up,  but  do  not  work  it  much;  roll 
out;  cut  with  a  small  cutter,  and  bake  in  a  warm  oven. 

SPICE  CAKE. — Mix  together  3 Ibs.  sugar  and  1^  Ibs.  butter;  add  1£ 
pts.  milk;  15  eggs,  a  few  at  a  time;  £  oz.  ammonia;  one  nutmeg 
and  a  half;  fib.  currants;  5  Ibs.  flour.  Mix  up  well  and  bake  in 
deep,  square  yzti*  in  a  slow  oven. 

NEW  YORK  FANCY  CAKE. — Rub  together  2  Ibs.  sugar  and  1  Ib. 
butter;  add  12  eggs  a  few  at  a  time,  beat  all  up  well;  add  §  qt.  of 
sour  milk;  3f  Ibs.  flour;  §  oz.  soda;  §  oz.  cream  tartar,  and  extract 
of  lemon  for  flavor.  Mix  np  smooth  and  bake  in  scalloped  pans. 

MACHINE  JUMBLES. — Rub  together  3  Ibs.  sugar  and  2  Ib.  4  ozs. 
butter;  add  12  eggs  a  few  at  a  time,  beat  all  up  well ;  |  oz.  of  ammo- 
nia; 1$  pts.  milk;  a  little  ext.  lemon,  and  5  Ibs.  4  ozs.  of  flour;  and 
etir  sufficiently  to  mix. 

CHAMPAGNE  BISCUITS. — Work  up  2  Ibs.  butter  in  a  basin  to  a 
thick  cream;  add  2  Ibs.  of  sugar;  2  Ibs.  flour;  36  yolks  of  eggs;  1  oz 
caraway  seeds ;  a  little  salt;  whisk  up  the  whites  of  the  36  eggs  and 
add  them;  get  a  sheet  of  strong  paper;  fold  it  in  reversed  plaits  like  * 
fan,  to  form  trenches  about  1  inch  deep ;  fill  a  biscuit  forcer  with  part 
of  the  batter;  force  out  some  finger-like  biscuits  into  the  trenches 
about  3  inches  long;  sifting  sugar  over  them,  and  bake  them  of  a 
light-fawn  color  in  a  moderate  oven. 

CREAM  TARTAR  BISCUIT.— Work  in  3  Ibs.  sifted  flour  with  2  ozs. 
butter;  add  2  ozs.  cream  tartar;  dish  the  middle  and  pour  in  1  pt. 
milk  and  1  pt.  water,  previously  adding  1  oz.  soda  to  the  milk ;  mix 
all  up  briskly,  but  don't  make  it  too  stiff.  Flatten  it  oiVi;  cut  with  a 
biscuit  cutter;  place  them  on  buttered  tins  close  together  and  bake  in 
a  quick  oven. 

WASHINGTON  CAKE.— Rub  together  4  Ibs.  sugar  and  2  Ibs.  8  oza. 
of  butter;  16  eggs;  2  pts.  water  and  2  ozs.  of  ammonia;  with  floui 
sufficient  to  make  a  suitable  dough  to  roll ;  cut  out  with  a  scalloped 
cutter,  and  bake  in  a  warm  oven. 

BRANDY  SNAPS. — Mix  up  l£  pounds  flour,  ^  Ib.  butter,  £  Ib  sugar.  • 

1  oz.  cloves,  and  £  pint  molasses.    Mix  all  together  an^  ban«. 
WASHINGTON  PIE. — Rub  together  1  Ib.  butter,  and  1£  Ibs  powder- 
ed sugar,  add  1  pt.  of  eggs,  a  little  at  a  *,iine,  beat  up  well,  add  £  oz 
goda  dissolved  in  £  pt.  milk  ;  flavor  with  ext.  lemon,  stir  up,  and  add 

2  Ibs.  flour  and  1  oz.  cream  tartar  ;  mix  together,  put  on  pans  one- 
eighth  of  an  inch  thick  and  bake  in  a  quick  oven. 

ANOTHER. — Rub  together  2  Ibs.  lard,  3  Ibs .  powdered  sugar,  and 
add  1  qt.  eggs,  a  little  at  a  tim»,  1  oz.  soda  dissolved  in  1  qt.  mili;  9 


BAKING   AND    COOKING   RECEIPTS,  1$ 

•26.  jream -tartar,  a  little  lemon  extract  and  4^  Ibs.  flour  mix  aft 
together  and  bake  as  above. 

FILLING  FOR  THE  ABOVE  PIES.— Add  to  stewed  and  strained  dried 
apples,  |  Ib.  of  sugar  to  each  Ib.  of  apples,  boil  all  together  for  |  houi 
Stirring  well  ;  fill  with  this,  or  use  cranberry  jelly  or  currant  jelly  or 
raspberry  jam,  or  the  latter  intermixed  with  stewed  dried  apples,  or 
apple  filling  alone  is  very  good.  A  (food  filling  for  sliced  apple  pies  ia 
made  by  slicing  sour  apples,  bottom  your  plates  add  the  sliced  apple? 
with  enough  powdered  sugar  to  sweeten,  adding  cinnamon,  salt  and 
a  little  butter,  with  water  until  the  plate  is  two-thirds  full,  then  cover 
with  puff -paste,  and  trim  it  round  in  proper  style  with  a  knife.  * 

LEMON  PIES.— Rub  together  1  Ib.  butter  and  1^  Ibs.  flour  with  cold 
water  sufficient,  to  make  a  good  stiff  dough  to  bottom  your  plates  with, 
rimming  them  around  with  puff-paste,  and  fill  with  the  following 
mixture  :  put  into  a  bowl  the  juice  of  3  lemons,  the  grated  rind  of  1 
with  1£  Ibs.  of  finely  powdered  sugar  and  9  eggs.  Mix  thoroughly, 
and  fill  your  plates  with  the  mixture  ;  bake  in  a  moderate  oven. 

Another  filling. — 3  lemons,  6  eggs,  £  Ib.  sugar,  £  pt.  milk,  with  salt 
and  nutmeg.  Mix  as  the  last. 

Another  without  lemons.— 1  Ib.  sugar,  \  Ib.  flour,  10  eggs,  ipt.  milk, 
I  oz.  tartaric  acid,  a  little  lemon  essence  and  salt. 

Frosting  for  Lemon  Pies. — 4ozs.  pulverized  sugar,  whites  of  6  eggs 
beaten  to  a  stiff  froth  and  the  sugar  gradually  added  to  it,  intermix 
thoroughly,  cover  the  pies,  top  them  off  with  this  frosting,  run  them, 
into  a  moderate  oven  and  bake  them  u>  a  nice  brown. 

SHORT  PUFF  PASTE  FOR  PIES. — Mix  together  4  Ibs.  flour,  1J  Ibs. 
butter,  add  4  eggs,  a  little  salt  and  1  pt.  water  or  a  little  more,  work 
all  to  a  smooth  paste,  spread  out  with  the  hand,  put  1^  Ibs.  more 
butter  in  the  middle,  fold  the  dough  over  the  butter,  so  as  to  cover  Jt, 
let  it  stand  5  minutes,  si.ft  flour  over  the  paste  and  on  the  slab,  roll 
out  to  the  length  of  7  feet  and  3  feet  wide  (for  half  this  quantity  one 
half  of  these  dimensions  will  be  required)  Fold  it  over  and  turn  so> 
that  the  sides  will  face  you,  repeating  the  rolling  twice,  when  the- 
paste  will  be  fit  for  use. 

COMMON  PASTE  FOR  PIES.— Rub  together  4  Ibs.  flour,  and  4  Its.  of 
lard  with  salt  sufficient ;  add  just  water  enough  to  mix  the  dough  ;  it 
may  be  better  to  put  flour  on  the  bench,  make  a  set  of  it,  adding  the' 
«alt,  lard,  water,  and  stirring  together. 

PASTE  TO  COVER  PIES.— Mix  together  l£  Ibs.  of  lard  or  butter 
with  2  Ibs.  flour  with  sufficient  salt  and  water  to  mix.  Cranberry 
pies  should  have  strips  of  puff  paste  across  the  top,  the  edges  wet,  and 
a  strip  of  puff  paste  placed  around  the  rim,  keeping  this  strip  £  inch 
ouvsideof  the  edge  of  the  plate,  as  it  will  contract  while  baking. 

CUSTARD  FOR  PIES.— Put  12  eggs,  £  Ib.  sugar,  &  oz.  salt,  and  a  little. 
fxt.  lemon  into  a  bowl,  beat  well  together,  add  2  qts.  milk  and  strain. 
.  Filling  for  Squash  Pies.— Thoroughly  clean  5  Ibs.  of  squash,  slice 

up  and  stew  it  ;  when  thoroughly  cooked  drain  off  the  water,  rub 

a  mush  through  a  strainer,  then  add  1|  Ibs.  sugar,  6  eggs,  2  qts. 
anilk,  f  oz.  ginger,  a  little  ext.  lemon,  and  suit  sufficient. 

FILLING  FOR  MINCE  PIES.— Boil  2  Ibs.  of  chopped  meat,  clear  of 


pice,  3  Ibs.  raisins,  1^  Ibs. 
brandy,  1  gill  cider,  f  Ib.  salt.     Mix  all  the  ingredients  together  in  * 
vessel,  omitting  the  apples  and  braudy,  intermix  well  together;  they 


BAKING    AND    COOKING   RECEIPTS. 

and  reduce  to  the  proper  consistency  with  water. 
fcrith  a  cloth,  tying  it  down  tightly  to  prevent  evaporation  and  get  away 
In  a  cool  place  for  use. 

ICE  CS&AM  MANUFACTURE. — Beat  the  required  quantity  of  ice  very  i 
fine  in  a  stout  bag  or  by  any  other  means,  and  add  fine  salt  in  ratio  V 
.of  one  part  of  salt  to  four  parts  of  ice,  mixing  thoroughly  with  a  stick. 
Pack  the  compound  neatly  in  the  freezer  around  the  cylinder  to  ti-« 
top,  then  put  in  the  crenm  (which  should  be  cool)  you  wish  to  freeze^ 
and,  after  covering,  proceed  to  turn  the  crank  back  and  forth  alter- 
nately 10  or  12  times  each  way  until  the  cream  is  sufficiently  thl  jk  to 
beat,  which  will  be  known  by  the  opposition  to  the  beater,  then  turn 
forward  quite  briskly  for  a  short  space  in  order  to  impart  an  even  and 
good  appearance  to  the  cream  ;  make  thorough  work  of  the  beating, 
>en  remove  the  beater,  fill  the  pail  with  ice  and  sa.c,  and  set  away  to 
harden.  It  will  not  do  to  introduce  additional  ice  or  salt,  or  allow  it 
to  grow  stiff  while  beating,  or  beat  it  too  much,  or  to  retard  the  freez- 
ing process  by  pouring  off  water  from  the  melted  ice.  The  right  time 
*o  beat  it  is  when  it  is  dense  enough  to  rise,  or  about  the  thickness 
of  light  batter,  if  beaten  when  rigid  the  product  will  not  be  so 
satisfactory.  As  the  create,  expands  in  freezing,  the  cylinder  should 
be  filled  £  full  and  no  more. 

Strawberry  and  Raspberry  Cream  Ice. — 1.  Pass  3  Ibs.  of  picked 
strawberries  or  raspberries  through  a  coarse  hair-sieve,  add  1^  qts. 
double  cream,  2^  Ibs.  sifted  sugar,  mix  well  together,  freeze  as  above, 
and  mould  it.  If  a  deep  red  is  desired,  it  may  be  imparted  by  a  few 
drops  of  cochineal. 

2.  ICE  CREAM,  BEST  QUALITY. — Beat  well  together  9  eggs  with  1  ^ 
>bs.  sugar  ;  boil  3  qts.  good  cream,  set 't  off  for  a  short  space  to  cook, 
then  add  the  sugar  anc'  eggs,  flavor  wiia  vanilla,  etc.,  to  suit  the  taste. 
Let  it  cool,  place  in  the  freezer  and  proceed  as  above. 

3.  Substitute  for  cream. — Boil  1  qt.  of  good  milk  with  1%  ozs.  of 
nrrowroot,  having  first  brought  the  milk  to  the  boiling  point  and 
mixed  the  arrowroot  smooth  with  a  little  cold  milk,  remove  from  the 
.fire;  add  2  fresh  eggs,  8  ozs.  of  powdered  s^.gar,  Btir  well,  allow  it  to 
«ool  and  flavor  previous  to  putting  in  the  fieezer. 

4.  Chocolate  Cream  Ice. — Grate  f  Ib.  c-f.    le  best  French  choco 
late  into  1^  qts.  of  boiling  milk,  allow  it  to  boil  till  thick,  adding  f  Ib. 
«ugar  ;  add  when  cool,  1^  qts.  cream,  Stirling  well,  and  empty  into 
ihe  freezer.    The  addition  of  8  eggs  and  l^mon  flavor  to  the  above 
will  greatly  improve  it 

5.  Ginger  Ice  Cream. — Boil  together  1  qt.  milk,  1  Ib.  sugsw,  8  ozs. 
pulverized  ginger,  and  4  yolks  of  eggs,  until  it  commences  to  thicken. 

6.  Orange  Cream  Ice. — Mix  together  in  a  stew-pan,  1  qt.  milk  or 
cream,  1  Ib.  sugar,  the  juice  of  8  oranges,  the  rinds  of  4  oranges  rub- 
bed on  the  sugar,  and  4  yolks  of  eggs,  until  the  compound  begins  to 
thicken  ;  stir  briskly,  and  strain,  freezing  when  cool,  as  above. 

7.  Pine  Apple  Cream  Ice.—  Put  on  the  fire  in  a  copper  or  tin  vesse* 
1  Ib.  of  strained  pine  apple  pulp,  12  ozs.  sugar,  1£  pts.  milk  or  cream, 
and  3  yolka  of  eggs  ;  beat  sufficiently  to  thicken,  not  to  boil   th« 
cream,  strain  the  mixture  into  a  vessel  and  set  aside  to  cool  previous 
4o  freezing.  See  other  formulae  for  ice  cream  under  the  Grocers'  Dept. 

CREAM  TARTAR  BISCUIT.— Use  2  qts.  flour,  2 teaspoonf uls  of  soda, 
£  ditto  cream  tartar,  2  pts.  milk.  Mix,  and  follow  t  ae  ditrectons  tot 
Tream-tartar  bisci^lffiven  above,  and  bake  in  a  warm  oven. 


BAKING  AND   COOKDTG   RECEIPTS.  21 

OOCOASTTT  DROPS. — 1  Ib.  grated  cocoannt,  $  Ib.  white  sugar,  th« 
whites  of  6  eggs,  cut  to  a  stiff  froth.  You  must  have  enough  whites 
of  egg  to  ws'c  the  whole  mixture.  Drop  on  buttered  plates,  in  piece* 
the  size  of  an  egg. 

FRENCH  ROLLS. — 1  ounce  of  butter,  1  Ib.  of  flour,  1  gill  of  home-  t 
made  yeast,  1  egg,  milk  enough  to  make  a  dough.    Rub  the  butte?  ; 
through  the  flour,  beat  the  egg  and  stir  in,  then  add  the  yeast,  milk,. 
•:md  a  little  salt.    Knead  the  dough  ;  when  it  is  light,  mould  it  out  ) 
into  large  bi  icuits,  and  bake  them  on  tins. 

MUFFINS.-— A  quart  of  milk,  2  eggs,  2  spoonfuls  of  yeast,  2  Ibs.  of  ' 
flour,  a  lump  of  butter  size  of  an  egg — which  is  to  be  melted  hi  the 
milk — aad  a  little  salt  ;  the  milk  is  to  be  warmed,  and  the  ingredients 
.added.    Let  it  rise,  and  then  turn  the  mixture  into  buttered  pans, 
=and  bake  to  a  light  brown. 

BATH  CAKES. — Mix  well  together,  1  Ib.  flour,  i  Ib.  butter,  5  eggs 
and  a  cupful  of  yeast,  set  the  whole  before  the  fire  to  rise  ;  after  it 
rises,  add  £  Ib.  white  sugar,  and  I  ounce  caraway  seeds  well  mixed 
-in,  and  roll  the  paste  into  little  cakes,  bake  them  on  this. 

No.  1  CRACKERS.— Butter,  1  cup  ;  salt,  1  teaspoon  ;  flour,  2  qts. 
Hub  thoroughly  together  with  the  hand,  and  wet  up  with  water ; 
fceat  well,  and  beat  in  flour  to  make  quite  brittle  and  hard ;  then 
pinch  off  pieces  and  roll  out  each  cracker  by  itself. 

SUGAR  CRACKERS. — Flour,  4  Ibs. ;  loaf  sugar  and  butter,  of  each    • 
-J  \b.  ;  water,  1^  pts.  ;  make  as  above. 

NAPLES  BISCUIT. — White  sugar,  eggs,  and  flour,  of  each  4  Ibs. 

LEMON   BISCUIT. — Take   3J   Ibs.    white   sugar,    4   Ibs.    flour,    |    i 
ounce  saleratus,  $  Ib.   suet,  a  little  milk  to  wet  the  doush.  cut    ,' 
"them  out  about  the  size  of  marbles,  put  them  on  pans  a  little  greased, 
«,nd  bake  them  in  a  hot  oven  and  flavor  them  with  essence  of  lemon. 

ABERNETHY  BISCUIT.— Take  8  Ibs.  of  flour,  1J  Ib.  of  butter.  1  quart 
of  sweet  milk,  12  ounces  of  sugar,  1  ounce  of  caraway  seeds,  ^  eggs  ; 
•mix  dough  of  the  above,  break  them  in  pieces  of  about  two  Hnces,    ; 
anould  them  off,  roll  them  out,  prick  them  and  bake  theu  in  a    , 
moderate  oven.  ', 

SAVOY  BISCUIT.— Take  of  sugar  the  weight  of  14  eggs,  of  flour 
•the  weight  of  6  eggs,  beat  the  yolks  and  whites  of  12  eggs,  separate,    ; 
.prate  in  the  rind  of  a  lemon  ;  after  being  in  the  oven  a  few  minutes    . 
^.rate  on  some  sugar.    You  may  add  peach- water,  or  lemon  juice, 
or  any  flavoring  extract. 

GINGER  SNAPS. — Take  7  Ibs.  of  flour,  1  qt.  of  molasses.  1  Ib.  of   ! 
trown   sugar,  1   Ib.    butter,    2   ounces   ground   ginger,  and  then    ; 
take  1  gill  of  water,  f  of  an  ounce  of  saleratus  ;  mix  them  all  into    ' 
•riough,  and  cut  them  out  something  larger  than  marbles,  and  bake 
ihem  hi  a  moderate  oven. 

YORK  BISCUIT.— 3  Ibs.  flour,  %  Ib.  butter,  f  Ibs.  sugar;  wet  up,  and    "• 
Taise  with  sour  milk  and  saleratus. 

TRAVELLER'S  BISCUIT.— 2  Ibs.  of  flour,  f  of  a  pound  of  sugar,  J  Ib, !  I 
T) nicer,  1  teaspoonful  of  dissolved  saleratus,  milk  sufficient  to  form'  • 
.a  dough.    Cut  up  the  butter  hi  the  flour,  add  the  sugar,  and  puV   • 
in  the  saleratus  and  milk  together,  so  as  to  form  dough.  Knead 
it  till  it  becomes  perfectly  smooth  and  light.    Roll  it  in  sheets  abo«l 
;i  of  an  inch  thick,  cut  the  cakes  with  a  cutter  oe  the  top  «f  • 
tiuabler.    Bake  in  a  moderate  oven. 


l  BAKING  AND   COOKING  RECEIPTS. 

BAKINQ  POWDER  FOB  BISCUIT.— Bicarbonate  of  soda  4  Ibs.,  cream 
of  tartar  8  Ibs.  These,  ingredients  should  be  thoroughly  dried  and 
well  mixed,  and  put  up  proof  against  dampness.  Use  about  3  tea- 
spoonfuls  to  each  quart  of  flour,  mix  up  with  cold  water  or  rnilk^ 
and  put  it  into  the  oven  at  once. 

BROWN  BREAD  FOR  BISCUITS. — Corn  meal  4  qts.,  rye  flour  3  qts.r 
•wheat  flour  1  qt.,  molasses  2  tablespoonfuls,  yeast  6  tablespoon- 
f uls,  soda  2  teaspoonfuls.  Mix  during  the  evening  for  breakfast.  ( 

MINCE  PIES— Meat  1  lb..  suet  SJlbs.,  currants, 'raisins  and  plumi 
2  Ibs.,  one  glass  brandy  or  wine,  allspice,  cinnamon  and  cloves  toi 
your  taste,  sugar  sufficient  to  sweeten.    Baked  in  a  short  crust.     1 

FRUIT  PIES.— For  all  kinds  of  fruit  pies  have  your  fruit  sweet- 
ened to  your  taste,  and  then  put  in  a  short  crust.  Bake  in  a  hot 
even. 

PUMPKIN  PIE.— Stew  the  pumpkin  dry,  and  make  it  like  squash 
Die,  only  season  rather  higher.  In  the  country,  where  this  real 
Yankee  pie  is  prepared  in  perfection,  ginger  is  qlmoyt  always  used, 
with  other  spices.  There,  top,  part  cream,  instead  of  milk,  is  mixed 
with  the  pumpkin,  which  gives  a  richer  flavor. 

LEMON  PIE. — 1  lemon  grated,  2  eggs,  ^  cup  of  sugar,  1  cup  of  mo- 
lasses, 1  of  water,  and  3  tablespoonfuls  of  flour.  This  makes  3  pies. 

LEMON  PIE  WITH  THREE  CRUSTS. — A  layer  of  crust,  a  layer  of  le» 
mon,  sliced  fine,  a  little  sugar,  layer  of  crust  again,  and  sugar  and 
lemon  again,  then  the  upper  crust. 

Another  Way. — 1  cup  of  sugar,  1  cup  sweet  milk,  1  egg,  1^ 
lemon  the  grated  peel  and  juice,  1  tablespoonful  of  flour;  thea 
after  baking,  the  white  of  an  egg  beaten,  sweetened,  and  put  on, 
the  top  ;  then  set  in  the  oven  and  browned. 

CRUMB  PIE.— Mince  any  cold  meat  very  finely,  season  it  to  taste,, 
and  put  it  into  a  pie-dish  ;  have  some  finely-grated  bread  crumbs, 
with  a  little  salt,  pepper,  and  nutmeg,  and  pour  into  the  dish  any 
nice  gravy  that  may  be  at  hand  ;  then  cover  it  over  with  a  thick 
layer  of  the  bread  crumbs,  and  put  small  pieces  of  butter  over  the 
top.  Place  it  in  the  oven  till  quite  hot. 

WASHINGTON  PIE.— 1  cup  of  sugar,  third  of  a  cup  of  butter,  half 
a  cup  of  sweet  milk,  1  and  a  third  cup  of  flour,  1  egg,  half  a  tea- 
spoonful  of  soda,  1  of  cream  of  tartar,  lemon  flavor.  Grease  2: 
round  tins,  and  put  in  the  above.  Bake  until  done.  Then  put  it 
on  a  dinner  plate,  spread  with  nice  apple-sauce,  or  sauce  or  any 
kind  ;  then  another  layer  of  cake  on  top.  It  is  nice  without  sauc^ 
but  sauce  improves  it 

FRUIT  PIE. — 1  cup  of  sugar,  1  of  water,  tablespoonful  ^f  flour,  tea- 
spoonful  of  lemon  essence  (or  lemon  grated),  1  teaspoonf ul  of  cream 
of  tartar,  half  a  teaspoonf  ul  of  soda,  half  a  cup  of  dried  currants  : 
mix  and  boil,  stirring  to  prevent  the  flour  from  settling. 

CHICKEN  PIE.— Take  one  pair  of  good  young  chickens,  cut  in  small 
pieces,  season  with  pepper  and  salt  and  small  strips  of  salt  pork,  put 
fta  saucepan  with  water  to  cover  it,  boil  for  half  an  hour,  add  flour 
lind  butter  to  thicken  the  gravy,  have  ready  a  large  dish,  served 
with  paste,  put  all  in  the  dish  covered  with  a  good  rich  paste.  Baka 
for  half  an  hour. 

VEAL  POT   PIE.— Take  2  pounds  of  best  veal,    cut  in   small 
1  (tores,  half  pound  at  salt  pork,  sliced  thin,  four  Quarts  of  coit 


AND   COOKING  RECEIPTS.  23 

water ;  pepp«r  and  salt  all,  put  on  the  fire  -}  after  boiling  for  1 
hour  have  3  pounds  of  light  bread  dough,  pick  small  pieces,  say 
one  ounce  pieces,  put  in  saucepan,  with  the  veal  and  pork,  and  let 
ft  boil  for  twenty  minutes.  Serve  as  soon  a^  taken  from  the 
fire. 

PLUM  PUDDING. — Pound  6  crackers,  and  soak  them  oven  night  in 
milk  enough  to  cover  them,  then  add  3  pints  of  milk,  4  or  5  eggs* 
raisins  |  lb.,  spice  with  nutmeg  and  sweeten  with  sugar  ac4 
tnolasses.  Bake  about  2  hours. 

TAPIOCA  PUDDING. — Pick  and  mash  a  coffee  cup  full  of  tapioc.0 
*nd  pour  upon  it  1  pint  boiling  milk  ;  after  standing  £  an  hour,  a<& 
Another  pint  of  cold  milk,  with  sugar  and  raisins  if  you  desire. 

BAKED  PUDDING.- -5  tablespoonruls  of  corn  starch  to  1  quart  of 
fnilk,  dissolve  the  starch  in  a  part  of  the  miik,  heat  the  remainder 
Of  the  milk  to  nearly  boiling,  having  salted  it  a  little,  then  add 
"Hie  dissolved  starch  to  the  milk,  boil  3  minutes,  stirring  it  briskly  ; 
Vllow  it  to  cool,  and  then  thoroughly  mix  with  it  3  eggs,  well  beat- 
en, with  3  tablesTJOonfuls  of  sugar  ;  flavor  to  taste  and  bake 
it  %  an  hour.  This  pudding  ranks  second  to  none. 

ORANGE  PUDDING. — Take  1  lb.  of  butter,  1  lb.  of  sugar,  10  eggsr 
The  juice  of  2  orp,rsges,  boil  the  peel,  then  pound  it  fine  and.  mix  it 
trith  the  juice  Add  the  juice  of  1  lemon,  a  wineglassful  of 
%randy,  wine  eal  rose-water.  If  you  do  not  have  the  fruit  add 
fee  extracts. 

COCOANUT  PUDDING.  To  a  large  grated  cocoanut  add  the  whites 
'Of  6  eggs,  I,  rz>  of  sugar,  6  ounces  of  butter,  £  a  wineglassful  of 
fose-water,  and  baked  in  or  cut  of  paste. 

RICE  FADING.—  Take  1  lb.  of  rice,  boiled  well  witn  rich  miik, 
stirring  w«U  until  it  is  soft,  and  then  add  £  lb.  butter,  12  eggs,  well 
6«aten.  s»nd  spice  to  your  taste,  and  bake  it. 

HAP.P  TIMES  PUDDING. — ^  pint  of  raolassea  or  syrnp,  \  pint  water, 
%  teaspoonfuls  of  soda,  1  teaspoonful  of  salt,  flour  enough  to 
make  a  batter  ;  boil  in  a  bag  3  hours.  Eat  it  with  sauce. 

BAHJED  APPLE  PUDDING.— Pare  and  quarter  four  large  apples,  "boil 
them  tender  with  the  rind  of  a  lemon  in  so  little  water  that  when 
done  no  water  may  remain,  beat  them  quite  fine  in  a  mortar,  add 
the  crumb  of  a  small  roll,  |  lb.  butter  melted,  the  yolks  of  5  and 
whites  of  3  eggs,  juice  of  £  lemon,  sugar  to  your  taste,  beat  all 
well  together,  all  in  paste. 

GROUND  RICE,  OR  SAGO  PUDDING.— Boil  a  large  spoonful  of  it, 
fceaped,  in  1  pint  milk  with  lemon  peel  and  cinnamon;  when  cold- 
ftdd  sugar,  and  nutmegs,  and  4  eggs  well  beaten. 

OHRTARD  PUDDING.— Take  1  pint  milk,  4  spoonfuls  flour,  6  eggs, 
dpice  to  your  taste  and  £ake. 

WINTER  PUDDING.— Take  the  crust  of  baker's  loaf  of  bread,  and 
fill  it  with  plums,  boil  it  in  milk  aud  water. 

BAKED  POTATO  PUDDING.— Baked  potatoes  skimmed  and  mashed, 
12  oz.,  suet  1  oz.,  cheese,  grtfced  fine,  1  oz.,  milk  1  gill.  Mix  the 
potatoes,  suet,  milk,  cheese  and  all  together,  if  not  of  a  proper 
consistence,  add  a  little  water.  Bake  in  an  earthen  pot. 

COLLEGE  PUDDING. — f  lb.  of  stale  bread,  grated  ;  the  same  quan- 
tity of  beef  suet,  chopped  very  fine  ;  1  lb.  of  currants,  £  nutmeg,  a 
lew  cloves,  a  glass  of  brandy,  2  or  3  eggs,  2  spoonfuls  of  cream  «c 


24  BAKING  AND   COOKING  RECEIPTS. 

»ilk;  mix  these  -well  together,  and  make  into  a  paste  in  the  shapf 
of  eggs.  Fry  them  gently  over  a  clear  fire,  in  \  Ib.  of  butter  ;  let 
them  be  of  nice  brown  color  all  over.  You  may  add  blanched 
almonds  and  sweetmeats.  Serve  them  up  with  wine. 

FAMILY  PUDDING. — 1  quart  of  sweet  milk,  1  pint  of  bread  crumbs 
^8oaked  in  the  milk,  3  eggs  well  beaten,  1  teacupful  of  sugar,  little 
.mace,  6  good  tart  apples,  pared,  cores  dug  out,  and  stand  them 
in  the  pudding,  and  steam  until  the  apples  are  well  done.  An  hour 
will  suffice. 

COTTAGE  PUDDING. — 1  egg,  1  cup  of  sugar,  1  of  sweet  milk 
1  teaspoonful  of  soda,  2  of  cream  of  tartar,  1  pint  of  flour,  and  a 
Jittle  salt.  To  be  eaten  with  milk  and  sugar. 

GREEN  GOOSEBERRIES  make  a  nice  pudding  by  stirring  a  pint  ol 
them  into  a  pint  of  batter,  and  either  baking  or  boiling. 

LEMON  PUDDING.— Melt  6  oz.  of  butter,  pour  it  over  the  sam« 
quantity  of  powdered 
grate  the  rind  of  a  large  — 
;and  the  juice  of  2  lemo 
Tnixed  together,  and  bake  the  pudding  with  a  paste  round  th« 
•dish. 

SAUCES  AND  CREAMS  FOR  PUDDINGS.—!.  Take  equal  quantities 
of  sugar  and  molasses,  boil  them  together,  and  stir  in  a  little 
flour.  2.  Take  the  juice  of  an  orange,  a  cup  of  sugar  and  the  same 
of  good  cream.  3.  Good  sour  cream  made  very  sweet  with  sugor, 
•with  or  without  seasoning,  makes  a  good  sauce.  4.  Beat  2  eggs 
•well,  then  add  a  cup  of  stewed  apples  and  a  cup  of  sugar. 

BEEF  STEAF  WITH  ONIONS. — Prepare  a  rump  steak  by  pounding 
it  till  quite  tender,  season  with  salt,  pepper  and  fresh  butter,  put 
in  the  steak  and  fry  it,  when  brown  on  one  side  turn  over,  do  not 
let  it  scorch,  when  nicely  done  take  it  up,  put  a  little  flour  over 
the  steak,  then  add  gradually  a  cup  pf  hot  water,  seasoned  with 
more  salt  and  pepper,  if  necessary  ;  then  put  the  water  over  the 
fire  and  boil  again,  and  pour  over  the  steak. 

Peel  2  dozen  onions,  put  them  on  to  boil  with  about  2  quarts 
of  water  an  hour  before  the  steak  is  put  on  to  fry.  When  the  steak 
is  done,  cut  them  up,  put  them  in  the  frying  pan,  season  well  with 
«alt,  pepper,  and  butter,  sprinkle  with  flour,  stir  all  well  together, 
place  over  the  fire,  stir  often  to  prevent  scorching  ;  when  they  are 
«,  little  brown  and  soft,  turn  them  over  the  steak. 

SEASONING  FOR  STUFFING. — 1  Ib.  of  salt,  dried  and  sifted  ;  half 
an  ounce  of  ground  white  pepper  ;  two  ounces- of  dried  thyme; 
1  oz.  of  dried  marjoram  ;  and  one  oz.  of  nutmeg.  When  this 
seasoning  is  used,  parsley  only  is  required  to  be  chopped  in  suffi- 
cient quantity  to  make  the  stuffing  green.  The  proportions  are— 
|  pound  of  bread  crumbs  ;  3  eggs ;  J  Ib.  of  suet  ;  £  oz.  of  sea- 
soning ;  and  the  peel  of  half  a  lemon,  grated. 

ECONOMICAL  SOUP.— Put  into  a  saucepan  one-pound  pieces  of 
^tale  bread,  three  large  onions  sliced,  a  small  cabbage  cut  fine, 
a  carrot  and  turnip,  and  a  small  head  of  celery  (or  the  remains  cl 
any  cold  vegetables ),  a  tablespoonf ul  of  salt,  a  tablespoonful  of 
pepper,  a  bunch  of  parsley,  a  sprig  of  marjoram  and  thyme. 
t^it  these  into  two  quarts  of  any  weak  stock,  (the  liquoi  in 
tthicb.  mutton,  lias  beea  boiled  wC  <w\  and  let  them  lK>il  tef 


BAKING   AND    COOKING   RECEIPTS.  25 

two  hours  ;  rub"  through  a  fine  hair-sieve,  add  a  pint  of  ne\r 
milk,  boil  up,  and  serve  at  once. 

VEGETABLE  SOUP.— Take  a  shin  of  a  beef,  3  large  carrots,  3  larg* 
yellow  onions,  6  turnips,  £  Ib.  of  rice  or  barley;  parsley,  leeks, 
summer  savory  ;  put  all  into  a  soup-kettle,  and  let  it  boil  four 
hours  ;  add  pepper  and  salt  to  taste  :  serve  altogether.  It  makes 
a  good  family  soup. 

PEA  Som*. — Beef  5  Ibs.,  water  5  qts.,  6  large  carrots,  6  good 
turnips,  3  large  onions,  salt  sufficient,  put  it  on  a  good  slow 
fire,  let  it  boil  3  hours,  then  strain  all  the  broth  from  meat  and 
vegetables,  and  then  add  3  Ibs.  of  split  peas  to  the  broth ;  set  it  on 
a  slow  fire  for  2  hours,  stirring  often,  so  that  all  the  peas  will  dis- 
solve ;  take  1  Ib.  fresh  sausage  meat,  fried  to  a  crisp  and  fried  bread 
erumbs ;  put  altogether,  add  a  few  fine  herbs,  and  serve  hot. 

FRICASSEE  CHICKENS. — Take  2  large  young  chickens,  cut  in  small 
pieces,  put  in  cold  water  for  1  hour  to  take  all  the  blood  out,  then 
^>ut  in  saucepan  to  parboil  for  half  an  hour,  then  take  from  sauce- 

C  drained  well,  have  ready  1  qt.  good  fresh  cream,  2  oz.  good 
ter,  1  oz.  of  flour,  all  well  mixed  together  ;  put  in  saucepan 
*with  the  chickens ;  put  on  the  fire  to  boil  tender  ;  season  with 
jper  and  salt;  served  with  toast  bread  in  the  bottom  of  the 


BAKED  TOMATOES.— Wash  the  tomatoes,  take  out  the  seed,  make 
a  dressing  of  crumbs  of  bread  and  onions  chopped  fine ;  add 
salt,  butter  and  pepper.  Bake  and  serve  hot. 

STEWED  TOMATOES.— Scald  the  tomatoes  with  hot  water,  take 
off  the  skins,  put  them  in  an  earthen  vessel,  strain  off  the  water, 
and  add  butter,  salt  and  pepper  to  taste. 

MASHED  TURNIPS. — Wash  turnips,  boil  well,  take  them  up  hi  the 
-colander,  press  cnt  all  the  water,  mash  very  fine  ;  season  with  salt, 
"butter  and  sugar.  Serve  hot  with  trimmings. 

HASHED  MEAT.— Take  2  Ibs.  of  fat  corned  beef,  well  boiled  and 
-cold ;  1  Ib.  of  well  boiled  potatoes,  cold ;  1  large  white  onion ; 
put  in  chopping  tray,  mince  it  fine,  put  all  in  saucepan  together, 
add  2  ozs.  butter ;  pepper  and  salt  to  taste  ;  add  boiling  water  to 
make  it  soft ;  set  it  on  a  slow  fire,  stirring  it  often.  When  well  stewed, 
serve  hot.  It  makes  a  fine  relish  for  breakfast. 

LOBSTER  SALAD. — Take  inside  of  large  lobster,  mince  fine,  take 
yolk  of  2  eggs  boiled  hard  and  mashed  fine,  with  four  tablespoon- 
inls  of  sweet  oil;  pepper,  salt,  vinegar,  and  mustard  to  taste;  mix 
•well;  add  celery  or  lettuce  to  taste;  then  when  serving,  garnish 
•with  hard-boilea  eggs. 

SUCCOTASH. — Take  1  doz.  ears  of  corn,  cut  the  grams  from  the 
cob,  add  1  qt.  of  Lima  beans,  and  mix  with  the  corn ;  put  it  on  to 
boil  in  3  qts.  of  water  with  1  Ib.  of  pork  cut;  add  black  pepper  and 
salt  to  taste.  When  the  water  has  boiled  away  to  £  the  original 
quantity,  serve  in  a  tureen  as  soup. 

MAOCARONI  SOUP. — 1  Ibs.  of  lean  beef,  4  qts.  of  water,  carrot, 
turnip,  onions  ;  set  it  for  4  hours  till  all  mix  together  ;  strain  it  all 
through  a  sieve  ;  have  2  Ibs.  of  maccaroni  broken  into  pieces  of  one 
inch  long  ;  put  all  into  a  saucepan  together,  and  let  it  boil  for  10 
minutes,  and  serve  it  hot. 

BOILED  CUSTARD,  OB  MOCK  CREAM.— Take  2  tablespoon!  uls  corn 


S26  BAKING   AND    COOKING   RECEIPTS. 

ctarch,  1  qt.  of  milk,  2  or  3  eggs,  ^  a  teaspoonf  ul  of  salt  and  a 
piece  of  butter  ;  heat  the  milk  till  nearly  boiling  and  add  the  starch,, 
previously  dissolved  in  1  qt.  of  milk,  then  add  the  eggs,  well  beaten, 
•with  4  tablespoonfuls  of  powdered  sugar  ;  let  it  boQ  up  once  or 
twice,  stirring  it  briskly,  and  it  is  done.  Flavor  with  lemon  or 
vanilla,  or  raspberry,  or  to  suit  your  taste. 

LEMON  CREAM. — Take  a.  pint  of  thick  cream  and  put  to  it  th' 
yolks  of  two  eggs,  well  beaten,  4  oz.  of  fine  sugar  and  the  thir 
lind  of  a  lemon  ,  boil  it  up,  then  stir  till  almost  cold  ;  put  the  juice 
of  a  lemon  in  a  dish  or  bowl  and  pour  the  cream  upon  it,  stirring 
till  quite  cold. 

FRUIT  CREAMS.— Take  £  oz.  of  isinglass  dissolved  in  a  little 
water,  then  put  1  pt.  of  good  cream,  sweetened  to  the  taste  ;  boil 
it.  When  nearly  cold  lay  some  apricot  or  raspberry  jam  on  the 
bottom  of  a  glass  dish  and  pour  it  over.  This  is  most  excellent. 

RASPBERRY  CREAM. — Put  6  ozs.  of  raspberry  jam  to  1  qt.  of 
cream,  pulp  it  through  a  lawn  sieve,  add  to  it  the  juice  of  a  Icmoi- 
and  a  little  sugar,  and  whisk  it  till  thick.  Serve  it  in  a  dish  o 


To  roast  fowls  the  fire  must   be   quick  and   clear.    If  smolcy  i    t 
•will  spoil  both  their  taste  and  looks.    Baste  frequently,  and  kee)- 
&  white  paper  pinned  on  the  breast  till  it  is  near  done. 

TURKEY. — A  good  sized  turkey  should  be  roasted  2^  hours  o 
3  hours — very  slowly  at  first    If  you  wish  to  make  plain  stuffing 
pound  a  cracker  or  crumble  some  bread   very    fine,    chop  some 
raw  salt  pork  very  fine,  sift  some  sage,  (and  summer  savory,  or 
sweet  marjoram,    if   you    have   them   hi   the   house,    and    fancy 
th em,)  and  mould  them  all  together,  seasoned  with  a  little  pepper 
An  egg  worked  in  makes  the  stuffing  cut  better. 

BOILED  TURKEY. — Clean  the  turkey,  fill  the  crop  with  stuffing,, 
and  sew  it  up.  Put  it  over  the  fire  'in  water  enough  to  cover  It, 
let  it  boil  slowly— take  off  all  the  pcurn.  When  this  is  done,  it 
should  only  simmer  till  it  is  done.  Put  a  little  salt  into  the  watei^ 
and  dredge  the  turkey  in  flour  before  boiling. 

ROAST  DUCKS  AND  GEESE.— Take  sage,  wash  and  pick  it,  and  af 
onion  ;  chop  them  fine,  with  pepper  and  salt,  and  put  them  in  tho 
"belly  ;  let  the  goose  be  clean  picked,  and  wiped  dry  with  a  cloth. 
inside  and  out  ;  put  it  down  to  the  fire,  and  roast  it  brown.  Duck 
are  dressed  in  the  same  way.  For  wild  ducks,  teal,  pigeons,  an* 
•ther  wild  fowls,  use  only  pepper  and  salt,  with  gravy  in  the  dislt 

ROAST  CHICKEN.— Chickens  should  be  managed  in  roasting  thfc 
same  as  turkeys,  only  that  they  require  less  time.  From  an  hout 
to  an  hour  and  a  half  is  long  enough. 

BOILED  CHICKEN. — A  chicken  should  be  boiled  the  same  as  & 
turkey,  only  it  will  take  less  time — about  35  minutes  is  suffi- 
cient Use  the  same  stuffing,  if  any,  and  serve  it  up  with  parsley, 
or  egg-sance. 

BROILED  CHICKEN. — Slit  them  down  the  back  and  season  witl 
pepper  and  salt ;  lay  them  on  a  clear  fire  of  coals,  the  inside  nex 
wie  fire  till  half  done,  then  turn  and  broil  to  a  fine  brown  colot 
Broil  about  35  minutes. 

BOILED  PIGEONS. — Boil  them  about  15  minutes  by  themselves  ;  ther 
boil  a  piece  of  bacon  ;  serve  with  slices  of  bacon,  and  melted  buttex. 


fiAKING   AND    COOKING    RECEIPTS.  JT 

FISH  CHOWDER.— Fry  a  few  slices  of  salt  pork,  dresa  and  cnt  th« 
Ifeh  in  small  pieces,  pare  and  slice  the  potatoes  and  onions,  then 
place  them  in  the  kettle,  a  layer  of  fish,  then  of  the  fried  pork, 
potatoes,  onions,  &c.,  seasoning  each  layer  with  salt  and  pepper,. 
Stew  over  a  slow  fire  30  minutes.  \ 

ROAST  BEEF.— The  sirloin  is  considered  the  best  for  roasting  . 
Spit  the  meat,  pepper  the  top,  and  baste  it  well  while  roasting* 
with  its  own  dripping,  and  throw  on  a  handful  of  salt.    When  the1' 
smoke  draws  to  the  fire,  it  is  near  enough  ;  keep  the  fire  bright 
and  clear.    From  15  to  20  minutes  to  the  Ib.  is  the  rule  for  roast- 
Ing- 

BEEP  BOILED.— The  round  is  the  best  boiling  piece.  Put  tho 
meat  hi  the  pot,  with  water  enough  to  cover  it ;  let  it  boil  very 
slow  at  first— this  is  the  great  secret  of  making  it  tender — take  oil 
the  scum  as  it  rises.  From  2  to  3  hours,  according  to  size,  is  the 
rule  for  boiling. 

BEEF  STEAK.— The  inside  of  the  sirloin  makes  the  best  steak ; 
cut  about  2  of  an  inch  thick— have  the  gridiron  hot,  put  on  the  meat 
and  set  it  over  a  good  fire  of  coals— turn  them  often.  From  8  to  10 
minutes  is  the  rule  for  broiling. 

ROAST  PORK.— Take  a  leg  of  pork  and  wash  it  clean— cut  the 
skin  in  squares— make  a  stuffing  of  grated  bread,  sage,  onion, 
pepper  and  salt,  moistened  with  the  yolk  of  an  egg.  Put  this 
under  the  skin  of  the  knuckle,  and  sprinkle  a  little  powdered  sage 
into  the  rind  where  it  is  cut ;  rub  the  whole  surface  of  the  skm 
over  with  a  feather  dipped  in  sweet  oil.  8  Ibs.  will  require  about 
three  hours  to  roast  it. 

g^""  THE  SHOULDER,  LOIN,  OR  CHINE,  and  SPARE-RIB  are  roasted^ 
ID  the  same  manner. 

ROAST  VEAL. — Pursue  about  the  same  course  as  in  roasting  pork. 
Koast  before  a  brisk  rue  till  it  comes  to  a  b~x>wn  color  ;  then  you  lay 
it  down,  baste  it  well  with  good  butter,  and  when  near  done,  with  a 
ZRtle  flour. 

ROAST  MUTTON.— The  loin,  haunch,  and  saddle  of  mutton  and 
lamb  must  be  done  the  same  as  beef.  All  other  parts  must  be  roast- 
ed with  a  quick,  clear  fire  ;  baste  it  when  you  put  it  down,  and 
dredge  it  with  a  little  flour,  just  before  you  take  it  up.  A  leg  of  mut- 
ton of  six  pounds  will  require  1  hour  to  roast  before  a  quick  fire. 

To  BOIL  EGGS.— In  3  minutes  an  egg  will  boil  soft,  iu  4  the  white 
part  is  completely  cooked,  in  10,  it  is  fit  for  a  salad.  Try  their  fresh- 
ness in  cold  water,  those  that  sink  the  soonest  are  the  freshest. 

SAUSAGE  MEAT.— Take  2  Ibs.  lean  meat,  1  Ib.  fat  pork,  chop  fine^ 
and  mix  with  2  tablespoonf  uls  black  pepper,  1  of  cloves,  7  of  powder 
ed  sage,  and  5  of  salt. 

APPLE  CUSTARD.— Take  apples,  pared,  cored,  and  slightly  Btewe<^ 
sufficient  to  cover  the  dish,  8  eggs,  1  qt.  of  milk  ;  spice  to  your  taste  ; , 
bake  it  ipf  an  hour. 

NEW-ENGLAND  APPLE-SAUCE  OR  BUTTER. — Boil  2  brls.  of  new 
cider  down  to  £  a  brl.  Pare,  core,  and  slice  up  3  bushels  of  apples 
(sweet  apples  are  preferable),  and  pxit  them  mto  the  eider  thus  re- 
duced, and  still  kept  boiling  briskly.  Stir  the  whole  map?  constantly,  to 
prevent  burning,  till  of  the  consistence  of  soft  butter.  A  small  quan- 
tity of  pulverized  allspice,  added  during  the  boiling,  is  aa  improve. 


28  BAKING   AND    COOKING   RECEIPTS. 

ment.  Boil  in  a  brass  kettle,  and,  when  done,  put  it  into  a  wooden 
firkin,  or  a  small  cask,  and  it  will  keep  for  years. 

APPLE  BUTTER  (Pennsylvania  Method). — Boil  new  cider  down  to  |. 

.    Pare,  cut,  and  core  equal  quantities  of  sweet  and  sour  apples.    Put 

.  the  sweet  apples  in  a  large  kettle  to  soften  a  little  first,  as  they  are 

the  hardest.    Add  enough  boiled  cider  to  cook  them.     After  boiling  \ 

A  an  hour,  stirring  often,  put  in  the  sour  apples,  and  add  more  boiled 

'cider,  with  molasses  enough  to  sweeten  moderately.     Boil  until  ten- 

- '  der,  stirring  to  prevent  burning.    Pack  in  firkins  or  stone  pots  for 

•winter  use. 

IRISH  STEW.— Take  4  Ibs.  good  breast  of  fat  mutton,  cut  in  small 
'  pieces  ;  2  large  white  onions  ;  10  large  potatoes,  well  peeled  and 
sliced  ;  put  all  in  saucepan  together,  with  fine  herbs,  pepper  and 
62lt  to  suit  ;  a  little  salt  pork  is  a  good  addition  ;  £  Ib.  of  flour , 
|  Ib.  good  fresh  butter,  well  rubbed  together,  and  let  it  boil  for  one 
hour,  and  have  it  well  cooked. 

APPLE  DUMPLINGS.— 43  eggs,  1£  Ibs.  of  flour,  some  butter  to  your 
taste,  and  tablespoonful  of  yeast,  and  sufficient  milk  to  make  a 
dough  to  roll  out  ;  when  raised,  cut  in  small  pieces,  put  in  the  applesv 
and  cook  for  f  of  an  hour  ;  serve  with  white  sugar  or  wine  sauce. 

BOILED  POULTRY.— Take  large  chickens,  well  cleaned  with  cold 
•water,  put  in  saucepan  with  water  to  cover,  boil  1  hour  ;  served 
with  sauce. 

HASHED  TURKEY. — Take  meat  from  boiled  fowls,  chop  fine,  put  in. 
saucepan,  with  seasonings  to  suit  taste.  Served  on  toast, 

BOILED  MACCARONI. — Take  2  Ibs.,  break  in  small  pieces,  put  in. 
rrarm  water  to  steep  1  hour,  'Iraki  off,  put  in  saucepan  with  2  qts. 
fresh  cream,  with  grated  cheese  ;  seasoned  with  red  pepper. 

STRASBURG  POTTED  MEAT. — Take  li  Ibs.  of  the  rump  of  beef,  cut 
into  dice,  put  it  in  an  earthen  jar,  witli  £  Ib.  of  butter,  tie  the  jar 
close  up  with  paper,  and  set  over  a  pot  to  boil  ;  when  nearly  done, 
add  cloves,  mace,  allspice)  nutmeg,  salt,  and  cayenne  pepper  to 
taste,  then  boil  till  tender,  and  let  it  get  cold,  pound  the  meat, 
with  4  anchovies  mashed  and  boned,  add  J  Ib.  of  oiled  butter, 
•work  it  well  together  with  ths  gravy,  warm  a  little,  and  add 
cochineal  to,  color  then  press  into  snail  pots,  and  pour  melted 
mutton  suet  over  the  top  of  each. 

BOLOGNA  SAUSAGES. — Take  equal  quantities  of  bacon  fat  and  lean 
toeef,  veal,  pork  and  beef  suet ;  chop  them  small,  season  with  pep- 
per, salt,  &c.,  with  sweet  herbs  and  sage  rubbed  fine.  Have  weH 
washed  intestines,  fill,  and  prick  them  ;  boil  gently  for  an  hour, 
and  lay  on  straw  to  dry. 

RICH  SAUSAGES.— Take  30  Ibs.  of  chopped  meat,  8  oz.  fine  salt, 
2J  oz.  pepper,  2  teacups  of  sage,  and  l|  cups  of  sweet  marjoram, 
passed  through  a  fine  sieve,  or,  if  preferred,  thyme  and  summer 
savory  can  be  substituted  for  the  latter. 

How  TO  SAVE  YOUR  ICE  BILL. — Get  a  quantity  of  empty  barrels  or 
boxes  during  the  coldest  time  in  the  winter,  and  put  a  few  inches 
of  water  in  each ;  the  evening  when  the  cold  is  most  intense  is  the 
best  time  to  do  this.  After  the  water  is  frozen  solid,  fill  up  again, 
repeat  the  process  until  the  barrels  are  full  o :  solid  ice,  then  roll 
them  into  your  cellar,  coyer  them  up  witl  plenty  of  sawdust 
or  straw-,  and  your  ice  crop  is  safely  harvested. 


BAKING   AND    COOKING   RECEIPTS.  29 

CHARLOTTE  RUSSE.  —  Take  1  pt.  milk,  dissolve  with  heat,  3  oe. 
isinglass  and  1  Ib.  sugar;  add,  after  it  is  cool,  1  qt.  beaten  cream 
*nd  flour,  suit  your  taste  and  line  out  some  mould  with  sponge 
cake,  and  put  the  cream  in  it  and  cool. 

WINE  JELLY.—  Take  1  pt.  water  and  3  oz.  isinglass,  1£  Ib.  sugar, 
the  juice  of  2  lemons,  and  dissolve  that  and  let  it  come  to  a  boil> 
then  add  wine,  brandy  and  spice  to  your  teste,  and  strain  it  through 
«.  cotton  or  flannel  cloth  and  put  it  in  moulds  to  cool. 

To  MAKE  APPLE  MOLASSES.  —  Take  new  sweet  cider  just  *rom  th«  l 
press,  made  from  sweet  apples,  and  ooil  it  down  as  thick  as  West 
India  molasses.    It  should   be  boiled  in  brass,  and  not  burned,  f 
RS  that  would  injure  the  flavor.    It  will  keep  in  the  cellar,  and  ia 
eaid  to  be  as  good,  "jid  for  many  purposes  better,  than  West  India 
molasses. 

{JIT"  Acid  fruits  should  be  cooked  in  bright  tin,  brass,  or  bell 
metal,  and  poured  out  as  soon  as  they  are  done.  Brown  earthea 
vessels  should  never  be  used,  as  they  are  glazed  with  white  lead, 
a  poison  which  very  readily  unites  with  an  acid. 

JELLIES.—  Lemon  Jelly.—  Isinglass,  2  oz.  ;  water,  1  qt.  ;  boil  ;  add 
sugar,  1  Ib.  ;  clarify  ;  and,  when  nearly  cold,  add  the  juice  of  5 
lemons,  and  the  grated  yellow  rinds  of  2  oranges  and  2  lemons  ; 
mix  well,  strain  off  the  peel,  and  put  it  into  glasses  or  bottles  ; 
Hartshorn  Jelly.  —  Hartshorn,  1  Ib.  ;  water  1  gal.  ;  peel  off  2  lemons  ; 
boil  over  a  gentle  fire  till  sufficiently  thick  ;  strain  and  add  loaf 
sugar,  £  Ib.  ;  whites  of  10  eggs  beaten  to  a  froth  ;  juice  of  6  lemons  ; 
mix  well  together,  then  bottle.  Isinglass  Jelly.  —  Put  4  oz.  isinglass 
and  2  oz.  cloves  into  1  gal.  water  ;  boil  it  down  to  half  a  gal.  ;  strain  it 


4  Ibs.  ;  water,  2  Ibs.  ;  toil  together  ;  it  will  be  nearly  solid  when  cold; 
to  this  syrup,  add  an  equal  weight  of  gooseberry  -juice  ;  give  it  a  short 
boil,  cool,  then  pot  it.  Currant  Jelly.—  Take  the  juice  of  red  cur- 
rants, and  loaf  sugar,  equal  quantities  ;  boil  and  stir  gently  for  three 
hours  ;  put  it  into  glasses  ;  and  in  three  days  it  will  concentrate  into 
a  firm  jelly.  Tapioca  Jelly.  —  Wash  8  oz.  of  tapioca  well  ;  then  soak 
it  in  1  gal.  fresh  water,  5  or  6  hours  ;  add  the  peels  of  8  lemons,  and 
get  all  on  to  heat  ;  simmer  till  clear  ;  add  the  juice  of  the  8  lemons 
with  wine  and  sugar  to  taste  ;  then  bottle. 

BLACKBERRY  JELLY.  —  This  preparation  of  tbe  blackberry  is  more 
agreeable  than  the  jam,  as  the  seeds,  though  very  wholesome,  are 
not  agreeable  to  all.  It  is  made  in  the  same  way  as  currant  jelly; 
but  the  fruit  is  so  sweet  that  it  only  requires  half  the  weight  of  the 
juice  in  sugan 

PEAR  MARMALADE.—  To  6  Ibs.  of  small  pears,  take  4  Ibs.  of  sugar  ; 


put  the  pears  into  a  saucepan,  with  a  little  cold  water  ;  cover  it,^ 
and  set  it  over  the  fire  until  the  fruit  is  soft,  then  put  them  intoj 
cvld  water  ;  pare,  quarter,  and  core  them  ;  put  to  them  three  tea-^ 
cups  of  water,  set  them  over  the  fire  ;  roll  the  sugar  fine,  mash  the 
fruit  fine  and  smooth,  put  the  sugar  to  it,  stir  it  well  together  until 
it  is  thick,  like  jelly,  then  put  it  in  tumblers,  or  jars,  and,  when  cold, 
lecure  it  as  jelly. 
PRESERVED  fciTBox.— Pare  and  cut  open  the  citron  ;  clean  all  oul 


§0  BAKING  AND   COOKING   RECEIPTS. 

except  the  rind  ;  boil  till  soft.    To  1  Ib.  of  citron  add  1  IK  of  sugftn 
And  a  lemon  to  each  Ib.  ;  put  the  sugar  and  lemon  together,  an<| 
boil  it  till  it  becomes  a  syrup,  skimming  it  well ;  then  put  the  syrup, 
and  citron  together,  and  boil  it  an  hour. 

SCOTCH  MARMALADE. — Take  of  the  juice  of  Seville  oranges  J,i 
pts.,  yellow  honey,  2  Ibs.     Boil  to  a  proper  consistence.  » 

RASPBERRY  JAM. — Allow  a  pound  of  sugar  to  a  pound  of  fruit, 
mash  the  raspberries  and  put  them,   with  the  sugar,  into  yom 
preserving  kettle.    Boil  it  slowly  for  an  hour,  skimming  it  well,  , 
Tie  it  up  with  brandy  paper.    All  jams  are  made  in  the  sarnfc 
manner. 

FRENCH  HONEY.— White  sugar,  1  Ib. ;  6  eggs,  leaving  out  the 
•whites  of  2  ;  the  juice  of  3  or  4  lemons,  and  the  grated  rind  of  2, 
and  £  Ib.  of  butter ;  stir  over  9  slow  fire  until  it  is  of  the  consis- 
tency of  honey. 

ALMOND  BLANC  MANGE. — Take  four  ounce  of  almonds,  six  oz. 
sugar,  boil  together   with   a  quart  of   water,  melt   in   this  two 
ounces  of  pure  isinglass,  strain  in  a  small  tin  mould  to  stiffen  it.  - 
When  wanted,  dip  the  mould  in  hot  water  and  turn  it  out. 

LEMON  BLANC  MANGE.— Pour  a  pint  of  hot  water  upon  half  an 
ounce  of  isinglass  ;  when  it  is  dissolved,  add  the  juice  of  three  lemons, 
the  peel  of  two  lemons  grated,  six  yolks  of  eggs  beaten,  add  about  a 
good  wine-glass  of  Madeira  wine  to  it ;  sweeten  to  your  taste  ;  let  it 
boil ;  then  strain  it  and  put  it  in  your  moulds. 

MOLASSES  PRESERVES. — Boil  1  qt.  of  molasses  about  ten  or  fifteen 
minutes  to  a  thickish  consistency,  then  add  6  eggs  well  beaten,  and  a 
spoonful  of  flour.  Boil  a  few  minutes  longer,  stirring  constantly, 
then  set  off  the  fire,  and  flavor  with  lemon  or  allspice  as  desired. 

FRUIT  EXTRACTS,  &c. — Good  alcohol,  1  at.,  oil  of  lemon,  2  oz.  Break 
and  bruise  the  peel  of  4  lemons,  and  adcf  to  them  alcohol  for  a  few 
days,  then  filter.  For  currants,  peaches,  raspberries,  pine  apples, 
strawberries,  blackberries,  &c.,  take  alcohol  and  water  half  and  half 
and  pour  over  the  fruit,  entirely  covering  it,  and  let  it  stand  for  a  fe\r 
days.  For  essence  of  cinnamon,  nutmeg,  mace,  vanilla,  &c.,  pulver- 
ize either  article  thoroughly,  and  put  about  2  oz.  of  the  resulting  pow- 
der to  each  pint  of  reduced  alcohol,  agitate  the  mixture  frequently 
for  2  weeks,  then  filter  and  color  as  desired. 

MEASURES  roa  HOUSEKEEPERS. 


Wheat  flour 1  Ib  —  is  1  quart. 

Indian  meal 1 "  2  oz  "  1  quart. 

Butter  when  soft. .  1 "...."  1     " 

Loaf  sugar,  broken  1 " "1     " 

WMte  sugar,  powd  1 ' '  1  oz.  "  1     " 


Best  brown 

sugar 1  Ib.  2  oz.  is  1  qt 

Eggs 10  eggs  are  1  Ib. 

Flour 8qts.     "  1  peck. 

Flour 4pks.    4<  1  bush. 


LIQUIDS. 

16  large  tablespoonf  uls  are    %  pint.  I  4  qts.  are 1  gallon. 

8  large  tablespoonf  uls  are  1     gill.    I  A  common  sized  tumbler  holds  %  a 


4  large  tablespoonfuls  are    "*•/•>  gill. 

2  gills  are ftp 

tpuktaare.... 1     qt. 


pint. 
A  common  sized  wine-glass  "  %  ft 

gill. 
25  drops  are  equal  to  1  teaspoouftil 


FARMERS'    RECEIPTS. 


31 


FARMERS    AND  STOCK    OWNERS'    DEPART-  , 
MENT. 

RAREY'S  DIRECTIONS  FOR  BREAKING  AND  TRAINING  OF  HORSES. 
— In  training  horses  you  must  remember  that  there  are  certain  natural 
laws  that  govern  them.  For  instance,  it  is  natural  for  him  to  kick 
whenever  he  gets  badly  frightened  ;  it  is  natural  for  him  to  escape 
from  whatever  he  thinks  will  do  him  harm.  His  faculties  of  seeing, 
hearing,  and  smelling,  have  been  given  him  to  examine  everything 
new  that  he  Js  brought  in  contact  with.  And  so  long  as  you  present 
him  with  nothing  that  offends  his  eyes,  nose,  or  ears,  you  can  then 
handle  him  at  will,  notwithstanding*  he  may  be  frightened  at  first,  so 
that  in  a  short  time  he  will  not  be  afraid  of  anything  he  is  brought  in 
contact  with.  All  of  the  whipping  and  spurring  of  horses  for  shying, 
stumbling,  &c. ,  is  useless  and  cruel.  If  he  shys,  and  you  whip  him 
for  it,  it  only  adds  terror,  and  makes  the  object  larger  than  it  would 
otherwise  be  ;  give  him  time  to  examine  it  without  punishing  him. 
He  should  never  be  hit  with  the  whip,  tinder  any  circumstances,  or 
i?or  anything  that  he  does.  As  to  smelling  oil,  there  is  nothing  that 
assists  the  trainer  to  tame  his  horse  better.  It  is  better  to  approach  a 
colt  with  the  scent  of  honey  or  cinnamon  upon  your  hand,  than  the^ 
scent  of  hogs,  for  horses  naturally  fear  the  scent  of  hogs,  and  will 
attempt  to  escape  froni  it,  white  they  like  the  scent  of  honey,  cin- 
namon, or  salt.  To  affect  a  horse  with  drugs  you  must  give  him  some 
preparation  of  opium,  and  while  he  is  under  the  influence  of  it,  you 
ammot  teach  him  anything  more  than  a  man.  when  he  is  intoxicated 


3f  FARMERS' 

jrith.  liquor.  Another  thing,  you  must  remember  to  treat  him  kindly, 
for  there  you  require  obedience  from  any  subject,  it  is  better  to  have 
it  rendered  from  a  sense  of  love  than  fear.  You  should  be  careful 
not  to  chafe  the  lips  of  your  colt  or  hurt  his  mouth  in  any  way  ;  if 
you  do  he  will  dislike  to  have  the  Bridle  on.  After  he  is  taught  to 
follow  you,  then  put  on  the  harness,  putting  your  lines  through  the 
ehaft  straps  along  the  side,  and  teach  liim  to  yield  to  ihe  reins,  turn 
rhort  to  the  right  and  left,  teach  him  to  stand  still  before  he  is  ever 
hitched  up  ;  you  then  have  control  over  him.  If  he  gets  frightened, 
the  lines  should  be  used  as  a  telegraph,  to  let  him  know  what  you 
want  him  to  do.  No  horse  is  naturally  vicious,  but  always  obeys  his. 
trainer  as  soon  as  he  comprehends  what  he  would  have  him  do ;. 
you  must  be  firm  with  him  at  the  same  time,  and  give  him  to  under- 
stand that  you  are  the  trainer,  and  that  he  is  the  horse.  The  bestbits; 
to  be  used  to  hold  a  horse,  to  keep  his  mouth  ^rom  getting  e^re,  is  a- 
straight  bar-bit,  4i  inches  long  between  the  rings  ;  this  operates  oil 
both  sides  of  the  jaw.  while  the  ordinary  snaffle  forms  a  clamp  and 
presses  the  side  of  the  jaw.  The  curb  or  bridoon  hurts  his  under  jaw  so 
that  he  will  stop  before  he  will  give  to  the  rein.  To  throw  a  horse,  put 
a  rope  12  feet  long  around  his  body  in  a  running  noose,  pass  it  down 
to  the  right  fore  foot  through  a  ring  in  a  spancil,  then  buckle  up  th& 
left  or  near  fore  foot,  take  a  firm  hold  of  ybuj  rope,  lead  him  around. 


FAROES'  RECEIPTS.  33 

antil  he  is  tired,  give  him  a  shove  with  your  shoulder,  at  ttie  game 
time  drawing  up  the  right  foot  which  brings  him  on  his  knees,  hold 
him  steady,  ana  in  a  few  moments  he  will  lie  down.  Never  attempt 
to  hold  him  still,  for  the  more  he  scuffles  the  better. 

Take  your  colt  into  a  tight  room  or  pen,  and  with  a  long  whip  com 
.mence  snapping  at  the  colt's  hind  leg,  taking  care  not  to  hit  above  the 
iiocks,  stopping  immediately  when  the  colt  turns  his  head  towards1 
you;  while  his  head  is  towards  you,  approach  him  with  the  left  hand 
extended  toward  him,  holding  your  whip  in  the  right,  ready  to  snap 
him  as  soon  as  he  turns  his  head  from  you.  In  this  way  you  can  soon 
get  your  hands  upon  him.  As  soon  as  you  have  done  this,  be  careful 
to  caress  him  for  his  obedience,  and  snap  him  for  his  disobedience* 
.  In  this  way  he  will  soon  learn  that  he  is  safest  hi  your  presence  with 
Jiis  head  towards  vou,  and  in  a  very  short  time  you  cannot  keep  him 
away  from  you.  Speak  kindly  and  firmly  to  him,  all  the  time  caress- 
Ing  him,  calling  by  name,  and  saying,  "  Ho,  boy,"  or  "  Ho,  Dina,"  or 
some  familiar  word  that  he  will  soon  lenrn. 

If  a  colt  is  awkward  and  careless  at  first,  you  must  bear  with  him, 
remembering  that  we,  too,  were  awkward  when  young ;  allowing 
him  his  own  way,  until  by  degrees  he  will  come  in.  If  he  is  wilful, 
you  must  then  change  your  course  of  treatment,  by  confining  him  in 
,  such  a  way  that  he  is  powerless  for  harm  until  he  submits.  If  he  is 
disposed  to  run,  use  my  pole  check  on  him  ;  if  to  kick,  fasten  a  rope 
around  his  under  jaw,  pass  it  through  the  collar  and  attach  it  to  his 
Jiind  feet.  In  this  way  one  kick  will  cure  him,  as  the  force  of  the  blovr 
falls  on  his  jaw.  If  he  should  be  stubborn,  lay  him  down  and  confine 
iiim  until  you  subdue  him,  without  punishing'hiin  with  the  whip. 

Colts  should  be  broke  without  blind-bridles ;  after  they  are  well 
broke,  then  you  may  put  on  blinds.  Bridles  without  blinds  are  the 
best  "unless  you  want  to  speed  your  horse,  then  it  will  be  necessary  to 
keep  him  from  seeing  the  whip.  Colts  should  be  well  handled  and 


JJXbYCs      ±1\J      UWM-V*    VV^L     iaj.^114    j      k/ULU   J.L    J  \J  U.    l/VstbV,J.l     MK*»JUI     V\J    VVtVJ.  Vj      P».V|/j    C*U\V 

«tand  at  the  word  before  they  are  hitched,  then  you  can  govern  them. 

CRUELTY  TO  HORSES — Besides  the  cruel  punishment  inflicted  upon, 
horses,  by  the  careless  and  heartless  driver,  he  is  subjected  to  se- 
vere punishment  in  the  whiter  season,  by  being  compelled  to  take- 
frozen  bits  into  his  mouth  in  cold  weather,  tearing  the  skin  from  the 
tongue  and  the  roof  of  his  mouth,  producing  a  heavy  inflammation  in. 
the  mouth  and  throat ;  he  gets  poor,  hidebound,  and  ^he  sympathetic 
'serves  of  the  head  take  up  the  inflammation,  carry  it  to  the  head  and 
eves,  frequently  producing  blindness,  and  a  hundred  other  diseases. 
"ihe  whip  should  be  used  as  an  instrument  of  pleasure  instead  of  tor- 
iure  ;  and  your  bits  should  be  wound  with  flannel  or  leather  ;  so  that 
,ao  frozen  iron  will  come  hi  contact  with  his  mouth,  lips  or  tongue. 

RAREY'S  LINIMENT.— Sulphuric  ether,  4  ozs.  ;  hartshorn,  4  ozs., 
oil  of  origanum,  4  ozs.  ;  alcohol,  4  ozs.  ;  sweet  oil,  4  ozs.  Shake, 
well  before  using.  For  sprains  on  horses,  &c.,  apply  by  rubbing  and 
cover  with  a  tight  flannel  bandage.  For  headache,  rub  a  little  on  the. 
temples  and  apply  a  bandage  wet  with  the  liniment  to  the  forehead. 

RAREY'S  WIZARD  OIL. — Oil  of  orig^uum.  6  ozs.  ;  alcohol,  G  ozskf 
apirits  turpentine,  1  oz.(:  camphor,  1  ><*»  Sfiiite  well  before  using. 

* 


FARMERS'  RECEIPTS. 


DIRECTIONS  FOB  SHOEING  HORSES.— "  fnere  are 
few  blacksmiths  that  ever  once  think  what  a  complicated  piece  o* 
tuacbinery  the  foot  of  a  horse  is,  and  by  one  careless  blow  they 
irsqwsntly  stop  the  working  of  this  machine.  The  majority  of  smiths, 
as  soon  as  they  pick  up  a  horse's  foot,  go  to  work  paring  the  heel, 
•from  the  fact  that  it  is  the  most  convenient  part  of  the  foot,  and  there~ 
"by  destroy  the  heel  and  braces  of  the  foot,  causing,  in  many  instances, 
•contracted  heels.  The  heels  of  a  horse  should  be  well  kept  up  and  the 
toe  down.  By  lowering  the  heels  you  throw  the  entire  weight  of  yout 
horse  upon  the  back  tendon  of  the  legs,  and  thereby  produce  lamenesf 
from  overtaxing  a  very  important  set  of  tendons.  By  keeping  ub  th« 
heel  you  throw  the  weight  upon  the  wall  of  the  foot.  In  this  position 
you  prevent  stumbling,  clicking,  &c.  Next  the  shper  commences  to 
pare  away  the  sole,  thins  it  down  until  he  can  feel  it  spring  with  his 
thumb.  Ask  him  why  he  does  this,  and  he  gives  you  no  reason, 
except  from  custom  ;  next  comes  the  bars  or  braces  of  the  foot,  they 
are  smoothed  down  ;  next  in  his  ruinous  course,  comes  the  frogs  of 
the  feet,  they  are  subjected  to  the  same  cutting  and  smoothing  pro 
cess.  All  the  cutting,  paring,  and  smoothing  of  the  soles,  bars,  o* 
frogs  is  a  decided  injury  to  the  horse  as  well  as  to  the  owner.  All  the, 
corns  in  the  land  are  produced  by  this  process  of  paring.  The  frogs 
have  been  placed  in  the  foot  by  nature  to  expand  the  wall  of  the  foot, 
and  as  soon  as  you  commence  to  cut  it,  the  oily  substance  commences 
t»  leak  out,  it  drys  up,  becomes  hard,  losing  its  oily  substance,  makes 
the  wall  hard  and  dry,  inducing  it  to  crack.  The  nerves  of  the  feet 
are  very  sensitive,  and  smiths  should  be  very  careful  not  to  prick  the 
foot,  as  it  requires  quite  a  time  to  relieve  them.  The  foot  is  a  very 
complicated  piece  of  machinery,  and  if  you  keep  a  horse  well  shod 
and  his  foot  in  good  condition,  you  can  then  generally  manage  the 
balance.  The  feet  suffer  from  being  kept  too  dry.  Horses  that  stanf 
on  board  floors  should  have  their  feet  wet  every  day,  or  there  should 
be  a  vat  five  inches  deep,  five  feet  long,  and  three  wide,  filled  with 
w&ter  and  clay,  in  which  each  horse  can  stand  for  one  hour  per  week, 
unless  his  feet  are  feverish,  then  he  should  be  kept  in  it  an  hour  per 
day,  or  until  the  fever  subsides.  Another  source  of  injury  to  horses' 
feet,  ia  the  habit  of  patronizing  cheap  blacksmiths.  Lf  a  man  can 


FARMERS'  RECEIPTS.  34 

drive  a  nail,  he  then  sets  up  a  sign  as  a  farrier  or  a  veterinary  surgeon, 
when  in  fact  he  knows  nothing  of  the  anatomy  of  the  horse's  foot; 
not  having  spent  any  time  or  money  in  acquiring  the  necessary  infor- 
mation, he  can  afford  to  shoe  a  few  shillings  cheaper  than  a  well-in- 
formed man,  but  the  patrons  of  such  cheap  shoeing  are  generally  the- 
guff erers.  All  horse-shoers  should  be  well  skilled  veterinary  surgeons,. 
or  there  should  be  a  skilful  surgeon  attached  to  every  shop.  Anothef 
gource  of  poor  shoeing  and  injury  is  the  loss  of  elasticity  of  the  frog, 
refusing  to  perform  its  proper  f  unctious  ;  tlie  heel  contracts,  the  foot 
rolls,  and  you  have  a  sore  horse  for  ten  or  twelve  months,  fcr  it  re- 
quires this  long  to  relieve  a  horse's  suffering  from  being  badly  shod. 

Under  the  circumstances,  the  first  thing  that  touches  the  road  ot 
the  floor  of  the  stall,  should  be  tae  frog,  and  the  wall  of  the  foot 
sho'jild  be  kept  cut  so  as  not  to  prevent  it  from  touching  at  every  step, 
and  no  man  that  owns  a  horse  should  ever  allow  a  blacksmith  to  cu* 
the  soles,  bars,  or  frogs  of  his  horse's  feet.  Nature  has  adapted  tha- 
frogs  to  all  description  of  roads,  climates,  and  weather,  without  being, 
pared.  So  many  horses  have  been  ruined  by  this  process  of  paring, 
that  there  are  now  several  establishments  in  this  country  that 
manufacture  India  rubber  pads,  thinking  thereby  to  supply  the  wasted 
frog  and  the  elasticity  of  the  natural  foot.  The  frog  is  insensible  to 
pressure,  and  you  may  place  the  whole  weight  of  your  horse  on  the 
frog  and  he  will  suffer  no  inconvenience,  as  may  be  seen  from  shoeing 
with  one  of  my  corn  shoes  ;  besides,  this  is  the  only  reliable  way  to 
cure  contracted  feet;  by  throwing  the  weight  upon  the  frog,  you  force* 
them  up  between  the  walls  ;  it  acts  as  a  wedge,  and  goon  relieves  the 
contracted  feet.  Smiths  should  never  have  their  shoes  hot  when 
fitting  them,  as  the  application  of  hot  iron  extracts  the  oilv  substance- 
from  the  hoof.  The  amount  of  cruel  punishment  inflicted  on> 
horses  by  cross-grain  blacksmiths,  is  another  source  of  poor  shoeing. 
As  soon  as  the  horse  does  not  stand  the  smith  gets  angry,  and  com- 
inences  whipping  and  jerking  the  animal,  which  only  adds  terror  to 
it,  so  that  he  soon  refuses  to  go  to  the  shop  if  he  can  avoid  it ;  it  i» 
natural  for  horses  to  dislike  to  be  shod,  because  the  hammering  chocks 
the  nervous  system,  until  they  are  accustomed  to  i'  He  should  b* 
taught  to  stand,  and  his  feet  well  handled  at  home,  before  he  is  ever 
"brought  to  the  shop  by  the  owner.  You  then  pave  the  horse  pounding, 
and  the  smith  an  immense  amount  of  labor  that  he  never  gets  any  pay 
for.  for  no  man  ever  thinks  of  paying  anything  extra  for  shoeing  a. 
toad  horse.  The  wall  of  the  fooi  should  never  be  rasped  above  the 
nail  holes,  and  as  little  below  the  clenches  as  possible  ;  all  the  rasping 
•and  filing  but  tends  to  thin  and  weaken  the  wall  by  cutting  the  fibers 
of  the  foot.  The  nails  should  be  counter  sunk  into  the  shoe,  so  that; 
there  will  be  no  chance  for  the  clenches  to  rise.  No  horse  interferes 
•with  the  heel  or  toe  ;  it  is  always  the  side  of  the  foot.  The  habit  of  ft 
turning  the  inside  of  the  shoe  under  causes  a  number  of  horses  to  in- 
terfere, that  would  not  if  they  were  shod  straight  in  the  inside,  tf 
Spread  the  heels  as  wide  as  possible  ;  set  the  outside  a  little  under  ; 
fceep  the  toes  full.  For  clicking  horses,  .raise  the  heels  high,  cut  the  toe« 
ehort.  For  speedy  cuts,  place  your  toe  corks  a  quarter  of  an  inch  to 
the  inside  of  the  centre  of  your  shoe;  keep  the  heels  wide  apart.  For 
corns,  put  on  a  shoe  with  a  prong,  for  the  main  rim,  so  as  to  cover  the  en- 
tire £ro£,  pare  the  wall  lower  than  the  frog,  soashia  entire  weight  will  br 


U6  FARMEK8*  BECEIPT8. 

tiirown  on  the  frog.  Have  the  Inner  cork  not  quite  so  sharp  as  th« 
outer  one,  so  that  if  he  steps  upon  the  other  foot  it  will  not  cut  it ; 
make  the  shoes  as  light  as  possible  consistent  with  good  service,  as 
they  are  ordinarily  made  just  about  |  too  heavy." 

To  PREVENT  HORSES  KICKING  IN  THE  STALL.— Fasten  a  short 
/race-chain  about  2  feet  long,  by  a  strap  to  each  hind  foot  A  better 
way  is  to  have  the  stalls  made  wide  enough  so  that  the  horse  can  turn 
in  them  easily.  Close  them  with  a  door  or  bars,  and  turn  the  animal 
loose.  After  a  while  he  will  forget  the  habit,  and  stand  tied  without 
further  trouble. 

To  CURE  BROKEN  LEGS.— Instead  of  summarily  shooting  the 
horse,  in  the  greater  number  of  fractures  it  is  only  necessary  to  par- 
tially sling  the  horse  by  means  of  a  broad  piece  of  sail,  or  other 
strong  cloth  placed  under  the  animal's  belly,  furnished  with  2  breech- 
ings  and  2  breast  girths,  and  by  means  of  ropes  and  pulleys  attached 
to  a  cross  beam  above,  he  is  elevated,  or  lowered,  as  may  be  required. 
By  the  adoption  of  this  plan  every  facility  is  allowed  for  the  satisfac- 
tory treatment  of  fractures. 

LAMPAS.— This  consists  in  a  swelling  of  the  first  bar  of  the  upper 
palate.  It  is  cured  by  rubbing  the  swelling  2  or  3  times  a  day  with  ^ 
oz.  of  alum  and  the  same  quantity  of  double  refined  sugar  mixed  with 
a  little  honey. 

GRAVEL.— Steep  $  Ib.  of  hops  in  a  quart  of  water  and  give  it  as  hot 
as  the  horse  can  stand  it. 

HALTER  PULLING.  A  new  way  to  prevent  horses  pulling  at  the 
halter,  is  to  put  a  very  small  rope  under  the  horse's  tail  bringing  the 
ends  forward,  creasing  them  on  the  back,  and  tying  them  on  the 
breast.  Put  the  halter  strap  through  the  ring,  and  tie  the  rope  in 
front  of  the  horse.  When  the  horse  pulls,  he  will,  of  course,  find  him- 
self in  rather  an  uncomfortable  position,  and  discontinue  the  effort  to 
free  himself. 

HIDE  BOUND.— To  recruit  a  hide  bound  horse,  give  nitrate  potassa 
(or  saltpetre)  4  oz.,  crude  antimony  1  oz.,  sulphur  3  oz.  Nitrate  of 
potassa  and  antimony  should  be  finely  pulverized,  then  add  the 
sulphur,  and  mix  the  whole  well  together.  Dose,  a  tablespoonful  of 
this  mixture  in  a  bran  mash  daily. 

To  PREVENT  HORSES  FROM  JUMPING. — Pass  a  good  stout  surcingle 
around  his  body  ;  put  on  his  halter,  and  have  the  halter  strap  long 
enough  to  go  from  his  head,  between  his  fore  legs,  then  through  the 
curcingle,  and  back  to  one  of  his  hind  legs.  Procure  a  thill  strap, 
and  buckle  around  the  leg  between  the  foot  and  joint,  fasten  the 
halter  strap  in  this — shorter  or  longer,  as  the  obstinacy  of  the  case  may 
require.  It  is  also  useful  to  keep  colts  from  running  where  there  is 
likely  to  be  danger  from  the  result ;  if  tha  thill  strap  should  cause  any 
soreness  on  the  leg,  it  may  be  wound  with  a  woollen  cloth,  and  it  would 
be  well  to  change  it  from  one  leg  to  another  occasionally. 

BIG  LEG. — To  cure,  uoe  thu "Blistering  Liniment"  with  regularity 
every  third  hour  until  it  blisters.  In  3  days  wash  the  leg  with  linseed 
oil.  In  6  days  wash  it  clean  with  soap  and  water.  Repeat  every  6 
days  until  ttie  swelling  goes  down.  If  there  should  be  any  callow 
left,  apply  spavin  ointment. 

SORK  BREASTS.— This  generally  occurs  in  the  spring,  at  the  com- 
mencement of  plowing.  At  times  the  fault  is  la.  having  poor  old 


fARMERS*  RECEIPTS.  37 

and  not  having  the  collar  well  fitted  to  the  horse's  b?east;  and 
often,  the  hames  are  either  too  tight  or  too  loose.  There  is  a  great 
difference  in  horses  about  getting  chafed  or  galled,  and  at  times  it  has 
eeeined  to  be  impossible  to  keep  their  breasts  from  getting  sore  ;  but 
a  thorough  application  of  strong  alum  water  or  white  oak  bark  to  the 
breasts  of  the  animal,  3  days  before  going  to  work,  toughen  them  so 
,  that  they  will  not  get  sore.  Another  excellent  plan  ic,  when  you  let, 
your  team  rest  for  a  few  moments  during  work,  to  raise  the  collar  and 
pull  it  a  little  forward,  and  rub  the  breast  thoroughly  with  your, 
naked  hand. 


JHE  CHECTK  REIN  ON  HORSES.— We  desire  to  register  an  earnest 
protest  against  this  barbarous  appendage  to  horses'  harness.  It  re- 
tards the  horse's  progress  in  every  position  both  while  he  is  at  work, 
and  while  travelling  on  a  journey.  It  is  both  useless  and  cruel  in 
-every  sense  of  the  word,  without  any  compensating  qualities  to  recom- 
mend it.  Mr.  Angell,  of  the  "Boston  Society  for  the  Prevention  of 
Cruelty  to  Animals,"  who  has  travelled  over  a  great  part  of  Europe 
in  the  interests  of  humanity  to  our  dumb  servants,  says,  that  the  use 
of  the  check  rein  is  confined  to  America  alone,  being  deservedly  dis- 
carded every  where  both  in  England  and  on  the  Continent.  The 
reason  why  it  is  so  discarded,  was  very  graphically  explained  by  an 
extensive  horse  owner  in  Glasgow,  as  he  remarked,  in  conversation 
•with  Mr.  Angell,  that  "  We  canna  get  the  wark  oot  o'  the  horse  wi* 
the  check  rein."  To  check  rein  a  horse,  is  equivalent  to  trussing  a 
man's  head  backward  towards  his  back  or  heels,  ar»d  compelling  him, 
while  bound  in  this  position,  to  do  duty  with  a  loaded  wheelbarrow. 

FEEDING  HORSES  ON  THE  ROAD.— Many  persons,  in  travelling, 
feed  their  horses  too  much,  and  too  often,  continually  stuffing  them, 
and  not  allowing  them  to  rest  and  digest  their  food  ;  of  course  they 
suffer  from  over-fulness,  and  earning  unnecessary  weight.  Horses  > 
should  be  well  fed  in  the  evening,  and  must  not  be  stuffed  too  full  in 
the  morning,  and  the  travelling  should  be  moderate  on  starting  when 
the  horse  has  a  full  stomach.  If  a  horse  starts  in  good  condition,  he 
can  go  20  or  25  miles  without  feeding.  The  provender  required  by 
horses  while  travelling  or  engaged  in  ordinary  farm  work,  per  day, 
may  be  stated  thus  :  Hay  20  Ibs.,  oats  3  gals.,  water  4  gals.  Muddy 
water  ia  the  best  for  horses.  Beeves  require  20  Ibs,  of  hay  and  • 


PA5MEB6*  RECEIPTS. 

Sals,  of  water  per  day.  Quantity  will  vary  in  every  case  aewMfng  to 
the  size,  condition,  breed,  &c.,  together  with  the  kind  of  work  it 
which  they  are  employed. 

ITCH. — To  cure  a  horse  affected  with  itch,  first  reduce  his  daily 
allowance  of  food,  putting  him  on  low  diet  and  then  give  him  a  tea* 
ppoonful  of  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  sulphur  and  antimony,  and  at 
the  end  of  a  week  or  10  days  the  sores  will  have  disappeared  and  the 
horse  will  be  covered  with 'a  fine  coat  of  new  hair. 

STOPPAGE  OF  URINE.— S3rmptoms  :  Frequent  attempts  to  urinate, 
booking  round  at  his  sides,  lying  down,  rolling  and  stretching.  Tt> 
cure,  take  £  Ib.  of  hops,  3  drs.  oil  of  camphor;  grind  and  mix.  Make 
this  into  3  pills.  Give  1  every  day,  with  a  drench  made  of  a  small  spoon- 
ful of  saltpetre  and  2  oz.  of  water.  This  will  cure  as  a  general  thing. 

To  CURE  BALKY  HORSES. — One  method  to  cure  a  balky  horse 
is  to  take  him  from  the  carriage,  whirl  him  rapidly  around  till  he  i» 
giddy.  It  requires  two  men  to  accomplish  vhis, — one  at  the  hqrse'a 
tail.  Don't  let  him  step  out.  Hold  him  to  the  smallest  possible  circle. 
1  dose  will  often  cure  him,  2  doses  are  final  with  the  worst  horse  that 
«ver  refused  to  stir.  Another  plan  is  to  fill  his  mouth  with  the  dirt  or 
gravel  from  the  road,  and  he  will  at  once  go,  the  philosophy  of  this 
being  that  it  gives  him  something  else  to  think  about. 

DR.  CODE'S  KING  OF  OILS. — 1  oz.  green  copperas  ;  2  oz.  whHt 
vitriol ;  2  oz.  common  salt  ;  2  oz.  linseed  oil  ;  8  oz.  molasses.  Boil 
over  a  slow  fire  fifteen  minutes  in  a  pint  of  urine  ;  when  almost 
cold,  add  1  oz.  of  oil  of  vitriol  and  4  oz.  of  spirits  of  turpentine, 
Apply  to  wounds  with  a  feather.  A  very  powerful  liniment. 

SLOAN'S  HORSE  OINTMENT. — 4  oz.  resin  ;  4  oz.  bees-wax  ;  lard, 
8  oz.  ;  honey,  2  oz.  Mix  slowly  and  gently,  bring  to  a  boil  ;  them 
add  less  than  1  pint  spirits  turpentine  ;  then  remove  and  stir  till  cool. 
Unsurpassed  for  horse  flesh,  cracked  hoofs,  human  flesh,  &c. 

MEXICAN  MUSTANG  LINIMENT.— Petroleum,  olive  oil,  and  carbon, 
ate  of  ammonia,  each  equal  parts,  and  mix. 

MERCHANT'S  GARGLING  OIL.— Take  2£  gals,  linseed  oil ;  2£  gals, 
epirits  turpentine  ;  1  gal.  western  petroleum  ;  8  oz.  liquor  potass.  J 
sap  green,  1  oz.  ;  mix  all  together,  and  it  is  ready  for  use. 

ARABIAN  CONDITION  POWDERS. — Ground  ginger,  lib  ;  sulphuret 
of  antimony,  1  Ib.  ;  powdered  sulphur,  1  Ib  ;  saltpetre,  1  Ib.  Mix  all 
together,  and  administer  in  a  mash,  in  such  Quantities  as  may  be  re- 
quired. The  best  condition  powder  in  existence. 

BLISTERING  LINIMENT. — 1  part  Spanish  flies,  finely  powdered  ;  3 
of  lard  ;  and  1  of  yellow  resin.  Mix  the  lard  and  resin  together, 
and  add  the  flies  when  the  other  ingredients  begin  to  cool.  To  render 
it  more  active,  add  1  pint  spirits  turpentine. 

MEDICATED  FOOD  FOR  HORSES  AND  CATTLE. — Take  linseed 
cake  and  pulverize  or  grind  it  up  in  the  shape  of  meal,  and  to  every 
50  Ibs.  of  this  ingredient,  add  10  Ibs.  Indira  meal  ;  2  Ibs.  sulphuret 
of  antimony  ;  2  Ibs.  ground  ginger,  l|  Ibs  of  saltpetre,  and  2  Ibs. 
powdered  sulphur.  Mix  the  whole  thoroughly  together,  put  in  neat 
boxes  or  packages  for  sale  or  otherwise  2^  uesired;  and  you  will  have 
an  article  equal  in  value  to  '  Thorby's  Food,"  or  almost  any  otker 
preparation  that  can  be  got  ^p  ^>r  the  purpose  of  fattening  stock  or 
curing  disease  in  every  cas**  #h(>z  lood  or  medicine  can  be  of  any  use 
whatever.  This  article  can  >>  fed  in  any  desired  quantity, 


FARMERS'  RECEIPTS.  9$a 

With  a  few  tablespoonf uls  at  a  time,  for  a  horse,  mixing  it  with  his 
grain,  and  in  the  same  proportion  to  smaller  animals,  repeating  the* 
dose  and  increasing  the  quantity  as  the  case  may  seem  to  require. 

LOTION  FOB  MANGE. — Boil2oz.  tobacco  in  1  quart  water  ;  strain ; 
add  sulphur  and  soft  soap,  each  2  oz. 

FOB  STBAINS  AND  SWELLINGS. — Strong  vinegar  saturated  with 
common  salt,  used  warm,  is  good  for  strains  and  reducing  swellings. 
1  oz.  of  white  vitriol  ;  1  oz.  of  green  copperas  ;  2  teaspoonfuls  of 
•gunpowder,  all  pulverized  together,  and  dissolved  in  1  quart  of  soft 
vfater,  and  used  cold,  rubbing  in  thoroughly,  is  one  of  the  best  appli- 
cations known  for  reducing  swellings. 

HOOF-BOUND  WASH.— Spirits  turpentine.  4  oz.  ;  tar,  4  oz.  ;  whalfr 
oil,  8  oz.  Mix,  and  apply  to  the  hoofs  often. 

To  TOUGHEN  HOOFS. — Wash  them  frequently  in  strong  orine,  and 
turn  brine  upon  the  bottoms,  and  soak  a  few  minutes  each  time. 

SCBATCHES. — Cut  off  the  hair  close,  and  wash  the  legs  in  strong 
soap-suds  or  urine,  or  wash  with  warm  vinegar  saturated  with  salt, 
and  afterwards  dress  over  with  a  small  quantity  of  hog's  lard. 

COUGH. — Quit  feeding  musty  hay,  and  feed  roots  and  laxative  food. 
Sprinkle  human  urine  on  his  fodder,  or  cut  up  cedar  boughs  and  mix 
with  his  grain  ;  or  boil  a  small  quantity  of  flax-seed,  and  mix  it  in  a. 
mash  of  scalded  bran,  adding  a  few  ounces  of  sugar,  molasses,  or 
honey  Administer  lukewarm.  If  there  should  be  any  appearance 
of  heaves,  put  a  spoonful  of  ground  ginger  once  per  day  in  his  pro- 
vender, and  allow  him  to  drink  freely  of  lime  water. 

SPLIT  OB  BBOKEN  HOOF.— Let  the  blacksmith  bore  two  holes  on- 
each  side  of  the  crack  or  split ;  pass  long  nails  through  the  holes  and 
clinch  tight.  After  anointing  with  the  hoof-bound  liquid,  it  will 
soon  grow  together. 

COLIC  CURE.— Bleed  freely  at  the  horse's  mouth  ;  then  take  £  1U 
raw  cotton,  wrap  it  around  a  coal  of  fire,  so  as  to  exclude  the  air  ; 
when  it  begins  to  smoke,  hold  it  under  his  nose  till  he  becomes  easy. 

To  CUBE  DISTEMPEB.— Take  1J  gals,  of  blood  from  the  neck  vein ;. 
then  administer  sassafras  oil,  l£  oz.  Cure,  speedy  and  certain. 

FOUNDEB  CUBED  IN  24  HOUBS. — Boil  or  steam  stout  oat-straw  for 
half  an  hour,  then  wrap  it  around  the  horse's  leg  quite  hot,  cover  up 
•with  wet  woollen  rags  to  keep  in  the  steam  ;  in  six  hours  renew  the 
application,  take  1  gal.  of  blood  from  the  neck  vein,  and  give  1  quart 
linseed  oil.  He  may  be  worked  next  day. 

CUBE  FOB  STAGGEBS. — Give  a  mess  twice  a  week,  composed  of 
bran,  1  gal.  ;  sulphur,  1  tablespoonful ;  saltpetre,  1  spoonful  ;  boiling 
sassafras  tea,  1  quart ;  assafcetida,  1J  oz.  Keep  the  horse  from  cold 
water  for  half  a  day  afterwards. 

RING-BONE  AND  SPAVIN  CUBE. — Venice  turpentine  and  Spanish 
flies,  of  each  2  oz.  ;  euphorbium  and  aqua-ammonia,  of  each  1  oz.  ; 
red  precipitate,  £  oz. ;  corrosive  sublimate,  £  oz.  ;  lard,  1$r  Ibs.  Pul- 
verize all,  and  put  into  the  lard  ;  simmer  slowly  over  coals,  not 
scorching  or  burning ;  and  pour  off,  free  of  seduneut.  For  ring- 
Ixmes,  cut  off  the  hair,  and  rub  the  ointment  well  into  the  lumps 
once  hi  48  hours.  For  spavins,  once  in  24  hours  for  3  mornings. 
Wash  well  previous  to  each  application  with  suds,  rubbing  over  th«- 
place  with  a  smooth  stick,  to  squeeze  out  a  thick,  yellow  matte*. 
This  has  removed  very  large  ring-bones. 


40  P^BMEBS'  RECEIPTS. 


AJTOTHER  CURE.—  Take  sweet  oil,   4   oz.  ;  spirits   turpenth*^ 

2  oz.  ;  oil  of  stone,  1  oz.     Mix,  and  apply  three  times  per  day. 
If  the  horse  is  over  four  year  old.  or  in  any  case  when  this  is  not  suffi- 
cient, in  addition  to  it,  you  will  fit  a  bar  of  lead  just  above  it,  wiring 
the  ends  together,  so  it  constantly  wears  upon  the  enlargement  ;  ana 
"fiie  two  together  will  oure  nine  cases  out  of  every  ten,  in  six  weeks. 

CUKE  FOB  BONE  SPAVINS—  $300  RECIPE.—  Corrosive  sublimate, 
quicksilver,  and  iodine,  of  each  1  oz.  Rub  the  quicksilver  and  iodine  i 
together  ;  then  add  the  sublimate,  and  lastly  the  lard,  rubbing  them 
thoroughly.  Shave  off  the  hair  the  size  of  the  bone  enlargement  ; 
grease  ail  around  it,  but  not  where  the  hair  is  shaved  off,  this  pre- 
vents the  action  of  the  medicine,  except  on  the  spavin.  Then  rub  in 
as  much  of  the  paste  as  will  lie  on  a  3-cent  piece,  each  morning,  for 
5  or  4  mornings.  In  from  7  to  8  days,  the  whole  spavin  will  come 
out  ;  then  wash  the  wound  with  suds  for  an  hour  or  so,  to  remove 
the  poisonous  effects  of  the  paste  ;  afterwards  heal  up  the  sore  with 
any  good  healing  salvs,  or  Sloan's  Horse  Ointment,  as  per  recipe 
above,  keeping  the  sore  covered  while  it  is  healing  up. 

ANOTHER  VERY  VALUABLE  RECIPE  FOR  RING-BONE.—  Pul- 
verized cantharides,  oils  of  spike,  origanum,  amber,  cedar,  Barba- 
does  tar,  and  British  oil,  of  each  2  oz.  ;  oil  of  wormwood,  1  oz.  ; 
spirits  turpentine,  4  oz.  ;  common  potash,  \  o».  ;  nitric  acid,  6  oz.  ; 
«ulph  uric  acid,  4  oz.  ;  lard,  3  Ibs.  Melt  the  lard,  and  slowly  add  the 
acids  ;  stir  well,  and  add  the  other  articles,  stirring  till  cold  ;  clip  off 
the  hair,  and  apply  by  rubbing  and  heating  hi.  In  about  3  days,  or 
•when  it  is  done  running,  wash  off  with  soap-suds,  and  apply  again. 
In  okl  eases,  it  may  take  3  or  *  weeks  ;  but,  hi  recent  cases,  2  or  3 
applications  have  cured. 

ANOTHER.  —  Pulverized  cantnarides,  oils  of  origanum  and  amber, 
and  spirits  turpentine,  of  each  1  oz.  ;  olive  oil,  \  oz.  ;  sulphuric  acid, 

3  drams  ;  put  all,  except  the  acid,  into  alcohol  ;  stir  the  mixture,  add 
the  acid  slowly,  and  continue  to  stir  till  the  mixture  ceases  to  smoke; 
then  bottle  for  use.    Apply  to  ring-bone  or  spavin  with  a  sponge  tied 
on  the  end  of  a  stick,  as  long  as  it  is  absorbed  into  the  parts  ;  twenty- 
lour  hours  after,  grease  weU  with  lard  ;  and  hi  twenty-four  hours 
more,  wash  off  well  with  soap-suds.    One  application  is  generally 
^sufficient  for  spavins,  but  may  need  two  ;  ring-bones,  always  two  or 
three  applications,  three  or  four  days  apart,  which  prevents  loss  of 
Ihair.    This  will  stop  all  lameness,  but  does  not  remove  the  lump. 

SPLINT  AND  SPAVTN  LINIMENT.  Oil  of  origanum,  6  oz.  ;  gum 
«eamphor,  2  oz.  ;  mercurial  ointment,  2  oz.  ;  iodine  ointment,  1  oz.  ; 
melt  by  putting  all  into  a  wide-mouthed  bottle,  and  setting  it  in  a 
frettte  of  hot  water.  Apply  it  to  bone  spavins  or  splints,  twice  daily, 
J:or  four  or  five  days,  and  a  cure  is  guaranteed. 

POLL  EVIL  AND  FISTULA.  —  Common  potash  dissolved  in  \  pint  of 
water,  1  Ib.  ;  add  \  oz.  belladonna  extract,  and  1  oz.  gum  arable  dis- 
eolved  in  a  little  water  ;  work  all  into  a  paste  with  wheat  flour,  and 
'bottle  up  tight.  Directions  :  wash  the  sores  well  with  Castile  soap- 
euds  ;  then  apply  tallow  all  around  them.  Next,  press  the  above 
paste  to  the  bottom  of  all  the  orifices  ;  repeat  every  two  days  till  the 
callous  fibrous  base  around  the  poll  evil  or  fistula  is  completely  de- 
attoyed  ;  put  a  piece  of  oil-cloth  over  i^o  sores,  and  afterwards  *ieai 
op  witii  Sloan's  Horse  Ointment 


POINTS    IN   A 
DIAGRAM  OF  A  SOUND  HOS3B. 


POINTS  IN  A  HORSE. 

16.  Neck. 

17.  Breast. 

18.  Shoulder. 

19.  Withers. 

20.  Arm. 

21.  Fore-arm. 

22.  Fore-legs. 

23.  Knee. 

24.  Cannon-bones. 

25.  Nape. 

26.  Crest. 

27.  Middle-hand. 

28.  Back. 

29.  Back-hand. 

30.  Loin. 

31.  Hip. 

32.  Croup,  or  Rump. 

33.  Dock. 
34-  Elbow. 

COMPARATIVE  VALUE  OF  FOOD  FOR  HORSES.— 100  Ibs.  of  good  taj 
is  equivalent  in  value  to  59  Ibs.  of  oats,  57  Ibs.  of  corn,  275  of  carrots 
64  Ibs.  of  rye  or  barley,  105  Ibs.  of  wheat  bran,  400  Ibs.  of  greeL 
clover,  275  Ibs.  of  green  corn,  374  Ibs.  of  wheat  straw,  442  Ibs.  of  rye 
straw,  400  Ibs.  of  dried  corn  stalks,  45  Ibs.  of  wheat,  59  Ibs.  of  com, 
62  Ibs.  of  sun-flower  seeds,  69  Ibs.  of  linseed  cake,  195  Ibs.  of  oat 
«traw,  105  l!?s.  of  wheat  bran;  1  Ib.  of  oil  cake  is  equal  to  14  Ibs  c*to 
bftge. 


t.  Forehand. 

2.  Forehead. 

3.  Face. 

4.  Nose. 

6.  Wings  of  the  nose. 

6.  Muzzle. 

7.  Jaw. 

8.  Throat. 

9.  Windpipe,  or  Throt- 

tle. 

10.  Point  of  the  Shoul- 

der. 

11.  Chin. 

12.  Curb  of  the  Chin. 

13.  Outer  corner  of  the 

Eye. 

14.  Inner  corper  of  the 
.  Eye. 

flfl.  Fore  top. 


35.  Girth. 

36.  Barrel  (the  Ml* 

37.  Flank. 

38.  Quarter. 

39.  Thigh. 

40.  Stifle. 

41.  Hamstring. 

42.  Point  of  the  Hock. 

43.  Hocks. 

44.  Fetlocks. 

45.  Small  Pasterns. 

46.  Large  Pasterns. 

47.  Crown  of  the  Hoof 

48.  Hoof. 

49.  Heels. 

50.  Head. 

01.  Mane,orManeH«fc 


*2 


DISEASES    OF    THE   HOBSE. 


DIAGRAM  SHOWING  DISEASES  OF  THE  HORSE. 
The  above  diagram,  copied  from  a  circular  issued  by  L.  W.  Warnei 
&  Co.,  manufacturers  of  Dr.  Herrick's  Horse  Medicines  at  67  Murray 
St.,  N.  Y.,  is,  notwithstanding  its  lugubrious  appearance,  of  the  ut» 
most  value  to  owners  of  horses  ;  for,  taken  in  connection  with  th« 
following  references  descriptive  of  the  various  numbers,  indications. 
&c.,  it  will  prove  of  great  utility  in  identifying  and  locating  diseased! 
In  many  doubtful  cases. 


/  Glanders. 
A*    j  Discharge  from  the  Nostrils 
f"     J  Membrane. 
*•     (.  Glandular  Swellings. 
4.  Caries  and  Diseases  of  the  Jaw. 
6.  Fistula  Parotid  Duct. 
6.  Diseases  of  the  Eye. 


27. 


7.  Scars  on  Forehead  and  over  the  32.  Clap  of  the  Back  Sinews. 


Eyes. 
8.  Scars  from  old.  Fontanels  and 


Brain  Diseases.   9.  Poll  Evil. 

10.  Prurigo,  or  Mane  Scab. 

11.  Fistulous  Withers. 

12.  Saddle  Galls.  Sitfasts,  &c. 

13.  Fistulous  Tail.     14.  Rat  Tail. 

15.  Falling  of  the  Fundament. 

16.  Luxation  of  Patella,  or  Whirl 

Bone  Displaced. 

17.  Hernia  or  Rupture. 

18.  Broken  Ribs.     19.  Farcy. 

20.  Sores  from  Constant  Bleeding. 

21.  Bridle  Swellings. 

22.  Fistula  and    Inflammation 


Parotid  Gland. 

Phlebitis,  or  inflamed  Jugular  46.  Curb.    47.  Swollen  Legs. 
Vein. 


24.  Sore  Throat. 

25.  Tumors  caused  by  Collar. 

26.  Capped  Elbow  or  Tumoi 


(Japp< 
Wind 


Galls. 


28.  Mallenders  and  Sallenders. 

29.  Splint.     30.  Capped  Knee. 
Broken  Knees  and  Open  Joint 


S3.  Ringbone. 

34.  Acute  and  Chronic  Founderet 


Ring  Foot.  35.  Groggines* 

36.  Quitter. 

37.  Tread    on   the   Coronet   and 

Overreaches. 

38.  Sand,  Toe,  Cow  and  Quartef 

Cracks. 

39.  Girth  Swellings. 

40.  Wind  Colic,  Fret,  Gripes,  of 

Belly-ache. 

41.  Thorough  pin. 

42.  Capped  Hocks. 

43.  Swelled  or  Sprung  Sinew* 
of  44.  Scratches. 

45.  Spavin. 


FABMEBS"   RECEIPTS.  45 

To  TAME  HORSES.— Take  finely-grated  horse  castor,  oila  of  rho- 
dium and  cumin ;  keep  them  in  separate  bottles  well  corked  ;  pu* 
some  of  the  oil  of  cumin  on  your  hand,  and  approach  the  horse  011 
the  windy  side.  He  will  then  move  toward  you.  Then  rub  some  of 
the  cumin  on  his  nose,  give  him  a  little  of  the  castor  on  anything 
he  likes,  and  get  eight  or  ten  drops  oil  of  rhodium  on  his  tongue.  You 
can  then  get  him  to  do  anything  you  like.  Be  kind  and  attentive  to 
,  the  animal,  and  your  control  is  certain. 

BEST  REMEDY  FOB  HEAVES. — Balsam  of  fir  and  balsam  of  co- 
paiba, 4  oz.  each,  and  mix  with  calcined  magnesia  sufficiently  thick 
to  make  it  into  balls  ;  and  give  a  middling-sized  ball  night  and  morn- 
ing for  a  week  or  ten  days. 

CUKE  FOB  BOTS  IN  HOBSES. — Give  the  horse,  first,  2  quarts  of 
new  milk,  and  1  quart  molasses  ;  15  minutes  afterwards,  give  2  quarts 
very  strong  sage  tea  ;  30  minutes  after  the  tea,  give  3  pints  (or  enough 
to  operate  as  physic),  of  curriers'  oil.  The  molasses  and  milk  cause 
the  bots  to  let  go  their  hold,  the  tea  puckers  them  up,  and  the  oil 
carries  them  completely  away.  Cure,  certain,  in  the  worst  cases. 

LINIMENT  FOB  SWEENY. — Alcohol  and  spirits  turpentine,  of  each 
8  oz.  j  camphor-gum,  pulverized  cantharides,  and  capsicum,  of  each 
1  oz.  ;  oil  of  spike,  3  oz.  ;  mix.  Bathe  this  liniment  in  with  a  hot 
iron,  and  a  cure  is  sure  to  follow. 

FOB  LOOSENESS  OB  SCOUBING  IN  HOBSES  OB  CATTLE. — Tormou- 
til  root,  powdered.  Dose  for  a  horse  or  cow,  1  to  1£  oz.  It  may  be 
stirred  into  1  pint  of  milk,  and  given ;  or  it  may  be  steeped  in  1$ 
pints  of  milk,  then  given  from  three  to  six  times  daily,  until  cured. 

SCOUB3  AND  PlN-WOBMS    IN    HORSES  AND  CATTLE. — White   ash 

bark  burnt  into  ashes,  and  made  into  a  rather  strong  lye  ;  then  mix 
1  pint  of  it  with  1  pint  warm  water,  and  give  all  two  or  three  times 
daily.  This  will  certainly  carry  off  the  worms,  which  are  the  cause, 
in  most  instances,  of  scours  and  looseness. 

ENGLISH  STAJOBJE  LINIMENT,  VEKY  STBONG. — Oil  of  spike,  aqua- 
ammonia,  and  oil  of  turpentine,  each  2  oz.  ;  sweet  oil,  and  oil  of 
amber,  each,  1J  oz.  ;  oil  of  origanum,  1  oz.  Mix. 

COLIC  CUKE  FOB  HOBSES  AND  PERSONS.— Spirits  turpentine, 
3  ox.  ;  laudanum,  1  ox.  ;  mix  ;  and  for  a  horse  give  all  for  a  dose,  by 
putting  it  into  a  bottle  with  half  a  pint  of  warm  water.  If  relief  is 
not  obtained  in  an  hour,  repeat  the  dose,  adding  half  an  ounce  of  the 
best  powdered  aloes,  well  dissolved.  Cure,  certain. 

FOB  PEBSONS,  a  dose  would  be  from  1  to  2  teaspoonfuls  in  warm 
tea  ;  children  or  weak  persons,  less. 

LINIMENT  FOB  FIFTY  CENTS  PEB  GALLON.— Best  vinegar,  2  qts.  ; 

pulverized  saltpetre,  £  Ib.  ;  mix,  and  set  in  a  cool  place  till  dissolved. 

Invaluable  for  old  swellings,  sprains,  bruises,  &c. 

5     SHOEING  HORSES.— A  smith  who  shod  for  the  hunt,  and  who  said 

I  that  he  would  have  to  shut  up  shop  if  a  shoe  was  lost,  as  it  might 

/  cause  the  loss  of  a  horse  worth  a  thousand  pounds,  fastened  the  shoe 

as  follows  : — As  he  drove  the  nails,  he  merely  bent  the  points  do\\  u 

to  the  hoof,  without  twisting  them  off,  as  the  usual  practice  is  ;  lie 

then  drove  the  nails  home,  and  clinched  them.    He  then  twisted  off 

the  nails,  and  filed  them  lightly  to  smooth  them,  thus  having,  as  he 

remarked,  a  clinch  and  a  rivet  to  hold  the  nails. 

AIL.— Maka  a  slow  fire  of  old  shoes,  rags,  herbs,  &c. 


44  FARMERS*   RECEIPTS. 

When  fired  a  little,  smother  so  as  to  make  a  great  sinoke  and  steam, 
then  set  a  barrel  without  heads,  over  the  fire,  and  hold  the  horse's 
head  down  hi  the  barrel,  and  smoke  him  well.  This  will  soon  pro- 
duce a  copious  running  at  the  nose,  and  he  will  be  so  well  pleased 
that  he  will  voluntarily  hold  his  head  in  the  smoke.  Continue  this 
'ialf  an  hour  or  more  daily,  meanwhile  give  him  potatoes  and  warm 
bran  mashes,  and  gently  physic  if  there  be  much  costiveness  which  » 
the  laxative  food  will  not  remove.  If  he  has  fever,  treat  him  for  it. 

SADDLE  AND  HARNESS  GALLS,  &c.— White  lead  and  linseed  oil, 
mixed  as  for  paint,  is  unrivalled  for  healing  saddle,  harness,  or  col- ' 
lar  galls  and  bruises.    Try  it,  applying  with  a  brush.    It  soon  forms 
an  air-tight  coating  and  soothes  the  pain,  powerfully  assisting  nature. 

GREASE  HEEL. — Ley  made  from  wood-ashes,  and  boil  white-oak 
baik  in  it  till  it  is  quite  strong,  both  in  lye  and  bark-ooze;  when  it  is 
cold,  it  is  fit  for  use.  Wash  off  the  horse's  legs  with  Castile  soap; 
when  dry,  apply  the  above  ley  with  a  swab  fastened  on  a  long  stick 
to  keep  out  of  his  reach,  as  the  smart  caused  by  the  application  might 
make  him  let  fly  without  much  warning;  but  it  is  a  sure  cure,  only- 
it  brings  off  the  hair.  To  restore  the  hair  after  the  cure  is  effected^ 
make  and  apply  a  salve  by  stewing  elder  bark  in  old  bacon ;  then  form 
the  salve  by  adding  a  little  resin,  according  to  the  amount  of  oil  when 
stewed,  or  $  Ib.  resin  to  each  pound  of  oil. 

VALUABLE  REMEDY  FOR  HEAVES. — Calcined  magnesia,  balsam  of 
fir,  balsam  copaiba,  of  each  1  oz. ;  spirits  turpentine,  2  oz. ;  put  them 
all  into  1  pint  best  cider  vinegar;  give  for  a  dose,  1  tablespoonful  in 
his  feed,  once  a  dayfor  aweek;  then  every  other  day  for  2or3months. 
Wet  his  hay  with  brine,  and  also  his  other  feed.  He  will  cough  more 
at  first,  but  looser  and  looser  till  cured. 

To  DISTINGUISH  AND  CURE  DISTEMPER.— Wet  up  bran  with  rather 
strong  lye;  if  not  too  strong,  the  horse  will  eat  it  greedily.  If  they 
have  the  distemper,  a  free  discharge  from  the  nostrils,  and  a  conse- 
quent cure,  will  be  the  result,  if  continued  a  tew  days ;  but  if  only  a 
cold,  with  swellings  of  the  glands,  no  change  will  be  discovered. 

REMEDY  FOR  FOUNDER.— Draw  about  1  gal.  blood  from  the  neck; 
then  drench  the  horse  with  linseed  oil,  1  qt. ;  now  rub  the  fore-legs 
long  and  well  with  water  as  hot  as  can  be  borne  without  scalding. 

PHYSIC-BALL  FOR  HORSES. — Barbadoes  aloes,  from  4  to  5  or  6 
drams  (according  to  size  and  strength  of  the  horse);  tartrate  of 
potassa,  1  dram;  ginger  and  Castile  soap,  each  2  drams;  oil  of  anise, 
or  peppermint,  20 drops;  pulverize  and  make  all  into  one  ball,  with 
thick  gum  solution.  Feed  by  giving  scalded  bran  instead  of  oats,  for 
two  days  before  giving  the  physic,  and  during  its  operation. 

PHYSIC  FOR  CATTLE. — Take  half  only  of  the  dose  above  for  ahorse, 
and  add  it  to  glauber-salts,  8  oz. ;  dissolve  all  in  gruel,  1  quart,  and 
give  as  a  drench. 

HOOF-AIL  IN  SHEEP.— Muriatic  acid  and  butter  of  antimony,  of 
each  2  oz. ;  white  vitriol,  pulverized,  1  oz. ;  mix.  Lift  the  foot,  and 
drop  a  little  of  it  on  the  bottom,  only  once  or  twice  a  week.  It  kills 
the  old  hoof,  and  a  new  one  soon  takes  its  place. 

SUPERPHOSPHATE  OF  LIME,  THE  GREATEST  AGRICULTURAL  DIS- 
COVERY OF  THE  AGE. — Take  a  large  puncheon,  large  tub,  or  barrel, 
and  put  into  it 200  Ibs.  water;  add,  very  slowly  and  cautiously,  100  Ibs. 
of  pore  sulphuric  acid;  you  must  be  very  careful,  while  handling  thjf 


RECEIPTS".  45 

Article,  not  to  let  it  touch  your  skin  or  clothing,  ns  it  will  instantly 
blacken  the  sMu,  and  destroy  the  clothing,  wherever  it  comes  in  con- 
tact; and,  when  mixed  with  water,  it  engenders  a  very  intense  heat. 
Into  this  mixture  throw  200  Ibs.  of  bones,  no  matter  how  old  or  use^ 
less  they  may  be.  The  sulphuric  acid  instantly  attacks  and  enters 
into  combination  with  the  bones,  reducing  them  to  a  pasty  consistence, 
and  completely  dissolving  them.  Keep  under  cover,  and  turn  them 
over  occasionally,  while  the  process  is  going  on ;  and,  when  com- 
pleted, dump  out  the  whole  contents  on  the  barn  floor  or  on  a  plat- 
form of  boards,  and  thoroughly  work  into  the  mass  four  times  its 
bulk  of  dry  bog  -earth  or  dry  road-dust;  mix  and  pulverize  completely 
with  a  wooden  shovel.  The  bog-earth  acts  as  an  absorbent  or  drier, 
retaining  the  fertilizing  properties  of  the  compound,  and  rendering  it 
easy  of  uniform  distribution.  If  whole  bones  are  used,  it  will  take 
six  "or  eight  weeks  to  dissolve  them;  if  they  are  broken  with,  an  axe, 
they  will  dissolve  in  about  three  weeks ;  if  they  are  ground  in  a  bone: 
mill,  four  days  will  be  sufficient.  This  manure  is  the  most  powerful 
fertilizer  in  existence;  and,  when  made  by  these  directions,  it  is  the- 
cheapest,  as  one  ton  is  equal  to  thirty-two  tons  of  barn-yard  manure. 
For  top-dressing  grass  lands,  use  300  Ibs.  per  aerej  for  eorni,  potatoes* 
beans,  turnips,  &c.,  apply  450  Ibs.  per  acre  in  the  drill,  mixing  with 
the  soil;  for  wheat,  rye,  oate.  or  barley,  400  Ibs.  per  acre,  harrow  ia 
with  the  seed;  for  buckwheat,  300  Ibs.  per  acre. 

SUPERPHOSPHATE  IN  TWENTY-FOUR  HOURS. — Any  farmer  who 
has  got  an  apparatus  for  steaming  food  for  cattle  can  make  super- 
phosphate in  quick  style  by  admitting  steam  from  the  boiler  into  the- 
barrel  containing  the 'water,  acid,  and  ground  bones.  The  heat  thus- 
generated  quickens  the  dissolution  of  the  bones  in  a  wonderful  man- 
ner; and,  if  the  process  is  properly  conducted,  it  will  not  take  over 
twenty-four  hours  in  any  case.  It  is  indispensable  that  the  barrel  be 
tighity  covered  to  retain  the  steam. 

FERTILIZER  FOR  TOBACCO. — Add  40  Ibs.  of  the  best  Peruvian 
guano  to  each  100  Ibs.  of  the  superphosphate  made  by  the  above' 
receipt,  and  you  will  have  one  of  the  most  powerful'  fertilizers  for 
tobacco  that  can  be  made.  If  you  do  not  have  Peruvian: guano,  use  in- 
stead 30  Ibs.  of  hen  manure  to  each  100  Ibs.  of  superphosphate. 

HOME-MADE  POUDRETTE. — Few  fertilizers  are  wasted  with  the 
prodigality  of  extravagance  which  attends  the  use  of  night  soil,  wMfe 
the  exercise  of  a  little  care  and  attention  is  all  that  is  required  tp> 
secure  one  of  the  most  powerful  fertilizers  in.  existence.  Night  soil, 
contains  phosphate  of  lime,  which  is  essential  to  the  growth,  of. 
animals'  bones,  and  which  is  not  supplied  from  the  atmosphere  like: 
carbonic  acid  and  amm  jnia.  In  order  to  receive  the  droppings  in  a 
manageable  and  inoffensive  state,  the  vault  should  be  provided  with. 
a  large,  tight  box  made  of  matched  plank,  placed  to  slide  on  scantling^ 
so  that  it  can  be  drawn  out,  by  attaching  a  horse,  whenever  required. 
Provide  plenty  of  dry,  black  loam  from  the  woods  or  swamps ;  refuse 
charcoal,  dry  peat,  or  alluvial  deposits  answer  first-rate.  Keep  them 
dry,  in  barrels  or  boxes  on  the  spot,  under  cover;  spread  a  thick  layer 
on  the  bottom  of  the  receiving  box,  and  at  intervals  of  a  few  days 
throw  in  a  liberal  supply  of  these  absorbents  on  the  accumulating  de- 
posit. If  a  few  handfuls  of  plaster  are  thrown  in  occasionally,  it  will 
suppress  unpleasant  odors  and  increase  the  valua  of  the  manore*. 


46  FARMERS7   RECEIPTS. 

'The  emptying  of  slops  and  dish  water  in  the  box  should  be  strictly 
prohibited.     When  the  box  is  filled,  you  can  remove  it,  and  convert 
it  into  poudrette.    For  this  purpose  it  must  be  worked  over  with  an 
additional  quantity  of  muck,  or  other  absorbent,  in  such  proportions 
that  it  will  form,  with  what  has  been  previously  added,  about  three- 
quarters  of  the  entire  compound.    The  working  should  be  done  under   . 
a  shed,  and  the  whole  kept  perfectly  dry.    It  should  be  shovelled  overj 
and  mixed  several  times  at  intervals,  and  finally  screened,  and  made  ( 
as  uniform  throughout  as  possible;  the  finer  it  is  pulverized,  and  the  ; 
drier  it  is  kept,  the  better. 

HOME-MADE  GUANO  OF  UNEQU ALLED  EXCELLENCE.— Save  all 
..your  fowl  manure  from  sun  and  rain.  To  prepare  it  for  use,  spread  a 
layer  of  dry  swamp  muck  (the  blacker  it  is  the  better)  on  your  bara 
floor,  and  dump  on  it  the  whole  of  your  fowl  manure;  beat  it  into  a 
fine  powder  with  the  back  of  your  spade ;  this  done,  add  hard  wood 
ashes  and  plaster  of  Paris,  so  that  the  compound  shall  be  composed  of 
the  following  proportions :  dried  muck,  4  bushels ;  fowl  manure,  2 
bushels;  ashes,  1  bushel;  plaster,  li  bushels.  Mix  thoroughly,  and 
spare  no  labor;  for,  in  this  matter,  the  elbow-grease  expended  will  be 
well  paid  for.  A  little  before  planting,  moisten  the  heap  with  water, 
or,  better  still  with  urine;  cover  well  over  with  old  mats,  and  let  it  lie 
till  wanted  for  use.  Apply  it  to  beans,  corn,  or  potatoes,  at  the  rate 
•  of  a  handful  to  a  hill ;  and  mix  with  the  soil  before  dropping  the  seed. 
This  will  be  found  the  best  substitute  for  guano  ever  invented,  and 
may  be  depended  on  for  bringing  great  crops  of  turnips,  corn, 
potatoes,  &c. 

To  DISSOLVE  LARGE  BONES  FOR  MANURE  WITHOUT  EXPENSE.— 
Take  any  old  flour  barrel,  and  put  into  the  bottom  a  layer  of  hard- 
wood ashes  ;  put  a  layer  of  bones  on  the  top  of  the  ashes,  and  add 
another  layer  of  ashes,  filling  the  space  between  the  bones  with  them  ; 
then  add  bones  and  ashes  alternately,  finishing  off  with  a  thick  layer 
•of  ashes.  When  your  barrel  is  filled,  pour  on  water  (urine  is  better. ) 
just  sufficient  to  keep  them  wet,  but  do  not  on  any  account  suffer  it 
to  leach  one  drop  ;  for  that  would  be  like  leaching  your  dungheap. 
In  the  course  of  time  they  will  heat,  and  eventually  soften  down  so 
lhat  you  can  crumble  them  with  your  finger.  When  sufficiently 
softened,  dump  them  out  of  the  barrel  on  a  heap  of  dry  loam,  and 
pulverize  and  crumble  them  up  till  they  are  completely  amalgamated 
into  one  homogeneous  mass  with  the  loam,  so  that  it  can  be  easily 
.handled  and  distributed  when  required.  You  may  rely  on  it,  thia 
:  ananure  will  leave  its  mark,  and  snow  good  results  wherever  used. 

SUBSTITUTE  FOR  SUPERPHOSPHATE.— If  you  have  inch  bone 
t  ground  in  a  bone-mill,  and  cannot  afford  to  purchase  sulphuric  acid 
to  work  it  up  into  superphosphate  of  lime,  you  can  reduce  your  bones 
;  into  a  fine  impalpable  powder  by  simply  using  three  barrels  of  loamy 
,Boil  to  every  barrel  of  inch  bones  ;  mix  them  together.  The  bones 
Tvill  soon  begin  to  heat  and  ferment,  and  continue  so  for  some  tune  ;, 
they  will  then  cool  off.  You  will  then  proceed  to  chop  down  and 
pulverize  and  work  the  mass  thoroughly  ;  it  will  begin  to  reheat  and 
ferment  and  cool  down  again  ;  and  you  will  continue  working  it  over 
till  the  contents  are  brought  to  the  proper  state  of  fineness,  when  you 
^will  have  a  fertilizer  of  astonishing  power.  It  is  only  a  year  or  two 
educe  A  statement  appeared  in  the  "  Country  Gentleman,"  of  th« 


4T 

experiments  of  a  Mr.  HASKELL  with  a  manure  prepared  after  this 
method,  who  found  it  even  superior  to  superphosphate  of  lime. 

HOW    TO    DOUBLE    THE    USUAL    QUANTITY    OF    MANURE    ON    A 

FARM. — Provide  a  good  supply  of  black  swamp  mould  or  loam  from 
the  woods,  within  easy  reach  of  your  stable,  and  place  a  layer  of  this, 
one  foot  thick,  under  each  horse,  with  litter  as  usual,  on  the  top  of 
the  loam  or  mould.  Remove  the  droppings  of  the  animals  every  , 
day,  bat  let  the  loam  remain  for  two  weeks  ;  then  remove  it,  mixing 
it  with  the  other  manure,  and  replace  with  fresh  mould.  By  this, 
simple  means,  any  farmer  can  double  not  only  the  quantity  but  also 
the  quality  of  his  manure,  and  never  feel  himself  one  penny  the 
poorer  by  the  trouble  or  expense  incurred,  while  the  fertilizing  val\:6 
of  the  ingredients  absorbed  and  saved  by  the  loam  can  scarcely  be 
estimated. 

Josiah  Quincy,  jun.,  has  been  very  successful  in  keeping  cattle  in 
gtables  the  year  through,  and  feeding  them  by  means  of  soiling. 
The  amount  of  manure  thus  made  had  enabled  him  to  improve  the> 
lertility  of  a  poor  farm  of  100  acres,  so  that  in  twenty  years  th"  ^ay- 
crop  had  increased  from  20  to  300  tons.  The  cattle  are  kept  in  a  *  _  J- 
arranged  stable,  and  are  let  out  into  the  yard  an  hour  or  two  morning 
and  afternoon  ;  but  they  generally  appear  glad  to  return  to  theif 
quarters.  By  this  process,  one  acre  enables  him  to  support  three  o>r 
four  cows,  they  are  fed  on  grass,  green  oats,  corn  fodder,  barley, 
&c.,  which  are  sown  at  intervals  through  the  spring  and  summer 
months,  to  be  cut  as  required  ;  but  he  remarks  that  his  most  valuable 
crop  is  his  manure  crop.  Each  cow  produces  3^  cords  of  solid,  and 
3  cords  of  liquid  manure,  or  6^  cords  in  all.  Five  to  eight  miles  from 
Boston,  such  manure  is  worth  five  to  eight  dollars  a  cord.  From  this 
estimate,  he  has  come  to  the  conclusion  that  a  cow's  manure  may  be 
made  as  valuable  as  her  milk. 

TWENTY  DOLLARS'  WORTH  OF  MANURE  FOR  ALMOST  NOTHING. — 
If  you  have  any  dead  animal, — say,  for  instance,  the  body  of  a 
horse, — do  not  suffer  it  to  pollute  the  atmosphere  by  drawing  it  away 
to  the  woods  or  any  other  out  of  the  way  place,  but  remove  it  a  short 
distance  only,  from  your  premises,  and  put  down  four  or  five  loads 
of  muck  or  sods,  place  the  carcass  thereon,  and  sprinkle  it  over  with 
quick-lime,  and  cover  over  immediately  with  sods  or  mould  sufficient 
to  make,  with  what  had  been  previously  added,  20  good  wagon- 
loads  ;  and  you  will  have  within  twelve  months  a  pile  of  manure 
•worth  $20  for  any  crop  you  choose  to  put  it  upon.  Use  a  propor- 
tionate quantity  of  mould  for  smaller  animals,  but  never  less  than 
twenty  good  wagon-loads  for  a  horse  ;  and,  if  any  dogs  manifest 
toe  great  a  regard  for  the  enclosed  carcass,  shoot  them  on  the  spot. 

FISH  COMPOST,  SUBSTITUTE  FOR  BONE-DUST,  MANURE  FROM 
FISH  REFUSE,  &c.— The  fish  owes  its  fertilizing  value  to  the  anima.1 
raatter  and  bone-earth  which  it  contains.  The  former  is  precisely 
aimilar  to  flesh  or  blood,  consisting  of  25  per  cent,  of  fibrin,  the  rest 
being  water  ;  and  their  bones  are  similar  in  composition  to  those  of 
terrestrial  animals.  As  fertilizing  agents,  therefore,  the  bodies  of 
fishes  will  act  nearly  in  the  same  way  as  the  bodies  and  blood  of 
animals  ;  100  Ibs.,  in  decaying,  produce  2^  Ibs.  of  ammonia.  Hence 
400  Ibs.  of  fish  rotted  in  compost  are  enough  for  an  acre.  The  great 
effect  is  due  to  the  ammoniacal  portion  ;  for  it  render  the  herbage 


48  FARMERS'   RECEIPTS. 

dark-green,  and  starts  it  very  rapidly.  One  of  the  best  composts  if 
made  as  follows  :  Dried  bog-earth,  loam,  or  peat,  seven  barrels  ; 
hardwood  ashes,  two  barrels  ;  fish,  one  barrel ;  slaked  lime,  one 
bushel.  Place  a  thick  layer  of  the  bog-earth  on  the  bottom  ;  on  the 
top  of  this  put  a  layer  of  the  fish,  then  a  sprinkling  of  lime,  then  a 
a  layer  of  ashes  ;  on  top  of  the  ashes  put  a  thick  layer  of  bog-earth, 
loam,  or  peat ;  then  another  thin  layer  of  fish,  lime,  and  ashes,  au^ 
so  on  till  your  materials  are  worked  in  ;  then  top  off  with  a  thick 
^ayer  of  the  absorbents,  to  retain  the  fertilizing  gases.  The  decompo- 
sition of  the  fish  will  proceed  very  rapidly,  and  a  very  rich  compost 
will  be  the  result.  It  should  be  shovelled  over  and  over  and  thor- 
oughly intermixed  and  pulverized.  Put  this  on  so  as  to  have  400  Ibs. 
of  fish  to  the  acre.  It  mav  be  applied  with  the  greatest  benefit  to  corn, 
turnips,  potatoes,  bean*,  &c.,  in  the  drill,  and  broad  cast  on  the  grass. 

Superphosphate  can  be  made  from  pogy-chum,  or  the  refuse  of  other 
fish,  after  the  oil  is  expressed,  by  dissolving  in  sulphuric  acid,  and 
afterwards  mixing  with  dry  loam,  precisely  as  directed  for  making 
superphosphate  with  bones.  Whale-oil  or  the  oil  of  any  fish,  when 
made  into  a  compost  with  kr.m,  and  a  little  lime  or  wood  ashes, 
yields  a  very  powerful  manure,  merely  mixed  with  absorbent  earth 
and  applied  at  the  end  of  the  month.  Impure  whale-oil,  at  the  rato 
of  40  gallons  per  acre,  has  produced  a  crop  of  23£  tons  of  turnips  per 
acre  ;  while  on  the  same  soil,  and  during  the  same  season,  it  took  40 
bushels  of  bone-dust  to  produce  only  22  tons  per  acre. 

ASHES  FROM  SOIL  BY  SPONTANEOUS  COMBUSTION.— Make  your 
mound  21  feet  long  by  10^  feet  wide.  To  fire,  use  72  bushels  of  lime. 
First  a  layer  of  dry  sods  or  parings  on  which  a  quantity  of  lime  is 
spread,  mixing  sods  with  it;  then  a  covering  of  eight  niches  of  sods, 
on  which  the  other  half  of  the  lime  is  spread,  and  covered  a  foot  thit-K, 
*he  height  of  the  mound  being  about  a  yard.  In  twenty-four  hours 
*c  ivill  lake  fire.  The  lime  should  be  fresh  from  the  kiln.  It  is 
better  to  suffer  it  to  ignite  itself  than  to  effect  it  by  the  operation 
of  water.  When  the  fire  is  fairly  kindled,  fresh  sods  must  be  ap- 
nlied ;  but  get  a  good  body  of  ashes  in  the  first  place.  I  think  it 
may  be  fairly  supposed  that  the  lime  adds  full  its  worth  to  the 
quality  of  the  ashes,  and,  when  limestone  can  be  got,  I  would  ad- 
vise the  burning  a  small  quantity  in  the  mounds,  which  would  bo 
a  great  improvement  to  the  ashes,  and  would  help  to  keep  the  fire  in. 

SUBSTITUTE  FOR  BARN-MANURE. — Dissolve  a  bushel  of  salt  in 
water  enough  to  slack  5  or  6  bushels  of  lime.  The  best  rule  for  pre- 
paring the  compost  heap  is,  1  bushel  of  this  lime  to  1  load  of 
ewamp-muck,  intimately  mixed  ;  though  3  bushels  to  5  loads  make* 
a  very  good  manure.  In  laying  up  the  heap,  let  the  layer  of  muclti 
and  lime  be  thin,  so  that  decomposition  may  be  more  rapid  and 
complete.  When  lime  cannot  be  got,  use  unleached  ashes, — 3  or  4 
bushels  to  a  cord  of  muck.  In  a  month  or  six  weeks,  overhaul  and 
work  over  the  heap,  when  it  will  be  ready  for  use.  Sprinkle  the 
salt  water  on  the  lime  as  the  heap  goes  up. 

SHEEP-DIPPING  COMPOSITION. — Water,  1  gal. ;  benzine,  8  ounces ; 
cayenne  pepper,  2  ounces.  Mix  ;  make  what  quantity  you  require, 
using  these  proportions.  Dip  your  sheep  and  lambs  in  the  composi- 
tion, and  it  will  make  short  work  of  the  vermin. 

OAT  08  WHEAT  STKAW  MADE  EQUAL  TO  HAY.— Bring  10  gallon* 


FARMERS'  RECEIPTS. 

<vrater  to  a  boiling  heat  ;  take  it  off  the  fire,  and  add  to  it  at 
3  gallons  of  linseed  unground  ;  let  it  remain  till  it  gets  cold  ;  thei* 
empty  the  whole  into  a  cask  containing  44  gallons  of  cold  water, 
and  let  it  remain  for  forty-eight  hours.  At  the  end  of  that  time. 
.t  will  be  reduced  into  a  thin  jelly,  like  arrowroot.  Spread  out  3 
xm  straw,  and  sprinkle  it  over  regularly  with  the  whole  of  tho 
Liquid  from  the  cask.  The  stock  will  eat  it  up  as  clean,  and  keep 
as  fat  on  it,  quantity  for  quantity,  as  they  would  do  on  hay. 

DEATH  FOB  VERMIN  ON  PLANTS  on  ANIMALS. — Pour  a  gallon  of 
boiling  water  on  one  pound  tobacco  leaves,  strain  it  in  twenty  minutes ; 
for  vermin,  on  animals  or  plants,  this  decoction  is  certain  death. 

REMEDY  FOB  CURCULIO  IN  FRUIT  TREES. — Sawdust  saturated  in 
coal  oil,  and  placed  at  the  roots  of  the  tree,  will  be  a  sure  prevent- 
ive ;  or,  clear  a  circle  around  the  tree  from  all  rubbish  ;  fill  up  all 
little  holes  and  smooth  off  the  ground  for  a  distance  of  at  least  3 
feet  each  way  from  the  tree,  then  place  chips  or  small  pieces  of 
wood  on  the  ground  within  the  circle  :  the  curculio  will  take  refuge 
in  large  numbers  below  the  chips,  and  you  can  pass  around  in  the  * 
mornings  and  kill  them  off.  * 

GRAFTING  WAX.— Resin,  1  Ib. ;  bees-wax,  1  Ib. ;  with  tallow  or  lard 
sufficient  to  soften  until  it  can  be  readily  applied  with  thehand ;  melt 

To  CULTIVATE  TOBACCO.— To  raise  tobacco,  select  a  sheltered 
situation,  where  the  young  plants  can  receive  the  full  force  of  the 
sun  ;  burn  over  the  surface  of  the  ground  early  in  spring  (new  land  is 
best),  rake  it  well,  and  sow  the  seeds  :  have  a  dry,  mellow,  rich  soil, 
and  after  a  shower,  when  the  plants  have  got  leaves  the  size  of  a 
quarter-dollar,  transplant  as  you  would  cabbage  plants,  3^  feet  apart, 
and  weed  out  carefully  afterwards.  Break  off  the  suckers  from  the 
foot-stalks,  as  they  appear  ;  also  the  tops  of  the  plants  when  they  are 
well  advanced, — say,  about  three  feet  high, — except  those  designed 
for  seed,  which  should  be  the  largest  and  best  plants.  The  ripeness 
of  tobacco  is  known  by  small  dusky  spots  appearing  on  the  leaves. 
The  plants  should  then'be  cut  near  the  roots,  on  the  morning  of  a  day 
of  sunshine,  and  should  lie  singly  to  wither.  When  sufficiently 
withered,  gather  them  carefully  together,  and  hang  them  up  under 
cover  to  cure  and  prepare  for  market. 

To  PRESERVE  POTATOES  FROM  ROT.— Dust  over  the  floor  of  tho 
bin  with  lime,  and  put  in  about  6  or  7  inches  of  potatoes,  and  dust 
With  lime  as  before,  then  more  potatoes,  using  about  1  bushel  of  lime, 
to  40  bushels  of  potatoes.  The  lime  improves  the  flavor  of  the  pota- 
toes, and  effectually  kills  the  fungi  which  causes  the  rot. 

An  old  veteran  farmer,  with  63  years'  experience,  has  successfully, 
fought  the  potato  rot  in  the  ground,,  as  follows :  He  plants  them  iaj 
the  latter  part  of  April,  or  beginning  of  May,  and  in  the  old  of  the 
moon.  When  six  inches  high  they  are  plastered  and  dressed  out 
nicely.  Now  for  the  secret.  When  blossoming,  take  2  parts  plaster, 
and  1  part  fine  salt,  mix  well  together,  and  put  1  large  spoonful  of 
this  compound  as  near  the  centre  of  each  hill  as  possible.  When 
ripe,  take  them  out  of  the  ground,  have  them  dry  when  put  in  Uie 
cellar,  and  keep  them  in  a  dry,  cool  place. 

PACKING  FRUITS  FOB  LONG  DISTANCES. — Take  a  box  of  the  prope^ 
size,  soft  paper,  and  sweet  bran.  Place  a  layer  of  bran  on  the 
bottom,  then  each  bunch  of  grapes  is  held  by  the  hand  over  a 


00  FARMERS'  RECEIPTS- 

iheet  of  the  paper ;  the  four  corners  of  the  paper  are  brought  up 
to  the  stalk  and  nicely  secured  ;  then  laid  on  its  side  in  the  box, 
and  so  on  until  thti  firs*  layer  is  finished.  Then  dust  on  a  layer  ol 
bran,  giving  the  box  a  gentle  shake  as  yon  proceed.  Begin  the^ 
second  layer  as  the  firstj,  and  so  on  until  the  whole  is  full.  The 
bloom  of  the  fruit  is  thus  preserved  as  fresh,  at  the  end  of  a 
journey  of  50§  miles,  as  if  they  were  newly  taken  from  the  tree* 
Never  fails  to  preserve  grapes,  peaches,  apricots,  and  other  fruit.  <  » 

THOBLEY'S  CONDIMENT  AL  FOOD.— The  following  is  a  formula  to 
make  1  ton  of  the  food :  take  of  Indian  meal  900  Ibs. ,  locust  beans  finely    . 
ground  600  Ibs.,  best  linseed  cake  300  Ibs.,  powdered  turmeric  and 
sulphur  of  each  40  Ibs.,  saltpetre  20  Ibs.,  licorice  27  Ibs.,  ginger  3  Ibs.,  , 
anise-seed,  4  Ibs.,  coriander  and  gentian  of  each  10  Ibs.,  cream  of  tartat 
2  Ibs.,  carbonate  of  soda  and  levigated  antimony  each  6  Ibs.,  common 
ealt  30  Ibs.,  Peruvian  bark  4  Ibs.,  fenugreek  22  Ibs.,  mix  thoroughly. 

CURE  FOB  SWELLED  BAGS  IN  Cows.— An  excellent  remedy  for 
swelled  bags  in  cows,  caused  by  cold,  etc.,  is  gum  camphor  i  oz.,  to 
^weet  oil  2  ozs. ;  pulverize  the  gum,  and  dissolve  over  a  slow  fire. 

To  INCREASE  THE  FLOW  OF  MILK  IN  Cows. — Give  your  cowa 
tiiree  times  a  day,  water  slightly  warm,  slightly  salted,  in  which  bran 
uas  been  stirred  at  the  rate  of  1  qt.  to  -2  £als.  of  water.  You  will  find 
J.  you  have  i*^  tried  this  daily  practice,  that  the  cow  will  give  25  per 
sent,  more  milk,  and  she  will  become  so  much  attached  to  the  diet 
that  she  will  refuse  to  drink  clear  water  unless  very  thirsty,  but  thia 
mess  she  will  drink  at  almost  any  time,  and  ask  for  more.  The 
amount  of  this  drink  necessary  is  an  ordinary  water-pail  full  each 
time,  morning,  noon,  and  night.  Avoid  gi  ring  cows  "  Flops,"  as  they 
are  no  more  fit  for  the  animal  than  the  human. 

HOME-MADE  STUMP  MACHINE.— Take  3  pieces  of  common  joints, 
put  them  together  in  form  like  a  common  harrow,  letting  the  tapering 
ends  lap  by  each  other  some  6  inches,  making  a  place  for  the  chain  to 
rest  in.  Cut  off  the  roots  at  any  distance  you  please  from  the  stumps 
place  the  machine  at  one  side  of  the  stump,  tapering  end  up;  hitch  the 
chain  on  the  opposite  side  and  pass  it  over  the  machine  ;  then  hitch  a 
good  yoke  of  oxen  thereto,  ana  you  will  see  the  stump  rise.  Another 
method  is  as  follows :  in  the  fall  of  the  year  bore  a  1-inch  hole  18 
inches  deep  into  the  centre  of  the  stump,  and  put  in  1  oz.,  of  saltpetre, 
filling  up  with  water,  and  plugging  the  hole  up.  In  the  spring  take 
out  the  plug,  put  in  half  a  gill  of  kerosene  and  set  fire  to  it.  It  will  burn 
out  the  stump,  to  the  farthest  root.  Here  is  another  plan :  in  the  fall, 
with  an  inch  auger,  bore  a  hole  in  the  centre  of  the  stump  10  inches 
deep,  and  put  into  it  a  £  Ib.  of  vitriol,  and  cork  the  hole  up  very  tight. 
In  the  spring  the  whole  stump  and  roots  extending  all  through  their 
ramifications  will  be  found  so  rotten  that  they  can  be  easily  eradicated. 

To  SPBOUT  ONIONS.— Pour  hot  water  on  the  seed,  let  it  remain  fc 
or  3  seconds,  and  they  will  immediately  sprout,  and  come  up 
much  earlier. 

To  RENEW  OLD  ORCHARDS.— Early  hi  the  spring,  plough  ths 
entire  orchard,  and  enrich  the  whole  soil  with  a  good  dressing  of 
compost  of  manure,  swamp-muck,  and  lime  ;  scrape  off  the  old 
bark  with  a  deck-scraper,  or  a  sharp  hoe  ;  apply  half  a  bushel  ot 
lime,  and  the  same  of  ground  charcoal  round  each  tree.  Then 
diluted  soft  soap,  or  strong  soap-suds,  on  the  trunks  and 


FARMERS'  RECEIPTS.  5f 

ttmbe,  as  h^gh  as  a  man  can  reach.  When  the  trees  are  in  fuB 
bloom,  throw  over  t'rem  a  good  proportion  of  fine  slaked  limeij 
and  you  will  reap  abundant  fruits  from  your  labors. 

To  DESTROY  THE  MOTH  OR  MILLER.—  Dr.  Waterman  pays,  "I  rook 
two  white  dishes  (because  white  attracts  their  attention  in  the 
night)  or  deep  plates,  and  placed  them  on  the  top  of  the  hives, 
and  filled  them  about  hal>full  of  sweetened  vinegar.  The  next 


about  200." 

To  KEEP  MILK  SWEET,  AND  SWEETEN  SOUR  MILK.  —  Put  into  th^ 
tnilk  a  small  quantity  of  carbonate  of  magnesia. 

To  MAKE  CHEAP  AND  GOOD  VINEGAR.  —  To  eight  gallops  of  cLsar 
ram-water,  add  6  quarts  of  molasses  ;  turn  the  mixture  into  a 
clean,  tight  cask,  shake  it  well  twe  or  three  times,  and  add  1  pt. 
of  good  yeast.  Place  the  cask  in  a  warm  place,  and  in  ten  or 
fifteen  days  add  a  sheet  of  common  wrapping-paper,  smeared  with 
molasses,  and  torn  into  narrow  strips  ;  and  you  will  have  good  vinegar. 
The  paper  is  necessary  to  form  the  "  mother,"  or  life  of  the  liquor. 

MR.  CULLEY'S  RED  SALVE,  TO  CURE  THE  ROT  IN  SHEEP.  —  Mix  4 
oz.  of  the  best  honey,  2  oz.  of  burnt  alum  reduced  to  powder,  and 
£  a  pound  of  Armenian  bole,  with  as  much  train  or  fish  oil  as  will 
convert  these  ingredients  into  the  consistence  of  a  salve.  The  honey 
must  first  be  gradually  dissolved,  when  the  Armenian  bole  must  be 
Etirred  in  ;  afterwards  the  alum  and  train-oil  are  to  be  added. 

To  IMPROVE  THE  WOOL  OP  SHEEP,  BY  SMEARING.—  Immediately 
after  the  sheep  are  shorn,  soak  the  roots  of  the  wool  that  remains  all 
over  with  oil,  or  butter,  and  brimstone  ;  and,  3  or  4  days  afterward, 
•wash  them  with  salt  and  water.  The  wool  of  next  season  will  not  be 
much  finer,  but  the  quantity  will  be  in  greater  abundance.  It  mar 
be  depended  upon,  that  the  sheep  will  not  be  troubled  with  the  scab 
or  vermin  that  year.  Salt  water  is  a  safe  and  effectual  remedy 
>gainst  maggots. 

To  MARK  SHEEP  WITHOUT  INJURY  TO  THE  WOOL.—  To  30  spoonf  ol» 
of  linseed  oil,  add  2  oz.  of  litharge,  1  oz.  of  lampblack  ;  boil. 
all  together,  and  mark  the  sheep  therewith. 

To  PREVENT  THE  FLY  IN  TURNIPS.—  From  experiments  lately 
made,  it  has  been  ascertained  that  lime  sown  by  hand,  or  dis- 
Mbuted  by  a  machine,  is  an  infallible  protection  to  turnips  against 
fce  ravages  of  this  destructive  insect.  It  should  be  applied  a* 
toon  as  the  turnips  come  up,  and  in  the  same  daily  rotation  in 
which  they  were  sown.  The  lime  should  be  slaked  immediately 
before  it  is  used,  if  the  air  be  not  sufficiently  moist  to  render  that 
operation  unnecessary, 

COLORING  FOR  CHEESE.  —  The  coloring  for  cheese  is,  or  at  least 
ehould  be,  Spanish  annatto  ;  but,  as  soon  as  coloring  became 
general  in  this  country,  a  color  of  an  adulterated  kind  was  exposed 
if  or  sale  in  almost  every  shop.  The  weight  of  a  guinea  and  a  hall 
of  real  Spanish  annatto  is  sufficient  for  a  cheese  of  fifty  pounds' 
weight.  If  a  considerable  part  of  the  cream  of  the  night's  roilk 
be  taken  for  butter,  more  coloring  will  be  requisite.  The  leaner 
£b«  cheese  is,  the  more  coloring  it  requires.  The  manner  of  using: 


.annatto  is  to  tie  up  in  a  linen  rag  the  quantity  deemed 
•and  put  it  into  \  pt.  of  warm  water  over  night.  This  infusion  i* 
put  into  the  tub  of  milk  in  the  morning  with  the  yennet  infusion : 
dipping  the  rag  into  the  milk,  and  rubbing  it  against  the  palm  of 
the  hand  as  long  as  any  color  runs  out.  The  yolk  of  egg  will 
color  butter. 

THE  GREAT  SECRETS  FOR  TRAPPING  FOXES  AND  OTHER  GAME.— 
Musk-rat  musk  and  skunk  musk  mixed.  Can  be  procured  at  the 
druggists,  or  from  the  animals  themselves.  To  be  spread  on  the  bait 
of  any  trap.  This  receipt  has  been  sold  as  high  as  $75.  Another, 
costing  $50,  for  minks,  &c. — Unslaked  lime,  £  Ib.  ;  sal-ammoniac, 
Soz.,  or  muriate  of  ammonia,  3  oz.  Mix,  and  pulverize.  Keep  in 
a  covered  vessel  a  few  days  until  a  thorough  admixture  takes 
place.  Sprinkle  on  the  bait,  or  on  the  ground  around  the  trap. 
Keep  in  a  corked  bottle. 

FOOD  FOR  SINGING  BIRDS. — Blanched  sweet  almonds,  pulverized, 
J  Ib.  ;  pea  meal,  1  Ib.  ;  saffron,  3  grs.  ;  yolks  of  2  hard  boiled  egg?- 
Reduce  all  to  a  powder  by  rubbing  through  a  sieve.  Place  the  rup- 
ture in  a  frying  pan.  over  a  fire,  and  add  2  oz.  butter  and  2  oz. 
Loney.  Slightly  cook  for  a  few  minutes,  stirring  well,  then  set  off 
to  cool,  and  preserve  in  a  closely  corked  bottle. 

MUCH  BUTTER  FROM  LITTLE  MILK. — Take  4  ozs.  pulverized  alum, 
•$  OB.  pulverized  gum-arabic,  50  grs.  of  pepsin  ;  place  it  in  a  bottle  for 
tise  as  required.  A  teaspoonful  of  this  mixture  added  to  1  pt.  of 
new  milk  will,  upon  churning,  make  3  ty»  of  butter.  Agents  are  sell- 
ing this  secret  for  $5. 

COMPOSITION  FOR  DRIVING  our  RATS,  ETC.— Keep  on  hand  a 
•quantity  of  chloride  of  lime.  The  whole  secret  consists  in  scattering 
it  dry  all  around  their  haunts  and  into  their  holes,  and  they  will  leave 
•at  once,  or  a  fibera!  decoction  of  coal  tar  placed  in  the  entrance  of 
their  holes  will  do  as  well. 

How  TO  FORM  SPRINGS. — The  finest  springs  can  be  made  by  boring, 
•which  is  performed  by  forcing  an  iron  rod  into  the  earth  by  its  own 
weight,  turning  it  round,  and  forcing  it  up  and  down  by  a  spring- 
pole  contrivance.  The  water  will  sometimes  spout  up  several  feet 
.above  the  surface.  Iron  pipes  are  put  down  in  the  hole  after  the 
water  is  found.  Depressed  situations,  having  a  southern  exposure, 
-with  rising  ground  towards  the  north,  are  the  best  situations  in  the 
United  States  or  the  Canadas  to  find  water. 

To  BURN  LIME  WITHOUT  A  KILN.— Make  a  pyramidal  pile  of  large 
limestones,  with  an  arched  furnace  next  the  ground  for  putting  in 
the  fuel,  leaving  a  narrow  vent  or  funnel  at  the  top  ;  now  cover  thf 
whole  pile  with  earth  or  turf,  in  the  way  that,  charcoal  heaps  aiS 
covered,  and  put  in  the  fire.  The  heat  will  oe  more  completely 
diffused  through  the  pile,  if  the  aperture  in  the  top  is  partially  closed. 
Produces  a  superior  article  of  lime. 

EYE  WATER  FOR  HORSES  AND  CATTLE,— Alcohol,  1  tablespoonful; 
extract  of  lead,  1  teaspoouful ;  rain  water,  £  pint. 

To  DESTROY  Mosa  ON  TREES. — Paint  them  with  white- wash  made 
of  quick  lime  and  wood  ashes. 

To  PROTECT  FRUIT-TREES  FROM  ATTACK  OF  MICE,  ETC.  —Tar,  1 
part ;  tallow,  3  parts  i  mix.  Apply  hot  to  the  bark  of  the  tree  with  a- 
ttaint  brush- 


FARMERS"   RECEIPTS.  5$ 

POINTS  OP  A  GOOD  HORSE.— He  should  be  about  15£  handg  high 
fte  head  light  and  clean  made,  wide  between  the  nostrils,  and  th« 
-nostrils  themselves  large,  transparent  and  open  ;  broad  in  the  fore- 
iiead,  eyes  prominent,  clear  and  sparkling  ;  ears  small  and  neatly  set 
on  ;  neck  rattier  short  and  well  set  up  ;  large  arm  or  shoulder,  well 
thrown  back,  and  high  ;  withers  arched  and  high  ;  legs  fine,  Mat, 
thin  and  small-boned  ;  body  round  and  rather  light,  though  suffi- 
ciently large  to  afford  substance  when  it  is  needed  ;  full  chest,  afford- 
ing play  for  the  lungs  ;  back  short,  with  the  hind-quarters  set  on 
rather  obliquely.  A  good  draught  horse  should  have  a  rather  large, 
well-shaped  head,  a  clean,  long  ear,  full  eye,  neck  rather  long,  but 
not  too  much  arched  ;  strong  withers,  lying  well  forward  to  catch 
the  collar  at  the  proper  angle  for  draught,  and  broad  shoulders,  well 
spread  into  the  back,  back  very  straight,  ribs  long  and  well  rounded, 
hind-legs  bent  at  the  hock,  fore-legs  forward,  hind-quarters  some- 
what round,  but  not  sufficiently  to  make  them  look  short  ;  the  mane 
-and  tail  of  short,  but  not  coarse  hair,  and  with  a  fetlock  about  two 
inches  long,  broad  knees,  long  hocks,  short  shanks,  and  hard  ankles 
or  fetlock  joints,  and  round  hoofs,  well  opened  behind,  and  the 
nearer  you  approach  this  description  the  nearer  the  horse  will  be  to 
•perfection. 

THE  EPIZOOTIC.— The  early  symptoms  of  the  disease  are  a  light, 
hacking  cough,  with  a  general  dulness,  and  an  indisposition  to  move  ; 
•cold  legs,  with  a  watery  discharge  from  the  nostrils.  At  first,  tho 
nasal  membrane  is  pale,  but,  as  the  disease  advances,  becomes  highly 
•colored,  and  the  mucous  discharge  changes  to  a  greenish  yenow 
color,  and  the  pulse  becomes  more  rapid.  As  soon  as  the  symptoms 
.appear,  the  animal  should  be  kept  warm  in  the  stable,  by  blanketing 
The  following  prescriptions  are  recommended  :  No.  1  —  Linseed  oil 
1£  ozs. ;  turpentine,  1^  ozs. ;  liquor  ammonia  fort.,  1  oz.  Mix  ak 
-together,' and  apply  to  the  throat.  No.  2  — Nitrate  potash,  \\  ozs.; 
tartarized  antimony,  1|  ozs. ;  digitalis,  1|  ozs.  Pulverize  all  to- 
.gether,  and  give  one  nteht  and  morning.  If  not  ^ery  bad,  the  digi- 
talis may  be  omitted.  The  disease  consists  of  an  inflammation  cf 
-the  mucous  membrane  lining  the  throat,  which  gradually  extends 
from  the  epiglottis  downwords  till  it  reaches  the  lungs,  when  it 
-assumes  a  decidedly  dangerous  character.  The  following  will  arresfl 
the  disease  at  once,  if  taken  in  time :  Boil  a  handful  of  smart-weed  til' 
all  the  strength  is  obtained,  and  pour  the  liquid  boiling-hot  over  th< 
usual  mess  of  oats,  and,  when  all  is  coJd,  feed  them  to  the  hors* 
Repeat  till  all  symptoms  disappear.  Ci  re  certain.  Ground  ginge. 
mixed  with  the  oats,  has  also  proved  effectual. 

AGE  OF  HORSES.—  By  Teeth.— A.  horss  has  40  teeth,  24  double 
teeth,  or  grinders,  4  tushes,  or  single  file  teeth,  and  12  front  teeth 
called  gatherers.  As  a  general  thing,  mares  have  no  tushes.  Be- 
tween 2  and  3  years  old,  the  colt  sheds  his  four  middle  teeth,  2  above 
and  2  below.  After  3  years  old,  2  other  teeth  are  shed,  1  on  each 
%  side  of  those  formerly  changed  ;  he  now  has  8  colt's  teeth  and  8 
horse's  teeth;  when  4  years  of  age  h»a  cuts  4, new  teeth.  At  5  years 
of  age,  the  horse  sheds  his  remaining  colt's  teeth  4  in  number,  when- 
Jris  tushes  appear.  At  6  years  of  age  his  tushes  are  up,  appeal 
*rhite,  imall  and  sharp,  while  a  small  circle  of  young  growing  te 


54  FARMERS'  RECEIPTS. 

are  observable.    Tne  mouth  is  now  complete.    At  8  years  of  age  th* 
teeth  have  filled  up,  the  horse  is  aged  and  his  mouth  is  said  to  fce  f  ufl. 

By  Eyelid. — After  a  horse  is  9  years  old,  a  wrinkle  comes  on  the 
eyelid  at  the  upper  corner  of  the  lower  lid,  and  every  year  thereafter 
he  has  one  well  defined  wrinkle  for  each  year  over  9.  If,  for  instance, 
a  horse  has  three  of  these  wrinkles,  he  is  12  ;  if  4,  he  is  13.  Add  the 
number  of  wrinkles  to  9,  and  you  will  invariably  judge  correctly  of  a 
horse's  age. 

Those  who  manage  horses  should  be  careful  never  to  inflict  any 
unnecessary  pain,  for  it  is  only  by  the  law  of  kindness  that  a  horse 
can  be  trained  and  managed.  No  man  ever  yet  struck  a  horse,  but 
he  made  the  horse  the  worse  for  it.  Patience  and  kindness  will  ac- 
complish in  every  instance  what  whipping  will  fail  to  do.  Horses 
having  a  vicious  disposition  are  invariably  made  so  from  cruel  treat- 
ment. Horses  are  designed  to  work,  and  daily  labor  for  them  is  as 
much  a  necessity  to  their  existence  as  to  that  of  man's.  It  is  not  the 
hard  drawing  and  ponderous  loads  that  wear  out  horses  and  make 
them  poor,  balky  and  worthless;  but  it  is  the  hard  driving,  the  worry 
by  rough  and  inhuman  drivers,  that  uses  up  more  horse  flesh,  fat  and 
muscle  than  all  the  labor  a  team  performs.  Another  great  reason 
wh*T  there  are  so  few  really  sound  animals  is  because  of  their  being 
put  to  work  too  soon.  Horses  are  noj  developed  until  they  are  5,  6  or 
7  years  olr1,  and  they  should  do  very  little  work  until  they  reach  that 
period.  When  a  horse  is  worked  hard  its  food  should  chiefly  be  oats; 
if  not  worked  hard  its  food  should  chiefly  be  hay;  because  oats  supply 
more  nourishment  and  flesh  making  material  than  any  other  food; 
hay  not  so  much. 

ARTIFICIAL  RUBBER  FROM  MILKWEEU. — The  juice  or  sap  is  express- 
ed from  the  milk-weed  by  running  it  between  iron  roller"  and  then 
allowing  it  to  ferment  or  evaporate  to  the  consistency  of  thin  molasses. 
It  may  then  be  slowly  boiled  to  reduce  it  to  a  thick  mass  which  may- 
be treated  in  the  usual  way  of  manufacturing  the  genuine  rubber. 
Sec  Boot,  Shoe  and  Rubber  Manufr's  Dep't. 

To  PICKLE  MEAT  ix  OXE  DAY. — Get  a  tub  nearly  full  of  rain  or 
river  water,  and  put  two  pieces  of  thin  wood  across  it  and  set  the  beef 
on  them  at  about  the  distance  of  1  inch  from  the  water.  Heap  as 
much  salt  as  will  stand  on  the  beef  and  let  it  remain  24  hours,  then 
take  off  the  beef  and  boil  it,  and  you  will  find  it  is  completely  impreg- 
nated by  the  salt,  the  water  having  drawn  it  through  the  meat. 

BAROX  LIEBIG'S  GREAT  FERTILIZER.— Dry  peat,  20  bushels,  un- 
leached  ashes,  3  bushels,  fine  bone  dust,  3  bushels,  calcined  plaster, 
3  bushels,  nitrate  of  soda,  40  Ibs.,  sulphate  of  ammonia,  33  Ibs.,  sul- 
phate of  soda,  40  Ibs.  Mix  numbers  1,  2  and  3  together,  then  mix 
numbers  5,  6  and  7  in  5  buckets  of  water.  When  dissolved,  add  the 
liquid  to  the  first,  second,  and  third  articles.  When  mixed,  add  the 
fourth  article.  This  is  a  cheap  and  efficient  fertilizer,  and  this  quan- 
tity applied  to  one  or  two  acres  of  turnips,  beets  oats,  corn,  wheat* 
grapes,  &c.,  will  bring  abundan'  returns. 

AXOTHER  CHEAP  FERTILIZES. —  Ammonia,  60  Ibs.;  nitrate  of  soda, 
40  Ibs. ;  ground  bone,  250  Ibs. ;  i  laster,  250  Ibs. ;  salt  |  bushel ;  wood* 
Mhes,  3  bushels ;  stable  manure  20  bushels.  Use  the  above  quantity 
on  6  acres.  Labor  included,  it  will  cost  about  $15,  in  some  placet 
less,  and  is  equivalent  in  value  te>  so«ae  fertilizers  which  cost  $50  01 
4J10  sterling  per  ton. 


FARMERS*   RECEIPTS.  55 

To  PROTECT  SHEEP  FROM  THE  GAD  FLY. — In  August  and  Sep- 
tember this  fly  lays  its  eggs  in  the  nostrils  of  sheep,  where  they  are 
hatched  and  the  worms  crawl  into  the  head,  and  very  frequently  eat 
through  the  brain.  In  this  way  many  sheep  are  destroyed.  As  a 
protection,  smirch  their  nose*  with  tar.  Lay  some  tar  in  a  troughaor 
on  a  board,  and  strew  fine  sMt  on  it.  The  sheep  will  finish  the  opena-  ' 
lion  The  tar  will  protect  tUsm,  and  what  they  eat  will  promote  theii  j 
health. 


PORTABLE  STEAM  ENGINE  ON  WHEELS. 


THRESHING  BY  STEAM  POWER.— A  4  horse  power  Portable  Engin« 
irith  6  inch  cylinder  ;  pressure  of  steam  45  Ibs.  per  square  inch,  revo- 
tations  140  per  minute,  has  threshed,  under  favorable  surroundings, 
320  bushels  per  day  of  10  hours,  coal  consumed  3  cwt  Another  engine 
of  5  horse  power  threshed  400  bushels,  coal  consumed,  4  cwt.  Ano- 
ther of  6  horse  power,  threshed  480  bushels,  coal  consumed  5  cwt. 
Anothsr  of  7  horse  power,  threshed  560 bushels,  coal  consumed  6  cwt 
Another  of  8  horse  power,  threshed  640  bushels,  coal  consumed  7  c\»t. 
Another  of  10  horse  power  threshed  800  bushels  per  day,  coal  consumed 
£  cwt  The  economy  of  these  performances  is  evident  at  a  glance, 


56  FARMERS'    RECEIPTS. 

and  even  if  much  less  work  than  the  above  were  effected,  it  is  evmen* 
that  such  an  engine  as  the  one  represented  above,  would,  if  mounted 
on  wheels,  prove  a  most  valuable  acquisition  to  any  neighborhood!, 
composed  of  thrifty  farmers,  who  might,  by  an  equitable  arrangement, 
fcecome  both  the  owners  and  beneficiaries  of  the  same.  Many  porte- 


He  engines  are  known  to  be  performing  excellent  service,  not  only  in 
threshmg  grain,  but  in  chaffing  straw,  hay,  &c.,  foodior  cattle,  cutting 
wood  for  f uel,and  sawing  logs  into  boards.  Among  other  late  inventions, 
we  have  one  as  novel  as  it  is  meritorious,  consisting  of  a  gelf-propell- 
UHJ  engine,  capable  of  moving  itself  from  one  locality  or  farm  to 


FARMERS'  RECEIPTS. 


57 


r,  together  with  the  necessary  fuel  and  water,  without  the  aid 
^f  horses.  An  excellent  view  of  this  most  useful  invention  is  pre- 
sented in  the  cut. 

EXCELSIOR  AXLE  GREASE.—  Tallow,  8  Ibs. ;  palm  oil,  10  Ibs. ;  plum- 
t>ago,  1  Ib. ;  heat  and  mix  well. 
PLOUGHING  TABLE.— SHOWING  THE  DISTANCE  TRAVELLED  BY  ± 

HORSE  IN  PLOWING  AN  ACRE  OF  LAND;    AND  THE  QUANTITE 

OF  LAND  CULTIVATED  PER  DAY,  COMPUTED  AT  THE  RATK  OF  16 

AND  18  MILES  PER  DAY  OF  9  HOURS. 


B'clui  of 
Funow 
•lice. 

Space  travel- 
led in  Plough- 
ing an  Acre. 

Extent  Ploughed 
per  Day. 

U'dth  of 
Furrow 
slice. 

Space  travel- 
led in  Plough- 
ing an  Acre. 

Extent  Ploughed 
per  Day. 

fo:he». 

Miles. 

18  Miles. 

16  Miles. 

Inches. 

Miles. 

18  MUe*. 

10  J/ife*. 

7 

14  1-2 

1  1-4 

1  1-8 

14 

1 

2  1-2 

2  1-4 

8 

12  1-2 

1  1-2 

1  1-4 

15 

6  1-2 

2  3-4 

2  2-5 

9 

11 

1  3-5 

1  1-2 

16 

6  1-6 

2  9-10 

2  3-5 

10 

9  9-10 

1  4-5 

1  3-5 

17 

5  3-4 

3  1-10 

2  3-4 

11 

9 

2 

1  3-4 

18 

5  1-2 

3  1-4 

2  9-10 

12 

8  1-4 

2  1-5 

1  9-K 

19 

5  1-4 

3  1-2 

3  1-16 

13 

7  1-2 

2  1-3 

'_>  1-U 

20 

4  9-10 

3  1-5 

3  1-4 

RAPID  RULE  TO  RECKON  COST  OF  HAY,  COAL,  &c.— Multiply  tha 
number  of  pounds  by  half  the  price  per  ton,  and  remove  the  decimal 
point  three  places  to  the  left.  Example :  What  is  the  cost  of  764  Iba. 
of  coal  at  $14  per  ton  ?  Ans. :  $5.318. 

Process:  764 

14-^2=     7 

5.348 

To  MEASURE  GRAIN.— RULE.— Level  the  grain;  ascertain  the  space 
it  occupies  hi  cubic  feet;  multiply  the  number  of  cubic  feet  by  8,  ti>d 
point  off  one  place  to  the  left. 

Example:  A  box  level  full  of  gram  20  ft.  long,  10  ft.  wid^  and 
•5  ft.  deep,  how  many  bushels  does  the  box  contain  ?  Ans.  8CH 
bushels. 

Process:  20xlOx5=1000x8-flO=800 


Or, 


1000ft. 
8 


800.0 

3T«,re. — Correctness  requires  the  addition  to  every  300  bushels  ot  l! 
*xtra  bushel. 

QUANTITY  OF  SEED  REQUIRED  FOR  A  GIVEN  NUMBER  OF  HILLS. 
OR  LENGTH  OP  DRILL. — Asparagus,  1  oz.  to  60 feet  drill;  beet,  1  oz.  to 
50  ft.  drill;  carrot,  1  oz.  to  180  ft.  drill;  endive,  1  oz.  to  150  ft.  drill; 
onion,  1  oz.  to  100  ft.  drill ;  parsley,  1  oz.  to  150  ft.  drill ;  parsnip,  1  oz. 
to  200  ft.  drill ;  radish  1  oz.  to  100  ft.  drill ;  spinach,  1  oz.  to  100  ft.  drill , 
turnip,!  oz.  to  150  ft.  drill;  peas,  1  qt.  to  100  ft.  drill ;  dwarf  beans,  1  <#. 
4o  150  hills;  corn,  1  qt.  to 200  hills;  cucumber,  1  oz.  to  50  hills;  water- 
tueloii.  1  oz.  to  30  hills;  muskmelon,  1  oz.  to  60  hills;  pumpkin,!  oz.  to 


58  FARMERS'  RECEIPTS. 

40  hills;  early  squash.  1  oz.  to 50  hills;  marrow  squash,  t  cz.  to  16hiSff 

PAllllA^P     1    O7     t"O    *~>00^   -»-»1rt-w%4-CT  .  rto  iiH-fl^-.Tf^'**     1     s^**     4-^   «>/\rvrt  «in«j .    «^i  — 

loz.  to  4000  plants; 
4000  plants,  pepper, 

QUANTITY  OF  SEED  REQUIRED  PER  ACRE,  AND  ACTUAL  WEIGHT 
OF  EACH  TO  THE  BUSHEL  — Wheat,  broadcast,  If  to  2  bushels;  ditto, 
in  drills,  1^  bushels,  weight  per  bushel,  60  Ibs ;  rye,  broadcast,  if 
"bushels,  weight  56  Ibs.;  oats,  broadcast,  2  bushels,  weight  33  Ibs.; 
timothy,  broadcast,  2  gals.,  45  Ibs.  per  bushel;  red  clover,  broadcast, 
3  to  4  gals.,  60  Ibs.  per  bushel;  white  clover,  broadcast,  8  Ibs.,  50  Ibs. 
per  bushel;  lucerne,  broadcast,  10  Ibs.,  54  Ibs.  per  bushel;  herd  or  red 
top,  broadcast,  1  to  \\  bushels,  14  Ibs.  per  bushel ;  bluegrass,  broad- 
cast, 1  to  1^  bushels,  14  Ibs.  per  bushel;  millet,  broadcast,  |  to  1 
bushel,  45  Ibs.  per  bushel;  Hungarian,  broadcast,  f  to  1  bushel,  5G 
Ibs.  per  bushel;  corn  in  hills,  1  to  l^gals.,  56  Ibs.  per  bushel;  tur- 
nips and  ruta  baga,  1  lb.,  50  Ibs.  ^er  bushel;  onion  sets,  28  Ibs.  per 
bushel. 

THE  VITALITY  OF  SEEDS  may  be  tested  by  placing  almost  any  of 
the  larger  seeds  or  grains  on  a  hot  pan  or  griddle ;  when  the  vitality 
is  perfect  the  grain  will  pop,  or  crack  open  with  more  or  less  noise. 
Whe.  "*  the  vitality  is  defective,  or  lost,  it  remains  immovable  in  the 
vessel.  A  celebrated  botanist's  recipe  for  improving  and  fertilizing 
all  kinds  of  seed,  consists  in  the  preparation  of  a  solution  of  lime, 
nitre,  and  pigeon's  dung  in  water,  and  therein  steeping  the  seed. 
Tested  on  wheat,  the  produce  of  some  of  these  grains  was  reported  at 
60,  70  and  80  stems,  many  of  the  ears  5  inches  long,  and  50  corns 
each,  and  none  less  than  40.  The  same  botanist  (Millar)  produced 
500  plants  from  1  grain,  and  576,840  grains,  weighing  47  Ibs.  Grams 
of  wheat  in  different  countries  yield  from  6,  10,  16,  and  even  30  to  1 : 
Cape  wheat  80  to  1.  Barley  yields  from  50  to  120.  Oats  increase- 
from  100  to  1000.  Wheat  and  millet  seed  germinate  in  one  day,  bar- 
ley in  7,  cabbage  in  10,  almond  and  chestnut  and  peaches  require  12: 
months,  and  rose  and  filbert  24.  A  field  of  wheat  buried  under  ant. 
avalanche  for  25  years,  proceeded  on  its  growth,  &c.,  as  soon  as  the 
snow  had  melted.  A  bulbous  root  found  in  the  hand  o."  a  mnmmy, 
above  2000  years  old,  lately  produced  a  plant.  Potatoes  planted  be- 
low 3  feet  do  not  vegetate;  at  Jj  foot  they  grow  quickest,  and  at  2,  are 
retarded  2 or  3  months. 

COMPOUND  FOR  REAVING  EXHAUSTED  ORCHARDS  — Sulphate  of 
potash,  30  Ibs. ;  sulphate  of  magnesia,  15  Ibs. ;  salt,  35  Ibs. ;  plaster  of 
Paris,  15  Ibs. ;  chloride  of  magnesia,  5  Ibs.  All  to  be  well  powdered 
and  mingled  with  barn  manure,  and  then  dug  in  around  the  roots  at 
the  rate  of  10  to  20  Ibs.  to  a  tree.  This  compound  is  assumed  to  re- 
store those  elements  to  the  soil  of  which  it  has  been  exhausted  during 
many  years  of  fruit  bearing,  and  the  secret  has  been  sold  to  hundreds 
iflt  extortionate  prices. 

;  ARTIFICIAL  MANURE. — The  compositicn  of  Dr.  Jeannel's  artificial 
/manure  for  pot  plants,  as  detailed  to  the  Central  Horticultural 
Society  of  France,  is  as  follows : — Nitrate  of  ammonia,  400  grammes 
(a  gramme  =  15  grains);  phosphate  of  ammonia,  200  grammes  ;  ni- 
trate of  potash,  250  grammes ;  hydrochlorate  of  ammonia,  50  gram- 
mes; sulphate  of  lime,  60  grammes ;  and  sulphate  of  iron,  40  gram- 
BM6.  One  gramme  or  15  grains  of  this  mixture  is  iissolved  in  a  life* 
of  water,  and  used  once  or  twice  a  week. 


FARMERS     RECEIPTS.  59 

EQUIVALENT  FERTILIZING  PKOPEKTIES  OF  VARIOUS  MANURES.- 
/  Ib.  guano  equals  38  Ibs.  cow  manure,  33 farm  yard  do.,  22  swiue  do- 
-21  horse,  14  human. 

SEED  OATS. — Place  your  oats  in  a  heap  at  the  leeward  end  of  the 
threshing  floor  on  a  day  when  a  gentle  breeze  is  blowing  through  the 
•barn.  Take  a  common  wooden  flour-scoop  and  throw  the  oats  against 
the  wind,  towards  the  other  end  of  the  floor.  A  few  minutes'  experi- 
ence will  enable  you  to  throw  them  so  that  they  will  fall  in  a  semi- 
circle at  a  nearly  uniiorm  distance  from  where  you  stand,  the  oats 
which  fall  farthest  are  the  best  for  seed,  and  are  to  be  carefully  swept 
together  as  fast  as  they  accumulate  hi  sufficient  quantities. 

SEED  WHEAT  should  not  only  be  thoroughly  cleaned  from  the 
*eeds  of  weeds,  but  small  grams  should  be  taken  out  with  a  separator 
or  suitable  fanning-  mill,  leaving  only  the  largest,  plumpest,  and  ear- 
liest ripened  kernels.  To  prevent  smut,  soak  the  seed  wheat  in  brine, 
and  then  dust  it  with  unslacked  lime;  this  will  prove  a  perfect  preven- 
tive. 

To  PRODUCE  THE  PEAR  IN  PERFECTION. — Pears  are  liable  to  crack 
when  the  trees  stand  in  soil  deficient  in  lime  and  potash.  These  es- 
sential elements  are  restored  to  exhausted  soil  by  the  application  of 
wood  ashes  at  the  rate  of  400  bushels  to  the  acre,  which  ensures  the 
renewal  of  the  proper  proportions  necessary  to  supply  the  require- 
ments, viz.,  40  per  cent,  of  potash  and  30  per  cent,  of  lime.  This  will 
check  the  cracking  of  the  fruit.  Tested.  Applied  to  the  roots  of  the 
trees  and  vegetables,  12  qts.  of  soot  mixed  with  1  hogshead  of  water, 
is  a  most  powerful  stimulant  of  growth  and  production.  A  paint  of 
soot  and  sweet  milk  applied  to  fruit  trees  will  keep  rabbits  off. 

SALT  AND  ITS  USES. — Salt  appears  to  be  as  necessary  for  vegetable 
life  as  it  is  to  animal  life.  Applied  in  combination  with  other  manures 
at  the  rate  of  2  cwt.  to  the  acre,  it  never  fails  to  produce  wonderful 
results  on  all  kinds  of  gram  and  vegetable  productions,  and  the  vor- 
acity shown  by  animals  for  salted  luiy  is  well  known. 

To  KILL,  THE  POTATO  BUG. — Mix  1  Ib.  Paris  green  with  10  Ibs. 
poor  flour  or  fine  whiting.  To  use,  take  a  circular  piece  of  wood  4  or 
5  inches  in  diameter  (it  may  be  cut  out  of  a  2  inch  plank),  insert  a  mop 
handle  in  the  centre,  tack  on  an  old  tin  can  with  one  end  removed  for 
4he  reception  of  the  block,  punch  the  other  end  with  holes  through 
which  to  silt  the  compound  on  the  hills  as  you  pass  along  the  rows, 
and  bore  a  hole  in  the  wooden  end  for  the  reception  of  the  mixture, 
and  fit  a  plug  to  secure  it.  The  compound  should  be  sifted  on  the 
hills  while  the  vines  are  wet  with  dew  or  rain. 

The  Striped  Bug  on  Cucumbers  and  Melons  maybe  destroyed,  1st, 
By  sifting  charcoal  dust  over  the  plants  3  or  4  times  in  succession. 
2nd.  Use  a  solution  of  1  peck  of  henhouse  manure  to  1J  gals,  water, 
and  sprinkle  the  plants  freely  with  it  after  sunset.  Chinch-buy s.— 
Place  any  old  rags  in  the  crotches  of  the  trees.  The  worms  Will  tako 
refuge  and  spin  in  the  old  rugs,  when  the  latter  may  be  thrown  in  boil- 
ing water.  Caterpillars. — Use  a  solution  of  1  part  in  500  of  sulphide  pi 
potassium,  sprinkle  on  the  tree  by  means  of  a  hand  syringe.  Curculio. 
—Make  a  very  strong  solution  of  water  and  gas  tar.  so  that  after 
standing  48  hours  it  will  be  powerful  and  dark  colored  like  creosote. 
On  the  appearance  of  the  curculio,  drench  the  tree  thoroughly  with  a 
liand-forcing  pump,  repeating  it  every  3  days  for  2  weeks,  and  d®- 
«troy  all  fallen  fruit 


60 


FARMERS'  RECEIPTS. 


To  RELIEVE  CHOKED  CATTLE.— In  choking,  the  accumulation  61 
gas  (chiefly  sulphuretted  hydrogen)  is  the  cause  of  the  animal'* 
death.  This  gas  can  be  decomposed  by  forcing  a  strong  solution  of 
salt  and  water  down  the  animal's  throat  ;  or,  force  the  beast  to  jump 
over  the  bars  of  a  gate  or  feiice.  When  she  touches  the  ground  on 
the  opposite  side,  the  obstruction  ^ill  be  ejected.  Another  way  is  to 
use  four  or  five  feet  of  f-inch  rubber  hose,  and  push  the  obstruction 
down. 

FARROW  Cows.— Feed  them  liberally,  and  they  will  give  rich  milk, 
though  perhaps  but  little  of  it.  Let  them  have  three  or  four  quarts 
of  meal  per  day  through  the  winter  and  spring,  and  do  not  stop  giv- 
ing it  when  the  grass  comes.  As  soon  as  it  dries  them  up,  they  will 
be  fit  for  the  butcher. 

To  COOK  FOOD  FOR  CATTLE. — To  Cook  Hay, — Cut  it,  wet  it  well, 
put  it  in  an  upright  tank  or  cask,  with  a  false  bottom  and  tight 
cover,  press  it  down  firmly,  and  pass  the  steam  in  under  the  false 
cover.  To  Cook  Com. — Soak  as  many  barrels,  half  full,  as  you  wish 
to  cook  x'rom  15  to  24  hours  ;  turn  on  steam  and  nook  until  done, 
and  the  barrels  will  be  full.  To  Make  Mash. — Fill  as  many  barrels, 
half  full  of  water,  as  you  wish  to  make  barrels  of  mush ;  bring  the 
v/ater  nearly  to  a  boil  by  passing  the  steam  to  the  bottom  ;  stir  into 
each  barrel  from  1|  to  if  bushels  of  meal  until  well  mixed  ;  then  cook 
until  done,  when  the  barrels  should  be  full.  To  Cook  Vegetables. — 
Fill  the  barrels  full,  and,  if  no  other  cover  is  at  hand,  chop  the  top 
fine  with  a  shovel ;  then  cover  them  up  with  meal  or  proven- 
der, and  cook  until  done  ;  have  holes  in  the  bottom  of  the  barrels 
to  carry  off  condensed  steam. 

To  FATTEN  SHEEP. — Sheep  will  fatten  readily  on  good  clover-hay 
ftlone,  if  the  hay  has  been  cut  in  full  bloom,  so  as  to  retain  all  its 
juices  before  they  are  turned  into  woody  fibre,  and  of  a  good  green 
color.  A  sheep  of,  say  120  Ibs.  live-weight,  will  consume  21  Ibs.  of 
clover-hay  per  week,  and  increase  in  weight  2  Ibs.  Allowing  that  it 
would  ordinarily  take  14  Ibs.  to  keep  it  in  good  stationary  condi- 
tion, an  expenditure  of  7  Ibs.  of  hay  extra  will  produce  l|  Ibs.  of, 
mutton,  worth  in  the  spring  10  cents,  — perhaps  more, — so  that  the 
hay  is  literally  realizing  to  the  farmer  at  the  rate  of  $30  or 
more  to  the  ton.  No  other  stock,  we  think,  will  give  a  return  foi 
the  trouble  of  fattening  like  this.  To  fatten  sheep  more  rapidly, 
the  daily  addition  of  a  small  quantity  of  oats  to  their  feed  will  pro- 
duce good  effects.  Keep  their  quarters  dry,  weJ-ventilated,  and 
abundantly  littered  with  clean  straw,  with  freedom  of  access  to  good 
'•water,  and  an  occasional  taste  of  salt.  The  health  of  sheep  during 
the  grazing  season  will  be  promoted  by  giving  the  sheep  tar  at  the 
rate  of  a  gill  a  day  for  every  20  sheep  ;  and,  if  given  pine  boughs 
once  or  twice  a  week,  they  will  create  appetite,  prevent  disease,  and 
increase  their  health.  The  best  sheep  to  keep,  both  for  wool  and  mut- 
ton, ia  the  American  Merino. 

HAY  RACKS  FOR  SHEEP. — The  cheapest  and  best  rack  for  sheep 
can  be  made  of  8  boards,  4  long  and  4  short  ones,  nailed  to  4 
posts,  forming  an  enclosure  12  or  more  feet  long,  as  the  case  may 
be,  and  32  inches  wide.  The  bottom  board  should  be  at  least  10 
inches  wide,  and  the  top  one  need  not  be  over  4,  with  a  space  be- 
tween of  from  6  to  8  inches,  depending  somewhat,  upon  the  size  of 
the  sheep  that  are  to  eat,  with  their  heads  through  thus  aperture. 


ON    BEE    KEEPING. 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  BEE  HIVES.— 
Few  departments  of  economy  and 
use  are  more  productive  of  utility, 
profit,  and  real  pleasure  than  that 
intelligent  management  of  the  hon- 
ey bee,  but  perhaps?  no  other  sub- 
ject is  less  understood  by  the  enor- 
mous masses  of  the  vast  population; 
who   in   every   grade   of  society, 
might  be    benefited  by  a  correct 
knowledge  of  the  subject.    In  order 
to  manage  bees  with  profit  it  is  ne- 
cessary to  discard  the  old  method  of 
suffocation  with  sulphur,  the  old 
barrels,   hollow  logs,  straw  hives, 
boxes,  &c.,  of  the  past,  and  keep- 
abreast  with  the  new  discoveries  of 
the  age.     All  that  is  required  for 
success  is  to  plan  well,  and  always 
work  in  harmony  with,  and  never 
against,  the  heaven  derived 
instincts  which  guide   th& 
marvellous  operation  of  this- 
wonderful  insect.      Fore- 
most among  the  appliances 
which  benefit  man  and  fa- 
cilitate the  labors  of    the 
"bees  we  would  mention  the- 
American  Movable  Comb 
Hive,  cuts  of  which  are  pre- 
sented herewith. 

Directions  for  making  the 
American  Hive.— The  bot- 
tom board  is  13J  inches 
wide,  18  inches  long  and  li 
niches  thick.  The  front  and 

Bff^fc H  back  are  14i  inches  wida 

and  19£  inches  long.  Tha 
8x10  observation  door  in 
the  back,  is  cut  out  with  a. 
'  buzz-saw,  3  inches  from  the  bottom,  and  thin  strips  I  in.  wide  are- 
tacked  on  the  sides  and  top  of  the  opening  even  with  the  outer  edr^e 
i  to  leave  an  £  in.  rabbet  on  the  inside  for  the  glass.    The  door  is  fin- 
-  ished  by  nailing  an  inch  clamp  on  end  and  sfde,  beveled  and  hung  to> 
I  the  clamp  above.     Both  front  and  back  have  a  rabbet  for  the  frame* 
I  on  the  inside,  across  the  top  4i  in.  wide  and  f  in.  deep,  and  the  same, 
'extend  down  the  edge  £  in.  wide,  against  which  the  moveable  side  ia 
'to  fit.    The  clamp  is  nailed  on  the  front  7i  in.  up  from  the  bottom,, 
and  the  1  £  in.  fly  holes  are  bored  3  ina.  from  centre  to  centre  just 
above  it. 

The  stationary  side  with  the  1J  in.  clamp  on  the  upper  end  is  19| 
Ins.  long  and  15  ins.  wide.    A  part  of  the  front  is  cut  off  3  ins.  fro«» 


€3  ON  BEE  KEEPING. 

the  bottom,  to  within  1§  in.  of  the  edge  next  to  the  movable  side,  and 
the  last  surface  is  leit  beveling  out  to  make  the  entrance  block  G, 
easy  of  removal,  which  is  12|  ins.  long,  to  the  beveled  point,  and 
2  ins.  wide,  and  beveled  each  side  and  between  the  1^  pillars,  l|  ins. 
up  on  the  outside,  and  §  in.  upon  the  inside,  and  the  edges  rounded 
off  to  leave  a  bee  passage  §  of  an  in.  high. — (See  entrance  block  hi  the  ' 
first  cut.) 

'    The  block  is  held  in  place  by  the  base  of  the  same  button  that 
tolds  the  entrance  slide,  B.    The  entrance  slide  B  is  !•}  ins.  wide,  15  , 
ins.  long,  and  f  in.  thick,  having  2  notches  fin.  high  and  1  in.  long,  •, 
cut  to  fit  the  pillars,  C,  when  closing  the  hive.  ^ 

A  movable  side  to  fit  over  the  open  part  of  the  hive,  (as  shown 
wide  open  in  cut)  secured  by  clamps,  is  16^  ins.  long,  and  14  ins.  wide 
•at  the  top  and  £  less  at  the  bottom  to  make  it  easy  to  remove. 

Bef  ore  nailing  the  body  of  tlie  hive  together,   nr.il  a  clamp  3  ins. 
-wide  and  12§  ins.  long  on  the-  under  side  of  the  bottom  board,  cross- 
wise to  prevent  it  from,  warping.     Use  wrought  nails  and  drive  them 
through  upon  a  heavy  iron  to  clinch  them,  and  nail  the  clamps  on 
the  front  and  back  in  the  same  manner.    Fasten  the  bottom  board  in 
« vice  and  nail  the  back  on  the  bevelled  end  just  even  with  the 
lower  part  of  the  observation  door,  and  use  tvro  or  three  long  brad 
nails  near  the  edge  next  to  the  moveable  side.    Next  nail  on  tho 
stationary  sido  firmly  to  the  back  and  bottom  board,  especially  at  the 
front  edge,  then  to  the  front  having  the  movable  side  in  place.    Is  ail 
the  clamp  on  the  upper  end  of  the  stationary  side,  nailing  through  tho  j 
•ends  into  the  front   and   back.    Next,   nail  the  strip  under   thej 
"bottom  board  next  the  movenLlo  side,  which  is  1-1  ins.  long  by  2|  ins.  I 
wide  at  the  back  end,  and  runs  to  a  point  at  the  other  end.    jtfail  th< 
1J  in.  clamps  on  the  ends  of  the  movable  siae,  when  the  two  hooka 
.and  metallic  buttons  are  screwed  on  the  edge  of  the  front  and  back 
«iter  painting.     When  finished  the  movable  side  isj  in.  shorter  thai  •• 
the  front  and  back,  to  avoid  killing  bees  that  may  be  on  the  stand  i 
when  closing  the  hive.    The  adjustable  bevelled  strips  rest  upon  tboj 
frame  rabbets  next  the  stationary  side,  and  holds  the  frames  over' 
against  the  movable  side- 
There  are  nine  of  the  mOv-iDie  comb  frames,  and  all  are  made; 
alike.    The  bees  pass  np  into  the  honey  boxes  through  slots  or  mor-, 
tises.    Each  of  the  two  slots  in  the  projecting  edge  of  tho  top  bars,  is 
Mn.  wide  and  2  ins.  long.  The  side  bars  are7-lCth  of  an  inch  thick,  12' 
in.  long  and  §  wide  being  sawed  from  lumber  that  thickness.    The  top 
bars  lack  J  in.  of  14  in.  inlenrrth,  and  lack  1-lGth  of  an  inch  of  li  ins.  in 
,width.   They  are  sawed  7-IGth  of  an  inch  thick  from  a  plank  which 
^hould  be  exactly  the  right  thickness  for  their  width. 

The  Improved  Comb  Guide,  which  the  bees  invariably  follow,  is 
constructed  in  a  manner  that  secures  straight  combs.  A  groove  is 
A  made  in  the  centre  of  the  lower  side  of  the  top  bar,  into  which  is  ill* 
verted  a  thin  strip  of  wood  having  its  lower  edge  coated  with  bees- 
wax. The  projecting  nails  in  the  side  bars  to  keep  the  frames  apart 
fhould  have  large  heads  and  be  driven  through  a  hole  in  an  iron  or 
•hard  piece  of  wood,  9-lGth  of  an  inch  thick.  The  frames  are  held  from 
the  walls  of  the  hive  by  a  triangular  strip  across  the  front,  5-16th 
In  thick,  and  the  one  on  the  back  is  not  nailed  on  until  the  glass  ism, 
3hen  it  is  dressed  to  give  the  frames  |  in.  piay  between  the  trian- 
gular strips. 


Ine  tops  and  bottoias  of  the  12  small  honey  "boxes  are  4J  x  GJ  ins. 
'  *nd  about  ^  in.  thick.  A  slot  H  x  3  ins.  is  c:vt  across  the  tops  and 
bottoms  of  all  except  the  tops  of  six  of  the  first  set  of  boxes.  The 
four  copier  posts  are  ff  in.  square  and  5  ins.  long.  The  end  glass  4  x 
5  £nd  side  glass  5xG  ins.  are  held  in  place  by  a  two  prong  narro\v 
strip  of  tin  through  the  corner  of  the  posts  and  the  prongs  bent  each 
way  over  the  glass. 

The  end  pieces  of  the  caps  are  15J  ins  long,  8J  ins.  wide  at  theendi 
#nd  102  ms-  wide  in  the  centre,  each,  having  a  1^  in.  hole,  covered  with 
wire  cloth  on  the  inside.  The  side  pieces  are  17  ins.  long  and  8£  wide' 
the  upper  edge  sawed  beveling  to  fit  the  roof  boards. 

The  roof  boards  are  20^  ins.  long,  and  each  11  ins.  wide,  with  the 


in  painting,  give  trie  Dives  one  coax  01  wmie  ana  wnen  ary,  putty 
and  paint  the  second  co;it ;  and  while  the  paint  is  fresh,  cloud,  with 
the  hive  hanging  upon  a  board  projecting  from  the  shop  wall,  6  feet 
from  the  floor,  by  passing  beneath  it  a  lighted  coal  oil  lamp  with  a 
:gmall  round  wick.  When  the  paint  «*  dry  screw  on  the  hooks  and 
buttons,  giving  each  a  tap  that  it  may  fit  the  movable  side  more 
closely. 

By  consulting  the  Painters  Department,  beginning  at  page  1C2,  the 
reader  will  find  an  immense  number  of  formula  for  compounding 
paints  of  every  description  at  the  lowest ,'  1st.  Many  of  these  will  bo 
admirably  adapted  for  painting  bee-hives  *n  -L;  beautiful  and  inex- 
pensive style. 

The  lumber  used  should  be  thoroTisrhr,  seasoned,  and,  after  both 
sides  are  dressed,  it  should  be,  to?  the  ijody  of  the  liivs,  £  in.  thk-k. 
In  the  cut,  the  bottom  joiird,  projects  in  front  of  the  hive,  making  a 
-convenient  alighting  board,  and  being  inclined,  if  kept  clean  by  the 
bees  during  the  working  season,  By  removing1  v^e  entrance  block, 
C,  a  large  opening  is  made  for  omening  out  litter  in  the  winter  or 
sarly  spring,  und  for  hiving  new  swanr^  By  the  use  of  the  small 
.glide,  B.  held  in  place  by  the  same  button,  the  entrance  can  be  con- 
tracted, if  necessary,  to  the  admission  of  a  single  bee,  thus  effectual- 


ine  puiars.  xsy  means  01  ine  movaoie  »iae  ana  rue  ooservaupn  aoor 
at  the  back  of  the  hive  every  facility  is  furnished  for  obtaining  ho- 
Hey,  observing  progress,  removing  or  adding  frames  to  strengthen 
weak  stock,  transferring,  &c.,  &c.,without  injuring  the  combs  or  irri- 
tating the  bees,  and  the  honey  boxes  on  the  top  may  be  removed  or 
added  at  will. 

Another  hive  of  intrinsic  excellence  Is  called  the  Climax,  and  still 
'  another,  the  American,  with  Climax  improvements,  see  cut*.  The 
Climax  is  made  in  two  pr.rts.  The  upper  part,  which  contains  th« 
boxes  (or  frame)  is  provided  with  common  trunk  rollers,  and  rests 
on  cleats,  secured  to  the  loAver  parts  of  the  hive.  These  cleats  extend 
far  enough  beyond  the  hive  to  allow  the  upper  to  roll  off  fromi  the 
lower  without  crushing,  d^turb^nc/  or  in  any  way  ttiterferinff  with 
the  labors  of  the  bees.  The  strips  forming  the  track,  have  drop  legf 
a,-  fheir  outer  ends,  and  r.re  hinged  just  outside  the  body  at  the  hive, 
.and  when  not  in  nne,  fold  up  snugly  against  the  hive.  The  bottom 
Aboard  of  the  upper  pir*  answers  svery  purpose  of  &  honey  board. 


ON  BEE  KEL>TNO. 


It  is  provided  with  two  slots  to  admit  the  beey  ;  each  slot  is  provided 
with  a  zino  strip  on  the  under-side,  connected  by  a  wire  with  a  h***» 


THE  CLIMAX  BEE  HTVH 


AMEBICAW  BEB  HIVE  WITH  CLIMAX  IMPROVEMENT. 

die  on  the  outside.  By  this  simple  contrivance,  all  comnvunicatio* 
between  the  two  parts  of  the  hive  may  be  instantly  cut  off,  and  divi- 
ding or  any  other  operation  performed  without  difficulty. 

The  bottom  board  of  the  lower  part  is  made  of  plank  1£  ins.  thick; 

and  is  beveled  from  the  centre  to  each  end,  and  projects  far  enough  in 

.front  and  rear  to   form  alighting  board?.     Along  the  summit  of 

f  the  bottom  board  is  nailed  a  triangular  strip  notched  on  the  upper 

,  «dge.    Corresponding  notches  are  made  in  the  centre  of  the  lower 

edges  of  the  bottom  bars  of  the  frames.    Then  notches  are  cut  bevel- 

.*  ling,  so  that  the  frames  are  easily  inserted  or  withdrawn,  but  when 

In  place,  are  immovable,an<;l  will  not  shake  or  jostle,  no  matter  how 

*he  hive  is  turned.    Then  there  is  a  central  rest  for  the  frames,  which 

renders  them  entirely  independent  of  each  other,  and  of  the  walls  of 

thft  aire.    The  well  known  propensity  of  bees  to  glue  every  thing  t» 


ON  BEE  KEEPING,  65 

\ 

-'gather  that  they  can  is  thus  anticipated  and  prevented.,  while  at  the- 
same  time  a  free  passage  all  around,  between,  above  and  below  the 
frames,  is  afforded.  Tiie  lower  part  has  two  entrances  on  opposite- 
sides,  and  the  bottom  board  slanting  each  way  is  easily  kept  clean.  By 
removing  the  entrance  block,  complete  ventilation  is  effected,  and  for 
surplus  honey  in  the  comb,  twenty-four  small  frames  above,  each  5  x  S- 
aud  2  ins.  wide  are  used.  Six  of  these  frames  are  placed  together,  top 
and  sides  close  fitting,  and  a  pane  of  glass,  5  x  G  inches,  placed  at 
each  end.  A  strip  of  tough  paper,  about  2  ins.  wide,  is  hen  glued  to> 
each  side  and  turned  around  on  the  glass,  which  holds  thorn  firmly  i'l 
place.  Twelve  frames  thus  made  intotwoswphis  bores,  just  cover  the 
top,  and  another  tier,  above  this,  furnish  room  for  50  Ibs  of  honey,  in 
the  best  shape  for  market  or  home  use,  the  cost  of  these  frame  boxes 
being  less  than  half  that  of  the  common  glass  boxes. 

Another  important  auxiliary  to  the  apicultunst  will  be  found  in 
the  Honey  Extractor,  represented  herewith.  This  is  a  geared  ma- 
chine 5LU«l<d  of  metal,  or  other  suitable  m&terial,  fitted  with  an 


HOXEY  EXTRACTORS. 

interior  arrangement  for  receiving  the  movable  frames  containing 
the  comb  and  honey  from  the  hive.  The  centrifugal  force  generat- 
ed by  the  rapid  rotary  motion  of  the  frame  causes  the  honey  to  fly 


to  every  direction  against  the  inner  side  of  the  machine,  and  flow 
down  into  the  vessel  beneath.     The  frame  and  perfect  comb,  ininua 
the  honey,  is  then  returned  to  the  hive  to  be  again  filled  with  honey. 
This  operation  may  be  repeated  with  the  same  comb  for  twelve  o 
fifteen  years,  if  required  and  the  value  of  the  device  may  be  imm» 


ON  BEE  KEEPING. 

glned  when  it  is  known  that  each  pound  of  the  comb,  so  far  as  th« 
labor  of  the  bees  is  concerned,  is  equivalent  or  equal  to  the  collec- 
tion of  twenty  pounds  of  honey.  The  knife  represented  herewith  ia 
used  for  uncapping  honey  for  extracting. 

As  the  utility  of  the  preceding  remarks  will  be  greatly  enhanced 
Jyy  additional  information  regarding  bees,  we  herewith  append  the  fol- 
lowing excellent  representations  of  the  tenants  of  the  hive,  together 
with  practical  instructions  for  profitable  management. 


QUBBN*  DRONB.         BLA7K  WORKER.  ITAL.  WORKER. 

The  Italian  bees  are  becoming  great  favorites  wherever  they  havfc 
"been  introduced,  and  are  rapidly  supplanting  the  black  bees.  They 
are  credited  with  being  very  industrious  workers,  making  three 
flights  for  every  two  made  by  the  black  bees,  and  storing  much  more 
than  double  the  honey,  besides  being  more  prolific,  as  is  evidenced 
by  their  more  frequent  swarming.  Besides,  the  Italian  bee  is  very 
hardy,  working  earlier  and  later  in  the  season  and  gathering  honey 
irom  sources  not  frequented  by  the  common  bee. 

USEFUL  HINTS  FOB  BEGINNERS.—!.  Work  quietly;  avoid  sudden 
jars  ;  never  fight  your  bees,  and  always  keep  cool.  2.  If  you  get 
stung,  remove  the  sting,  squeeze  out  all  the  poison  you  can,  and  ap- 
ply hartshorn.  3.  Use  plenty  of  smoke ;  a  roll  of  dry  rr.gs  or  decay- 
ed wood  makes  the  best ;  blow  in  the  entrance  and  at  the  top  of 
•frames.  If  you  are  timid,  use  rubber  gloves  on  your  hands,  and,  a 
veil  over  the  face  and  head  ;  the  veil  must  be  long  enough  to  allow 
the  vest  or  coat  to  be  put  on  over  it  4.  WnesL  pasture  first  becomes 
plenty  in  the  spring  is  a  good  time  to  trausfer'bees.  Always  work 
among  the  hives  during  the  middle  of  the  day,  when  the  bees  are 
busy.  £  Stocks  without  eggs  or  young  brood  in  June,  must  be 
queenless  and  should  be  supplied  with  a  queen  or  queen  cell,  or  they 
Jwill  dwindle  away  and  perish  either  by  robbers  or  moth.  6.  When 
jt ymptoms  of  robbing  occur,  use  the  utmost  caution.  Contract  the 
vfcntrance  of  weak  hives,  and  allow  no  comb,  honey,  sugar  of  syrup 
to  be  around.  Avoid  opening  hives  as  much  as  possible.  7.  Avoid  an 
excess  of  drone  comb  by  the  presence  of  a  queen  in  swarms  where 
combs  are  to  be  constructed.  As  swarms  having  young  queens  sel- 
dom swarm  that  year,  less  drone  comb  is  built  in  swarms  having 
young  queens.  8.  Qidet  is  essentially  necessary  to  the  well-being  of 
an  apiary.  Do  not  place  it  near  Mills,  Steam  Works,  or  Manufac- 
tories of  any  kind.  If  possible  have  it  in  view  from  the  window*  oi 


ON  BE^  SEEPING.  **/ 

Hie  family  room,  as  much  extra  trouble  may  bo  avoided.  9.  As 
natural  talent  or  business  tact,  is  requisite,  with  education  to  success* 
in  business,  so  a  careful  turn  of  mind  and  a  love  for  the  business, 
with  an  understanding  of  the  subject,  is  necessary  to  success  in  bee- 
keeping. 10.  Put  on  honey  boxes  partly  filled  with  comb  as  soon  as 
the  lower  part  of  the  hive  is  well  filled  with  honey  and  bees,  and 
when  they  are  gathering  honey  plentifully ;  commence  with  only  one 
or  two  boxes  at  a  time  on  the  most  populous  stocks.  11.  In  transfer-* 
ring  coinbs  always  give  those  the  preference  that  contain  worker 


DRONE  AND  WORKER  COMB. 

brood.  Pat  brood  comb  near  the  centre  of  the  hive  in  the  order  f* 
which  they  were  in  the  box  hive.  Do  your  transferring  where  rob- 
bers cannot  possibly  be  attracted.  12.  Avoid  weak  awarms,  as  they 
gather  but  little  honey,  breed  slowly,  and  are  in  danger  of  destruc- 
tion by  robbers,  the  moth,  or  severity  of  winter.  Weak  swarms 
should  always  be  united  in  the  fall,  and  should  never  be  made  by 
dividing  early  in  the  season.  13.  Whenever  you  notice  the  bees  run- 
ning about  the  entrance  in  the  evening  in  a  disturbed  condition,  mark 
that  hive  and  notice  it  the  next  evening.  If  the  bees  run  about 
ernelling  each  other,  it  is  a  sign  they  have  lost  their  queen  and 
should  receive  attention.  14.  In  establishing  an  apiary,  select  a 
gentle  slope  to  the  south-east;  face  the  hives  in  the  same  direction,  if 
possible  have  running  water  near  ;  shade  and  protection  from  winds 
and  the  heat  of  the  sun  are  important  Set  every  hive  as  perpendi- 
cular as  a  clock — for  a  stand,  take  two  short  pieces  of  4  x  6  scantling 
»nd  lay  or  nail  on  a  board.  15.  To  make  queen  «ages,  cut  wire  clotE 


ON  BEE  KEEPING. 


<Jx4  inches;  pull  out  two  or  three  transverse  wires  from  one  of  the  $ 
inch  edges,  and  insert  the  projecting  ends  thus  left  in  the  corres- 
ponding meshes  of  the  other  three  inch  edge,  and  fasten  them ;  stop 
one  end  with  a  cork  or  wood.  When  you  wish  to  introduce  a 
queen,  put  her  in  the  cage  and  stop  the  other  end  with  wax.  10.  A 
few  inches  of  drone  comb  i.s  amply  abundant  for  any  hive, 
as  drones  consume  a  great  deal  of  honey  and  gather  none.  Tha 
movable  frame  hive  renders  any  preventive  operation  very  easy  :  the 
cut  will  enable  the  beginner  to  identify  the  drone  by  the  largo 
cells.  17.  In  the  Northern  States  and  British  Provinces,  experiment* 
demonstrated  that  bees  wintered  in  the  open  air  have  consumed 
•about  45  Ibs,  oi  hoiiey  per  hive,  white  bees  whitened  iu  the  cellar 


COMB  SHOWING  BROOD  AND  QUEEN  CELL. 

during  the  same  period  consumed  on  an  average  only  5  Ibs  each  In 
another  case  6  hives  wintered  out  of  doors  lost  an  average  of  29£  Ibs, 
in  weight  each,  during  3  months,  while  20  hives  in  the  cellar  lost 
only  5f  Ibs,  each,  during  the  same  time.  Do  not  place  them  in  the 
cellar  until  the  severe  weather  begins  ;  give  them  plenty  of  upward 
ventilation  in  order  to  pass  off  the  vapor  generated  from  the  bees  ; 
place  the  hives  in  rows  on  shelves,  keep  them  in  a  clean  dark  ula.o.n» 


ON  BEE  KEEPING  69 

but  not  in  a  damp  or  badly  ventilated  cellar,  for  that  is  certain  death 
to  bees,  and  keep  wire  cloth  tacked  over  the  entrance  to  each  hive  ; 
if  a  dry  absorbent  material  such  as  cut  straw  or  shavings,  can  be 
placed  in  the  upper  part  of  the  hive  to  receive  and  absorb  the  un- 
healthy emanations  from  the  bees,  all  the  better ;  in  out  door  wintering 
especially,  this  is  a  most  desirable  plan,  as  it  retains  the  heat  while 
it  absorbs  the  effluvia.  18.  Bees  wintered  on  their  summer  stands  • 
should  always  be  allowed  from  30  to  50  Ibs,  of  honey  to  each  colony 
and  extra  protection  around  the  hive  if  the  cold  is  very  intense.  19.  \ 
When  eggs  are  deposited  by  the  queen  in  the  cells  prepared  by  the 
workers,  in  3  days  they  hatch  into  small  worms  which  are  nurtured 
and  fed  , until  about  the  eighth  day  the  larvae  become  njmphs,  and 
are  sealed  up  in  their  cells  to  reappear  as  perfect  bees.  The  queen 
bee  emerges  in  from  10  to  17  days,  the  drone  in  24,  and  the  -workers 
In  21  days  from  the  egg.  The  cut  illustrates  a  comb  showing  brood 
and  queen  cell  but  the  artist  has  not  succeeded  very  well  in  representing 
the  royal  form  with  which  nature  has  endowed  her  majesty.  In  from  3 
to  5  days  after  emerging,  the  queen  leaves  the  hive  to  meet  the  drones  in 
the  air,  for  fertilization.  She  never  leaves  the  hive  at  any  other  times 
except  when  she  goes  with  us  warm,  and  one  copulation  is  all  sufficient 
to  ensure  fertility  for  life.  Under  favorable  circumstances  she  will 
•deposit  3000  eggs  per  day.  20.  In  introducing  an  Italian  queen  to  a 
colony  of  common  bees,  enclose  her  in  a  wire  cloth  cage  and  insert 
the  cage  in  the  centre  of  a  comb  where  the  bees  will  cluster  upon  it. 
In  36  hours  release  the  queen,  smear  her  with  honey,  and  allow  her 
to  crawl  down  among  the  bees.  21.  When  bees  are  short  of  honey 
a  good  and  cheap  food  may  be  provided  by  using  good  coffee  sugar, 
4  Ibs,  added  to  water,  1  qt. ,  bring  to  a  boil,  gkim  and  allow  it  to  cool. 
22.  Another.  Take  of  the  best  quality  of  brown  sugar,  two  parts  by 
measure,  to  one  part  of  pure  soft  water  ;  boil  and  skim  it  ;  then  to 
eveiy  quart  of  the  mixture,  add  one  even  tcaspoonful  of  the  best  cream 
tartar  ;  dissolve  the  cream  tartar  before  putting  it  in.  Remove  the 
^mptj  oomb  with  the  frame  from  the  hive  fill  them  by  allowing  the 
eyrup  to  drain  through  a  proper  strainer  into  the  cells,  and  then 
return  the  frames  to  the  hive.  With  box  hives,  use  some  good  feeder 
or  a  dish  of  proper  size  to  set  under  the  cap  on  the  top  of  the  hive  ; 
fill  the  dish  vrith  the  syrup,  and  throw  on  fine  shavings  or  cut  straw, 
to  prevent  the  bees  from  falling  into  it.  23.  The  best  substitute  for 
bee  bread  or  natural  pollen  is  rye  flour  unbolted.  In  the  absence  of 
s-ye,  use  other  flour.  24.  The  damp  air  may  be  drawn  from  a  cellar 
in  which  bees  are  being  wintered  by  connecting  the  cellar  and  youi 
stove  pipe  by  means  of  a  2  inch  tin  pipe  passing  up  through  the  floor. 
26.  In  hiving  bees,  use  diluted  honey  or  white  sugar  syrup,  damp  the 
inside  of  your  hive  and  gently  sprinkle  the  bees  with  the  liquid  ;  it 
will  render  them  so  happy  that  you  may  handle  them  as  you  please. 
SURPLUS  HONEY  STORED  IN  BOXES.— "Those  having  bees  in 
common  hives,  and  who  wish  their  surplus  honey  stored  in  boxes, 
will  obtain  the  greatest  amount  and  avoid  many  disappointments  by 
attending  to  the  following  conditions  :  1.  The  boxes  should  be  tight 
and  large,  but  not  over  four  or  five  inches  high,  and  protected  from 
the  changes  of  the  weather  by  an  outer  cap.  2.  The  bees  should  b« 
induced  to  commence  in  them  by  attaching  pieces  of  'clean  empty 
«!oaab»  to  the  under  side  of  the  top,  and  placing  the  boxes  directly 


f  0  ON  BEE  KEEPING. 

over  the. breeding  apartment,  with  large  openings  under  each  box  to 
admit  the  bees.  3.  Early  in  the  season  select  a  few  populous  stocks, 
giving  a  box  to  each,  and  when  the  bees  have  commenced  in  them, 
give  Boxes  to  the  next  strongest,  being  careful  not  to  give  too  much 
room  until  a  start  has  been  made.  4.  Keep  the  hives  cool  by  shad- 
Ing  from  the  sun,  and  if  the  bees  cluster  outside,  when  flowers  are 
plenty,  ventilate  by  enlarging  the  entrances  and  giving  more  room  in. 
the  boxes  if  needed.  After  a  populous  stock  has  nearly  filled  its 
boxes  it  will  often  take  long  enough  time  to  finish  them,  to  have 
half  filled  empty  ones,  besides  the  difficulty  so  often  experienced  in 
getting  the  bees  to  commence  in  the  boxes  after  those  first  filled  are 
removed,  which  objections  are  both  overcome  in  the  American  hive, 
described  in  the  article  on  hives."  Bee-Keepers'  Text  Book. 

HATCHING  AND  FERTILIZATION  OF  QUEENS.— "In  about  eight 
days  after  the  old  queen  leaves  with  the  first  swarm,  the  most  ad  van-* 
eed  sealed  queen  is  ready  to  emerge.  During  this  time  the  old  stock 
is  without  a  hatched  queen,  the  young  queen  immediately  upon  leav- 
ing her  cell,  if  not  restrained  by  the  workers,  commences  the  work  of 
destruction  upon  her  yet  imprisoned  sisters.  She  accomplishes  this 
by  biting  open  the  side  of  each  cell  near  its  base,  and  dispatching  the 
unfortunate  inmate  with  her  sting.  She  is  yet  incompetent  for  the 
maternal  duty,  and  must  leave  the  hive  to  meet  the  drones  in  the  *»ir 
for  the  purpose  of  fertilization.  This  once  accomplished,  the  woi^ 
ers,  awaiting  her  safe  return,  greet  her  with  a  reverence  and  affec- 
tion never  shown  before.  They  hasten  to  prepare  the  cells  to  receive 
her  tiny  eggs,  and  seem  to  realize  that  on  her  existence  the  perpetua- 
tion of  the  family  depends.  There  is  also  a  perceptible  change  in  the 
queen's  form,  her  abdomen  being  a  little  swollen  and  somewhat 
lengthened,  but  not  as  much  as  at  the  height  of  the  breeding  sea- 
son. She  now  remains  the  fruitful  mother  of  the  prosperous  and 
happy  colony."  Bee-Keepers'  Text  Book. 

Tj)^  PREVENT  NEW  SWARMS  FROM   LEAVING  THEIR    HIVES. — 
"  Natural  swarms  occasionally  refuse  to  stay  after  having  been  hived, 
usually  hi  consequence  of  heat  or  strong  odor  about  the  hive.    la 
nucleus  swarming  this  seldom  or  never  happens,  because  the  beea 
are  never  without  a  comb  containing  brood  and  honey  ;  and  they 
will  not  leave  voluntarily.    Therefore  when  hiving  a  swarm  in  a. 
moveable  comb  hive,  go  to  any  stock  that  can  spare  a  comb  contain- 
ing brood  and  honey.    Brush  back  the  bees,  being  careful  not  to 
remove  the  queen  or  any  queen-cells  with  comb,  and  place  it  in  the 
hive  that  i»  to  receive  the  new  swarm.    It  will  not  only  prevent  the 
J  bees  from  decamping  but  will  greatly  encourage  them,  and  should 
bad  weather  confine  them  to  the  hive  they  will  be  secure  from  star- 
^  ration.     If  the  swarm  is  put  in  a  common  hive,  place  over  them  a 
;  box  of  honey  taken  from  the  parent  stock."  Bee-Keepers'  Text  Book. 

THE  NUCLEUS  SYSTEM  OF  SWARMING. — "  The  introduction  of  a 
mature  fertile  queen  to  a  colony  ttco  loeeks  sooner  than  when  they 
twarm  naturally  is  an  advantage  sufficient  to  pay  for  the  extra 
trouble.  The  time  gained  in  breeding  is  equivalent  to  a  swarm.  M. 

QUINBY. 

In  swarming  bees  on  this  system,  we  first  rear  a  queen  in  a  small 
cluster  nucleus  of  bees,  allowing  the  nucleus  hive  to  remain  in  its 
place  until  the  queen  becomes  fertile,  when  we  swarm  the  bees  bar 


OK  BEE  KEEPING. 


n. 


simply  causing  the  two  hives  to  exchange  places.  Unlike  natural 
swarming,  the  old  queen  remains  in  the  parent  stock  and  its  labors 
go  on  scarcely  interrupted.  The  system  is  based  upon  the  well  known 
law,  that  bees,  after  luxuriating  upon  the  flowers,  will  return  to  tlia 
exact  spot  of  their  old  habitation.  Form  a  nucleus  from  an  Italian  or 
other  populous  stock  by  bio  whig  a  few  whiffs  of  smoke  into  the  en- 
trance and  opening  the  hive  ;  select  a  frame  of  comb  containing  <c,ap-» 
t>ed  brood,  but  especially  plenty  of  eggs  and  young  larvse.  Alter 
looking  this  over  carefully,  lest  the  old  queen  be  removed,  place  it' 
•with  its  adhering  bees  in  the  empty  hive,  and  next  to  it  another  comb 
containing  honey,  which  will  afford  protection  to  the  brood  and  food 
for  the  bees.  As  many  of  the  old  beest 
will  return  to  the  parent  stock,  give  tha 
nucleus  hive  at  least  a  quart  oi  bees 
and  set  it  on  a  new  stand  two  or  threat 
rods  distant.  Contract  the  entrance  go> 
that  but  one  or  two  bees  can  pass  at  the 
same  time,  and  set  a  feed  pan  on  tho 
frames,  or  a  sponge  filled  with  sweet- 
ened water  will  supply  their  wants  until 
the  young  bees  go  to  work  in  their  new- 
location.  In  place  of  the  combs  removed 
from  the  parent-stock,  set  in  empty 
frames  with  a  full  one  between.  If  the 
frames  are  put  near  the  centre,  the  old 
stock  will  increase  all  the  faster,  as  the 
queen  will  fill  the  new  comb  with  eggs  as 
fast  as  it  is  built.  The  removal  of  the 
two  combs  stimulates  the  bees  to  great; 
activity  by  giving  them  room  to  work, 
and  detaches  just  bees  enough  to  prevent 
their  clustering  idly  about  the  entrance. 
The  nucleus  will  construct  queen-cells 
and  rear  a  queen  as -well  as  a  whole 

swarm.  Besides,  the  queen  is  easily  found  among  so  few  beei  W* 
now  wait  until  the  tenth  or  eleventh  day,  from  the  time  the  nucleus 
was  formed,  when  we  open  it,  and  witk  a  sharp  thin  bladed  knife,  cut 
out  all  the  queen-cells  but  one  and  use  them  immediately  in  forming 
other  nucleus,  by  attaching  one  of  them  to  a  frame  of  coinb  and  bees 
taken  from  an  old  stock,  as  before  described,  and  placed  in  an  empty 
hive.  In  transferring  queen-cells  great  care  must  be  taken  not  to 
press  or  dent  them,  or  expose  them  long  to  the  hot  sun  or  cool  air  for 
iear  of  destroying  the  royal  occupants.  The  beginners  should  re- 
move but  one  "at  a  time,  returning  the  frame  from  which  it  is  tukeu 
to  its  place  in  the  hive  until  the  royal  cell  is  adjusted  in  its  new  loca- 
tion. When  practicable  have  about  an  inch  square  of  comb  attached 
to  the  cell,  and  upon  taking  the  comb  or  brood  from  the  old  stock, 
make  an  opening  among  the  eggs  and  larvae  where  bees  will  b« 
»nre  to  cluster  upon  it  and  keep  it  warm,  and  carefully  in- 
sert it  as  shown  in  figure,  leaving  an  open  space  below  it. 
If  the  first  nucleus  was  formed  from  the  only  Italian  stock 
in  the  yard,  and  more  queen-cells  are  wanted,  remove  every  queen- 
eell  from  it,  and  add  another  comb  of  eggs  and  brood  from  its  parent 


T2  -ON    BEE-KEEPING. 

•tock.  Bu'^when  no  more  queen-cells  are  needed,  leave  one  to  hatch, 
and  as  by  this  time  the  brood  will  all  be  capped  over,  the  bees  will  b« 
liable  to  follow  the  young  queen  on  her  excursions  to  meet  the  drones, 
iTo  prevent  this,  'exchange  one  of  the  combs  for  one  containing  egga* 
;and young  larvae.  When  forming  the  other  nucleus,  young  queens 
will  return  unless  lost  by  birds  or  other  casualties,  to  which  all  queens 
•*re  once  exposed.  Such  loss  is  easily  ascertained  among  so  few  bees, 
;  and  we  have  only  to  insert  another  queen-cell,  adding  a  comb  contain- 
ing eggs  and  brood  and  repeat  the  trial.  Should  the  parent  stock  be 
very  populous  it  may  be  swarmed  by  taking  a  queen  front  the  nucleus 
•  belonging  to  a  less  populous  stock,  and  another  queen  reared  there. 

When  and  how  to  Swarm  the  Bees. — Every  populous  stock,  from 
•which  a  nucleus  has  been  formed,  should  be  swarmed,  if  the  weather 
.  is  favorable,  as  soon  as  the  queen  in  the  nucleus  has  become  fertile, 
This  is,  usually,  in  from  six  to  ten  days  after  inserting  the  queen-cell, 
and  is  reudily  determined  by  examining  the  combs  for  eggs.  We  now, 
unless  the  yield  of  honey  is  very  abundant,  confine  the  young  queen 
in  a  gauze  wire  cage.  Having  filled  up  the  nucleus  hives  with  empty 
frames,  exchange  the  places  of  the  two  hives,  bringing  the  entrance 
of  the  nucleus  hive  where  the  old  stock  has  stood,  and  where  the  mass 
of  the  old  bees  will  return  from  the  fields,  thus  throwing  out  of  the 
old  stock  swarms  of  workers  into  the  nucleus  hive  while  the  old  bees 
from  the  nucleus  will  enter  the  old  hive  and  minister  to  the  wants  of 
the  numerous  brood  of  the  parent  stock.  The  bees  must  not  be  swarm- 
ed between  the  hatching  and  the  fertilization  of  the  queen,  and  should 
they  be  swarmed  when  the  honey  harvest  has  received  a  check  from 
a  storm  or  drought,  the  bees  thus  empty  01  honey  and  consequently 
more  quarrelsome,  being  suddenly  thrown  into  the  presence  of  a 
:  strange  queen  (although  of  the  same  scent)  are  inclined  to  sting  her. 
To  prevent  this  she  is  caged  for  thirty-six  hours,  when  the  bees  from 
the  old  stock  will  mostly  have  joined  the  nucleus  colony  and  she  may 
be  safely  liberated.  But,  if  she  was  taken  from  another  nucleus,  we 
sometimes  let  her  remain  caged  a  day  longer,  or  smear  her  well  with 
warm  honey,  and  drop  her  in  among  the  bees.  They  immediately 
commence  licking  up  the  honey,  and  for  get  to  sting  her.  If  from  any 
cause  the  stocks  are  swarmed  when  the  bees  are  working  but  little, 
and  after  three  or  four  days  the  nucleus  swarm  be  found  deficient  in 
bees,  it  may  be  strengthened  by  exchanging  some  of  its  empty  frames 
for  frames  of  capped  brood  from  the  parent  stock,  or  should  the  flowers 
yield  bountifully  within  a  week,  the  location  of  the  two  hives  may 
again  be  exchanged.  The  bees  will  not  quarrel  as  they  are  of  the 
•ame  scent.  Unless  a  nucleus  has  been  formed  several  weeks,  or  whet 
.honey  is  scarce,  it  is  sometimes  necessary  to  treat  both  stocks,  especu 
ally  the  old  one,  to  tobacco  smoke.  This  precaution,  however,  is  only 
for  the  inexperienced,  since,  in  the  midst  of  the  swarming  season, 
when  the  flowers  are  in  profusion,  little  protection  is  needed  either  for 
the  queen  or  the  operator. 

HENS  MADE  TO  PROTECT  BEES. — A  bee  raiser  has  patented  an  in- 
vention for  the  protection  of  bees  from  the  attacks  of  the  honey  moth, 
which  enters  the  hives  at  night,  and  rifles  the  stores.  The  idea  arose 
out  of  his  familiarity  with  the  daily  routine,  not  of  bees  only,  but  of 
hens.  Hens,  he  observed,  retire  to  rest  early ;  but  bees  seek  repose 
earlier  still ;  no  sooner  are  they  sunk  into  slumber,  than  the  moth 
fteala  into  their  abode  and  devours  the  produce  of  their  toil.  He  had 


ON   BEE-KEEPING.  1* 

now  built  a  stand  of  hives  with  a  hen  house  connected.  The)  ,^es  far* 
betake  themselves  to  their  dwelling  and  settle  themselvei  for  th». 
night.  The  hens  then  come  home  to  roost  on  their  perch,  and  as  thej 
take  their  places  upon  it,  thek-  weight  sets  some  simple  mechanicism 
to  work,  which  at  once  shuts  down  the  doors  of  all  the  hives.  When 
the  day  dawns,  however,  the  hens  leave  their  roost,  and  the  remova1 
of  their  weight  from  the  perch  raises  the  hive  doors,  and  gives  egrese 
to  the  bees  in  time  for  their  morning's  work- 


EXPLANATION  OP  THE  ABOVE  CUTS.— The  cut  A  represents  brood 
in  various  stages  from  eggs  and  larva?  in  the  lower  part  of  the  comb  to 
torood  capped  at  e,  and  just  emerging  at/;  n,  is  a  queen-cell  just 
commenced  at  from  larvae ;  6,  a  perfect  queen-cell  capped  over  ;  a, 
»  cell  from  which  the  queen  has  just  emerged.  B  represents  queem- 
eells  destroyed  ;  C  unimpregnated  queen;  D  fertile  queen;  E  male 
moth  or  miller;  F  female  miller. 

To  KILL  BEE  MOTHS.— Bee  moths  can  easily  be  killed  by  setting  & 
pan  of  grease  on  which  is  placed  a  floating  lighted  wick,  near  the 
tiives  after  dark  :  the  light  will  attract  the  moths  in  large  numbers, 
when  they  will  be  destroyed  by  falling  into  the  grease . 

Many  persons  are  deriving  substantial  yearly  incomes  amounting 

4  to  thousands  of  dollars  from  bee-keeping,  and  it  ii  credibly  reported 

'•that  the  late  Mr.  Quimby  left  nroperty  valued  at  $100,000,  all  derived 

from  this  source  alone.    Mr.  Quimby  wrote  that  the  honey  gathered 

by  bees  compared  with  what  was  lost  for  the  lack  of  bees  to  gather  it, 

was  but  as  1  compared  with  1,000,  so  that  it  seems  as  if  a  careful  per- 

con,  engaged  in  bee-keeping,  and  thorougMy  equipped  with  all  mod- 

•?rn  appliances  for  the  business,  possesses  as  old  honest  Sam  Johnson 


74  BEE-KEEPING,   &C. 

once  expressed  himself  regarding  a  different  subject,  "  The  potential- 
ity of  growing  rich  beyond  the  dreams  of  avarice,"  and  what  is  oi 
still  greater  importance,  the  pleasure  derived  from  the  business  is  al- 
most ineffable  in  comparison  with  the  satisfaction  of  being  rich. 


FOOD  FOB  MOCKING  BIRDS. — Mix  well  together  corn  meal,  pwt 
meal  (made  by  drying  split  peas  in  an  oven  and  then  grinding  them 
in  a  mill),  each  one  part,  moss  meal,  prepared  from  the  moss  seed 
imported  from  Germany,  ^  part,  add  sufficient  melted  lard  not  to  mase 
it  too  fat  or  greasy,  and  sweeten  with  molasses .  Fry  the  mixture  ia 
a  frying-pan  for  ^  an  hour,  stirring  it  all  the  time,  to  avoid  burning. 
Mocking,  and  other  birds  of  like  nature,  will  leave  all  other  food  for 
this. 

FOR  LUMBERMEN,  BUILDERS,  CONTRACTORS, 
MILL  OWNERS,  SHIP  BUILDERS,  SHIP  OWNERS, 
NAVIGATORS,  QUARRYMEN,  STONE  CUTTERS, 
MERCHANTS,  AND  BUSINESS  MEN  GENERALLY. 

To  PREVENT  WOOD  FROM  CRACKING. — Place  the  wood  in  a  bath 
of  fused  paraffine  heated  to  212°  Fahr.  and  allow  it  to  remain  as  long 
as  bubbles  of  air  are  given  off.  Then  allow  the  paraffiue  to  cool  dowo 
to  its  point  of  congelation,  and  remove  the  wood  and  wipe  off  tha 
adhering  wax  :  wood  treated  in  this  way  is  not  likely  to  crack. 

To  BEND  WOOD. — Wood  enclosed  in  a  close  chamber  and  submitted 
to  the  action  of  steam  for  a  limited  time  will  be  rendered  so  pliant 
that  it  may  be  bent  in  almost  any  direction.  The  same  process  will 
also  eliminate  the  sap  from  the  wood  and  promote  rapid  seasoning. 

FIRE  PROOFING  FOR  WOOD. — Alum,  3  parts;  green  vitriol,  1  part; 
make  a  strong  hot  solution  with  water,  make  another  weak  solution 
with  green  vitriol  in  which  pipe  clay  has  been  mixed  to  the  oonsis' 
teace  of  a  paint.  Apply  two  eoati  of  the  first,  dry,  and  then  finish  with 
ote  coat  of  the  last. 


LUMBERMEN'S  CAMP. 


Tft 


LUMBERMAN'S  SHANTY  OR  CAMP. 

Many  of  the  honest  farmers  and  sturdy  lumbermen  of  the  North- 
am  States,  Canada  and  New  Brunswick,  will  be  at  no  loss  to  under- 
stand the  uses  of  the  humble  mansion  represented  in  the  cut,  and 
;many  a  forest  wanderer  and  weary  hunter  will  identify  the  modest 
habitation  as  the  counterpart  of  another  where  he  has  been  refreshed 
by  the  substantial  meal,  and  invigorated  by  the  peaceful  slumber  en- 
joyed under  the  hospitable  roof.  However  poor  the  lumberman  maj 
be,  however  numerous  his  trials  and  privations,  and  we  are  sorry  to 
say  they  are  not  few  in  number,  this  we  will  say,  that  whether  you  ase 
known  or  unknown,  rich  or  poor,  \rhether  you  are  bent  on  business 
or  pleasure,  in  the  lumber  camp  yvu  r-tr  always  made  to  feel  at  bom*; 


76 


CUTTING     LOGS,  &C. 


the  "best  in  the  house"  is  at  your  service,  and  Hospitality  is  di» 
pensed  with  a  princely  generosity.  Under  such  circumstances  it  is 
wisdom  to  accept  and  folly  to  refuse  the  proffered  beneficence,  and 
manv  can  attest  that  they  have  enjoyed  these  kind  offices  to  exhaust- 
ed humanity  with  a  relish  (thanks  to  the  pure  oxygen  so  bountifully 
supplied  to  their  lungs  by  a  forest  atmosphere),  known  to  but  few  in 
the  dwellings  of  the  wealthy,  or  in  the  sumptuous  and  costly  hotels 
of  the  crowded  city,  with  their  bountiful  and  costly  bills  of  fare,  en»-f 
bracing  the  best  in  the  market 


CUTTING  LOGS  IN  THE  WESTERN  PINE  FORESTS.         ^ 

The  usual  time  for  commencing  lumbering  operations  in  New* 
Brunswir.k  and  many  parts  of  Canada,  is  in  the  fall,  soon  after  the 


CUTTING    LOGS,    AC. 


LOADING  PINE  LOGS  IN  THE  WESTERN  FORESTS", 
operators,  many  of  whom  are  farmers,  have  safely  housed  their  crops;., 
consisting  of  hay,  oats,  buckwheat,  potatoes,  &c.,  and  the  work  con- 
tonues  with  very  little  intermission  until  towards  spring.  It  must  be; 
confessed  that  lumbering  pursuits  are  not  well  calculated  to  produce,, 
in  the  minds  of  those  wko  follow  them,  a  very  strong  bias  towardr 
scientific  agriculture,  the  tendency  being  rather  to  produce  derange- 
ment in  that  respect,  but  there  seems  to  be  a  fascination  in  the  biwi- 
ness  which  very  few  who  enter  upon  it  seem  able  to  resist,  and  much 
of  the  farming  work  is  considered  by  many  as  only  of  secondary  con- 
,  sequence  compared  with  lumbering,  being  stimulated  principally  by 
the  necessity  arising  for  agricultural  products  in  the  lumber  camps, 
and  for  family  uses  at  home. 

In  selecting  the  site  for  a  carnp,  the  principal  object  is  to  obtain  a 
central  position  within  easy  reach  of  water,  and  an  ample  supply  of 
timber  adapted  to  the  wants  of  the  market.  It  is  also  of  great  con- 
«equence  that  it  shouid  be  easily  accessible  for  the  purpose  of  trans- 
porting, or  "  portaging,"  as  it  is  Uwufd,  the  substantial  supplies  r5> 


BREAKING    A     JAM. 


BREAKING  A  JAM. 

quired  by  the  men  and  horses  engaged  in  the  work,  and  convenient  to 
a  suitable  "  landing,"  usually  on  or  near  a  stream,  where  the  logs  are 
unloaded  to  await  the  breaking  up  of  the  ice,  and  the  spring  floods, 
which  are  to  convey  them  to  their  destination.  The  work  is  systemati- 
cally conducted,  every  man  from  the  boss  to  the  cook  having  his  post, 
but  the  labor  is  very  severe,  and  taxes  the  utmost  energies  of  both 
»anand  beast,  some  of  the  loads  drawn  by  the  latter  being  of  enorm- 
ous bulk  and  weight.  This  kind  of  toil  continues  during  the  fall  and 
•winter  months,  only  to  give  place  in  the  spring  to  another  form  of 
labor,  which  is,  if  possible,  still  more  arduous,  and  is  certainly  more 
dangerous;  that  of  "driving"  the  lumber  down  stream.  The  driv- 
ing operations  are  commenced  by  rolling  the  logs  into  the  stream  on 
the  breaking  np  of  the  ice  and  guiding  them  down  the  current,  th« 
copr  fellows  being  often  up  to  the  waist  in  cold  water,  and  when  a 
*  jaui,"  or  lock  of  the  timber  takes  place  in  the  stream,  owing  to  ob- 
rtructions  or  barriers  of  any  kind,  the  danger  of  "breaking"  it  is 
positively  fearful,  many  having  been  killed  outright,  by  the  suddet 
*' shoot >Y  taken  by  the  liberated  timber  as  it  rushes  forward,  impelled 
by  the  surging  floods  in  the  rear. 


ON    LUMBERING.  79 

In  lumbering  districts  the  season  of  active  work  for  cutting  tunbai 
iwiges  from  November  until  towards  the  middle  cf  March;  in  New* 
Brunswick  much  of  the  work  performed  in  getting  out,  or  hewing 
birch  timber,  is  done  during  the  summer  months,  but  the  cutting  ana 
hauling  of  spruce  logs  is  the  principal  object  of  winter  operations. 
In  getting  out  birch  timber,  the  tree  is  felled  and  hewn  square  to  the 
largest  available  dimensions,  and  allowed  to  remain  till  sleighing  seta  / 
;n  before  being  hauled  to  the  stream  for  transportation.  Owing  to 
the  density  of  birch  timber  much  of  it  is  lost  by  submergence  in  the 
water,  and  for  the  purpose  of  rendering  it  more  buoyant  it  is  usual  t» 
induce  floatation  by  forming  connections  with  spruce  logs  or  other  tim- 
ber of  light  specific  gravity.  The  rigorous  climate  of  the  Northern 
States  and  Canada  is  most  favorable  for  the  growth  of  hardy  mer- 
chantable timber,  such  as  pine,  spruce,  &c.,  but  is  inimical  to  mahog- 
any, box,  lignumvitse  and  other  dense  tropical  woods  which  require 
a  warm  climate. 

Timber  grown  in  humid,  swampy  or  wet  localities,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  cedar,  willow,  poplar,  &c.,  is  not  so  firm,  sound,  and  durable 
as  that  grown  on  dry  and  elevated  situations,  where  the  soil  is  largely 
•composed  of  loam  interspersed  with  3aud,  gravel  and  stones.  Trees 
selected  from  the  midst  of  the  forest  possess  greater  elegance  of  form 
and  are  usually  straighter,  less  knotty,  and  more  merchantable  every 
way,  than  timber  exposed  to  the  ravages  of  storms,  &c.,  on  the  con- 
fines adjacent  to  the  clearings,  or  on  hill  sides  and  exposed  places, 
sheltered  situations  being  the  most  favorable  for  the  growth  of  timber, 
but  not  so  promotive  of  hardness  as  unprotected  localities.  A  dense, 
dark,  green  color  in  the  leaves  of  trees  during  June  and  July  indicates 
a  sound,  healthy  growth,  while  the  sere  and  yellow  leaves,  scanty  in 
number,  decaying  branches,  with  spotted,  streaked,  loosened  and  dis- 
eased bark,  indicates  defective  timber.  To  secure  timber  in  its  best 
condition  for  long  endurance,  it  should  be  cut  during  mid- winter,  saj 
in  January  or  February,  and  during  July  in  summer,  and  should  be 
worked  up  as  soon  as  possible  by  sawing,  splitting  or  hewing,  into  the 
desired  dimensions. 

The  nature  of  the  various  departments  of  the  work  is  very  welJ 
illustrated  in  the  cuts  presented  herewith,  which  are  engraved  in  the 
best  style  from  exceedingly  fine  photographs  of  actual  scenes  in  the 
Western  forests,  and  therefore  truthfully  depict  the  various  stages  of 
getting  out  lumber,  from  the  cutting  down  of  the  great  trees,  sawing 
them  into  lengths,  hauling  them  out,  and  finally  "  landing  "  the  logs 
on  or  near  the  stream,  in  readiness  for  the  spring  freshet  to  drive 
them  to  market.  Though  many  of  these  streams  are  too  shallow  in 
eummer  to  float  an  Indian  in  the  lightest  bark  canoe,  yet,  when 
swollen  by  spring  freshets,  each  one  becomes  a  wide  and  deep 
river. 

Many  ingenious  contrivances  have  been  constructed  to  procure  tim- 
ber from  mountains.  A  novel  locomotive  has  been  made  in  Califor- 
nia to  run  on  the  long  flumes  that  are  used  to  float  lumber  down 
from  high  elevations.  The  wheels  fit  on  the  edge  of  the  sides  of 
the  flume,  and  at  the  ends  of  the  car  are  paddle  wheels  dipping  into 
the  water,  and  which  are  turned  by  the  swift  current.  By  a  simple 
arrangement,  this  power  is  made  to  propel  the  locomotive  up  the 
flume,  and  it  runs  back  itself.  Alpnach,  in  Switzerland,  as  is  well 
taaown;  was,  during  war  time  widely  noted  for  its  famous  slide,  o» 


ON     LUMBERING. 


UNLOADING  LOGS  ON  THE  LANDING. 

wooden  trough,  containing  a  stream  of  water,  in  which  the  timber 
was  launched  with  terrific  velocity  from  the  forests  on  Mount  Pilatua 
into  Lake  Lucerne,  a  distance  of  8  miles. 

Spruce  forests  possess  a  wonderful  recuperative  power,  it  being 
well  known  that  they  may  be  stripped  of  merchantable  timber  dur- 
ing any  given  year,  and  ten  years  subsequently,  if  nothing  happens, 
another  harvest  will  be  ready  for  the  axe.  The  great  bane  of  all  for- 
ests ifc  fire,  and  the  loss  resulting  from  this  one  cause  is  simply  incal- 
culable. White  it  is  true  that  many  forest  fires  are  accidental,  it  can- 
not be  denied  that  the  majority  are  purposely  set ;  and,  while  such 
atrocious  wickedness  cannot  be  too  severely  denounced,  it  is  equally 
true  that  owing  to  the  privacy  of  the  act,  and  consequent  want  or 
proof,  the  offender  too  frequently  escapes  the  retribution  which  hia 
enormities  deserve.  The  recent  forest  fires  in  Michigan,  Wisconsin, 
and  other  places,  proved  terribly  destructive,  and  the  so-called  "great 
Miramichi  fire"  will  be  memorable  for  generations  to  come,  on  ac- 
count of  the  terrible  destruction  of  human  life  and  property  of  every 
kind  effected  by  it.  Many  of  the  old  settlers  on  the  Miramdchi  have 
«  rivid  remembrance  of  that  awful  calamity,  and  can  recount  many 


SEASONING    OP    TIMBER.  81 

harrowing  narratives  ot  suffering,  consternation,  death  and  hair- 
breadth escapes  during  that  terrible  time,  when  the  sky  appeared  as 
one  sheet  of  flame,  emitting  a  universal  rain  of  tire,  which  de- 
stroyed everything  in  its  course,  even  burning  the  soil  from  the 
earth,  rendering  thousands  of  acres  a  barren  desert  to  this  day. 

A  most  singular  case  of  forest-destruction  occurred  many  years 
ago,  as  related  by  the  Allemaine  Zeitung,  in  .vnich  a  subterranean 
fire,  undoubtedly  of  volcanic  origin,  burnt  the  roots  of  250  acres  of 
1  forest  trees  at  Magland,  in  Switzerland,  which,  falling,  were  also  con» 
'sunied  ;  flames  also,  issued  near  Lausanne. 

Seasoning  and  Preserving  Timber. — This  may  be  effected — 1st. 
Bv  piling  and  completely  ventilating  under  cover  for  a  period 
of  from  two  to  five  years,  for  thorough  seasoning.  2nd.  By  immer 
moil  hi  water  for  a  few  weeks.  This  improves  all  kinds  of  timber 
both  flat,  square  and  round.  If  a  man  wishes  to  season  green  board* 
quickly,  let  him  throw  them  into  water,  — all  the  better  if  it  is  run- 
rang  water,  —  and  the  sap  will  be  withdrawn  very  rapidly  :  a  short 
subsequent  exposure  to  the  air  WIL.  be  all  that  is  necessary.  3rd. 
Fell  your  trees  during  June  and  July,  while  in  full  leaf,  and  allow 
them  to  lie  until  every  leaf  ha&  fallen  ;  it  is  said  the  leaves  will  ex- 
haust nearly  all  the  sap  from  the  tree,  leaving  it  dry  in  from  one 
month  to  six  weeks,  according  to  the  dryness  or  wetness  of  the- 
weather.  4th.  Small  pieces  of  non-resinous  wood  can  be  seasoned 
perfectly  by  boiling  four  or  five  hours  ;  the  process  taking  the  sap 
out  of  the  .wood,  which  shrinks  nearly  one-tenth  in  tho  operation. 
5th.  Kiln-drying,  is  adapted  only  for  boards  and  small  timber  ;  it  is  lia- 
ble to  check,  crack,  and  otherwise  injure  the  wood,  unless  the  process  is 
cautiously  conducted.  Black  walnut  cannot  be  seasoned  in  this  way 
at  all  :  for  this  wood  use  Process  No.  1.  6th.  Steaming. — This  pro- 
cess has  been  adopted  by  some,  and  has  proved  successful  in  elimin- 
ating the  sap  from  the  wood.  7th.  Kyanizing  consists  in  the  satura- 
ration  of  the  wood  with  corrosive  sublimate,  —  solution,  1  Ib.  of  chlor- 
ride  of  mercury  in  4  gals,  water.  8th.  Eurnettizing. — By  this  process, 
impregnation  of  the  wood  is  effected  by  submitting  it  to  an  end-ways 
pressure  of  150  Ibs.  to  the  square  inch,  —  solution,  1  Ib.  of  the  chlo- 
ride to  10  gals,  water.  9th.  Boucheri's  Process. — Impregnation  is 
effected  as  in  the  last  instance,  using  a  pressure  of  15  Ibs.  to  the 
square  inch.  — solution,  1  Ib.  sulphate  of  copper  to  12^  gals,  of 
water.  10th.  Bethol's  Process. — As  above,  by  submitting  the  wood 
to  an  end-ways  pressure  of  150  to  200  Ibs.  per  square  inch,  with  creo- 
sote oil  intermixed  with  bituminous  matter,  llth.  Bobbins'  Process. — 
See  full  description  of  this  process  in  the  Mechanical  Department  oi 
this  work.  12th.  Samuel  Wood's  Process,  consists  in  vaporizing  and 
withdrawing  the  sap  from  the  wood,  as  described  in  Robbins'  Process, 
and  forcing  in  a  solution  of  sulphate  of  iron  at  a  pressure  of  175  Iba. 
per  square  inch  for  thirty  minutes  ;  then  finishing  with  another  isola- 
tion of  carbonate  of  lime. 

In  preserving  and  seasoning  wood  by  impregnation  with  coal  tar,  <: 
creosote,  etc.,  it  is  essential  that  the  juices  of  the  wood  should  be  com- 
pletely withdrawn  and  the  albumen  coagulated,  otherwise  decay  will 
e-usue.    Wood  treated  in  this  way  repels  decay,  the  attacks  of  worms, 
*tc.,  and  is  greatly  increased  in  strength  and  resilience. 

Dr.  Feucbtwangei's  process  for  preserving  wood  consists  in  tsteau* 


SEASONING    OF    TIMBER. 

!ng  the  timber,  and  injecting  a  solution  of  silicate  of  soda  for  eight 
nours  ;  afterwards,  soak  wood  for  the  same  period  in  lime-water. 

George  Woods,  the  celebrated  organ  manufacturer,  in  Cambridge- 
port,  near  Boston,  has  also  discovered  and  patented  a  very  valuable 
method  of  seasoning  timber. 

Lumber  is  improved  by  repiling,  and  the  shifting  of  its  position  at 
proper  intervals.  Violent  currents  of  heated  air  cause  cracks,  etc.,  in 
the  lumber  during  natural  seasoning  ;  a  moderate  temperature  is  the 
•best  in  every  respect  The  proportion  of  water  in  different  -woods 
varies  from  26  to  50  per  cent.  A  beam  of  green  oak  weighing  972  Ibs. 
lost  342  Ibs.  by  seasoning. 

The  best  results  are  attained  by  piling  the  lumber  under  shelter  in 
properly  arranged  piles,  elevated  on  blocks  at  least  2  feet  from  the 
ground,  each  kind  of  timber  by  itself,  with  1  inch  slats  interposed  be- 
tween the  boards  at  short  distances,  to  keep  them  straight,  and  permit 
the  air  to  circulate  freely,  while  square  and  round  logs  should  be 
.stripped  of  bark  and  raised  from  the  ground. 

The  best  timber,  is  that  which  has  been  allowed  to  attain  full  ma- 
turity previous  to  being  felled.  The  age  of  a  tree  is  easily  determined 
•by  the  number  of  concentric  rings  displayed  on  the  stump.  Spruce 
and  fir  matures  very  rapidly,  pine  more  "slowly,  and  oak  matures  in 
Irom  75  to  200  years.  White  oak  is  said  to  be  favorably  influenced 
"by  the  vicinity  of  sea  water;  the  growth  of  many  other  trees  is  re~ 
pressed  by  it.  In  Nova  Scotia  the  great  valley  extending  from  Corn- 
wallis  to  Digby,  is  noted  for  the  enormous  quantity  and  excellent 
quality  of  the  fruit  produced,  while  on  the  other  side  of  the  mountain 
fronting  the  Bay  of  Fundy,  the  propagation  of  fruit  trees  has  proved 
an  entire  failure,  and  no  man  could  form  any  conception  of  the  pro- 
digious extent  of  the  New  Brunswick  forests  irom  a  steamer's  deck, 
while  sailing  along  the  treeless,  rock-bound  coast  of  that  Province. 

The  best  timber  in  a  tree  is  always  the  part  near  the  ground.  The 
quality  of  the  wood  may  be  frequently  determined  by  a  healthy, 
fresh,  and  uniform  appearance,  free  from  white  or  yellow  spots, 
blending  to  a  deeper  shade  near  the  heart.  Yellow  stains  indicate 
the  existence  of  dry  rot,  caused  by  the  fermentation  of  the  albumen 
in  the  wood;  and  the  sap  wood,  being  liable  to  early  de^ay  on  account 
of  the  putrefactive  decomposition  of  the  vegetable  juices,  should  be 
removed.  The  loss  to  lumbermen  from  this  cause,  when  they  are 
obliged  to  "  hang  up,"  or  abandon  their  drives,  owing  to  the  insuffi- 
ciency of  water  in  the  stream  to  float  them  to  their  destination,  is  very 
great,  and  in  the  event  of  failure  to  drive  them  down  with  the  ensuing 
tall  or  spring  floods,  often  proves  ruinous. 

The  excellence  of  timber  is  liable  to  be  impaired  by  many  causes, 
among  others,  1.  Wind-shakes  or  circular  chinks,  or  rents,  involving 
the  separation  of  the  annular  layers  of  wood  from  each  other;  a  very 
bad  imperfection.  2.  Brash-wood,  caused  by  deterioration  or  decayf 
hi  the  timber.induced  by  age,  imparting  a  brittle  crumbling  grain  to  the1 
wood,  together  with  a  reddish  and  porous  appearance.  3.  Twisted  wood 
is  very  unsafe  for  long  stretches,  on  account  of  its  liability  to  break 
suddenly,  owing  to  the  screw  like  formation  of  the  grain.  4.  Split*, 
cheeks,  and  cracks,  if  greatly  expanded  and  enlarged,  almost  ruin 
the  timber  for  any  useful  purpose  except  the  most  common  kind; 
the  same  is  true  concerning,  5.  Knotty  timber,  which  though  it  mat 


SEASONING    OF    TIMBER. 


•be  substantial  is  not  well  adapted  for  fine  work,  but  subserves  man* 
important  uses,  such  as  roofing,  fencing,  &c.  6.  Belted  timber.  cpn» 
sists  of  trees  which  were  dead  and  partially  decayed  previous  to  being 
felled;  usually  very  bad.  7.  Common  rot. — Timber  and  lumber  of 
various  kinds,  are  liable  to  be  affected  in  this  way,  whenever  exposed 
to  alternate  humidity  and  dryness.  It  may  also  be  induced  by  im- 
perfect ventilation  in  sheds,  and  manifests  itself  by  yellow  decaying 
spots,  and  a  sulphur  colored  dust  in  the  apertures  and  crev??«;s  of  the 
timber.  8.  Perforated  timber.— This  mischief  is  caused  by  worms 
,and  insects  which  infest  timber  and  exist  on  the  albumen,  sugar,  &c 
contained  in  it.  Submerged  timber  is  affected  in  a  similar  manner  by 
the  ravages  of  the  Teredo  navilis,  a  genus  of  testaceous  mollusks. 
NUMBER  OF  CUBIC  FEET  OF  TIMBER  IN  A  TON  (AVOIRDUPOIS),  TO- 
GETHER WITH  THE  WEIGHT  IN  L.BS.  PER  CUBIC  FOOT. 


Woods. 

Lbs. 

Cubic 
Foot. 

Cubic 
Feet 

Ton. 

Woods. 

Lbs. 
per 
Cubic 
Foot. 

Cubia, 
Feet 

JSL 

Alder,  dry. 

50. 
52.812 

44.80 
42.414 

Larch,  dry. 

34. 
35. 

65.S 

Ash,      " 

43.125 

Lignum  Vitae. 

83.312 

26.86ft 

Apple,  " 

49.562 

45.18 

Logwood. 

57.062 

39.221 

SV'      „ 

43.601 
51.375 

43.601 

Mahogany. 

35. 
66.437 

64. 

33.714 

Beech. 

43.8 
53.25 

Maple,  dry. 
Oak,  Canadian. 

46.876 
54.5 

47.66 
41.101 

Birch,  common, 

43.8 

"    English. 

58.25 

38.455 

"     American  black. 

46.9 

"    live,  seasoned. 

66.75 

33.553 

Box. 

62.5 

39.40 

"       "     green. 

78.75 

Bullet-wood. 

58. 

"    white  upland. 

43. 

52.09 

Butternut,  dry. 
Cedar.            " 

23.5 
35.62 

63.866 

Pear,  dry. 
Plum,    •* 

41.312 
49.062 

47.47 

Cork,             " 

15. 

149.333 

Poplar. 

26.31 

Cherry,          " 

44.687 

Pine,  pitch,  dry. 

41.25 

54.305' 

Chestnut,      " 

38.125 

"    red, 

36.875 

60.745 

Ebony,  mean  of  2  sets. 

79.4 

"    white,     " 

34.625 

64.693' 

41.937 

53.25 

"    well  seasoned. 

29.562 

75.773 

Elm,  dry. 

35.625 

62.97 

"    yellow. 

33.812 

66.248- 

Fir,  white. 

35.57 

"         "       dry. 

28.812 

Fir,  New  England,  dry. 
Fir,  Norway  Spruce  " 
Fir,  Riga. 
Gum,  blue,  dry. 
Hackmatack,  " 

34.4 
32. 
46.9 
E2.687 
37.10 

60.37 

Poplar,  mean  of  2  sorts 
Rosewood,  dry. 
Satinwood,  « 
Spruce,         " 
Tamarack,    " 

28.5 
45.5 
55.312 
31.25 
23.937 

71.68 

flazel, 

53.75 

Teak,  African  oak. 

46.9 

Hemlock,        " 

23. 

Walnut,  dry. 

41.9 

53.42 

Hickory,  p*g  nut. 

49.5 

45.252 

"      black,  dry. 

31.25 

71.6% 

shell  ba-k. 

43.125 

51.942 

Willow. 

36.562 

61.28*; 

Holly,  dry. 
Juniper,  " 

47.5 
35.375 

<«                     << 

30.375 

73.744 

Lance  wood,  dry. 

45. 

COMPARATIVE  VALUE  OF  DIFFERENT  WOODS,  EXHIBITING 
THEIR  CRUSHING  STRENGTH  AND  STIFFNESS. 


Teak 


iah  Oak 


.Elm 


6555  Beech 

4074  Quebec  Oak 

3571  Mahogany 

3466  Spruce 


3079  Walnut 

2927  Yellow  pin' 

2571  Sycamore 

2522  Cedar 


2374' 

219i 

183ft 

703 


84  AGE,  &C.,   OP   TREES. 

LOGS  ON  THE  LANDING  AWAITING  THE  SPRING  PEESHJfflt 


AGE,  &c.,  OF  TREES.— An  oak  tree  in  3  years  grows  2  It.  1C%  ins. 
A  larch  '6  ft  1\  ins. ;  at  70  years  it  is  full  grown :  and  a  tree  of  79  yearg 
was  102  ft  high,  and  12  ft.*  girth,  containing  253  cubic  ft.  Another  of 
SO  years  was"90  ft.  and  17  ft.,  and  300  cubic  feet.  An  elm  tree  in  3 
years  grows  8  ft.  3  in.  A  beech,  1  ft.  8  in.  A  poplar,  6  ft.  A  willow, 
9  ft.  3  in.  An  elm  is  full  grown  in  150  years  and  it  lives  500  or  600. 
Ash  is  full  grown  in  100,  and  oak  in  200  The  mahogam  is  full 
grown  in  200  years  to  a  vast  size.  A  Polish  oak,  40  ft.  round  had  600 
Circles.  An  oak  in  Dorsetshire  in  1755,  was  68  ft.  round;  2  near  Gran- 
borne  Lodge  are  38  and  36  ft.  There  are  yews  from  10  to  20  ft  diam., ' 
whose  age  is  from  1000  to  2000  years.  A  lime  in  the  Crisons  is  51  ft. 
tound,  and  about  600  years  old.  An  elm  in  the  Pays  de  Vaud  is  18  ft. 
diarn.  and  360  years  old.  The  African  baobab  is  the  patriarch  of  liv- 
ing organizations;  one  specimen  by  its  circles  is  estimated  at  5700 
years  old  by  Adamson  and  Humboldt  The  trunk  is  but  12  or  15  ft,  to, 
the  branches,  and  often  75  ft.  round.  A  cypress  in  Mexico  is  120  ft 
round  and  is  estimated  by  De  Candolle  to  be  older  than  Adamson' s 
Toaobab.  The  cypress  of  Montezuma  is  41  feet  round.  Strabo  wrote 
of  a  cypress  in  Persia,  as  being  2500  years  old.  The  largest  tree  in 
Mexico  is  127  ft  round,  and  120  high,  with  branches  of  30  ft.  A  chest- 
nut tree  on  Mount  Etna  is  196  ft  round  close  to  the  ground,  and  5  of 
tts;  branches  resemble  great  trees.  De  Candolle  says  there  are  oaks  in 


BUYING    AND    SELLING     TIMBER.  8£ 

France  1500  years  old.  The  Wallace  oak,  near  Paisley,  is  nearly  800 
years  old.  The  yew  trees  at  Fountain's  Abbey  are  about  1200  years 
old.  That  at  Crowhurst,  1500.  That  at  Fortingal,  above  2000.  That 
at  Braburn,  2500  to  3000.  Ivys  reach  500  or  600  years-  The  larcli 
the  same.  The  lime  600  or  700  years.  The  trunk  of  a  walnut  tree,  12 
ft.  in  diain.,  hollowed  out,  and  furnished  as  a  sitting-room,  was  im- 
^ported  from  America  and  exhibited  in  London.  The  trunk  was  80  ft. 
nigh,  without  a  branch,  and  the  entire  height  150  ft,  the  bark  12  ins. 
thick  and  the  branches  from  3  to  4  ft.  in  diam.  The  California  pine  ia 
from  150  to  200  ft.  high  and  from  20  to  60  ft.  in  diam.  The  forests  in 
watered  tropical  countrtes  are  formed  of  trees  from  100  to  200  ft.  high, 
which  grow  to  the  water's  edge  of  rivers,  presenting  a  solid  and  im- 
penetrable barrier  of  trunks  10  or  12  ft.  in  diam.  The  dragon  tree  ia 
in  girth  from  40  to  100  ft.  and  50  or  60  feet  high ;  and  a  misosa  in  South 
America  is  described,  whose  head  is  600  ft.  round. 

•TENSILE  STRENGTH  OF  DIFFERENT  KINDS  OF  WOOD.  SHOWING  THE 
"WEIGHT  OR  POWEB  REQUIRED  TO  TEAR  ASUNDER  1  SQUARE  INCH. 


Lbs. 

Lance 23,000 

•Locust 25,000 

Mahogany 21,000 

Box 20,000 

African  Oak 14,500 

Bay 14,500 

'Teak 14,000 

Cedar 14,000 

Ash 14,000 

•Oak,  seasoned 13,600 

Elm 13,400 

iSycamore 13,000 

Willow 13,000 


LU. 

Pitch  Pine 12,000 

White  Pine,  (American) 11,800 

White  Oak,  "          11,500 

Lignum  Vitse 11,800 

Beech 11,500 

Chestnut,  sweet 10,500 

Maple 10,500 

White  Spruce 10,290 

English  Oak - 10,000 

Pear • 9,800 

Larch . 9,50o 

Mahogany,  Spanish 8,000 

Walnut 7,800 

Poplar 7,000 

Cypress 6,000 


•Christiana  Deal 12,400 

Spanish  Mahogany 12,000 

BUYING  AND  SELLING  TIMBER. — Inch  boards,  plank,  Hoists  and 
scantling  are  generally  sold  by  board  measure,  the  dimensk  ns  of  one 
foot  of  board  measure  being  1  ft.  long,  1  ft.  wide  and  1  in.  thick. 
Hound  timber  is  sold  by  the  cubic  foot,  and  when  squared  by  hewing 
-or  sawing  is  estimated  to  lose  one-fifth,  hence  a  ton  of  roukd  timber 
•is  estimated  to  coutuin  only  40  cubic  feet.  Square  timber,  hewn  or 
:sawn,  is  also  sold  by  the  cubic  foot  and  rated  at  50  cubic  fret  to  the 
ton,  but  as  usually  surveyed,  a  ton  of  timber  contains  50  y2-100ths 
cubic  feet. 

Pine  and  spruce  spars,  from  10  to  4i  in.  diam.  are  estimated  by 
taking  the  diameter,  minus  the  bark,  at  §  of  their  length  at  the  large 
end  ;  they  are  generally  bought  and  sold  by  the  inch  diaireter,  all 
under  4  ins.  being  considered  poles. 

The  soundness  of  timber  may  be  tested  by  applying  the  efr  to  the 
middle  of  one  of  the  ends,  while  another  party  strikes  the  other  end. 
The  blow  will  be  clearly  and  distinctly  heard,  however  long  the  beam 
may  be,  if  the  wood  is  sounu  and  of  good  quality,  but  if  de"ay  haa 
set  in,  the  sound  will  be  muffled  and  indistinct.  The  toughest  part  of 
a  tree  will  always  be  found  on  the  side  next  the  north. 

BRITISH  CARPENTRY.— The  fir  timber  in  general  use  is  iruporte* 
Memel,  Riga,  Dantzic,  and  Sweden.    Memel  timber  is  th.) 
size,  Riga  the  best  in  quality,  Dantzic  the 


S6  BRITISH  CARPENTRY,  &C. 

and  Swedish  the  toughest.  Riga  timber  can  always  be  depended 
upon ;  red  pine  may  be  used  whenever  durability  and  strength  are 
objects  ;  and  Quebec  yellow  pine  for  light  dry  purposes.  Deals  are 
from  Norway,  Sweden,  Prussia,  Russia  and  New  Brunswick.  Foi 
framing,  the  best  deals  are  the  Norway,  particularly  the  Christiana 
battens;  for  panuelling,  the  Christiana  white  deals;  for  ground  floors, 
Stockholm  and  Gene  yellows ;  for  upper  floors,  Dram  and  Christiana 
whites ;  Archangel  and  Onega  planks  for  warehouse  floors  and  stair 
eases,  and  for  best  floors,  &c.,  Petersburg,  Onega  and  Christiana  batten" 
100  Superficial  ft.  make  1  square  of  boarding,  flooring,  &c. 

120  deals  are  denominated  one  hundred. 
50  cubic  ft.  of  timber  equal  1  load.    Also, 

600  superficial  ft.  of  inch  boards  equal  1  load. 
Battens  are  from  6$  to  7  ins.  in  breadth,  deals,  8£  to  10  ins.,  anA 
planks  11  to  12  his. 

121  12-feet  boards  to  1  square  of  rough  boarding  or  flooring. 
12$       "      edges  shot. 

13         "      wrought  and  laid  folding. 

13£       "  "         straight  joint. 

"         ploughed  and  tongued. 

17  12-ft.  battens  to  1  square  of  wrought  folding  door. 

18  "  yellow  to  a  straight  joint  floor. 

The  duration  of  well  seasoned  wood,  whemkept  dry,  is  very  great,  a* 
beams  still  exist  which  are  known  to  be  nearly  1100  years  old.  Piles- 
driven  by  the  Romanb,  and  used  in  the  formation  of  bridges  prior  to 
the  Christian  era,  have  been  examined  of  late,  and  found  to  be  per- 
fectly sound  after  an  immersion  of  nearly  2000  years. 

RUSSIAN  WAY  OF  STOPPING  HOLES  IN  SHIPS. — In  that  country, 
there  has  lately  been  invented  and  successfully  applied,  a  ready 
means  for  stopping  holes  made  in  ships  by  collision  or  otherwise.  It 
consists  of  a  plaster  uiade  oi  two  rectangular  sheets  of  canvas  sewed 
together,  bordered  with  a  rope,  and  containing  a  water-proof  material. 
A  sounding-line  has  to  be  passed  under  the  keel,  and  brought  up  o» 
the  other  side  :  then  the  plaster  can  be  lowered  to  the  hole,  and  made- 
fast.  Several  cases  are  cited  in  which  this  invention  has  been  em- 
ployed with  advantage  ;  and  a  large  number  of  Russian  ships  aie- 
now  furnished  with  such  plasters.  It  is  proposed  that  men  be  spe- 
cially trained  and  ready  for  the  manoeuvring  of  the  apparatus. 

To  RAISE  THE  BODY  of  A  DROWNED  PERSON.— In  a  recent  fail- 
ure  to  recover  the  body  of  a  drowned  person  in  New  Jersey,  a  French- 
Canadian  undertook  tho  job,  and  proceeded  as  follows  :  Having  sup- 
plied himself  with  some  glass  gallon-jars,  and  a  quantity  of  un- 
§laked  lime,  he  went  hi  a  boat  to  the  place  where  the  man  was  seen, 
to  go  down.  One  of  the  jars  was  filled  half  full  of  lime,  then  filled 
up  with  water,  and  tightly  corked.  It  was  then  dropped  into  the 
water,  and  soon  after  exploded  at  the  bottom  of  the  river,  with  a 
.loud  report.  After  the  third  trial,  each  time  at  a  different  place,  che 
•,body  roee  to  the  surface,  and  was  secured. 

To  GET  RID  OF  RATS,  &c.— Get  a  piece  of  lead  pipe  and  use  it  as  a 
funnel  to  introduce  about  1^  ozs.  of  sulphide  of  potassium  into  any 
outside  holes  tenanted  by  rats  ;  not  co  be  used  in  dwellings.  To  get 
rid  of  Mice,  use  tartar  emetic  mingled  with  any  favorite  food  ;  tfct) 
*411  eat.  sicken,  and  take  their  leave. 


MACHINISTS,    ENGINEERS*,   AC.,   RECEIPTS.  87 

HYDRAULIC  CEMENT. — Powdered  clay,  3  Ibs. ;  oxide  of  iron,  1  Ib. ; 

and  boiled  oil  to  form  a  stiff  paste. 

ENGINEERS'  CEMENT. — Equal  parts  of  red  and  white  lead,  with  dry- 
ing oil,  spread  on  tow  or  canvas.  An  admirable  composition  for  uniting 
large  stones  in  cisterns. 

STONE  CEMENT  River.— Sand,  20  parts;  litharge,  2  parts;  quick- 
lime, 1  part:  mix  with  linseed  oil. 

GLUE. — Powdered  ohalk  added  to  common  glue  strengthens  it.  A 
glue  which  will  resist  the  action  of  water  is  made  by  boiling  1  Ib.  of 
glue  in  2  qts.  of  bkimined  milk. 

CHEAP  WATERPROOF  GLUE. — Melt  common  glue  with  the  smallest 
possible  quantity  of  water;  add,  by  degrees,  linseed  oil,  rendered 
drying  by  boiling  it  with  litharge.  While  the  oil  is  being  added,  th» 
ingredients  must  be  well  stirred,  to  incorporate  them  thoroughly. 

FIRE  AND  WATERPROOF  GLUE. — Mix  a  handful  of  quick-Time  with 
4  oz.  of  linseed  oil;  thoroughly  lixiviate  the  mixture;  boil  it  to  a  good 
thickness,  and  spread  it  on  thin  plates  in  the  shade:  it  will  become- 
very  hard,  but  can  be  dissolved  over  a  fire,  like  common  glue,  and  i» 
then  fit  for  use. 

PREPARED  LIQUID  GLUE.— Take  of  best  white  glue,  16  oz. ;  white- 
lead,  dry,  4  oz. ;  rain-water,  2  pts. ;  alcohol,  4  oz.  With  constant  stir- 
ring dissolve  the  glue  and  lead  in  the  water,  by  means  of  a  water- 
bath.  Add  the  alcohol,  and  continue  the  heat  for  a  few  minutes. 
Lastly,  pour  into  bottles,  while  it  is  still  hot 

To  MAKE  GRINDSTONES  FROIM  COMMON  SAND. — River  sand  32  Ibs. : 
shellac,  10  parts;  powdered  glass,  2  parts;  melt  in  an  iron  pot,  and 
cast  into  moulds. 

POLISHING 'POWDER  FOR  SPECULA. — Precipitate  a  dilute  solution 
01  sulphate  of  iron  by  ammonia  in  excess ;  wash  the  precipitate;  press 
it  in  a  screw  press  till  nearly  dry ;  then  expose  it  to  heat  until  it 
appears  of  a  dull  red  color  in  the  dark. 

ON  SAW-MILLS. — To  GET  THE  MOST  LUMBER  FROM  SAW-LOGS. 
— Experience  has  abundantly  proved  to  our  satisfaction  that  this  can 
be  done  only  by  the  use  of  the  circular  saw.  Some  parties  are  in 
favor  of  the  mulay  saw.  Human  ingenuity  has  been  so  prolific  in  the 
invention  and  construction  of  this  kind  of  machinery,  that  the  prin- 
cipal difficulty  with  the  intending  purchaser  seems  to  be  an  inability 
to  decide  whose  machine  is  really  the  best  Every  builder  or  inventor 
appears  to  claim  for  his  machine  such  a  perfect  constellation  of  -valu- 
able features,  that  a  certain  amount  of  hesitation  in  coming  to  a  de- 
cision seems  to  be  inevitable.  In  the  stationary  form  of  saw  millg, 
the  saws  are  arranged  either  single  or  in  gangs.  Some  of  the  port- 
able kind  (circular  saw  mills)  haT*e  an  upper  saw  to  complete  the  cut 
made  but  partially  through  large  logs  by  the  lower  saw.  See 
diagram.  By  the  single  movement  of  a  lever,  the  head-blocks  on 
which  the  log  rests,  are  simultaneously  moved  up,  moving  the  log  a 
distance  nearer  the  saw,  adequate  to  the  thickness  of  board  desired, 
with  an  overplus  the  width  of  the  cut  made  by  the  saw.  By  moving 
another  lever,  a  pinion  meshing  into  a  rack  beneath  the  log-carriage  is. 
made  to  impel  the  log  against  the  saw,  and  run  the  log  backward* 
after  the  board  is  cut.  These  movements,  on  the  best  constructed 
machines,  are  made  with  surprising  velocity,  some  of  them  being  ao 
•wedited  with  having  cut  over  60,000  feet  of 


OLD   FASHIONED    SAW-MILL,    *C. 


The  t>erformance  of  a  36  horse-power  steam  engine  attached  to  a 
modern  saw-mill,  is  equivalent  to  that  of  75  saw-pits  requiring  the 
labor  of  150  men. 

COMPARATIVE  RESILIENCE  OP  VARIOUS  KINDS  OF  TIMBER,  ASH 
BEING  1,  Fir  '4,  Elm  '54,  Pitch  Pine  '57,  Teak  -59,  Oak  "63,  Spruce  '64, 
Yellow  Pine  *64,  Cedar  '66,  Chestnut  '73  Larch  '84,  Beech  '86.  By  resi- 
lience is  understood  the  quality  of  springing  back,  or  toughness. 

PERCENTAGE  OF  INCREASE  IN  STRENGTH  OF  DIFFERENT  WOODS 
BY  SEASONING.— White  pine,  9  per  cent.,  Elm  12*3  per  cent.,  Oak  26 '6 
per  cent.,  Ash  44'7  per  cent.,  Beech  61 '9  per  cent 
TRANSVERSE    STRENGTH    OF    WOODS,    SHOWING    THEIR 
BREAKING   WEIGHT  FOR  A  THICKNESS  OF  ONE  INCH 
SQUARE   AND  ONE  FOOT  IN   LENGTH,  WITH  WEIGHT 
SUSPENDED  FROM  ONE    END. 


BREAKING 

WEIGHT. 

VALUE 

FOB  USE. 

BREAKING 

WEIGHT. 

VALUE 

FOR  USB. 

Lbs. 
Ixxmst  295 

80 

Lbs. 
Oak,  Canadian           146 

36 

Hickory                      ..250 

55 

"    live  American     245 

65 

Oak,  live  American.  .  245 

55 

•<    English                140 

35 

"    white       ««        ..230 
"    African  208 

50 
50 

Deal  Christiana  137 
Pine  pitch  .  .             136 

45 
45 

Teak  206 

60 

Beech                          130 

32 

.Maple  202 

Pine  white  American  130 

45 

Oak,  English,  best.  .  .188 

45 

Elm          125 

SO 

Ash  ...;.....  168 

55 

Pine  Norway      .        123 

40 

Pine,  American  60 
Birch  160 

50 
40 

Oak  Dantzic  122 
White  wood     116 

30 
38 

63 

Riga  Fir             .           94 

&> 

Pine,  white  92 

at 

MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  &c.,  RECEIPTS.        89 

Occasionally  we  listen  to  a  great  deal  of  rant  regarding  the  beati- 
tudes of  "the  good  old  times,  during  the  lives  of  our  forefathers. 
TThese  times  proved  very  disastrous  to  the  enterprising  Dutchman, 
\rho,  in  1663  started  the  first  saw-mill  in  England,  which  he  waa 
Anally  obliged  to  abandon,  and  fly  to  save  his  life.  In  1767  another 
caw-mill,  at  Lime-house,  near  London,  was  demolished  by  a  mob  of 
«iwyers,  who  considered  that  their  business  would  be  ruined  to  a> 
*ev»  certainty  if  things  were  allowed  to  go  on. 


MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  <tc.,  RECEIPTS.         91 

The  old  method  of  manufacturing  lumber  and  dimension  stuff  by 
Tipping  logs  lengthways  on  the  sawpit,  is  still  fresh  in  the  remem. 
"brance  of  many.  One  man  mounted  the  log  and  pushed  the  saw 
downwards  and  pulled  it  upwards,  assisted  by  another  man  in  the 
pit  below,  with  a  veil  over  his  face  to  keep  the  sawdust  out  of  his 
eyes.  We  hail  with  gratitude  the  modern  improvements  which  en-  '= 
able  us  to  dispense  with  every  such  form  of  labor.  L'* 

Having  tried  the  up  and  down  saw  and  the  circular  saw  also,  we 
Would  again  repeat  our  conviction  that  the  last  mentioned  is  the  best 
ior  manufacturing  lumber,  and  should  any  person  act  on  this  expression 
of  opinion,  let  them  in  the  first  place  be  very  careful  to  get,  if  possible, 
the  best  machine,  bring  it  to  the  mill,  and  set  it  perfectly  level  and 
true.  When  you  get  it  in  operation,  see  that  you  handle  it  carefully. 
If  you  have  been  used  to  running  the  up  and  down  saw  only,  you  will 
soon  find  out  that  your  former  experience  avails  almost  nothing  in 
the  management  of  the  rotary  machine ;  but  when  you  get  the  hang 
•of  running  it,  the  compensation  in  the  way  of  convenience,  rapidity, 
and  quantity  of  work,  is  immense.  Some  prefer  to  use  the  inserted 
tooth  saws,  and  will  use  no  other.  They  seem  to  possess  many  ad- 
vantages, and  are  entirely  safe.  A  late  invention  of  spreading  the 
upper  part  of  the  tooth  towards  the  point  during  the  process  of  manu- 
lacture,  spreading  it  out  so  as  to  make  the  point  of  the  tooth  tho 
thickest  part  of  the  circumference  of  the  saw,  enables  the  sawyer  to 
dispense  in  a  great  measure  with  the  use  of  the  swage.  Those  insert- 
ed tooth  saws  which  do  not  possess  this  improvement  must  be  care- 
fully swaged  and  filed  at  least  twice  per  day,  and  sometimes  as  often 
as  six  or  seven  times  per  day,  depending  upon  the  kind  of  lumber 
l>eing  cut.  In  filing  or  swaging  the  saw,  be  careful  to  form  the  point 
of  the  teeth  absolutely  square,  and  even  across,  the  slightest  deviation' 
Irom  perfect  truth  in  this  respect  being  apt  to  cause  the  saw  to  r?m,  as 
it  is  termed,  or  vary  from  its  proper  course  while  passing  through  the 
log.  Some  prefer  to  form  the  point  of  the  tooth  a  little  nooking,  just 
•enough  so  as  to  be  barely  perceptible,  and  in  swaging  to  use  that  part 
of  the  die  belonging  to  the  swage,  which  gives  the  tooth  of  the  saw  a 
slightly  curved  or  rainbow  form,  something  in  this  shape  ^,  or 
scarcely  so  much  curved.  One  sawyer  of  20  years'  experience  in 
running  machinery,  informed  us  that  he  never  did  better  or  more 
rapid  work  with  his  mill  than  when  he  kept  his  saw  exactly  right  on 
these  two  point s  just  stated.  If  you  can  run  a  No.  7  gauge  saw  on 
your  mill,  the  loss  resulting  from  sawdust  will  be  very  slight,  and  as 
large  saws  are  generally  thickest  at  the  centre,  tapering  off  towards 
the  circumference,  this  size  or  No.  6  will,  as  a  general  rule,  be  found 
sufficiently  strong  for  most  purposes.  Make  sure  at  all  times,  es- 
pecially during  frosty  weather,  that  the  dogs  have  a  secure  hold  of 
the  log  before  the  saw  enters  it.  It  is  only  a  few  days  ago  that  a 
case  came  to  my  knowledge  of  a  firm  near  Fredericton,  N.B.,  having 
sustained  a  severe  loss  by  a  log  (insufficiently  secured  of  course) 
canting  over  on  the  saw  as  it  was  passing  through  it.  The  effect  was 
to  break  off  the  saw  from  the  mandril,  twist  off  the  nut  at  the  end 
near  the  saw,  and  break  away  the  two  iron  pins  used  for  securing  th» 
saw  in  the  collar,  causing  a  stoppage  of  the  mill,  and  the  consequent 
«xpense  of  repair  and  delay.  When  you  get  the  mill  in  operation,  see 
that  you  handle  tt  carefully,  and  maintain  unceasing  watch ?' 


MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  &c  ,  RECEIPTS. 


over  it  while  in  operation.  Give  it  plenty  of  power  ;  if 
you  may  as  well  shut  up  shop  at  once  ;  good  attendance,  and  with  a 
good  machine,  the  attendants  will  not  have  much  time  to  play  them- 
selves, I  can  assure  you.  Keep  all  the  parts  well  oiled  —  that  has  a 
great  deal  to  do  with  the  smooth  and  successful  running  of  the 
machine  ;  and,  by  the  way,  I  would  remark  that  saw-mills  are  not 
the  only  things!  in  this  world  that  run  all  the  better  for  being  oiled. 
If  that  kind,  loving,  gentle,  and  affectionate  spirit  of  which  oil  is  the 
symbol,  pervaded  the  hearts  and  the  minds  of  our  race,  and  found 
universal  expression  in  every  thought,  word,  and  deed  during  ovu* 
daily  intercourse  with  each  other,  it  would  be  a  very  different 
world  from  what  it  is  —  better  for  ourselves,  and  better  for  our  neigh- 
bors. Let  us  all  carry  on  this  branch  of  the  oit  business  as  extensively 
as  possible,  and  we  shall  soon  see  a  brotherhood  "  dwelling  together 
in  unity."  In  order  to  facilitate  calculations  regarding  the  velocity 
of  saws,  herewith  is  appended  a  reliable  table  to'serve  as  a  guide  & 
ascertaining  the  proper  speed  for  running  :— 

TABLE  OP  SPEED  FOB  CERCUULR  SAWS. 

36  inches  in  diameter,  1000  revolutions  per  minute 


38 

«       « 

950 

« 

40 

«       « 

900 

n 

42 

t<       « 

870 

" 

I 

44 

((           (C 

840 

" 

; 

46 

(C            It 

800 

«< 

f 

48 

11        « 

760 

'« 

60 

«        « 

725 

" 

f 

62 

((        « 

700 

" 

64 

((        « 

675 

" 

, 

66 

«          « 

650 

" 

58 

1C            1C 

625 

" 

j 

60 

«          « 

600 

" 

62 

<(        « 

575 

<* 

64 

<(        « 

660 

«i 

§ 

66 

<(        (« 

645 

" 

68 

((            (C 

530 

Cl 

i 

70 

«        « 

515 

" 

72 

«        « 

500 

M 

74 

l(        «« 

485 

II 

76 

i«        « 

475 

II 

Shingle  machine  saws 

1400 

(t 

The  march  of  improvement  in  the  manufacture  of  shingle  machine* 
has  been  truly  wonderful,  and  they  can  now  be  procured  from  the 
manufacturer,  of  almost  any  capacity  and  power,  at  very  reasonable 
rates.  Shingle  machines  are  now  in  use,  which  cut  out  over  30,000 
shingles  per  day,  carrying  two  or  more  bolts.  Some  of  them  possess 
very  complex  machinery  and  are  positively  dangerous  to  operate  unless 
continual  vigilance  is  maintained.  One  gentleman  well  known  to 
the  writer,  was  crippled  for  life  by  having  his  hand  terribly  lacer- 
ated during  an  unguarded  moment  by  one  of  these  machines.  As  a 
rule  the  less  gearing  and  the  more  simplicity  there  is  about  the  me* 


MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  &c.,  RECEIPTS.         9$ 

chanism  of  a  shingle  machine  the  more  satisfaction  Trill  be  derived* 
from  it 

In  the  manufacture  of  shingles,  as  well  as  in  anything  else,  it  is  the- 
wisest  policy  to  use  the  best  materials.  Get  good  rift,  free  from 
knots,  sand,  bark,  &c.,  and  you  will  inevitably  get  good  merchant- 
able stuff,  with  less  waste  and  more  pleasure  every  way,  both  with 
the  machinery  in  the  first  place,  and  the  satisfactory  state  of  your 
exchequer  in  the  last.  It  is  all  the  better  if  you  can  lay  in  a  good  , 
stock  one  year  ahead,  as  it  cuts  much  easier  when  properly  seasoned, 
to  say  nothing  of  the  saving  in  weight  during  transportation.  In 
edging  shingles,  many  prefer  the  saw  to  the  revolving  knives,  as  it ) 
enables  the  operator  in  many  cases  to  get  a  shingle  of  extra  quality 
by  trimming  a  poor  shingle  down,  and  selecting  the  best  part.  This; 
can  be  done  by  a  smart  hand  with  marvellous  rapidity,  but  still,  to 
use  a  modern  phrase,  many  persons  can't  see  it,  and  so  they  use  the 
knives,  giving  what  they  conceive  to  be  good  reasons  for  so  doing. 

VELOCITIES  OP  WOOD  WORKING  MACHINERY. — Circular  Saws  at 
periphery,  6000  to  7000  ft.  per  minute,  Band  Saws,  2500  feet ;  Gang 
Saws,  20  inch  stroke,  120  strokes  per  minute  ;  Scroll  Saws,  300 
etrokes  per  minute;  Planing  Machine  Cutters  at  periphery,  4000  to 
6000  feet.  Work  under  plaining  machine  l-20th  of  an  inch  for  each 
cut.  Moulding  Machine  Cutters,  3500  to  4000  feet;  Squaring-up 
Machine  Cutters,  7000  to  8000  feet;  Wood  Carving  Drills,  5000  revo- 
lutions; Machine  Augers,  1£  in.  diam.,  900  revolutions;  ditto,  f  in. 
diam.,  1200  revolutions;  Gang  Saws,  require  for  45  superficial  feet  of 
pine  per  hour,  1  horse-power.  Circular  Saws  require  75  superficial! 
feet  per  hour,  1  horse-power.  In  oak  or  hard  wood  f  ths  of  the  c ' X)ve 
quantity  require  1  horse-power ;  Sharpening  Angles  of  Machine  Cfc&ers, 
Adzing  soft  wood  across  the  grain,  30° ;  Planing  Machines  -ordinary 
softwood,  35°;  Gauges  and  Ploughing  Machines,  40°;  Hardwood 
Tool  Cutters,  50°  to  55°. 

FILING  SAWS.— The  grand  secret  of  putting  any  saw  in  the  best 
possible  order,  consists  in  filing  the  teeth  at  a  given  angle  to  cut 
rapidly,  and  of  a  uniform  length  so  that  the  points  will  all  touch 
a  straight  edged  rule  without  showing  a  variation  of  the  hundredth 
part  of  an  Inch.  Besides  this,  there  should  be  just  set  enough  in  the 
teeth  to  cut  a  kerf  as  narrow  as  it  can  be  made,  and  at  the  same  time- 
allow  the  blade  to  work  freely  without  pinching.  On  the  contrary, 
the  kerf  must  not  be  so  wide  as  te  permit  the  blade  to  rattle  wher  m 
motion.  The  very  points  of  the  teeth  do  the  cutting,  If  one  tooth 
is  a  twentieth  of  at,  inch  longer  than  two  or  three  on  each  side  of  it> 
the  long  tooth  will  *>e  required  to  do  so  much  more  cutting  than  it 
should,  that  the  sa\png  cannot  be  done  well,  hence  the  saw  goes 
jumping  along,  wording  hard  and  cutting  slowly;  if  one  tooth  ia 
longer  than  those  on  either  side  of  it,  the  short  teeth  do  not  cut 
although  their  points  ^ay  be  sharp.  When  putting  a  cross-cut  saw 
in  order,  it  will  pay  well  to  dress  the  points  with  an  old  file,  and  af-* 
terwards^shitrpen  them  with  a  fine  whetstone;  much  median- ^ 
ical  skill  is  necessary  to  put  a  saw  in  prime  order;  one  careless  thrust 
with  a  file  wiL  shorten  the  point  of  a  tooth  so  much  that  it  will  be 
utterly  useless,  jo  far  as  cutting  is  concerned;  the  teeth  should  b* 
set  with  much  c*re,  and  the  filing  done  with  the  greatest  accuracy 
If  the  teeth  are  wiercn  at  the  points,  a  large  flat  file  should  be  secured 


04         MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  &c.,  RECEIPTS. 

to  a  block  of  wood  in  such  a  manner  that  the  very  points  only  may 
be  jointed,  so  that  the  cutting  edge  of  the  same  may  be  in  a  straight 
line,  or  circle,  if  it  is  a  circular  saw;  every  tooth  should  cut  a  little  as 
the  saw  is  worked.  The  teeth  of  a  hand"  saw  for  all  kinds  of  work 
should  be  filed  fleaming,  or  at  an  angle  on  the  front  edge,  while  the 
back  edges  may  be  filed  fleaming  or  square  across  the  blade.  Th« 
best  way  to  file  a  circular  saw  for  cutting  wood  across  the  grain,  is  to 
dress  every  fifth  tooth  square  across,  and  apart  one  twentieth  of  an. 
inch  shorter  than  the  others,  which  should  be  filed  fleaming  at  an 
angle  of  about  forty  degrees. 

As  regards  such  saws  as  are  used  for  cutting  up  large  logs  into  lum- 
ber it  is  of  the  utmost  importance  to  have  them  filed  at  such  an  angle 
as  will  ensure  the  largest  amount  of  work  with  the  least  expenditure 
of  power.  The  following  diagrams  will  help  to  illustrate  our  mean- 
ing. Fig.  1  shows  the  shape  of  teeth  which  nearly  all  experienced 


FIG.  1. 

mill-men  consider  as  that  standard  form  which  combines  the  greatest 
amount  of  strength  and  capacity  for  rapid  work,  with  the  minimum 
of  driving  power  while  doing  the  work. 

Figure  No.  2  represents  a  passable  form  of  teeth  which  are  capable 
of  doing  a  good  deal  of  work,  but  their  great  weakness  lies  in  their 
slender  points.  Look  out  for  "breakers"  when  teeth  of  tail 
description  are  passing  through  dry  spruce  or  hemlock  knota. 


MACHINISTS,    ENGINEERS*1,    AC.,    RECEIPTS.  3$ 

Fig.  No.  3  illustrates  the  appearance  of  one  of  those  intolerable 
wood  rasps  which  are  altogether  too  common  in  saw-mills.  Only 
think  what  an  appalling  waste  of  valuable  power  Is  required  to  dm* 
*  "  jigger"  like  this  through  a  large  log! 


FIG.  3. 

Pig.  4,  at  a,  is  intended  to  show  the  method  of  ascertaining  the 
proper-angle,  that  of  sixty  degrees,  at  which  such  saws  should  be 
filed.  The  diagram  being  self-explanatory  requires  but  little  further 
elucidation  here.  A  quarter  circle  with  lines  radiating  from  the  centre 
towards  the  circumference  is  represented  near  the  verge  of  the  segment 
pf  a  circular  saw.  The  lower  part  corresponds  with  the  level  of  the 
horizon,  and  the  higher  part  at  90°  corresponds  with  the  zenith  or 
meridian,  where  the  sun  appears  at  noon-day.  Exactly  half-way  up 
is  45°;  look  up  a  little  higher  and  you  will  find  60°,  indicated  by  the 
radiating  line  which  runs  parallel  with  the  angle  of  the  tooth  of  the  saw 
and  this  is  the  guide  you  must  follow  in  filing.  The  same  rule  is  seer 
applied  to  a  straight  mill  saw  at  b. 

Many  good  authorities  contend  that  mill  saws  snould  in  no  case  t>e 
set  with  the  instrument  commonly  used  for  that  purpose,  but  that  in 
lieu  thereof  the  teeth  should  be  spread  out  at  the  points  with  the 
swage  or  upset  to  a  sufficient  extent  to  permit  the  body  of  the  saw  to 
operate  without  binding.  Both  instruments  require  to  be  skilfully- 
handled,  and  the  swage,  when  used  in  this  way,  has  proved  itself  equal 
to  every  emergency  without  the  risk  of  breaking  the  teeth.  It  would 
be  quite  safe  to  say  that  the  saw-set  should  only  be  used  on  saws  of 
this  description  with  the  most  extreme  caution  and  care.  Every  man- 
ufacturer, no  we  ver,  has  his  own  opinion,  and  consequent  practice  on 
the  subject,  some  contending  that  one  way  is  right  and  the  other  di- 
rectly the  reverse. 

To  REPAIR  FRACTURED  CIRCULAR  SAWS. — The  best  way  to  do 
this  is  to  drill  a  small  round  hole  at  the  termination  of  the  crack,  which 
effectually  prevents  its  further  extension.  I  have  seen  some  circular 
eaws  very  neatly  repaired  by  riveting  thin  clamps  to  each  side  of  theV 
fracture,  both  clamps  and  rivets  being  countersunk  so  they  will  be, 
level  with  the  surface  of  the  saw,  and  placed  in  such  a  position  across 
toe  crack  as  to  impart  the  greatest  possible  strength  to  the  weakest  place. 

To  MEND  BROKEN  CROSS-CUT  SAWS. — In  the  first  place  scarf  off 
the  broken  edges  in  such  a  manner  thai  when  lapped  over  each  other 


;J6         MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  &c.,  RECEIPTS 

they  will  be  about  the  same  thickness  as  the  rest  of  the  plate,  and 
rivet  them  together  loosely  with  iron  rivets  inserted  through  holei 
wbieh  must  be  punched  for  that  purpose  ;  the  ends  must  be  united 


Wrfh  great  accuracy  so  that  the  teeth,  &c.,  of  the  saw  may  rang* 
jtuly.  Now  place  the  saw  in  the  fire,  then  a  flux  of  powdered  borax 
and  sal  ammoniac  is  flowed  all  over  it  after  haying  it  raised  to  th« 
proper  heat.  See  page  270  for  preparing  and  using  the  composition, 
the  saw  to  the  fire  and  when  it  is  raised  to  the  proper  welding 


MACHINISTS,    ENGINEERS',    &C-.    RECEIPTS.  9? 

heat,  place  it  on  the  anvil  and  unite  the  joint  as  rapidly  as  possible 
•with  the  hammer  ;  be  careful  not  to  heat  so  hot  as  to  injure  the  steel. 
When  the  job  is  well  done,  and  the  part  properly  tempered,  it  will  be 
found  as  strong  a?  the  rest  of  the  plate.  1  know  one  blacksmith  in 
Canada  who  told  nie  that  this  class  of  work  was  the  best  paying  part 
of  his  business. 

QUANTITY  AND  COST  OF  SUPPLIES  FOB  HORSES  AND  LUMBERING* 
CREWS  IN  THE  WOODS. — The  following  figures  have  been  kindly 
furnished  for  this  work  by  the  obliging  manager  of  Messrs.  Gilmour's 
mill  on  the  Gatineau,  near  Ottawa,  Canada,  and  are  most  valuable  as 
affording  a  basis  for  calculating  the  quantity  and  quality  of  the  sup«= 
plies  required  for  men  and  horses  engaged  in  this  branch  of  industry. 
_  These  calculations  are  the  result  o:f  long  experience  in  the  business- 
and  are  based  on  actual  consumption. 

Quantity  of  Oats  for  each  span  of  horses.  51  Ibs.  per  day. 
Hay  "  40        " 

"          Flour  used  by  each  man  1.80  •» 

"  Pork  1.22  .« 

Beef  "  "  0.85 

Beans  "  "  0.33  " 

"  Fish  «  "  0.12  " 

"  Onions  "  "  0.13  " 

Potatoes  "  0.47 

Total  daily  consumption  per  man  4.92 

Quantity  of  Tea  used  1£  Ibs.  per  month. 

The  daily  allowance  of  oats  for  each  span  of  horses  may  appear 
large,  but  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  labor  is  extremely  severe, 
and  more  hay  will  be  required  if  any  part  of  the  oats  is  withheld.  Ont 
making  inquiry  with  reference  to  the  item  of  molasses,  so  largely 
used  by  our  lumbering  friends  in  New  Brunswick  and  Maine,  the' 
answer  returned  was  that  owing  to  the  heavy  cost  of  the  commodity. 
it  was  entirely  omitted  from  the  list  of  supplies.  The  following: 
exhibits  the  comparative  value  of  Mess  and  Prime  Pork,  calculated 
from  actual  coaaumption 


Mess  Pork  Prime  Mess. 

$26 $18  80 

25 18  08 

24. 17  35 

23 16  62 

22 15  89 

21 15  16 

20 14  43 

19 13  70 

18 12  97 


Mess  Pork.  Prime  Mess. 

$17 $12  24- 

16 11  51 

15 10  78 

14 10  05- 

13 932? 

12 8  59> 

11 786 

10 713 

9 640 


1  Barrel  Mess  averages  37  Ibs.  grease,  6  Ibs  bones,  when  cooked. 
•  1    "       Prime  Mess       24        t?          13 

To  MEND  BROKEN  SAWS.— Pure  silver,  19  parts  ;  pure  copper,  1 
part :  pure  brass,  2  parts  ;  all  to  be  filed  into  powder,  and  thor. 
oughly  mixed  •,  place  the  saw  level  on  the  anvil,  broken  edges  in 
contact,  and  hold  them  so  ;  now  put  a  small  line  of  the  mixturfr 
Along  the  seam,  covering  it  with  a  larger  bulk  of  powdered  char- 


$8        MACHTOSTS,  ENGINEERS',  AC.,  RECEIPTS. 

coal  ;  now  with  a  spirit  lamp  and  a  jewellers'  blow-pipe  hold  thd 
coal  dust  in  place,  and  blow  sufficient  to  melt  the  solder  mixture  ; 
then  with  a  hammer  set  the  joint  smooth,  and  file  away  any  su- 
perfluous solder,  and  you  will  be  surprised  at  its  strength  ;  the 
neat  will  not  hi  jure  the  temper  of  the  saw. 

VELOCITY  OP  WHEELS,  PULLEYS,  DRUMS,  &c.—  When  wheels  are 

f  applied  to  communicate  motion  from  one  part  of  a  machine  to  an- 

;  'other,  their  teeth  act  alternately  on  each  other  ;  consequently,  il  one. 

-wheel  contains  60  teeth,  and  another  20  teeth,  the  one  containing  20 

teeth  will  make  3  revolutions  while  the  other  makes  but  1  ;  and  ii 

drums  or  pulleys  are  taken  hi  place  of  wheels,  the  effect  will  be  the  . 

came  ;  because  their  circumferences,  describing  equal  spaces,  ren- 

der their  revolutions  unequal  ;  from  this  the  rule  is  derived,  namely  :  — 

Multiply  the  velocity  of  the  driver  by  the  number  of  teeth  it  con- 
tains, and  divide  by  the  velocity  of  the  driven.  The  quotient  will  be 
the  number  of  teeth  it  ought  to  contain  ;  or,  multiply  the  velocity 
of  the  driver  by  its  diameter,  and  divide  by  the  velocity  of  the 
driven. 

Example  1.  If  a  wheel  that  contains  75  teeth  makes  16  revolution* 
per  minute,  required  the  number  of  teeth  in  another,  to  work  into  and 
make  24  revolutions  in  the  same  time.  According  to  rule,  you  mul- 
tiply 16  by  75,  and  divide  the  product,  which  is  1200,  by  24J  and  you 
liave  the  answer,  60  teeth. 

Example  2.  Suppose  a  drum,  30  inches  in  diameter,  to  make  20 
revolutions  per  minute,  required  the  diameter  of  another  to  make  60 
revolutions  per  minute.  According  to  rule,  you  multiply  20  by  30; 
and  divide  the  product,  which  is  600,  by  60,  and  you  have  the  answer,. 
10  inches. 

Example  3.  A  wheel  64  inches  in  diameter,  and  making  42  revo 
lutions  per  minute,  is  to  give  motion  to  a  shaft  at  the  rate  of  77  revo 
lutions  hi  the  same  time  ;  find  the  diameter  of  a  wheel  suitable  for 
that  purpose.  According  to  rule,  multiply  42  by  64,  and  divide  the 
product,  which  is  2688,  by  77,  and  you  will  have  for  the  answer  3* 
Inches  nearly. 

77)2688(34  10-12 
231 

378 
30870 

Example  4.    Suppose  ft  pulley  32  inches  diameter  to  make  26  revo- 
lutions ;  find  the  diameter  of  another  to  make  12  revolutions  in  th* 
same  time. 
3      According  to  rule,  26  x  32  -i-  12  =  69J— 

26  and  12)  832.    This  will  be  seen  to  be  69J 

32  - 


€32 

Example  5.  Find  the  number  of  revolutions  per  minute  made  by 
a  wheel  or  pulley  20  inches  hi  diameter,  when  driven  by  another  w 
inches  in  diameter,  and  making  46  revolutions  in  the  same  time.  Ac- 
cording to  rule,  48  x  454-20  =  108.  That  is,  48  multiplied  by  45  — 
2160,  divided  by  20,  gives  the  auswei,  108  revolutions. 


MACHINISTS,    ENGINEERS',    AC.,    RECEIPTS. 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  TRUSSED  ROOFS.—  In  roofs  of  the  ordinar* 
construction,  the  roof  covering  is  laid  upon  rafters  supported  by 
horizontal  purlins,  which  rest  on  upright  trusses  or  frames  of  timber, 
placed  on  the  walls  at  regular  distances  from  each  other.  Upon  th« 
framing  of  the  trusses  depends  the  stability  of  the  roof,  the  arrange* 
ment  of  the  rafters  and  purlins  being  subordinate  matters  of  detaiL* 
In  Trussed  Roofs,  exerting  no  side  thrust  on  Hie  walls,  each  truss  \ 
consists  essentially  of  a  pair  of  principal  ralters  or  principals,  and  af 
horizontal  tie  beam,  and  in  large  rooi's  these  are  connected  and  ' 
strengthened  by  king  and  queen  posts  and  struts.  (See  figs.  2.  and  3.) 
Fig.  1.  shows  a  very  simple  truss  in  which  the  tie  is  above  the 
bottom  of  the  feet  of  the  principal,  which  is  often  done  in  small  roofs- 
for  the  sake  of  obtaining  height.  The  tie  in  this  case  is  called  a 
collar  beam.  The  ieet  of  botii  common  and  principal  rafters  rest  on 

a  wall  plate.  The  purlins  rest 
on  the  collar,  and  the  common 
rafters  but  against  a  ridge  run- 
ning along  the  top  of  the  roof. 
This  kind  of  truss  is  only  suited 
to  very  small  spans,  as  there  is. 
a  cross  strain  on  that  part  of  the 
principal  below  the  collar,  which 
is  rendered  harmless  in  a  small 
span  by  the  extra  strength  of 
the  principal,  but  which  in  a 
large  one  would  be  very  likely  to  throw  out  the  walls. 

In  roofs  of  larger  span  the  tie  beam  is  placed  below  the  feet  of  the 
principal,  which  are  tenoned  into  and  bolted  to  it.  To  keep  the  beam 
from  sagging,  or  bending  by  its  own  weight,  it  is  suspended  from 
the  head  of  the  principals  by  a  king  post  of  wood  or  iron.  The  lower 
part  of  the  king  post  affords  abutments  for  sturts  supporting  the 
principal  immediately  under  the  purlins,  so  that  no  cross  strain  is 


Fig.  2. 

exerted  on  any  of  the  timbers  in  the  truss,  but  they  all  act  in  th 
direction  of  their  length,  the  principal  and  struts  being  subjected  to 
compression,  and  the  king  post  and  the  tie  beam  to  tension.    Fig.  2 
shows  a  sketch  of  a  king  truss.    The  common  rafters  but  on  a  pole- 
plate,  the  tie  beams  resting  either  on  a  continuous  plate,  or  on  short 
templates  of  wood  and  stone. 
Where  the  span  is  considerable,  the  beam  ia  supported  at  additional 


100 


MACHINISTS,    ENGINEERS',   AC.,   RECEIPTS.' 


points  by  suspension  pieces  called  queen  posts  (fig  3),  from  the  bot-' 
fom  of    which  spring  additional  struts  ;  and,  by  extending  tint 


Fig.  3. 

principle  ad  infinitum,  we  might  construct  a  roof  of  any  span  were  it 
not  that  a  practical  limit  is  imposed  by  the  nature  of  the  materials. 
Sometimes  roofs  are  constructed  without  king  posts,  the  queen  posts 
•jeing^ept  apart  by  a  straining  piece,  Thia  construction  is  shown  in 


Fig.  4. 


fig.  4,  which  shows  the  desi.^n  of  the  old  roof  (now  destroyed)  of  the 
church  of  St.  Paul,  outside  tho  Trails,  at  Rome.  This  truss  is  interest- 
in?  from  its  early  date,  having  been7  erected  about  4CO  years  ago  ; 
the  trusses  are  i:i  pairs,  a  king  post  being  keyed  in  between  each 
pair  to  support  tho  beams  in  the  centre. 

Of  late  years  iron  has  been  much  used  as  a  material  for  the  trusses 
of  roofs,  tho  tio  beams  and  suspending  pieces  being  formed  of  light 
rods,  -and  the  .principals  and  struts  of  rolled  T  or  angle  iron,  to  which! 
sockets  are  riveted  to  receive  the  purlins. 

DURABLE  INSULATION  FOR  ELECTRIC  WIRES.— Tin  th«  wires  aw? 
then  cover  with  pure  rubber* 


STRENGTH  OF  WOODS. 


101 


The  following  tabulated  form  shows  the  results  of  Mi.  Hodgkin- 
son's  experiments  on  the  crushing  strengths  of  ^different  vroods  pt* 
square i  inch  of  section.  The  samples  crushed  v-ore.sLoit  cylinders  1, 
inch  diameter,  and  2  inches  long,  flat  at  tho  ^nds.  The  results  given 
in  the  first  column  are  those  obtained  whe,n  the.vroed  wag  nioucrXu  lv 
dst  The  samples  noted  in  the  second  colcimr  <ve:ve  keyt  season  fug 
2  months  longer  than  the  first.  The  third  column  is  appended  by  the 
author,  to  illustrate  the  resilience  or  toughness  of  certain  woods. 


Kind  of  Wood. 

Crashing  strength  per 
square  inch  of  section. 

Length  in  feet  of  a  rod  1 
inch  square  that  would 
break  by  its  own  weight 

Alder, 
Ash, 
Bay, 
Box, 
Beech, 
Birch, 
English  Birch, 
Cedar, 
Peal,  Christiana, 

6831  to    6960 
8683  to    9363 
7518  to    7518 
10300 
7733  to    7363 
10300 
3297  to    6402 
5674  to    5863     . 

42,080 
38,940 

65,500 

Red  Deal, 
ff"  *"  Deal, 
Hornbeam, 
Elder, 
Elm, 
Fir  (Memel), 

5748  to    6586 
6781  to    7293 
7300 
7451  to    9973 
7451  to  10331 

39,050 
40500 

Fir  (Spruce), 
Larch, 

6499  to    6819 

42160 

Mahogany, 
Lignum  Vitse, 
Oak-(Quebec\ 
Oak  (English), 
Pine  (Pitch), 
Pine  (Red), 
Poplar, 
Plum  (Dry), 
Sycamore. 

8198  to    8198 
9900 
4231  to    5982 
6484  to  10058 
6790  to    6790 
5395  to    7518 
3107  to    5142 
8241  to  10493 

32,900 
35800 

Teak.                    / 
WaU, 
Willow, 

8241  to  12101 
6063  to    7227 
2898  to    6128 

36,049 

It  was  also  foivntl  that.  i.n  pillars  of  the  same  dimensions,  but  of 
different  materials,  takiug  the  strength  of  cast  iron  at  1,000,  that  oi 
wrought  iron  was  1,745,  cast  steel  2,518,  Dantzic  Oak  108.8,  and  Red 
Deal  78.5. 

Beams  of  timber,  when  laid  with  their  concentric  layers  vertical, 
are  stronger  than  when  laid  horizontal,  in  the  proportion  of  8  to  7. 

ANTI-FOULING  COMPOSITION  FOB  SHIPS. — Melt,  mix  and  grind  to- 
gether into  an  impalpable  powder,  1  part  copper,  4  of  zinc,  and  1  ot 
tin  •  mix  thoroughly  with  red  lead  or  Torbay  mineral  red,  and  ap- 
ply to  the  ship's  bottom.  (See  "Marine  Paint  for  Metals  in  Salt 
Water,"  under  Painters'  Department. ) 


102  TONNAGE    OF   SHIPS. 


,  AND  CALCULATIONS  OF  THE  TONNAOE  Of 
AXD  SHIRS  OF  T3K  -UNITED  STATES,  UNDER  THE  ACT  OF  CONG 

o»  MAY  6,  I8t>4.    - 

The  tonnage  deck,  in  vessels  having  3  or  more  decks  to  the  hull,  ahaL 
l»C"the  *eeona  deck  from  beloty,  in  all  other  cases  the  upper  deck  of  tfie  hull 
jhe'^nn/feeMejck.  .  The  length  from  the  forepart  of  the  outer 


planking,  on  the  side  of  the  stem,  to  the  after  part  of  the  main  stem,  post  of 
screw  steamers^  and  to  the  after  part  of  the  rudder-post  of  all  other  vessels, 
measured  on  the  top  of  the  tonnage  deck,  shall  be  accounted  the  vessel's1 
length.  The  breadth  of  ike  broadest  part  on  the  outside  of  the  vessel  is  ac- 
counted the  vessel's  breadth  of  beam.  A  measure  fromVfte  under  side  of 
tonnage  deck  plank,  amidships,  to  the  ceiling  of  the  hold  (average  thick- 
'ness),  shall  be  accounted  the  depth  of  hold.  If  the  vessel  has  a  third 
deck,  then  the  height  from  the  top  of  the  tonnage  deck  plank  to  the  under 
side  of  the  upper  deck  plank  shall  be  accounted  as  the  height  under  the 
spar-deck.  All  measurements  to  be  taken  in  feet  and  fractions  of  feet  ; 
and  all  fractions  of  feet  shall  be  expressed  in  decimals.  The  Register  ton- 
nage of  a  vessel  is  her  entire  internal  cubical  capacity  in  tons  of  100  cubic 
feet  each,  to  be  determined  as  follows  :  Lengths.  Measure  the  length  of 
the  vessel  in  a  straight  line  along  the  upper  side  of  the  tonnage  deck  from 
the  inside  of  the  inner  plank  (average  thickness)  at  the  side  of  the  stem 
to  the  inside  of  the  plank  on  the  stern  timbers  (average  thickness),  de- 
ducting from  this  length  what  is  due  to  the  rake  of  the  bow  in  the  thick- 
ness of  the  deck,  and  What  is  due  to  the  rake  of  the  stern  timber  in  one- 
third  of  the  round  of  the  beam  ;  divide  the  length  so  taken  into  the  num- 
ber of  equal  parts  required  by  the  following  table,  according  to  the  class 
in  Bach  table  to  which  the  vessel  belongs: 

TABLE  OF  CLASSES. 

Class  1.  Vessels  of  which  the  tonnage  length  according  to  the  abov« 
measurement  is  50  feet  or  under,  into  6  equal  parts. 

2.  Over  50  feet  and  not  over  100,  feet  into  8  equal  parts. 

3.  Over  100  feet  and  not  over  150  feet,  into  10  equal  parts. 

4.  Over  150  feet  and  not  over  200  feet,  into  12  equal  parts. 
6.    Over  200  feet  and  not  over  250  feet,  into  14  equal  parts. 
6.    Over  250  feet,  into  16  equal  parts. 

The  extent  of  the  areas  is  found  by  measurement  and  calculation,  and 
If  there  be  a  break  or  poop  or  any  other  permanent  closed  in  space  on  the 
upper  decks,  or  on  the  spar  deck,  available  for  cargo,  or  stores,  or  for  the 
berthing  or  accomodation  of  passengers  or  crew,  the  tonnage  of  such 
•pace  shall  be  computed.  If  a  vessel  has  a  third  deck,  or  spar  deck,  the 
tonnage  between  it  and  the  tonnage  deck  is  also  computed. 

In  ascertaining  the  tonnage  of  open  vessels,  the  upper  edge  of  the  upper 
ttrake  is  to  form  the  boundary  line  of  measurement,  and  the  depth  shall 
be  taken  from  an  athwart  shipline,  extending  from  the  upper  edge  of  said 
Strake  at  each  division  of  the  length. 

The  register  of  the  vessel  must  express  the  number  of  the  decks,  the 
tonnage  under  the  tonnage  deck,  that  of  the  between  decks,  above  the 
tonnage  deck  ;  also  that  of  the  poop  or  otli:r  enclosed  spaces  above  the 
deck,  each  separately.  In  every  registered  U.  S.  ship  or  vessel  the  num- 
ber denoting  the  total  registered  tonnage  shall  be  deeply  carved  or  other- 
wise permanently  marked  on  her  main  beam,  and  shall  be  so  continued, 
and  if  at  any  time  cease  to  be  so  continued  such  vessel  shall  no  longer  be 
recognized  as  a  registered  U.  S.  vessel. 

By  a  subsequent  Act,  approved  Feby.  28,  1865,  the  preceding  Act  was  so 
construed  that  "  no  part  of  any  ship  or  vessel  shall  be  admeasured  or  reg> 
letered  for  tonnage  that  is  used  for  cabins  or  state-rooms,  and  construct- 
ed entirely  above  the  first  deck  which  is  not  a  deck  to  the  hull." 

CARPENTERS'  MEASUREMENT  FOR  A  SINGLE-DECK  VESSEL.—  Rule* 
Multiply  the  length  of  keel,  the  breadth  of  beam  and  the  depth  of  hoJ4 
together,  and  divide  to  95. 


i  TONNAGE  OP  SHIPS. 

*  OB  A.  DOUBLE  DECK  VESSEL.— Rule.   Multiply  as  above,  taking  half 
the  breadth  of  beam  for  the  depth  of  the  hold,  and  divide  by  95. 
BRITISH  MEASUREMENT. 

The  British  mode  for  measuring  vessels,  authorized  by  Act  of  Parlla-, 
ment  in  1854,  has  been  substantially  copied  into  the  above  noted  Act  t<r 
regulate  the  admeasurement  of  tonnage  in  the  United  States,  the  main 
difference  being  a  reduced  number  of  areas  or  sections  by  the  British 
method,  which  stands  as  follows. 

1.  Vessels  of  which  the  tonnage  length  is  50  feet  or  under  are  divideo. 
Into  4  equal  part*. 

2.  Ovei  50  and  not  over  120  feet,  into  6     "        " 

3.  "     120  ««    "       "     180    "        "  8     «         " 

4.  "      180  "    "        "      225    "        '«  10    "          "• 

5.  "      225  ft.  into  12    "         «*• 
Divide  the  length  of  the  upper  deck  between  the  after  part  of  the  ste  l^ 

and  the  forepart  of  the  stern-post  into  6  equal  parts,  and  note  the  fore- 
most, middle,  and  aftermost  points  of  division.  Measure  the  depths  at 
these  three  points  in  feet  and  tenths  of  a  foot,  also  the  depths  from  the  > 
under  side  of  the  upper  deck  to  the  ceiling  at  the  timber  strake  ;  or,  in* 
case  of  a  break  in  the  upper  deck,  from  a  Tine  stretched  in  Continuation  • 
of  the  deck.  For  the  breadth,  divide  each  depth  into  5  equal  parts,  ana 
measure  the  inside  breadths  at  the  following  points,  viz. :  at  2  and  8  from 
the  upper  deck  of  the  foremost  and  aftermost  depths,  and  at4  and  8  from, 
the  upper  deck  of  the  midship  depth.  Take  the  length,  at  half  the  mid- 
ship depth,  from  the  afterpart  of  stem  to  the  forepart  of  the  stern-post, 
Then,  to  twice  the  midship  depth,  add  the  foremost  and  aftermost  depths 
for  the  sum  of  the  depths  ;  and  add  together  the  foremost  upper  and 
lower  breadths,  3  times  the  upper  breadth  with  the  lower  breadth  at  the- 
midship,  and  the  upper,  and  twice  the  lower  breadth  at  the  after  division' 
for  suin  of  the  breadths. 

Multiply  together  the  sum  of  the  depths,  the  sum  of  the  breadths,  and; 
the  length,  and  divide  the  product  by  3500,  which  will  give  the  number  of 
tons  or  register.  If  the  vessel  has  a  poop  or  half  deck,  or  a  break  in  the 
upper  deck,  measure  the  inside  mean  length,  breadth  and  height  of 
such  part  thereof  as  maybe  included  within  the  bulkhead  ;  multiply  these 
three  measurements  together,  and  divide  the  product  by  92.4.  The  quotient, 
will  be  the  nuiuber  of  tons  to  be  added  to  the  result,  as  above  ascertained 

For  Open  Vessels.— The  depths  are  to  be  taken  from  the  upper  edge  Of 
the  lower  strake. 

For  Steam  Vessels. — The  tonnage  due  to  the  engine  room  is  deducted' 
from  the  total  tonnage  computed  by  the  above  rule. 

To  determine  this,  measure  the  inside  length  of  the  engine-room  from. 


92-4 

SELF-ACTING  NAUTICAL  PUMP. — Captain  Leslie,  in  a  voyage  from 
North  America  to  Stockholm,  adopted  an  excellent  mode  of  empty- 
ing water  from  his  ship's  hold  when  the  crew  were  disabled  from 
performing  that  duty.  About  ten  or  twelve  feet  above  the  pump,  he 
rigged  out  a  spar,  one  end  of  which  projected  overboard,  while  the 
other  was  fastened  as  a  lever  to  the  machinery  of  the  pump.  To  the 
end  which  projected  overboard  was  suspended  a  water-butt  half  full, 
but  corked  down,  so  that  when  the  coming  wave  raised  the  water- 
butt,  the  other  end  depressed  the  piston  of  the  pump  ;  but,  at  the 
retiring  of  the  wave,  this  was  reversed  ;  for,  by  the  weight  of  th* 
butt,  the  piston  came  up  again,  and  with  it  the  water.  Thus,  without 
the  aid  of  the  crew}  the  ship's  hold  was  cleared  of  w  iter  in  a  few  houra- 


104 


ENGLISH  FREIGHT  TABLE. 
GOODS  PROPORTIONED  IN  STOWAGE. 

1ffce  following  Table  is  from"  Harrison's  Freighters'  Guide,"  Lor  don 
Edition,  1848.  The  1st  column  shows  the  Quantities,  in  Numbers  and 
Decimal  parte ;  the  2d  column  the  character,  or  kind  of  Goods ;  the 
3d  column  the  Gross  Weight  of  the  Goods  in  Tons  and  Decimal  parte 
of  a  ton  ;  and  the  4th  column  the  number  of  Cubic  Feet  required  for 
Stowing  the  same.  [850  Cubic  Feet  equal  21.2  Tons,  or  1  Keel.} 


uantitieBin 
lumbers  & 
Decimals. 

Articles  of  Freight. 

Tons 
Weight 

Cub, 
Fee* 

•97. 
88. 
05. 

Quarters  of  Wheat,  61.2  Ibs.  per  Bushel,  equal 
do.  Tares,  Beans,  &  Peas  63       do.               do. 
do«  Rye,      57       do.             do 

21.2 

20. 
21 

85fc 
do 
do 

08 

20 

do 

14. 

do.  Barley,  52       do.              do. 

21. 

do- 

25 

16  5 

do. 

10. 

10 

do. 

9.107 

9107 

do. 

7.760 

do   Half  -clean  do.         do  do. 

7  76 

do. 

35  825 

do.  Codilla        do          do                      .       do 

5  825 

do. 

1  111 

4  411 

do, 

8257 

do   Wool  compressed,                                     do 

5  °57 

do. 

7.2727 

72727 

do, 

17. 

do.  Tallow,  ,  ) 

17. 

do.  Asbes,  >  do 

17 

do, 

17. 

do.  Hides  (Salted)  ) 

17. 
17. 
17 

Loads  of  Timber  (Baltic  squared  Fir),...  .   ) 
do.              do         (N.  American  do.),  [do. 
do               do         (Birch  do-),  ) 

18.5 
13.5 
22 

do. 
do. 
do 

14.923 

do.  Masts  (round),  do. 

17.5 

do. 

5-1515 
4.857 
1.275 

Pieces.    Ft.  In.  In. 
Stand.  Hund.  Deals,        120       12    11    1V2    do. 
do.           do    Battens,      120       12      7    2%    do. 

17. 
17.75 

do. 
do. 

1  300 

Viz.  1200  pieces,  66  in.  long  by  1%  thick, 
do-  Odessa               do        do              . 

1.200 

0.840 

do   Baltic  Staves  rough 

1200  pieces  72  inches  by  3%  

0.708 

do.  Odessa       do.         do  -do. 

15.25 

do 

1200  pieces  76  inches  by  3%  

1.054 

1200  pieces  66  inches  by  2%  

3885 

do   West  Lndi&       do      do  .    .             . 

10 

Casks  Pot  and  Pearl  Ashes      <*o 

16 

do 

«. 

Tons  Bones  (calcined),  in  Bulk,  do. 

8 

do. 

12. 

do        do.      (manure  &c-)  do    do 

12 

do. 

16. 

do.       do.      (best  quality),  do  do. 

16. 

do. 

*  Wheat  is  tlfe  standard,  8  imperial  bushels  of  Wheat  equal  1  Quarto* 
*nd  1  English  Quarter  equal  8V4  United  States  bushel. 
*:  The  Stares  average  C  inches  in  breadth. 


105 

ENGLISH  FREIGHT  TABLE. 


Quantities  in 
Numbers  & 
Decimals. 

! 

ArtUles  of  Freight 

Ton 

Weight 

Cot, 
Feet 

850 
do. 
do. 
do, 
do 
do 
do. 

do. 
do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 
do. 
do. 
do. 
do. 
do. 
do. 

do. 

do. 

do. 
do. 
do. 
do. 
do. 
do. 
do. 
do. 
do. 
do, 
do. 
do. 
do. 
do, 
do. 
do. 
do. 
do. 

do. 

do. 

94*4 

IOC 
100. 
100. 
136. 
140. 
160. 

8.333 

9.166 
4.75 

7, 

3.T 
6. 

17. 
20. 
40. 
330. 
17. 
17. 

8. 

4.600 
10. 
8. 
110. 

156. 
120. 
535. 
180. 
144. 
20. 

so. 

120. 
16. 
21. 
150. 
40. 
80. 

eo. 

MO. 
MO. 

Tons  Mats  of  400  pieces  (Archangel),  equal 
Barrels  Tar    do  do. 

8.5 
16. 
20. 
16. 
17. 
13.75 
20. 

8.333 
9.166 
4.75 

7. 

9.7 
5. 
10. 
16.5 
14. 
17.25 
18.5 

20. 

10. 

4.5 

10. 
8. 
16.5 
15.5 
6. 
16.5 
11. 
21.5 

do         Tar  and  Ros  in        ..   v  (American)^  do. 

do.       Flour  220  Ibs.  each  (196  nett),    do. 

ON  COTTON. 

Tons  New  Orleans  and  Mobile,  all  ccm-  )  H. 
pressed,  J 

do.  Charleston  and  Savannah,  not  com-  )  d 
pressed,  ) 

do.  Pernambuco  and  MaranhamC3T"Ve«-  1 
sels  from    these    ports  generally  stow  '.   JQ 
10  per  cei.fc.  more  than  l/2  the  register  ton-  [ 
naae,  part  compressed,  say  7  tons  as  above  ) 

do           do            not  compressed,  do 

Tierces  Coffee   7  cwt«       do  do 

Tuns  of  Oil  of  252  gals  each    do 

do.  Wine,  Brandy,  or  any  other  Spirit  )    j 
reckoning  the  full  gauge  of  the  Casks,      (   u 
Tons  Oranges  and  Lemons  of  10  Chest  )    H 

do.    Lamp  Black,          do 

7o 
6, 
16. 
21. 
8. 
4.5 
6. 
5.5 

10. 
11.75 

Bags             do        .                         ....       do 

Tons  Soda  &  other  Alkalies,  in  Casks,  do. 

Carboy,  Oil  Vitriol,  do. 

Gross  of  Bottles  =  6  per  Gallon  =  19  Ibs.  )   ,, 
Weight  per  dozen,  in  Bulk,  (Glass),        (  ao* 
do.  %  Bottles  =  12  per  Gallon  =»  11  Ibs.  )   An 
weieht  per  Dozen,  in  Bulk...               J  da 

106 

ENGLISH  FREIGHT  TABLE. 


Quant!  ties  in 
Numbers  & 
Decimals. 

Articles  of  Freight. 

Tons 
Weight. 

Cull, 
Feel 
r- 

80. 

28. 
22. 
16. 
TOOO. 
0000. 
26. 
17. 
20. 
21. 
300. 
*    8. 

Crts.  Bottles  (Glass)  10%  cubic  ft.  each,  e< 
do.  Earthenware,  small  sizj,  
do.           do.  mixed  sorts  or  middling  size, 
do.           do    largest  size  ....                   ... 

[ual 
do. 
do. 
do. 

1 
dS 

do. 

10. 
10. 
9. 
7. 
21. 
21. 
21. 
17. 
20. 
21. 
22. 
21.200 

850, 
do.' 
do. 
do. 
638 
do. 
425 
do* 
do. 
567 
283 
850 

Fire  Bricks,  in  Bulk, 

do.    Oil  Cake,  do. 

Pigs  of  Lead,  do. 

Wagons  of  Coal,  53  cwt.  each,  do. 

The  Contents  of  each  Wagon  of  Coals  is  126  Cubic  Feet,  8  Wagons  1008 
*  eet,  but  when  stowed  in  bulk  on  board  a  ship,  from  the  spreading  out 
and  pressure,  become  closer  packed,  and  are  proved,  from  practice,  to 
•tow  in  the  space  of  850  Cubic  Feet. 

NOTE.  —As  wheat  is  the  standard  equally  for  weight  and  measurement, 
it  will  be  necessary  to  explain  how  it  is  so.  The  imperial  corn  bushel  ia 
2218.192  cubic  inches  :  this  multiplied  by  776  (the  number  of  bushels  in  97 
qrs.  of  wheat),  and  divided  by  1728  (the  cubic  inches  in  one  foot),  give» 
9ft6cubic  feet ;  but,  when  stowed  in  bulk  on  board  a  ship,  is  reduced  in 
measurement  nearly  15  per  cent.,  viz.,  to  850  cubic  feet ;  1st,  about  8  per 
cent,  by  the  ship  stowing  it  in  spaces  where  no  measurement  goods  can  b» 
stowed,  and  the  immense  pressure  on  the  lower  parts  of  the  cargo  ;  an<? 
2d,  about  7  per  cent,  difference  between  the  bushel  being  filled  in  tht 
customary  way,  and  what  it  can  be  made  actually  to  hold ;  this,  by  sev- 
eral trials  of  wheat,  61  Ibs.  to  the  bushel,  average  nearly  5  pints,  or  5-64ths, 
making,  in  all,  about  15  per  cent,  as  above.  This  seeming  paradox,  which* 
I  have  taken  some  pains  to  clear  up,  although  well  known  to  exist  in 
practice,  by  me  and  every  one  acquainted  with  the  stowage  of  goods, 
applies  to  every  sort  of  grain,  and  in  fact,  to  every  thing  in  bulk,  according 
to  its  weight  and  elasticity  ;  and  97  qrs.  of  wheat,  is  equal  to  850  cubic  feet.. 

TREENAILS.— 5333  pieces  of  9  inches  equal  1  load  of  timber  ;  4000  do. 
IS  do.  do.;  3200  do.  15  do.  do.  ;  2666  do.  do.  18  do.  do.  ;  2285  do.  21  do.  do.f 
JWOdo.  24  do.  do. ;  1777  do.  27  do.  do.;  1600  do.  30  do.  do. ;  14&4  do.  33  do 
do.  ;  1333  do.  36  do.  do.;  1142  do.  42  do.  do. 

FIB  AND  OAK  PLANK.— 1200  pieces  of  %  inch  equal  1  load  of  tim.ber, 
§00  do.  1  do.  do.  ;  400  do.  IV,  do.  do.;  300  do.  2  do.  do.  ;  240  do.  2%  do.  do.? 
200  do.  3  do,  do. ;  150  do.  4  do.  do.  ;  120  do.  5  do.  do.  ;  100  do.  6  do.  do. 

FREIGHT  TABLE. — The  foregoing  Table  gives  about  100  different  de- 
3criptioii8  of  goods,  proportioned  in  stowage. 

UUL E. — If  97  Quarters  of  wheat  equal  a  keel  (21 .2  tons  or  850  cubic  ft.) 
then  how  many  quarters  of  Barley,  or  how  many  tons  of  Hemp,  Wool,  or 
Cotton,  or  barrels  of  Flour  can  be  stowed  in  a  vessel  whose  carrying  capa- 
city is  294  tons  ? 

EXAMPLE.— 294  tons  multiplied  by  40  (the  number  of  cubic  feet  in  a  ton) 
equals  11.760  cubic  feet,  which  divided  by  850  and  the  quotient  multiplied 
by  140  (the  number  of  barrels  which  can  be  stowed  in  850  cubic  feet,  a& 
•toted  in  the  table)  gives  1936  barrels  of  Flour,  as  the  quantity  which  sugfe 
*>  can  carry. 


LIGHTNING    CALCULATOR. 


107 


LIGHTNING  CALCULATOR  FOR  MERCHANTS,  SEAMEN,  CON- 
TRACTOBS,  &c.,  showing  the  SOLID  CONTENTS  or  CUBIC  FEET  of  Timber, 
Stones,  Boxes,  Bales,  Barrels,  Casks,  Hogsheads,  &c.,  according  to  theii 
several  lengths,  breadths  and  thicknesses.  Condensed  from  Jilunt's  Ex- 
peditious Measurer. 

EXAMPLE. — Required  the  cubic  contents  of.  a  Box,  Stone,  Bale  01 
Package,  6  feet  long,  36  ins.  thick  or  deep,  and  46  ins-  broad :  turn  to  3( 
inches  thick,  among  the  running  titles  over  the  tables,  and  opposite  6  ft 
and  under  46  ins.  (indicated  by  B,  denoting  breadth),  you  will  find  the  an- 
swer 69,  the  number  of  cubic  feet. 

If  there  should  be  a  package  exceeding  the  extent  of  th«  tables  in  length, 
breadth  or  thickness,  its  solid  contents  may,  however,  easily  be  found  by 
halving  the  dimension  so  exceeding,  and  doubling  the  solid  content ;  or 
double  any  suitable  number,  add  any  two  together,  or  subtract,  as  may  b« 
required. 

Sizes  in  feet  and  inches  may  be  determined  by  applying  the  scale  for  in- 
ches under  each  table,  adding  or  deducting  as  may  be  required. 

In  measuring  casks  and  hogsheads,  it  is  customary  to  deduct  one-fifth  on 
Account  of  the  bulge.  Thus  supposing  the  square  or  solid  contents  of 
a  cask  should  be  by  the  table  20  cubic  f  t. ,  the  5th  otf  would  leave  It  but  16  ft. 


£• 

1 

3 

4 

€ 

igth 
in. 

5B 

6B 

7B 

8  B 

5  Inc 
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les  T 
10  B 

hick,— 
11  B 

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12  B 

13  B 

14  B 

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— 

0  2 
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0  6 
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108 


LIGHTNING    CALCULATOR. 


lei 
A 

l 

? 

3 
4 
I 
€ 

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»n. 

8B 

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11  B 

$    Inc 
12  B 

hes   r. 
13  B 

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14  B 

~15yB 

16  B 

17  B 

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0    5 
0  11 
1    4 
1     9 
2    3 
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0    6 
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0    2 
0    2 

0    5 

0  10 
1     8 
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3    4 
4    2 
5    0 

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1    9 

2    8 
3    7 
4    5 
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0  11 
1  11 
2  10 
3    9 
4    9 
5    8 

1    »i 
2    9 
3    8 
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5    0, 
6    0 

1 
2 
3 
6 

0    0 
0    1 
0     1 

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0     1 
0     1 

0    2 

0     3 

0     1 
0    1 

0    2 
0    3 

0    1 
0    1 

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0     1 

0     2 
0    3 

0     5 

0    1 
0    2 
0    3 

0    5 

0    1 
0    2 
0    3 

0    6 

0    1 
2    0 
3    9 
0    4 

L«i 

ft. 

1 
2 
3 
4 
6 
6 

igth 
t*. 

9B 

10  B 

11  B 

9    Inc 
12  B  113  B 

hes   ' 
14  B 

rhick.- 
15  B 

-By 
16  B 

17  B 

18  B 

19  B 

- 

0    7 
1    2 
1    8 
2    3 
2  10 
3    5 

0    8 
1    3 
1  11 
2    6 
3    2 
3    9 

0    8 
1    6 
2    1 
2    9 
3    5 
4    2 

0     1 
0     1 
0    2 
0    4 

0    9 
1     6 
2    3 
3    0 
3    9 
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0  10 
1     8 
2    5 
3    3 
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1     9 
2    8 
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3    2 
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1    2 
2    3 
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2    5 
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4    9 
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- 

1 
2 
3 
6 

0    1 
0    1 

0    2 
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0    1 
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0    1 
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S.     3 
0    6 

0    1 
0    2 
0    3 

0~  7 

1    0 
0    2 

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0    1 

Length 
•ft.lin. 

10  B 

11  B 

12  B 

13  B 

LO    In 
14  B 

ches 
15  B 

1    1 

2    1 
3    2 
4    2 
5    3 
6    3 

Ihlck, 
16  B 

-By 
17  B 

18  B 

19  B 

20  B 

\ 

1 

8 
6 

E 

0    8 
1    5 
2    1 
2    9 
3    6 
4    2 

0    9 
1    6 
2    4 
3    1 
3  10 
4    7 

0  10 
1    8 
2    6 
3    4 
4    2 
5    0 

0  11 
1  10 
2    9 
3    7 
4    6 
6    5 

1    0 
1  11 
2  11 
3  11 
4  10 
5  10 

1    1 
2    3 
3    4 
4    5 

5    7 
6    8 

1    2 
2    4 
3    7 
4    9 
5  11 
7    1 

1    3 
2    6 
3    9 
5    0 
6    Z 
1    6 

1    4 

2    8 
4    0 
5    3 
6    7 
7  11 

1    5 
2    * 

4    2 
5    7 
6  11 
8    4 

- 

i 

2 
3 
6 

0    1 
0    1 
0    2 
0    4 

0    1 

0    2 
0    2 
0    5 

0    1 

0    2 
0    3 
0    5 

0    1 
0    2 
0    3 

0     5 

0    1 
0    2 
0    3 
9     6 

0     1 

0    2 
0    3 
0    6 

0    1 
0    2 
0    3 

0    7 

0    1 
0    2 
0    4 

0    7 

0    1 
0    3 
0    4 
0    8 

0    1 
0    3 
0    4 
0    8 

0    1 
0    3- 
0    4 

0    9 

Ler 

gth 
in- 

11  B 

12  B 

13  B 

1 
14  B 

1    Inc 
15  B 

hes 
16  B 

Thick, 
17  B 

-By 
18  B 

19  B 

20B 

21  B 

1 
2 
8 

4 
5 

• 

- 

0  10 
1    8 
2    6 
3    4 
4    2 
5    1 

0  11 
1  10 
2    9 
3    8 
4    7 
5    6 

1    0 
2    0 
3    0 
4    0 
5    0 
6    0 

1     1 
2    2 
3    3 
4    3 
5    4 
6    5 

0    1 
0    2 
0    3 
0    6 

1    2 
2    4 
3    5 
4    7 
5    9 
6  11 

1    3 
2    5 
3    8 
4  11 
6    1 
7    4 

1    4 
2    7 
3  11 
5    2 
6    6 
7  10 

1    5 
2    9 
4    2 
5    6 
6  11 
8    3 

1    5 
2  11 

1    6 
3    1 

1    8 
3    3 

5  10 
7    3 
8    9 

6    1 

7    8 
9    2 

6    | 
8    G 
9    8 

0    2 
0    3 
0    5 
0  1* 

1 
2 
3 
6 

0    1 
0    2 
0    3 
0    5 

0    1 
0    2 
0    3 
0    6 

0    1 
0    2 
0    3 
0    6 

0    1 
0    2 
0    3 

0    7 

0    1 
0    2 
0    4 
0    7 

0    1 
0    3 
0    4 
0    8 

0    1 
0    3 
0    4 
0    8 

0    1 
0    3 
0    4 
0    9 

0    2 
0    3 
0    5 
0    9 

LIGHTNING    CALCULATOR. 


109 


M 

«- 

ogth 
tn. 

12  B  |13B 

14  B  15  B 

L2    Inches    Thick, 
16  B   17  B     18  B 

—By 

19  B 

20  B 

21  B 

22  B 

1 
2 
S 
4 
6 
6 

- 

1     0 
2    0 
3    0 
4    0 
5    (i 
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1     1 
2    2 
3    3 
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1    2 
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3    6 
4    8 
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1     3 
2    6 
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6    3 
7    6 

1    4 
2    8 
4    0 
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!  1     5 
1  2  10 
4     3 
5     8 

11 

0    1 
0    3 
0    4 
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1     6 
3    0 
4    6 
6    0 

7     6 
9    0 

1     7 
3    2 
4    9 
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7  11 
9    6 

1    8 
3    4 
5    0 
6    8 
8    4 
10    0 

1     J     9 
3    6 

£    :* 

7    0 
8    9 
10    6 

1  10 
3    8 
5    6 
7    4 
9    2 

11  e 

0    1 
0    2 

e  4 

0  15 

- 

1 
2 
3 

6 

0     1 
0    2 
0    3 

0     0 

0     1 
0    2 
0    3 
0    7 

0    1 
0    2 
0    4 

0     7 

0     1 
0    3 
0    4 

0     1 
0    3 
0    4 

0    8 

0    2 
0    3 
0    5 
0     9 

0    2 
0    3 
0    5 
0  10 

0    2 
0    3 
0    5 
0  10 

0     2 
0    4 
0    5 
0  11 

Length 
ft.  in. 

13  B 

14  B 

15  B 

13    Indies 
16  B  17  B    18  B 

Thick, 
19  B 

—By 

20  B 

21  B 

22  B 

23  B 

1 

2 
3 
4 
5 
6 

2    4 
3    6 
4    8 
5  10 
7    1 

1     3 
2    6 
3  10 
5     1 
6    4 
7     7 

1    4 
2    9 
4     1 
5    5 
6    9 
8    2 

1516 
2  11    3     1 

4    41  4    7 
5962 
7378 
8    8j  9    3 

1    8 
3    3 
4  11 
6    6 
8    2 
9    9 

1    9 
3    5 
5    2 
6  10 
8    7 
10    4 

1  10 
3    7 
5    5 
7    3 
9    0 
10  10 

1  11 
3  10 
5    8 
7    7 
9    6 
11    5 

2    0 
4    0 
6    0 
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11  11 

2    1 
4    2 
6    $ 
8    4 
10    5 
12    6 

1 
2 
3 

6 

0    1 
0    2 
0    4 

0    7 

0    1 
0    3 
0    4 

0     8 

0    1 
0    3 
0    4 

0    8 

0     1 
0    3 
0    4 
0    9 

0    2 
0    3 
0    5 

0     9 

0    2 
0    3 
0    5 

0  10 

0    2 
0    3 
0    5 
0  10 

0    2 
0    4 
0    5 
0  11 

0    2 
0    4 
0    6 
0  11 

0    2 
0    4 
C    6 
1    0 

0    3 

0    4 
0    S 

1  » 

Length 
ft.fn. 

14  B 

15  B   16  B 

1 
17  B 

t    Inc 
18  B 

hes   1 
19  B 

:hick,- 
20  B 

-By 
21  B 

22  B 

236 

~~2  1 
4    6 
6    9 
8  11 
11    2 
13    5 

.24B 

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1 

2 
8 
4 
5 
6 

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1    4 
2    9 
4    1 
5    5 
6  10 
8    2 

1    6 
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length 
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35    8 
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34  11 
46    7 
58    3 
69  11 

11  11 
23  10 
36    9 
47    8 
59    7 
71    6 

12    2 
24    5 
36    7 
47    9 
60  11 
73    2 

12    5 
24  11 
37    5 
49  10 
62    4 
74    9 

1      0 
2      1 
3      1 
6      3 

12    9 
25    6 
37    2 
50  11 
63    8 
76    5 

13    0 
26    0 
39    0 
52    0 
65    0 
78    0 

13    3 
26    t 
39  Iff 
52    a 
66    4 
78    9 

i 

2 
3 
6 

3    11 
I      6 

2      8 

5 

0    11 
1    10 
2      9 

0    11 
1    11 

2    10 

5      8 

1      0 
1    11 
2    11 
5    10 

1    0 
2    0 
3    0 
6    0 

1      0 
2      0 
3      1 
6      1 

1      1 
2      1 
3      2 
6      4 

1      1 

2      2 
3      3 
6      6 

1      1 
2      2 

3      f 
6      * 

116  SIZE   AND    COb^    OF   VESSELS,    ETC. 

MB.  MOORSOM'S  FORMULA  TO  APPROXIMATE  REGISTER 
PNDER  ANY  PROPOSED  DIMENSIONS.— To  shipbuilders  who  may  wish  t» 
know,  before  the  construction  of  an  intended  design,  the  approximate 
register  tonnage  under  any  proposed  principal  dimensions,  the  following 
formula  (which  has  received  the  approbation  of  Messrs.  Martin  and  Rit- 
chie, the  two  chief  surveyors  at  Lloyd's,  who,  from  their  great  experience 
and  intelligence,  are  authorities  on  the  subject)  will  be  found  useful,  as  it 
gives  the  tonnage,  on  an  average,  generally  speaking,  within  about  2% 
per  cent. 

Let  L  represent  the  inside  length  on  upper  deck  from  plank  at  bow  to 

plank  at  stern. 

"    B  represent  the  inside  main  breadth  from  ceiling  tc  ceiling. 
"    D  represent  the  inside  midship  depth  from  upper  dtck  to  ceiling  at 
Amber  strake. 

Then  the  register  tonnage  of  any  ship  will  be  equal  to  JL*^*  D 

multiplied  by  the  decimal  factor  opposite  the  class  in  the  following  tabla 
to  which  she  belongs  : 

<?/7;/»-«/T  chin,      (  Cotton  and  Sugar  Ships,  old  form 8 

bailing  SAipt.    j  ghip8  of  the  p  *e8ent  ^^  f orm 7 

fiteam  Vessels     |  Ships  of  two  Decks 65 

and  Clippers.  (  Ships  of  three  Decks 63 

Vsirhta  f  Vessels  above  60  tons .5 

1  Vessels,  small 45 

COST  OF  ENGLISH  MERCHANTMEN  PER  TON. — 1.  Tonnage,  650. 
Material,  wood ;  date.  1865.  Wood  in  hull,  rnasts  and  spars,  $41 ; 
yellow  metal,  iron-bolts  and  labor,  $10.30  ;  joiner  work  and  labor. 
$5.15  :  labor  on  hull,  $20  ;  boats,  etc.— outfit,  $12.30  ;  rope  and 
sails,  $8  ;  anchor? ,  chains  and  tanks,  $4.25  ;  yellow  metal  sheathing, 
$4.  Total,  $105.  2.  Iron  Merchantman,  of  500  Tons  :  Cost,  $88  per 
ton.  3.  Iron-Passenger  Ship,  or  Steamer,  800  Tons  :  Cost,  $125  per 
ton.  4.  Another  Iron-Steamer,  or  Ship,  of  1500  Tons  :  Cost,  $147 
per  ton.  5.  Another  Iron-Passenger  Steamer,  of  1500  Tons  :  Cost, 
$122  per  ton,  as  follows:  Material  for  hull,  $29.50;  labor,  $14.50  ;  rent, 
machinery,  tools,  etc.,  $14.50  ;  fittings  and  launching,  $14.25  ;  wood, 
•work,  $12.25  ;  equipment,  $17  ;  cabins  and  fitting,  $20.  Total,  as 
above,  $122. 

in  the  case  of  steam  vessels,  the  vessel  built  of  iron  is  more  buoy- 
ant than  the  vessel  built  of  wood  by  about  16  per  cent,  of  the  weight 
of  the  wood  hull,  or  nearly  9  per  cent,  of  the  weight  of  the  cargo. 
In  the  case  of  sailing  vessels,  the  iron  hull  is  still  more  buoyant  than 
the  wood  hull  by  about  14.9  +  8.33  per  cent.  =23.2  percent,  or 
about  23  per  cent,  of  the  weight  of  the  wood  hull,  or  13  per  cent,  of 
the  weight  of  the  cargo. 

To  FIND  THE  MERIIHAN. — Take  a  piece  of  board,  or  any  similar 
material,  and  describe  on  it  a  number  of  concentric  circles.    Place , 
this  in  the  sun,  over  the  centre  of  a  plummet.    Observe  the  short-  ( 
est  shadow  from  the  plummet ;  the  sim  will  then  be  on  the  merids  \ 
ian  ;  draw  a  line  to  the  centre  of  the  circle,  and  that  will  be  the  true 
meridian  line.    This  will  do  to  mark  the  apparent  tune,  or  to  corrects 
the  compass  for  variation. 

CAPTAIN  BOYTON'S  NEW  DEVICES  TO  SATE  LIFE  FROM  THB 
PIERS,  AND  TO  THROW  A  LINE  FROM  A  SHIP. — The  following  ar« 
Captain  Boy  ton's  statements,  as  extracted  from  the  New  York  Sun  : 
"  My  Invention  is  simply  this  :  Here  is  a  wooden  bobbin,  to  which  69 
feet  of  the  strongest  Manilla  line  is  attached  by  one  end,  and  a 
tour-Drouged  steel  grappling  iron  fits  in  the  hollow  part  of  the 


SCIENTIFIC    FACTS,    ETO. 


11T 


4ieod.  The  whole  is  enclosed  in  a  leather  case,  and  dees  not  weigh 
•  pound.  If  every  policeman  on  duty  had  one  of  these,  the  saving 
of  persons  from  drowning  in  the  rivers  would  be  lessened  80  pet 
«ent.  If  the  person  in  the  water  accidentally  fell  in,  the  officer 
could  hold  the  grappling  iron  in  his  hand,  and  throw  the  bobbin, 
which  floats,  out  to  the  struggling  person.  If  the  case  was  one  of 
attempted  suicide,  or  where  the  person  was  too  drunk  to  make  any 
effort  to  save  himself,  he  could  throw  out  the  grapple,  and  haul  him 
in.  I  propose  to  give  the  police  force  of  this  city  and  Philadelphia 
the  right  to  manufacture  these  for  themselves  ;  and,  I  suppose,  they 
can  make  them  for  fifty  cents  a  piece. 

"  My  other  invention  is  equally  simple  :  When  a  ship  is  driven  on 
«  lee-shore,  and  her  back  is  being  broken  by  the  sea  beating  against 
iier,  the  efforts  of  the  coast-guard  to  throw  a  rope  on  board  by 
means  of  a  rocket  or  mortar  frequently  fail,  owing  either  to  the 
wind  coming  into  the  shore  blowing  the  rocket  back  or  to  one  side, 
.Now,  here  is  a  box,  four  feet  by  three,  which  can  be  easily  placed 
under  the  table  in  the  cabin  of  any  vessel.  It  contains  a  long,  fine, 
«trong  line  attached  to  a  rocket,  of  peculiar  construction.  The 
.ship  is  driven  on  shore,  and  the  coast-guard  men  are  there,  un- 
able to  establish  communication  between  the  vessel  and  the  land. 
The  captain  brings  this  box  on  deck,  opens  it,  and  adjusts  the 
rocket  to  the  angle  of  the  box-cover,  and  fires  it  off.  Ttie  rocket. 
fcy  its  own  force,  and  that  of  the  wind  blowing  in  shore,  is  carried 
to  land.  In  addition  to  the  tail  of  fire  shown  by  it  passing  through 
the  air,  the  rocket  on  falling  on  the  ground  bursts,  and  burns  a 
brilliant  red  light  for  ten  minutes.  This  is  seen  by  the  coast-guard 
men,  who  fix  the  cable  to  the  line,  and  it  is  thus  hauled  aboard, 
and  the  crew  saved,"  A  common  felt-hat  may  be  made  use  of  as  a 
life-preserver.  Place  the  hat  upon  the  water  riin  downwards,  and 
with  the  arm  around  it,  pressing  it  slightly  to  the  breast,  tba  oom- 
pressed  air  within  will  sustain  a  man  for  hours. 

NATURAL,  MECHANICAL,  AND  SCIENTIFIC  FACTS. 


Coi 


»ABATIVE  YIELD  OF  VARIOUS  VEGETABLES. 
POUNDS  WEIGHT  PER  ACRE. 


PRODUCTIONS  IH 


Bops        .    . 

Lbs. 

per  ac. 

442 
1  260 
1  600 
1  840 
1  920 
2  000 
2  000 

Cherries     

Lbs. 
per  ac. 

2  000 
2  80ft 
4  000 
5  000 
7  000 
6  800 
7  500 

Lbs. 
per  ae. 

8  000 
8  420 
9  600 
9  8«0 
10  909 
11  200 
22  000 

Wheat              . 

Turnips  
Cinque-foil  grass 
Vetches,  Green.. 
Cabbages  

Barley  .. 

Hav  .  .  . 

Oats 

Pears      . 

Peas  

Beans  . 

Carrots  
Potatoes  

Plums  . 

Mangel  Wurzel 

One  acre  will  produce  224  Ibs.  mutton,  186  Ibs.  beef,  2900  Ibs. 
milk,  300  Ibs.  butter,  and  200  Ibs.  cheese.  A  fair  crop  of  potatoes, 
from  16  bushels  of  eeed,  is  340  bushels. 

Paris  Green,  for  potato  bugs,  and  other  enemies  of  the  farmer,  may 
be  made  as  follows:  Dissolve  2  Ibs.  sulphate  of  copper  in  1  gal.  hot 
water,  in  a  sione  jar.  In  another  jar  put  1  Ib  ot  white  arsenic  and  1 
Ibs.  pearlash  in  44  Ibs.  hot  water,  and:  stir  till  dissolved.  Mix  whe» 
•squired  in  the  proportion  of  1  part  of  the  former  to  5  of  the  latter,  aad 
<0tc  with  a  sprinkler.  It  is  certain  death  to  vermin. 


118  SCIENTIFIC    FACTS,    ETC. 

The  average  growth  of  trees  during  12  years,  as  determined  by  • 
committee  of  the  Illinois  Horticultmral  Society,  when  planted  in  belt* 
and  groves,  is  as  follows :  White  maple,  1  ft.  diam.  and  30  ft.  high ; 
Ash-leaf  maple,  1  ft.  diam.  and  20  ft.  high ;  White  willow,  \l/2  ft.  diam. 
and  40  ft.  high;  Yellow  willow,  1M  ft.  diam.  and  35ft.  high;  Lorn- 
bardy  poplar.  10 ins.  diam.  and  40  ft.  high;  Blue  and  White  Ash,  10 ins. 
diam.  and  20  ft.  high;  Chestnut,  10  ins.  diam.  and  20  ft.  high;  Black 
Walnut  and  Butternut,  10  ins.  diam.  and  20  ft.  high;  Elm,  10  ins.  diarcu 
and  20  ft.  high;  Birch  (varieties),  10 ins.  diam.  and  25  ft.  high;  Larch, 
6  ins.  diam.  and  24  ft.  high.  The  different  varieties  of  evergreens  will 
mako  an  average  growth  of  18  to  20  ins.  in  height  annually.  The  long- 
evity of  various  trees,  as  estimated  by  Mr.  Don,  Secretary  and  Li- 
tfianan  of  the  Liimjean  Society,  are  as  follows:  The  Dragon's  blood 
tree,  4,000  years;  Baobab  tree,  of  Senegal,  5,150  years;  Decidioua 
Cypress,  6,000;  Ash,  400;  Yew,  3,000;  Oa'k,  1,600;  Cedar  of  Lebanon, 
3,000 ;  Juniper,  380 ;  Lime,  583 ;  Olive,  2,500 ;  Apple  tree,  80  to  175 ;  Pear- 
tree,  260;  Orange,  1.500;  Oriental  plane,  1,200;  Scotch  fir,  90  to  120; 
Larch,  270;  olive,  2,500;  Ivy,  600;  Balm  of  Gilead,  30  to  50;  Brazil  vine- 
palm,  150;  Brazil  cabbage  palm,  600  to  700;  Dai*  palm,  200  to  300: 
Cocoa  nut  palm,  330;  Oriental  plane,  1,200.  1  Ib.  of  catechu  is  equiva- 
lent for  tanning  purposes  to  7  to  8  Ibs.  of  oak  bark.  Terra  japonica  it 
mimosa  catechu. 

RELATIVE  HARDNESS  OF  WOODS. — Taking  shell  bark  hickory  as 
the  highest  standard  of  our  forest  trees,  and  calling  that  100,  other 
tree?  will  compare  with  it  for  hardness  as  follows : — 


Shell  bark  Hickory,  100,  Red  Oak, 
Pignut  Hickory,        96  j  White  Beech, 
White  Oak,                84:  Black  Walnut, 
White  Ash,                77  i  Black  Birch, 
Dogwood,                  f  5;  Yellow  Oak, 
Scrub  Oak,                73;  Hard  Maple, 
White  Hazel,             72,  White  Elm, 
Apple  Tree,                70  Red  Cedar, 

69 
65 
65 
62 
•     60 
56 
58 
56 

Wild  Cherry, 
Yellow  Pine, 
Chestnut, 
Yellow  Poplar. 
Butternut, 
White  Birch, 
White  Pine, 

55 
54 
52 
51 
43 
43 
30 

Timber  intended  for  posts,  is  rendered  almost  proof  against  rot  by 
thorough  seasoning,  charring,  and  immersion  in  hot  coal  tar. 

The  slide  of  Alpnach,  extending  from  Mount  Pilatus  to  Lake 
Lucerne,  a  distance  of  8  miles,  is  composed  of  25,000  trees,  stripped  of 
their  bark,  and  laid  at  an  inclination  of  10°  to  18°.  Trees  placed  in 
the  slide  rush  from  the  mountain  into  the  lake  in  6  minutes. 

The  Alps  comprise  about  180  mountains,  from  4000  to  15,732  feet 
high,  the  latter  being  the  height  of  Mont  Blanc,  the  highest  spot  ia 
Europe.  The  summit  is  a  sharp  ridge,  like  the  roof  of  a  house,  con- 
sisting of  nearly  vertical  granite  rocks.  The  ascent  requires  2  days, 
*>  or  8  guides  are  required,  and  each  guide  is  paid  100  francs  (£4).  it 
was  ascended  by  2  natives,  Jacques  Belmat  and  Dr.  Packard,  Aug, 
8,  1786,  at  6  a.m.  They  staid  up  30  minutes,  with  the  thermometat 
at  14°  below  the  freezing  point.  The  provisions  froze  in  their  pockets ; 
their  faces  were  frostbitten,  lips  swollen,  and  their  sight  much  weak- 
ened, but  they  soon  recovered  on  their  descent.  De  Saussure  recordi 
in  his  ascent,  August  2,  1760,  that  the  color  of  the  sky  was  deep  blue- 
the  stars  were  visible  in  the  shade ;  the  barometer  sunk  to  16.08  inchet 
{being  27.08  in  Geneva);  the  thermometer  was  26^  °,  in  the  sun,  29* 
87°  at  Geneva).  The  thin  air  works  the  blood  into  a  high  f  ev« 


SCIENTIFIC   FACTS,    ETC.  IIS 

you  feel  as  if  you  hardly  touched  the  ground,  and  you  can  scarcely 
make  yourself  heard.  A  Frenchwoman,  Mademoiselle  d'Angeville, 
ascended  in  September,  1840,  being  dragged  up  the  last  1200  feet  by 
the  guides,  and  crying  ont,  "  If  I  die,  carry  me  to  the  top."  When 
there,  she  made  them  lift  her  up,  that  she  might  boast  she  had  been 
Mgher  than  any  man  in  Europe.  The  ascent  of  these  awful  solitudes 
is  incst  perilous,  owing  to  the  narrow  paths,  tremendous  ravines,  icy 
barriers,  precipices,  etc.  In  many  places  every  step  has  to  be  cut  in 
the  ice,  the  party  being  tied  to  each  other  by  ropes,  ao  that  if  one  slips 
he  may  be  held  up  by  the  rest,  and  silence  is  enforced,  lest  the  noise 
of  talking  should  dislodge  the  avalanches  of  the  Aiguille  du  Midi. 
The  view  from  the  mountain  is  inexpressibly  grand.  On  the  Alps, 
the  limit  of  the  vine  is  an  elevation  of  1600  feet;  below  1000  feet,  figs, 
oranges,  and  olives,  are  produced.  The  limit  of  the  oak  is  3800  ft.,  of 
the  chestnut  2800  ft.,  of  the  pine  6500  feet,  of  heaths  an.i  furze  to  8700 
and  9700  ft. ;  and  perpetual  snow  exists  at  an  elevatior.  of  8200  feet. 

On  the  Andes,  in  lat.  2°,  the  limit  of  perpetual  sno\v  is  H,750  ft  In 
Mexico,  lat.  19°,  the  limit  is  13,800ft. ;  on  the  peak  of  Teneriife,  11,454 
ft. ;  on  Mount  Etna,  9000  ft. ;  on  Caucasus,  9900  ft. ;  on  the  Pyre- 
nees, 8400  ft. ;  in  Lapland,  3100  ft. ;  in  Iceland,  2890  ft.  The  walnut 
seases  to  grow  at  an  elevation  of  3600  ft. ;  the  yellow  pine  at  6200 
ft. ;  the  Ash  at  4800  ft. ;  and  the  Fir  at  6700  ft.  The  loftiest  inhabited 
gpot  on  the  globe  is  the  Port  House  of  Ancomarca,  oil  the  Andes,  in 
Peru,  16,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The  14th  peak  of  the 
fliinalay&s,  in  Asia,  25,659  feet  high,  is  the  loftiest  mountain  in  the 
world. 

Lauterbrunnen  is  a  deep  part  of  au  Alpine  pass,  where  the  sun 
hardly  shines  in  winter.  It  abounds  with  falls,  the  most  remarkable 
of  which  is  the  Staubbach,  which  falls  over  the  Balm  precipice  in  a 
drizzling  spray  from  a  height  of  925  feet;  best  viewed  in  the  morning 
sun  or  by  moonlight.  In  general  it  is  like  a  gauze  veil,  with  rain- 
bows dancing  up  and  down  it,  and  when  clouds  hide  the  top  of  the 
mountain,  it  seems  as  if  poured  out  of  the  sky. 

In  Canada,  the  falls  of  Moutmorenci  are  250  feet  high,  the  falls  of 
Niagara  (the  Horse  Shoe  Falls)  are  158  feet  high  and  2000  feet  wide, 
the  American  Falls  are  164  feet  high  and  900  feet  wide.  The  Yose- 
mite  Valley  Falls  are  2600  feet  high,  and  the  Ribbon  Falls  of  the 
Yosemite  are  3300  feet  high.  The  water-fall  of  the  Arve,  in  Bavaria, 
is  2000  feet. 

THE  PERIODS  OP  GESTATION  are  the  same  in  the  horse  and  asg, 
or  11  months  each  ;  camel,  12  months  ;  elephant,  2  years  ;  lion,  5 
months  ;  buffalo,  12  months  ;  in  the  human  female,  9  months  ;  cow, 

9  months  ;   sheep,  5  months  ;  dog,  9  weeks  ;  cat,  8  weeks  ;  sow,  16 
veeks  ;  she  wolf,  from  90  to  95  days.    The  goose  sits  30  days,  swans 

42,  hens  21,  ducks  30,  peahens  and  turkeys  28,  canaries  14,  pigeons 
14,  parrots  40. 

AGES  OF  AXIMALS,  &c. — Elephant,  100  years  and  upwards,: 
Rhinoceros,  20 ;  Camel,  100  ;  Lion,  25  to  70  ;  Tigers,  Leopards^ 
Jaguars,  and  Hyenas  (in  confinement),  about  25  years  ;  Beaver,  50 

Ssars  ;  Deer,  20  ;  Wolf,  20  ;  Fox,  14  to  16  ;  Llamas,  15  ;  Chamois,  25  j 
onkeys  and  Baboons,  li  to  18  years  ;  Hare,  8  ;  Squirrel,  7  ;  Rao* 
tit,  7  ;  Swine,  25  ;  Stag,  under  50  ;  Horse,  30  ;  Ass,  30  ;  Sheep,  undei 

10  ;  Cow,  20  ;  Ox,  30  :  Swans,  Parrots  and  Ravens,  200  ;  Eagle,  100  •, 
Geese.  80  ;  Hens  and  Pigeons.  10  to  16  ;  Hawks,  30  to  40  ;  Crane,  24 ; 


120  SCIENTIFIC    FACTS,    ETC. 

filackbird,  10  to  12  ;  Peacock,  20  ;  Pelican,  40  to  50  ;  Thrush,  8  to  10 
Wren,  2  to  3  ;  Nightingale,  15  ;  Blackcap,  15  ;  Linnet,  14  to  23  ;  Gold- 
•finch,  20  to  24  ;  Redbreast,  W  to  12  ;  Skylark,  10  to  30  ;  Titlark,  5  to. 
•6  ;  Chaffinch,  20  to  24  ;  Starling,  10  to  12  ;  Carp,  70  to  150  ;  Pike,  30 
•to  40  ;  Salmon,  16  ;  Codfish,  14  to  17  ;  Eel,  10  ;  Crocodile,  100  ;  Tor- 
toise,  100  to  200  ;  Whale,  estimated,  1,000  ;  Queen  Bees  live  4  years  ; 
<Drones,  4  months  ;  Worker  Bees,  6  mouths. 

The  melody  of  singing  birds  ranks  as  follows  :  The  nightingale 
first,  then  the  linnet,  titlark,  sky  lark,  and  wood  lark.  The  .mocking 
Irird  has  the  greatest  powers  of  imitation  ;  the  robin  and  goldfiucb  • 
.are  superior  in  vigorous  notes.  Gardner's  notation  of  the  music  ol 
birds  affords  conclusive  proof  that  most  of  the  best  ideas  of  the  great 
composers  were  derived  from  these  melodious  warblers.  One  well 
known  bird  in  the  Canadian  woods  takes  great  delight  in  calling  out, 
Whip  poor  Will,  Whip  poor  Will ;  the  red-eyed  fly-catcher  seems  to 
*ay,  Tom  Kelly  I  Whip  !  Tom  Kelly  ! 

The  condor  of  Peru  has  spread  wings  40  feet,  feathers  20  feet, 
•quills  8  inches  round 

In  England,  a  quarter  of  wheat,  comprising  8  bushels,  yields  14 
foushels  2^f  pecks,  divided  into  sevsn  distinct  kinds  of  flour,  as  fol- 
lows :  Fine  flour,  5  bushels  3  pecks  ;  bran,  3  bushels  ;  twenty -penny, 
3  bushels ;  seconds,  2  pecks  ;  pollard,  2  bushels  ;  fine  middlings,  1 
peck  ;  coarse  ditto,  1  peck. 

Fourteen  pounds  of  oats  produce  8  Ibs.  of  oatmeal. 
.    In  America,  1  bushel  of  buckwheat,  or  50  Ibs.,  will  produce  25 
Ibs.  of  buckwheat  meal ;  more  may  be  obtained,  but  the  quality  will 
be  impaired. 

A  20-inch  Harrison  light  vertical  burr-mill  will  grind  54  bushels 
of  corn  per  hour.  Revolutions  per  minute,  1300  ;  20  horse  powei 
will  drive  two  such  run  of  stones. 

In  England,  2  bushels  of  seed  will  produce  18  of  wheat  in  fait 
crops. 

The  ancient  Greek  phalanx  comprised  8000  men,  forming  a  square 
battalion,  with  spears  crossing  each  other,  and  shields  united. 

The  Roman  legion  was  composed  of  6000  men,  comprising  10 
cohorts  of  600  men  each,  with  300  horsemen. 

The  ancient  battering  ram  was  of  massive  timber,  60  to  100  feet 
Vmg,  fitted  with  an  iron  head.  It;  was  erected  under  shelter  to  pro- 
tect the  60  or  100  men  required  to  work  it.  The  largest  was  equal  in 
torce  to  a  36-lb.  shot  from  a  cannon. 

PILE  DRIVING  ON  SANDY  SOILS. — The   greatest   force  will  not 
.  «ffect  a  penetration  exceeding  15  feet 

VASIOUS  SIZES  OF  TYPE.— It  requires  205  lines  of  Diamond  type 
4o  make  12  inches  ;  of  Pearl,  178  ;  of  Ruby,  166  ;  of  Noupareil.  143  ; 
of  Minion,  128  :  of  Brevier,  112£  ;  of  Bourgeois,  102£  ;  of  Lo*g 
l»rimer,  89  ;  of  Small  Pica,  83  ;  of  Pica,  71£  ;  of  English,  64. 

To  supply  a  population  estimated  at  over  40,000,000,  there  were  in 
existence  in  the  United  States  and  Territories  during  July,  1876,  the 
«normous  number  of  8129  newspapers  and  periodicals,  embracing 
738  daily,  70  tri-weekly,  121  semi-weekly,  6235  weekly,  33  bi-weekly, 
106  semi-monthly,  714  monthly,  13  bi-monthly,  and  67  quarterly  pub- 
lications. Of  these,  the  New  York  Sun  has  the  largest  circulation, 
*wving  circulated  46,799,769  copies  during  the  year  ending  March. 
187* ,  weight  ct  wuite  paper  consumed,  3,426,610  pounds.  lis 


SCIENTIFIC   FACTS,    ETC.  121 

Circulation  is  over  138.000,  weekly  85,000.  To  supply  this  demand 
ft  requires  the  combined  results  of  the  labor  and  brains  of  249  men, 
a  weekly  expenditure  of  about  $16,000,  and  the  services  of  seven 
ponderous  Bullock  printing  presses,  having  a  capacity  of  1400  copies 
per  minute.  Another  press,  of  double  size,  with  a  capacity  of  50,000 
-copies  per  hour,  has  been  ordered.  Each  press  prints  two  complete 
copies  at  one  impression,  rot  from  type,  but  from  cylindrical  stereo- 
type plates  which  revolve  with  the  press  cylinder.  < 
Wire  ropes  for  the  transmission  of  power  vary  in  size  from  §  to  $ 
inch  diam.  for  from  3  to  300  horse  power  ;  to  promote  flexibility,  the 
jrope,  made  of  iron,  steel,  or  copper  wire,  as  may  be  preferred,  is 
provided  with  a  core  of  hemp,  and  the  speed  is  1  mile  per  minute, 
more  or  less,  as  desired.  The  i  ope  should  run  on  a  well-balanced, 
grooved,  cast  iron  wheel,  of  from  ^  to  15  feet  diam.,  according  as  the 
transmitted  power  ranges  from  3  \  >  300  horse  ;  the  groove  should  be 
well  cushioned  with  soft  material,  a1?  leather  or  rubber,  for  the  formn- 
.tion  of  a  durable  bed  for  the  rope.  With  good  care  the  rope  will 
last  from  C  to  5  years. 

In  paper  making,  10  cylinders  for  preparing  the  pulp,  making  200 
revolutions  per  minute,  1  paper  making  machine,  cutting  machines, 
pump  and  accessories,  consumed  50  horse  power.  The  machine  made 
13  yards  of  paper  per  minute,  and  the  produce  was  1  ton  of  paper 
per  day  of  24  hours.  In  another  instance,  28  pulping  cylinders  and  3 
paper  making  machines  produced  2  to  3  tons  of  paper  per  day  of  24 
Lours,  and  consumed  113  horse-power.  A  Leffel  Turbine  Wheel,  10 
ins.  hi  diameter,  strongly  built  of  fine  brass  and  steel,  with  German 
silver  buckets,  is  now  performing  the  work  of  a  120  horse  power 
engine  which  it  superseded  ;  it  has  a  head  of  228  feet. 

The  St.  Gothard  Tunnel,  under  the  Helvitic  Alps,  will  be,  when 
finished,  9.3  miles  long,  and  will  cost  289,000,000  francs. 

COATHUPES  RULE  FOB  LENGTH  OF  GUN  BARRELS.  For  the  bean? 
shooting,  the  length  of  the  barrel,  measured  from  the  vent  hole,  should 
be  not  less  than  43  times  the  diameter  of  its  bore,  nor  more  than  47. 

Proportions  of  Gunpowder  as  made  by  the  English  Government,  is, 
nitre,  75;  charcoal,  15;  sulphur,  10.  That  of  the  French,  nitre,  77; 
charcoal,  14,  sulphur,  9.  A  13  inch  Armstrong  gun,  rvith  a  charge  of 
SO  Ibs.,  ball  344.5  Ibs.,  velocity  1760  ft.  per  second,  penetrated  11  inches 
of  solid  iron  plates  at  a  range  of  200  ft.  No  lield  piece  should  be  load- 
ed with  more  powder  than  a  fifth  or  sixth  of  the  weight  of  its  balL 
A  32  pounder  with  a  charge  of  8  Ibs.  will  penetrate  15.25  ins.  of  hard 
trick,  or  12  ins.  of  hard  freestone,  or  3-5  ins.  of  granite,  at  a  range  of 
200  feet. 

Cannon  balls  go  furthest  at  an  elevation  of  30°,  and  less  as  the  balla 
are  less  ;  the  range  is  furthest  when  fired  from  west  to  east  in  the 
direction  of  the  earth's  motion,  which  for  the  diurnal  rotation  on  its 
fixis.  is  at  the  rate  of  1037  miles  per  hour,  and  in  its  orbit,  66,092  miles. 

The  air's  resistance  is  such,  thaa  a  cannon  ball  of  3  Ibs.  weight, 
diameter,  2.78  ins.  moving  with  a  velocity  of  1800  ft.  per  second,  if 
resisted  by  a  force  equal  to  156  Ibs. 

ESTIMATED  THRUST  OF  SCREW  PROPELLER  WITH  ENGINES  OF 
1000  HORSE  POWER,  20,000  Ibs. 

Brick-layers  ascend  ladders  with  loads  of  90  Ibs.,  1  foot  per  seomd. 
There  are  484  bricks  in  a  cubic  yard,  an*  4356  in  a  rod. 

A  power  of  250  tons  is  necessary  to  st  w  a  vesse1  weighing  3000  toat 


SCIENTIFIC    FACTS,    ETC. 

over  greased  slides  on  a  marine  railway,  when  in  motion^  150  tons  oolf 
is  required. 

A  modern  dredging  machine,  123  ft  long,  beam  2(5  ft.,  breadth  eve* 
all,  11  ft,  will  raise  180  tons  of  mud  and  clay  pet  hour,  11  feet  from 
•meter-line. 

In  tanning,  4  Ibs.  of  oak  bark  make  1  Ib.  of  leather. 

Flame  is  quenched  in  air  containing  3  per  cent,  of  carbonic  acid  ;  the 
eame  per  centage  is  fatal  to  animal  life. 

100  parts  of  oak  make  nearly  23  of  charcoal;  beech,  21;  deal,  19; 
g,pple,23.7;  elm 23;  ash,  25;  birch,  24;  maple,  22.8;  willow,  18;  pop- 
lar, 20  ;  red  pine,  22.10  ;  white  pine,  23.  The  charcoal  used  in  gun- 
powder is  made  from  willow,  alder,  and  a  few  other  woods.  The 
charred  timber  found  in  the  ruins  of  Herculaneum  has  under 
gone  no  change  in  1800  years. 

Four  volumes  of  nitrogen,  and  one  of  oxygen  compose  atmospheric 
air  in  all  localities  on  the  globe. 

Air  extracted  from  pure  water,  under  an  air  pump,  contains  34. 8< 
per  cent  of  oxygen.  Fish  breathe  this  air,  respiring  about  35  times* 
per  minute.  The  oxyhydrogen  lime  light  may  be  seen  from  moun- 
tains at  the  distance  of  200  miles  round. 

Lightning  is  reflected  150  to  200  miles. 

lOdO  cubic  feet  of  13  candle  gas  is  equivalent  to  over  7  gals,  of  sperm 
oil;  52.9  Ibs.  of  tallow  candles;  and  over 44  Ibs.  of  sperm  caudles. 

The  time  occupied  by  gas  in  travelling  from  a  gas  well  (in  Penn- 
eylvania)  through  32  miles  of  pipe  was  22  minutes,  pressure  at  the 
well  was  55  Ibs.  per  inch,  pressure  at  discharge  49  Ibs. 

The  flight  of  wild  ducks  is  estimated  at  90  miles  per  hour,  that  of 
the  swift  at  200  miles,  carrier  pigeons  38  miles,  swallows  60  miles, 
migratory  birds  have  crossed  the  Mediterranean  at  a  speed  of  120 
miles  per  hour. 

Were  it  not  for  dry  rot,  ships  would  last  on  the  average  about  30J 
years,  as  it  is  their  average  duration,  when  built  of  ordinary  timber, 
is  7,  8 and  9  years. 

Calomel  is  composed  of  50  grs.  of  mercury  £Hd  10^  of  chlorine- 
gas. 

Carbon  is  the  base  of  organic  structures,  and  Silica  of  mineral. 

At  birth,  the  beats  of  the  pulse  are  from  165  to  104,  and  the  inspira- 
tions of  breath,  from  70  to  23.  From  15  to  20,  the  pulsations  are  from. 
90  to  57,  the  inspirations,  from  24  to  16,  from  29  to  50,  the  pulsation* 
are  112  to  56,  the  inspirations,  23  to  11.  In  usual  states  it  is  4  to  1. 
The  action  of  the  heart  distributes  2  ozs.  of  blood  from  70  to  80  times. 
in  a  minute. 

Daniell  makes  the  heat  in  a  common  parlor  fire  1141°.  Solids  be- 
come incandescent  in  the  dark,  at  600°  or  700°,  but  not  in  daylight 
1111800°  or  lOOOo. 

Sea  water  is  seldom  below  40°,  springs  about  45° ;  and  pools  and 
tnaall  rivers  are  as  the  atmosphere.  The  lowest  heat  for  fermenta/ 
§  >n  is  57.5,  the  highest  77°.  The  lowest  for  drying  herbs,  etc.,  77° 
aad  the  highest  122°. 

The  mean  heat  of  the  human  body  is  98°  and  of  the  skin  90° 
Tea  and  coffee  are  usually  drank  at  110°. 

The  explosion  of  nitro-glycerine  is  so  sudden  that  it  acts  against 
the  air  as  against  a  solid  body,  thus  forming  a  deep  chasm  in  the- 


SCIENTIFIC    FACTS,    ETC. 


123 


DECIMAL  NOTATION,  &c.—  The  first  figure  to  the  right  of  the  point  if 
Always  tenths,  the  second  figure  from  the  point  is  always  hundredths,  tha 
third  is  thousandths,  &c.,  thus  4.5,  is  4  units  and  5  tenths;  9.24  is  9  unite 
*nd  24hundreths;  or  8. 610  is  8  units  and  610  thousandths.  Again,  .1  i» 
1-10,  .01  is  1-100,  and  .001  is  1-1000.  The  Arithmetical  Signs  and  their 
signification  can  be  formed  by  consulting  the  Tabular  part  of  this  work. 

VALUE  OF  METALS. — The  following  table,  transcribed  from  the 
Iron  Age,  may  be  considered  as  showing  the  value  of  44  different 
kinds  of  inefcal  during  July,  1876.  The  prices  of  the  rarer  metals  hav»- 
been  taken  from  Trommsdorff  s  and  Schuehardt's  last  price  list,  andt 
the  initials  indicate  the  authorities  consulted.  The  avordupois  Ib.  is 
assumed  as  being  equal  to  453  grammes,  and  the  mark  to  24c.  gold : — 


Metal. 

Value     in 
gold  per  Ib. 
Avord. 

Price  in 
gold    per 
gramme. 

Au- 
thor 

ity. 

Vanadium,  cryst.  fused  

$4,792.40 
3  261  60 

$10.80 
7  20 

S 
g 

Calcium  e'lectroly  tic  

2,466.20 

5  40 

s 

Tantalum,  pure             

2  446  20 

5  40 

3 

2  446.20 

5.40 

s 

L<iihiuir.  globules  

2,228  76 

4  92 

g 

2  935  44 

6  48 

g 

Erbium,  fused  

1,671  57 

3  96 

§ 

Didgmium,  fused  

1,630.08 

3.60 

^ 

Strontium,  electrolytic  

1  576  14 

3  48 

s 

Indium,  pure.     .           

1  522  08 

3  36 

T 

1  304  64 

2  88 

Columbium,  fused  

1  250  28 

2  76 

§ 

Rhodium 

1  03^  84 

2  28 

iBarium,  electrolytic  

924  12 

2  04 

§ 

Thallium  

738  39 

1  63 

T 

Osmium  ,  

652-32 

1  44 

T 

Palladium  

498  30 

1  10 

T 

466.59 

1  03 

T 

iTrarium  

434  88 

96 

T 

Oold.  ..                    . 

299  72 

239  80 

52 

Tellurium  fused      .          .- 

196  20 

43 

196  20 

43 

Platinum  fused         .     . 

12°  31 

'27 

Manganese  fused 

108  72 

24 

Molybdenum  

f>4  34 

12 

T 

Magnesium,  wire  and  tape  

45.30 

10 

T 

Potassium,  globules  .  .  . 

22  65 

05 

T 

Silver  

18  60 

16  30 

036 

g 

Cobalt,  cubes  ... 

12-68 

028 

g 

Nickel,  cubes  

3-80 

008 

T 

Cadmium  

3  96 

007 

T    " 

Sodium  

3  26 

007 

T 

Bismuth,  crude  

1.95 

0043 

3 

Mercury  

1  00 

Antimony  

36 

T 

Tin  

25 

Copper  

22 

Arsenic  

15 

tSSm 

Zinc  

10 

from 

Lead  

g 

recent 

1H 

quota. 
tiniM 

124  SCIENTIFIC    FACTS,    ETC. 

ARSENICAL  SOAP  FOR  THE  SKINS  OF  WILD  AXIMALS. — The  skim 
must  be  well  scraped  and  divested  of  all  fat,  and  well  rubbed  with  the 
following  soap.  Lime,  1  oz. ;  camphor,  1  oz. ;  arsenic,  1  oz. ;  alurn,  1  oz. 
Mix  all  thoroughly  with  1  Ib.  of  yellow  soap.  This  will  prove  a  good 
preservative. 

POSITIVE  CURE  FOR  FOOT  ROT  IN  SHEEP. — This  is  caused  by 
exposure  to  bad  weather,  more  especially  to  wet  pasturage,  etc.  Whea 
lame,  pass  them  through  a  trough  containing  a  warm  solution  of 
arsenic,  of  nearly  the  following  strength :  4  ozs.  arsenic,  4  ozs.  oi 
eoda  ash  or  potash,  1  gal.  of  water.  Boil  till  dissolved;  keep  it 
about  three  inches  deep,  so  as  to  cover  the  foot  as  the  sheep  walk, 
through;  the  trough  should  be  about  20  feet  long,  and  just  wide 
enough  to  admit  one  sheep  walking  after  the  other. 

A  74  gun  ship  consumes  2000  tons  or  trees,  the  produce  of  57  acres 
for  a  century. 

The  deepest  coal  mine  in  England  is,  or  was,  at  Killingworth, 
near  Newcastle,  and  the  mean  annual  temperature,  at  400  yards  be- 
low the  surface,  is  77°,  and  at  300  yards,  70°,  while  at  the  surface  it 
is  but  48°,  being  1°  of  increase  for  every  15  yards.  This  explains 
the  origin  of  hot  springs,  for,  at  3300  yards,  the  heat  would  be  equal, 
to  boiling  water,  taking  20  yards  to  a  degree.  The  heat  of  the  Bath 
waters  is  116°,  hence  they  would  appear  to  rise  1,320  yards. 

Peron  relates,  that  at  the  depth  of  2144  feet  in  the  sea,  the  ther- 
mometer falls  to  45°,  when  it  is  86°  at  the  surface. 

Swemberg  and  Fourier  calculate  the  temperature  of  the  celestial 
epaces  at  50  deg.  centigrade  below  freezing. 

In  Northern  Siberia,  the  ground  is  frozen  permanently  to  the- 
depth  of  660  feet,  and  only  thaws  to  the  extent  of  3  or  4  feet  in  sum- 
mer. Below  660  feet  internal  heat  begins. 

River  water  contains  about  30  grs.  of  solid  matter  in  every  cubic 
foot.  Fresh  water  springs  of  great  size  abound  under  the  sea.  Per- 
haps the  most  remarkable  springs  exist  in  California,  where  they  are 
noted  for  producing  sulphuric  acid,  ink,  and  other  remarkable  pro- 
ducts. 

St.  Winifred's  Well,  in  England,  evolves  120  tons  of  water  per 
minute,  furnishing  abundant  water  power  to  drive  11  mills  within* 
Ittle  more  than  a  mile. 

The  Nile  has  a  fall  of  6  ins.  in  1000  miles.    The  rise  of  the  river 
commences  in  June,  continuing  until  the  middle  of  August,  attaining 
an  elevation  of  from  24  to  26  ft  and  flowing  the  valley  of  Egypt,  12 
I  miles  wide.    In  1829  it  rose  to  26  cubits,  by  which  30.000  persona 
'  were  drowned.    It  is  a  terrible  climate  to  live  in,  owing  to  the  fester- 
ing heat,  and  detestable  exhalations  from  the  mud,  etc.,  left  on  the 
retiring  of  the  Nile,  which  adds  about  4  inches  to  the  soil  in  a  cen- 
tury, and  enroaches  on  the  sea  16  feet  every  year.    Bricks  have  been 
found  at  a  depth  of  60  feet,  showing  the  vast  antiquity  of  the  coun- 
try.   In  productiveness  of  soil  it  is  excelled  by  no  ocaer  in  the  world. 

Belzoni  considered  the  tract  between  the  first  and  second  cata- 
racts of  the  Nile,  as  the  hottest  on  the  globe,  owing  to  there  being  n« 
rain.  The  natives  do  not  credit  the  phenomenon  of  water  falling 
from  above.  Henceat  is,  that  all  monuments  are  so  nicely  preserved 
Buckingham  found  a  building  left  unfinished  about  4000  years  *^» 
and  the  chalk  marks  on  the  stones  were  still  perfect. 

Porapey's  Pillar  is  92  ft.  high,  and  27  i  round  at  the  base. 


SCIENTIFIC    FACTS,    ETC  125 

The  French  removed  a  red  granite  column  95  ft.  high,  weighing 
210  tons,  from  Thebes  and  carried  it  to  Paris.  The  display  of  costly 
architectural  ruins  at  Thebes  is  one  of  the  most  astonishing  to  be 
geen  anywhere  in  the  world.  The  ruins  and  costly  buildings,  in  old 
Eastern  countries,  are  so  vast  in  their  proportions  and  so  many  in 

•  number,  that  it  would  require  volumes  to  describe  them. 

Babel,  now  called  Sirs  Nimroud,  built  at  Babylon  by  Belus,  wa» 
used  as  an  observatory,  and  as  a  temple  of  the  Sun.  It  was  com-,) 
posed  of  8  square  towers,  one  over  the  other,  in  all  670  ft.  high,  and 
ihe  same  dimensions  on  each  side,  on  the  ground . 

The  Coliseum  at  Rome,  built  by  Vespasian  for  100,000  spectators, 
was  in  its  longest  diameter  615.5  feet,  and  in  the  shortest  510,  em- 
braced 5£  acres,  and  was  120  feet  high. 

Eight  aqueducts  supplied  ancient  Rome  with  water,  delivering  40* 
millions  of  cubic  feet  daily.  That  of  Claudia  was  47  miles  long,  and 
100  feet  high,  so  as  to  furnish  the  hills.  Martia  was  41  miles,  of 
which  37  were  on  7000  arches,  70  feet  high.  These  vast  erections  would 
never  have  been  built  had  the  Romans  known  that  water  always  rise* 
to  its  own  level. 

The  Temple  of  Diana,  at  Ephesus,  was  425  feet  long,  and  225? 
broad,  with  127  columns,  60  feet  high,  to  support  the  roof.  It  wa* 

•  220  years  in  building. 

Solomon's  Temple,  built  B.  C  1014,  was  60  cubits,  or  107  feet  to 
'  length,  the  breadth,  20  cubits,  or  36  feet,  and  the  height,  30  cubits, 
,.  or  54  feet.  The  porch  was  36  feet  long  and  18  feet  wide. 

The  largest  of  the  Egyptian  pyramids  is  543  feet  high,  693  feet  oa 
.  the  sides,  and  its  base  covers  11  acres.  The  layers  of  stones  are  20ft 

1!  in  number  ;  many  stones  are  over  30  feet  long,  4  broad,  and  3  thick. 
The  Temple  of  Ypsambul,  in  Nubia,  is  enormously  massive,  and; 
cutout  of  the  solid  rock.    Belzoni  found  in  it  4  immense  figures  65  ft 
1   high,  25  ft  over  the  shoulders,  with  a  face  of  7  ft.  and  the  ears  over 
3ft. 

Sesostris  erected  in  the  temple  hi  Memphis,  immense  statues  of  him- 
«elf  and  his  wife,  50  ft.  high,  and  of  his  children,  28  ft. 

In  the  Temple  of  the  Sun,  at  Baalbec,  are  stones  more  than  60  ft* 
long,  24  ft.  thick,  and  16  broad,  each  embracing  23,000  cubic  feet,  cut^ 
"*  squared,  sculptured,  and  transported  from  neigh  boring  quarries.  Six 
t  enormous  columns  are  each  72  ft.  high,  composed  of  3  stones,  7  ft.  im 
f  diameter.  Sesostris  is  credited  with  having  transported  from  &6 
f.  mountains  of  Arabia,  a  rock  32  feet  wide,  and  240  ft.  long. 

The  engineering  appliances  used  by  the  ancients  in  the  movement 
of  these  immense  masses  are  but  imperfectly  understood  at  th», 
present  day. 

During  modern  times,  a  block  of  granite  weighing  1217  tons,  now 
used  as  the  pedestal  of  the  equestrian  statute  of  Peter  the  Great,  at 

•  St.  Petersburg,  was  transported  4  miles  by  land  over  a  railway  and  1$ 
I   miles  in  a  vast  caisson  by  water.    The  railway  consisted  of  two  lines 
'  ol  timber  furnished  with  hard  metal  grooves  ;  between  these  groove* 

•were  placed  spheres  of  hard  brass  about  6  ins.  diameter.  On  these 
ipheres  the  frame  with  its  massive  load  was  easily  moved  by  60  mea 
working  at  capstans  with  treble-purchase  block. 

In  1716,  while  yet  but  28,  the  illustrious  SWEDENBORG  contrived  to 

'    transport  (on  rolling  machines  of  his  own  invention),  over  ralleys  and 

mountains,  2  galleys.  5  lar^e  boats,  and  1  sloop,  from  Stromatadt  t» 


126  FRENCH   MEASURES,    ETC. 

Iderf jol  (winch  divides  Sweden  from  Norway  on  the  South;,  a  distanot 
of  14  miles;  by  which  means,  Charles  XII.  was  able  to  carry  on  his 
plans,  and,  under  cover  of  the  galleys  and  boats,  to  transport  on  pon- 
toons, his  heavy  artillery  to  the  very  walls  of  Frederickshall. 

As  an  exponent  of  the  laws  of  friction,  it  may  be  stated  that  a  square  \ 
•tone,  weighing  1080  Ibs.  which  required  a  force  of  758  Ibs.  to  drag  it , 
along  the  floor  of  a  quarry,  roughly  chiselled,  required  only  a  force  of 
22  Ibs.  to  move  it  when  mounted  on  a  platform  and  rollers  over  &  plank 
'floor. 

t  Water  is  the  absolute  master,  former,  and  secondary  agent  of  the 
power  of  motion  in  every  thing  terrestrial.  It  is  the  irresistible  powar 
which  elaborates  everything,  and  the  waters  contain  more  organized 
\>eings  than  the  land. 

Rivers  hold  in  suspension  100th  of  their  volume  (more  or  less)  of 
mud,  so  that  if  36  cubic  miles  of  water  (the  estimated  quantity)  flow 
'daily  into  the  sea,  0.36  cubic  miles  of  soil  are  daily  displaced.  The 
Khine  carries  to  the  sea  every  day  145.980  cubic  feet  of  mud.  The 
Po  carries  out  the  land  228  ft.  per  annum,  consequently  Adria,  which 
2500  years  ago,  was  on  the  sea,  is  now  over  20  miles  from  it. 

The  enormous  amount  of  alluvium  deposited  by  the  Mississippi  is 
•almost  incalculable,  and  renders  necessary  the  extensive  engineering 
-operations,  which  are  now  (1876)  being  prosecuted  in  order  to  remove 
the  impediments  to  navigation. 

FRENCH  MEASURES  WITH  THE  ENGLISH  EQUIVALENTS.  MEASURES 
•OF  LENGTH.— Myrimeter,  equivalent  to  10,000  meters,  or  to  6  miles,  1  fur- 
long, 28%  poles.  Kilometer,  1,000  meters,  or  to  3,280  ft.  and  10  ins. 
Hectometer,  100  meters,  328  ft.  and  1  inch.  Di-cameter,  10  meters,  equal 
to  32  and  4-5ths  ft.  Meter,  the  unit  of  the  French  measure  of  length, 
«qual  to  39.36  inc'ues.  Decimeter,  1-10  of  a  meter,  equal  to  3.97  inches. 
Centimeter,  1-100  of  a  meter,  or  .39371  inch  (nearly  2-5ths  inch).  Millimeter, 
1-lOOOth  of  a  meter,  or  .0391  inch. 

SURFACE  MEASURES. — Myriare,  100,000  square  meters,  equal  to  246 
acres.  3  roods,  and  20  poles.  Hectare,  10,000  square  meters,  equal  to 
11.960  English  squara  yards,  or  to  2.471  acres.  Are,  100  square  meters,  or 
119.6  square  yards.  Cent  are,  I  square  meter,  or  1550  square  inches. 

MEASURES  OP  VOLUME.— Kiloliter  or  Steere,  the  unit  of  measure  for  solid 
bodies,  1,000  liters,  or  1  cubic  meter,  equal  to  35.3171  cubic  ft.,  or  to  1 .308  cubio 
.yards,  or  to  264.17  gallons.  Hectoliter,  100  liters,  or  l-10th  cubic  meter,  equal 
to  2  bush.,  and  3.35  pecks,  or  26-417  gals.  Decaliter,  10  liters,  or  10  cubic  deci- 
meters, equal  to  610.28  cubic  inches,  or  to  9.08  qts.,  or  to  2  and  1-5  Imperial 
gala.  Liter,  1  cubic  decimeter,  a  unit  of  capacity,  equal  to  a  little  less  than 
,»n  English  quart,  or  precisely  .908  qt.  Deciliter,  l-10th  liter,  or  1  cubic  deci- 
meter, 6.1022  cubic  inches,  equal  to  0.176  pint,  or  .845  gill.  CentilHter. 
l-100th  liter,  or  10  cubic  decimeters,  equal  to  .6102  cubic  inch,  or  .338  nuia 
oz.  Milliliter,  l-1000th  liter,  or  1  cubic  centimeter,  equal  to  .061  oublo 
Inch,  or  .27  fluid  drm. 

,  MEASURES  OF  WEIGHT.— Millier  or  Tonneau,  1,000,000  grains,  or  1 
^  cubic  meter  of  water  at  its  maximum  density,  equal  to  2204.6  Iba. 
avoirdupois.  Quintal,  100,000  grains,  or  1  hectoliter  of  water,  equal  to 
220.46  Ibs.  avoirdupois.  Myrigram,  or  10,000  grains,  or  10  liters  of  •water. 
«(juaX  to  JE.046  Ibs.  avoirdupois.  Kilogram  or  Kilo,  1000  grains,  or  1  liter  of 
water,  equal  to  2  Ibs.  3  ozs.  65  drs.  (2.206  Ibs.)  avoirdupois.  Hectogram, 
100  grains,  or  1  deciliter  of  water,  equal  to  3.5277  ozs.  avoirdupois. 
Gram,  the  unit  of  weight,  being  the  weight  of  1  cubic  centimeter  of 
water,  or  about  15%  grains  troy.  Decigram,  1-10  grain,  or  1-10  of  a  cubio 
•centimeter  of  water,  equal  to  1.5432  grains  troy.  Centigram,  lOOtk  gram, 
or  10  cubic  millimeters  of  water,  or  equal  to  1-543  grai"*  troy.  Milligram^ 
14000  gram,  or  1  cubic  millimeter  of  wa'  er,  equal  to  .0154  grains  troy. 


WEIGHTS    OF   METALS,   ETC.  127 

for  surface  measurement,  the  square  dekameter  is  used  und     the  term  of 
ABE. 

NUMBER  OF  CUBIC  FEET  IN  A  To?*  (AVOIRDUPOIS,  or  DIFFERENT 
MATERIALS.— Cast  Iron,  4-98  ;  Wrought  Iron,  4.59 ;  Bar  iron,  4-69  ;  Steel, 
eioft,  4-57  ;  Steel,  Hard,  4-59 ;  Copper,  Sheet,  4-62  ;  Copper,  Cast  t'04  ;  Brass, 
4.17 ;  Lead,  3-15  ;  Tin,  Cast,  4-91 ;  Zinc,  Cast,  49-8  ;  Granite,  13-cU ;  Marble, 
13-343  :  Paving  Stone,  14-83  ;  Millstone,  14-42  ;  Grindstones,  17  ;  Common 
Stone,  14-22 ;  Fire  Brick,  16.284  ;  Brick,  Mean,  21-961 ;  Anthracite  Coal, 
21-284  and  24-958  ;  Caunel  Coal,  23-609  ;  Cotton  Bale,  Mean,  1541 18  ;  Pressed 
"\\tto,  from  89-6  to  1-14 ;  Hay,  Bale,  23-517  ;  Bale,  Mean,  154-48  ;  r«y,Presaed 
89-6  ;  Clay,  158-69;  Common  Soil,  16-335  ;  Mud,  21-987  ;  Loose  Sfcnd,  23-893  ; 
Earth  with  Gravel,  16-742 ;  India  Rubber,  39.69  ;  Plaster  of  Paris.  21'3  ;  Glasa 
12-44 ;  Ice,  38-58  ;  Chalk  (British),  17-92  ;  Tallow,  38  ;  Oil,  39 ;  Fresh  Water, 
35-84  ;  Salt  Water,  34-931- 

WEIGHT  OF  VARIOUS  MATERIALS  IN  LBS.  (AVOIRDUPOIS)  >ER  CUBIO 
FOOT.— Pure  Gold,  1203-6 ;  Standard  Gold,  1102-9 ;  Hammered  Gold,  1210-11 ; 
Pure  Silver,  654-6  ;  Hammered  Silver,  656-9 ;  Standard  Silver,  658-4  ;  Cast 
Brass,  524-8;  Brass  Wire,  534;  Bismuth,  Cast,  613-9;  Antimony,  418*9; 
Bronze,  513-4 ;  Cobalt,  Cast,  488-2  ;  Copper,  Cast.  549-3  ;  Copper,  Sheet,  537'2; 
Copper,  Wire,  554-9  ;  Wrought  Iron,  48G-75 :  Iron  P'ales,  481-5  ;  «Cast  Iron, 
450-4;  Gun  Metal,  543-75;  Cast  Lead.  709-5 ;  Moiled  do.,  7 11 '75;  feed  Lead, 
558-75  ;  Tin,  455'7  ;  Platinum,  Pure,  1218-8  ;  Hammered  do.,  1271,  Mercury. 
60°,  Fluid,  848  ;  mercury,  Solid,  977  :  Nickel,  Cast,  487-9 ;  Steel,  Places,  480-75; 
Steel,  Soft,  489-6;  Type  Metal,  653-1;  Zinc,  Cast,  439;  Granite,  165-75;  Mill- 
stone, 155-3;  Marble,  Mean,  of  nineteen  Kinds,  180;  Grindstones,  133-9; 
Firebrick,  137'5;  Tile,  114-44;  Brick,  Mean,  102;  Clay,  120;  Limestone,  Mean, 
of  seven  sorts,  184-1;  Loose  Earth  or  Sand,  95;  Coarse  Sand,  112-5;  Ordi- 
nary Soil,  124;  Mud,  102;  Clay  and  Stones,  160;  Slate,  167  to  181  -25;  Plaster 
-of  Paris,  73-5;  Plumbago,  131-35;  Anthracite  Coal,  from  89-75  to  lte-5;  Can- 
nel  Coal,  from  77-33  to  82-33;  Charcoal  from  Hnrd  Wood,  18'5;  d«tto  from 
Soft  Wood,  18;  Port  Wine,  62-31 ;  Fresh  Water,  62-5;  Sea  Water,  64-3;  Dead 
Sea  Water,  77-5;  Vinegar,  67-5  ;  Alum,  107-10;  Asbestos,  Starry,  192 1;  Ice  at 
52°,  57-5;  Sulphur,  127-1:  Peat,  375  to  83-1;  Marl,  Mean,  109-33;  Kydraulio 
Lime,  171-60;  quartz,  166'25  ;  Bock  Crystal,  170'94;  Salt,  Common,  133.12  ; 
Lard,  59-20;  Whale  Oil,  57-70;  Olive  Oil,  57-19. 

WEIGHT  OF  A  CUBIC  INCH  OF  VARIOUS  METALS  IN  POUNDS.— 
Hammered  Gold,  .701  Ibs  :  Cast  do.  (pure),  .698;  20  Carats  Fine  to.,  .567'; 
Hammered  Silver,  .382  ;  Pure  do.,  .378 ;  Cast  Steel,  .287  ;  Cast  Iron,  .263  ; 
Sheet  Iron,  .279 ;  Rolled  Platinum,  .797;  Wire  do.,  .762;  Hammered  to,  .735'; 
Sheet  Copper,  .323  ;  Sheet  Brass,  .384  ;  Lead,  .410  ;  Cast  Tin,  -264 ;  Cast 
Zinc,  .245. 

SUNDRY  COMMERCIAL  WEIGHTS.— A  ton  of  wool  is  2  stonef  of  14  Ibs. 
*ach.  A  pack  of  wool  is  240 Ibs.  A  sack  of  wool  is  22  stone  of  <4  Ibs.,  or 
308  Ibs.  In  Scotland,  it  is  24  of  16  Ibs.  A  keel  of  8  Newcastle  cbAldron* 
is  15%  I  ondon  chMdrons.  56  or  60  Ibs.  is  a  truss  of  hay,  40  Ibe.  »  truw 
of  straw  ;  36  trusses  a  load.  A  bushel  of  rock  salt  is  65  IDS.  ;  of  Crushed 
salt,  56  Ibs.;  of  foreign  salt,  84  Ibs.  A  tierce  of  beef,  in  Ireland,  is  801  Iba.; 
and  of  pork,  32Q  Ibs.  A  fodder  of  lead  is  19V2  cwt.  in  London  and  21  cwt. 
in  the  North.  A  man's  load  is  5 bushels,  a  market  load  40,  or  5  quarters. 
A  last  is  10  quarters  of  corn,  or  2  cart  loads,  12  sacks  of  wool,  24  barreli 
of  gunpowder,  12  barrels  of  ashes,  herring,  soap,  &c.,  and  18  barrels  of 
'  salt.  A  hundred  of  salt  is  126  barrels. 

SUNDRY  MEASURES  OF  LENGTH — The  hair's  breadth  is  the  smallest. 
of  which  48  are  an  inch.  Four  barley-corns  laid  breadthways,  aite  %  or 
an  inch,  called  *  digit,  and  3  barley-corns  lengthways  are  an  inck.  An 
inch  is  divided  Into  12  lines  and  If  mechanics  into  8ths.  A  nail  va«d  in 
cloth  measure,  is  21/4  ins.  or  the  16th  of  a  yard.  A  palm  is  3  in?  Ifcnd  a 
•pan  9  ins.  (Se^  Table  of  Measures  of  length,  for  other  designation)  An 
Engliih  Statute  mile  is  1760  yds.  or  5280  ft.,  an  Irish  mile  224C  ?**..  a 
Scotch  mile  19*"4  yds.  ;  80  Scotch  miles  being  equivalent  to  91 
«nd  11  Iiish  1.  14  Englirh. 


WEIGHTS   AND    MEASURES. 


MEASURES   OF  LENGTH. 


4  In.  make  1  Hand. 
I  82  In.      "     1  Link. 
18  In.      "1  Cubit. 
12  In.      "     1  Foot. 
6  Ft.     "     1  Fathom. 


3      Feet  make  1  Yard. 

5V«  Yds.      "     1  Rod  or  Pol* 
40      Poles    "     1  Furlong. 

8      Fur.     "     IMile. 
69  1-12  Miles  make  1  L>egr«a» 


60  Geographical  Miles  makes  1  Degree. 

MEASURES  OF  SURFACE. 
144    Square  Inches  make  1  Square  Foot. 


Square  Feet 
30*4  Square  Yards 
40    Square  Rods 
4    Square  Roods 
10    Square  Chains 
640    Square  Acres 


1  Square  Yard. 

1  Rod,  Perch  or  Pole. 

1  Square  Rood. 

1  Square  Acre,  or  43,560  sq.  A. 

1  Square  Acre. 

1  Square  Mile. 


Gunter's  Chain  equal  to  22  Yards  or  100  Links. 

MEASURES  OF  SOLIDITY*. 
1728  Cubic  Inches  make  1  Cubic  Foot 
27  Cubic  Feet        «'       1  Cubic  Yard. 


AVOIRDUPOIS  WEIGHT. 

Grains  make  1  Drachm  (dr.)  or     27^    Grain* 
16        Drachms"      1  Ounce   (oz.)  or  437  %          " 
16        Ounces     «      1  Pound  (Ib.)  or  7000  «• 

28        Pounds     "      1  Quarter  (qr.) 
4        Quarters   "      1  Hundred-  Weight  (cwt.) 
90        Cwts.        «      ITon. 

TROY  WEIGHT. 

24  Grains      make  1  Pennyweight,  or     24  Grain*. 
20  Penny  wts   "       1  Ounce.  or   480       " 

12  Ounces       «       1  Pound,  or  5760       " 

APOTHECARIES'  WEIGHT. 

§e    make  1  Scruple.  I     8  Drachms  make  I.  Ounce. 

1  Drachm.  |    12  Ounces        "       1  Pound. 

=l  teaspoon*  ul  or  a  fluid  Drachm;  2  tablespoon*  ula=l  off 

DIAMOND  WEIGHT. 
16  Parts  make  1  Grain  (8-lOths  Grain,  Troy). 
14  Grains    '«     1  Carat  (3  l-5th  Grains,  Troy). 


temples 
4oDrops 


«  GUIs  make  1  Pint. 
S  Pint*    ««     1  Quart. 
4  Quart*  "     1  Gallon. 


TJQUID  MEASURE. 


2     Gallons  make  1  Peck. 
31  ya  Gallons     «     1  BarrA, 
54     Gallons      "     1  Hhd. 


DRY   MEASURE. 


8  Quarts  make  1  Peck.  I     8  Bushels  make  1  Quarter 

4  Pecks       "    1  Bushel.  |   36  Bushels     "      1  Chaldron. 

1  Bushel  equal  to  2815%  cubic  in.  nearly. 

A  bushel  of  Wheat  is  on  an  average  60  Ibs.;  Barley  or  Buckwheat, 
,46  Ibs.  ;  Indian  Corn  or  Rye,  56  Ibs.  ;  Oats,  30  Ibs.  ;  Salt,  70  Ibs.  14  Ibs.  of 
Lead  or  Iron  make  1  Stone  ;  21%  Stone,  1  Pig.  1  Bbl.  of  Flour  contain! 
196  Ibs.  ;  Beef  or  Pork,  200  Ibs.  The  Imperial  Gallon  is  10  Ibs.  avoirdu- 
pois of  pure  water  ;  the  Pint  1  1-4  Ibs.  1  Gal.  Sperm  Oil  weighs,  TV* 
Ibs.  ;  1  do.  of  Whale  Oil,  7  Ibs.  11  ozs.  ;  1  do.  of  Linseed,  7%  Ibs.  ;  1  do.  of 
OWTe,  714  Ibs.  ;  1  do.  Spts.  of  Turpentine,  7  Ibs.  5  023.  Proof  Spirit* 
7  Ibs.  15  ois.  ;  1  do.  of  Ale.  10.5  Ibs. 


SCRIPTURE    MEASURES,    ETC. 


12* 


SCBIPTURE  MEASURES  OF  LENGTH.— The  great  Cubit  was  21-888  in*. 
•=1.824  ft.  and  the  less  18  ins.  A  Span  the  longer^/a  a  cubit=10.944  in«.=» 
,912ft.  A  span  the  Iess=y3  of  a  cubit=« 7.296  ins. =.608  ft.  A  hand'* 
breadth  *-%  of  a  cubit=3.684  ins. =.304  ft.  A  finger's  breath=1.24  of* 
Cubit=.912  ins.=-076  ft.  A  fathom=4  cubits=7.296  ft.  Ezekiel's  Reed=- 
6  cubits=10.944  ft.  The  mile=4000  cubits=7296  ft.  The  Stadium,  1-10  of 
their  mile=400  cubits=729.6  ft.  The  Parasang,  3  of  their  miles=12,000 
aubits,  or  4  English  miles  and  680  ft.  33.164  miles  -was  a  day's  journey- 
dome  say  24  miles;  and  3500  ft.  a  Sabbath  day's  journey;  some  authorise* 
nay  3648  ft. 

SCRIPTURE  MEASURES  OF  CAPACITY. — The  Chomer  or  Homer  in  King 
J&jaes'  translation  was  75.625  gals,  liquid,  and  32-125  pecks  dry.  The 


vmer=i-iu  or  .tLpnan,  o  pis.,  u.o  ins-  soi.  j.ne  *jai>=i-ie 01  .e^piiciii,  o  PM-, 
10  ins.  sol.  The  Log=7JLy  of  Ephah,  %  pt.,  10  ins.  sol.  The  metretes  of 
Syria  (John  ii.  6)=Cong.  Rom.  7V8  pts.  The  Cotyla  Eastern=l-100  of 
Ephah,  14  pt.  3  in.  sol.  This  Cotyla  contains  just  10  oas.  Avordupois  of 
rain  water.  Omer,  100  ;  Ephah,  1000 ;  Chomer  or  Homer,  10,000. 

SCRIPTURE  WEIGHTS  AND  COINS. — The  following  are  the  Hebrew 
weights  and  their  equivalents  in  Troy  weight ;  also  their  value  in  pur* 
Gold  and  Silver:— 


Pure 
Gold. 

Pure 
Silver. 

English 
Money  . 

The  Gerah=  ^  of  a 

Shekel....2  ...... 

Ibs.  ozs.  dwt. 

11 
lOVi 

10% 

$  cts. 
0  47 

4  69 

9  38 

562        84 
28,142  25 

9     cts. 
0        03 

0        30 
0        69 

35        32 
1,766  23 

£  s.    d.  f. 

001  ^4- 

0    1     2J4-H 
0   2     41^ 

715 
353,1110  ob. 

The  Bekah  =*  % 
Shekel  

4 

The  Shekel     ... 

9 

The       Maneh,      or 
Mini=60  Shekels 
The    Talent  =  3000 
Shekels 

236 
113     10       1 

Roman  money  mentioned  in  the  New  Testament  reduced  to  Englisb 
and  American  Standard:— 

£  s.  d.   far.  $     cts. 

AMite 000    0.75        ....          0    00.343 

A  Farthing,  about 000    1.50        ....          0    00.687 

A  Penny,  or  Denarius 007     2.  ....         0    13.75 

A  Pound,  or  Mina 3260 13     75. 

NOTE — The  above  determinations  of  Scripture  Measures,  Weight** 
Ac.,  are  principally  by  the  Rt.  Rev.  Richard,  Bishop  of  Peterborough. 

GUTTER'S  CHAIN,  LAND  MEASUREMENT,  &c.— 7-92  inches  constitute* 
i  link  ;  100  links  1  chain,  4  rods  or  poles,  or  66  feet,  and  80  chains  1  mile. 
A  square  chain  is  16  square  poles,  and  10  square  chains  are  1  acre.  Four 
roods  are  an  acre,  each  containing  1210  square  yards,  or  34.785  yards,  or 
94  yards  28  inches  each  side. 

Forty  poles  of  30.25  square  yards  each  is  a  rood,  and  a  pole  is  5%  yard* 
each  way. 

An  acre  is  4840  square  yards,  or  69  yds.  1  ft.,  8%  Ins.  each  way  ;  and  2 
acres,  or  9680  square  yds.  are 98  yds.  1  ft.,  2  ins.  each  way  ;  and  3  acres  are,, 
120%  yds.  each  way.  A  square  mile,  or  a  U.  S.  section  of  Land,  is  640 
acres;  being  1060  yds.  each  way  ;  half  a  mile,  or  880  yds.  each  way,  is  160 
Acres  ;  a  quarter  of  a  mile  or  440  ydo.  each  way,  is  a  park  or  farm  of  40 
acres  ;  and  a  furlong,  or  220  yds.  each  way,  is  10  acres. 

Any  length  or  breadth  in  yds.  which  multiplied  make  4840  is  an  acr«  ; 
any  which  make*  12-10  is  a  rood,  and  30.25  is  a  pole. 

An  English  acre  is  a  square  of  nearly  70  yds.  each  way.  a  Scotch,  •£  7T% 
jd».  and  *•  *rish  of  88y8  yd.. 


130 


SVJENGTH    OF   MATERIALS,    ETC. 


NAUTICAL  DisivircES,  Loo  LIKES.— A  nautical  mile,  the  60th  of  • 
degree,  in  2026.5  yaHls  ;  a  marine  league,  or  20  to  a  degree,  is6079.5yardf. 
Log-lines  are  divided  into  spaces  of  60  feet,  and  the  way  measured  by  a 
half  minute  sand-grass,  which  bears  nearly  the  same  proportion  to  an 
hour,  which  50  feet liears  to  a  mile,  the  number  of  knots  which  run  oflf 
the  reel  in  half  a  minute  showing  the  number  of  miles  the  vessel  sails  in 
an  hour.  The  line  .should  be  about  150  fathoms  long,  having  10  f  athoma 
between  the  ship  s.nd  first  knot  for  stray  line.  Estimating  a  mile  at 
,6139.75  feet,  and  using  a  30"  glass,  1  knot=51  ft.  1.95  ins.  and  J  fathom.  5 
ft.  1.395  ins.  Or  if  a  IV  glass  is  used,  and  8  divisions,  the  result  will  be 
thus  ;  1  knot-=47  ft  9.024  ins.  and  1  fathom=5ft.  11.627  ins. 

BOWDITCH'S  NAVIGATOR  computes  6120  ft.  to  a  sea  mile,  which  it 
Vtfcen  as  the  length  with  a  28"  glass,  will  make  the  divisions  47.6  ft.  and 

TENSILE  STRENGTH  OF  MATERIALS,  SHOWING  THE    STRENGTH    OB 
FORCE  REQUIRED  TO  TEAR  ASUNDER  1  SQUARE  INCH. 


Lbs. 

Lbg. 

Iron  Wire,  wrought, 
Swedish  bar  Iron, 

103,000 
72,000 

Copper  Bolt,, 

38,000 
60,000 

Russian    "      " 

69,500 

Brass, 

42.000 

Mean  of  English  Iron, 
Gun  Metal,  mean  of  Iron, 

63,900 
37,232 

Gold,                                             20^498 
Gold,  6  pts.,  copper,  1  pt..      50,000 

Clyde,  No.  1,                 «« 

16,125 

Silver  cast, 

40,997 

"         '«    2, 

23,468 

Bronze, 

11,698  to  56,788 

Stirling,  mean  of          " 

25,764 

Tin  cast,  block, 

5,000 

American,  mean  of      " 

45,970 

"     Banca, 

2,122 

Low  Moor,  No.  2,  cast  " 

14,076 

Platinum  Wire. 

6,300 

Crank  Shaft                  " 

44,760 

Zinc, 

7,000 

American  boiler, 

f  48,000 

Sheet  Lead, 

3,000 

plates,  Iron, 

\  62,000 

Antimony, 

1,060 

English  plates,  mean, 
«'         lengthwis^ 
"         crosswise, 

51,000 
63,800 
48,800 

Bismuth,  cast, 
Ivory, 
Manilla  Rope, 

3,120 
16,070 
9,300 

German  piano  steel  Wire, 

268,800 

Tarred  Hemp  Rope, 

15,000 

Cast  Steel,  maximum,            142,000 
"        "      mean,                      88,000 
Steel,                        100,OuO  fc,  130,000 
Chromo  Steel,  mean,              170.980 

Wire,  Rope, 
Whalebone, 
Leather  Belting, 
Gutta-percha, 

37,000 
7,600 
333 
3,500 

Shear         " 

124,000 

Slate, 

12,000 

American  Tool  Co., 

179,980 

Well-burned  Brick. 

750 

Blistered  Steel,  soft, 

/  133,000 
1  104,000 

Inferior              " 
Portland  Stone, 

100  to  290 
857  to  1,000 

Razor           " 

1C,000 

Crown  Glass, 

42,346 

Steel  plates,  lengthwise, 
"       "        crosswise, 

96,300 
93,700 

Limestone, 
Hydraulic  Lime, 

670  to  2,800 
140 

Yellow  metal, 

48,700 

"          Cement, 

234 

Cast  Copper, 

19,000 

Portland         " 

6  moa.          414 

American  Copper, 

24,250 

Plaster  of  Paris, 

78 

Brass  Wire, 

50,000 

REMARKS.— Owing  to  the  damage  inflicted  by  the  hot  tar,  tarred  rope» 
are  25  percent,  weaker  than  white  ropes.  Hemp  rope  is  stronger  thac 
Manilla,  but  tarred  hemp  and  manilla  are  nearly  of  equal  strength. 
.Manilla  ropes  are  from  25  to  30  per  cent,  weaker  than  white  ropeSr 
•Twisted  hempen  cords  will  sustain  the  following  weights  per  square 
inch  of  their  section  :  %  inch  to  1  inch  thick,  8746  Ibs. ;  1  to  3  ins.  thick, 
'6860  Ibs.  ;  3  to  5  ins.  thick,  5345  Ibs.  ;  5  to  7  ins.  thick,  4.860  Ibs.  Ropes  of 
4  strands  up  to  8  ins.  are  about  17  per  cent,  stronger  than  those  having* 
but  3  strands.  One-eighth  of  an  inch  in  diameter  of  iron  will  sustain  . 
more  than  1  inch  in  circumference  of  hemp  rope.  In  Tredgold's  and 
puleau's  experiments,  a  piece  of  the  best  bar  iron,  1  inch  square,  bor«  • 
wwight  of  77,373  Iba.,  while  a  similar  piece  of  cast  irou  would  b^  t«r» 


STRENGTH    OF   MATERIALS,   ETC.  181 

•sunder  by  a  weight  of  from  16,243  to  19,464  Ibs. ,  and  1  square  inch  of  iron 
wire  would  sustain  a  mean  weight  of  126,340  Ibs.  In  sixteen  experiments 
by  Mr.  Fairbairn  and  Mr.  Hodgkinson,  on  cast  iron,  the  average  strain 
that  one  square  inch  sustained  was  7%  tons,  the  weakest  bearing  6  tons,  and 
the  strongest  9%  tons.  Telf ord's  and  Brown's  experiments  show  that  mat 
leable  iron  will  bear,  on  an  average,  27  tons,  the  weakest  being  24  andtha 
itrongest  29  tons. 

Hodgkinson's  and  Fairbairn's  experiments  prove  that  cast  iron  caa» 
sustain  a  compression  of  from  36%  to  60  tons  to  the  square  inch.  In  this 
respect  malleable  iron  is  inferior  to  cast.  With  12  tons  to  the  square 
inch  it  yields,  contracts  in  length,  and  expands  laterally,  though  it  will 
bear  27  tons,  or  more,  without  actual  fracture.  Rennie  crushed  cast  iron 
with  a  weight  of  93,000  Ibs. 

STRENGTH  OF  SHAFTS.— 44  Ibs. ,  acting  at  a  foot  radius,  will  twist  oft 
the  neck  of  a  shaft  of  lead  1  inch  diam. ,  and  the  relative  strengths  of  other 
materials,  lead  being  1,  is  as  follows  :— Tin,  1-4  ;  copper,  4-3  ;  yellow  brass, 
4-6  ;  gun  metal,  5  ;  cast  iron,  9  ;  Swedish  iron,  9-5  ;  English  iron,  10-1  ; 
blistered  steel,  16-16  ;  shear  steel,  17  ;  case  steel,  19'5.  The  strength  of  * 
shaft  increases  as  the  cube  of  its  diameter. 

A  weight  of  36,000  Ibs.  attached  to  a  bar  of  iron  1  inch  square  and  1,000 
inches  in  length,  will  draw  it  out  1  inch  ;  45,000  will  stretch  it  2  inches  ; 
54,000  Ibs.,  4  inches  ;  63,000,  8  inches  ;  and  72,000,  16  inches,  where  it  will 
finally  break.— Prof.  Leslie. 

STRENGTH  OF  CAST  IRON  BEAMS.—  Rule.  Multiply  the  sectional  area 
of  the  bottom  flanges  in  square  inches  by  the  depth  of  the  beam  in  inches, 
and  divide  the  product  by  the  length  between  the  support  also  hi  inches. 
Then  514  times  the  quotient  will  be  the  breaking  weight  in  pounds. 
TABLE  SHOWING  THE  CRUSHING  STRENGTH  OF  VARIOUS  MATERIALS 
ON  A  BASIS  OF  1  SQUARE  INCH. 


Materials. 

Crushing 
Weight. 

Materials.                  Weight- 

Lbs. 

Lbs7 

Quincy  Granite, 
Aberdeen    " 

15,300 
10,360 

Marble,  Baltimore,  small, 
Stock  Brick, 

8,057 
2,167 

Arbroath     " 
Portland  Cement, 

7,884 
15,000 

Portland  Cement,  1  sand  1, 
"          1  sand  4, 

1,280 
1,244 

"       Mean, 

8,300 

Gneiss, 

19,600 

Stourbridge  Firebrick, 

1,717 

Good  Mortar, 

240 

ftard  Brick, 

(4,368 
\  2,000 

Common  " 
Roman  Cement, 

120 
342 

Common  " 

(4,000 
|     800 

Sandstone,  Seneca, 
Acquia  Creek, 

10,762 
5,340 

"       "    Masonry, 

/KOO 
(500 

"         Adelaide, 
Brick,  Sydney, 

2,800 
2,22f 

tfarble,  Lee,  Mass., 
"       Italian, 

22,702 
12,624 

Clay,  fine,  rolled  and  baked, 
Portland  Oolite, 

'401 

3,85ft 

"       Baltimore,  small 

,       18,061 

Nearly  all  granites  commence  to  crumble  under  a  superstructure  of 
900  feet  elevation. 

1  cask  of  lime  (240  Ibs.),  will  make  from  7-8  to  8'15  cubic  ft.  of  stiff  pastes 
Bricks  should  be  thoroughly  wet  previous  to  use.  Brick  walls  (chouia  M 
washed  down  with  diluted  sulphuric  acid  when  finished. 

A  good  Mastic  is  burnt  clay,  93  parts,  litharge,  7  parts,  all  ground  vw» 
fine,  and  thoroughly  dried  by  artificial  heat,  mix  with  linseed  oil  an) 
apply,  after  giving  the  surface  to  which  it  is  to  be  applied  2  or  3  coats  of  oiL 

Soot  will  n<?*;  adhere  to  chimneys  coated  with  mortar  to  which  salt  haft 
S»en  added  in  the  proportion  of  1  pock  of  Mlt  to  S  of  mortar  w  hil«  tMfr 


FACTS    FOR    BUILDERS,    ETC. 


TABLE  TO  FIND  THE  NUMBER  OF  BRICK  REQUIBED  TO  COHSTBUO* 
ANY  BUILDING,  EMBRACING  WALLS,  FROM  4  INCHES  TO  20  INCHWI 
THICK,  RECKONING  7  BRICKS  TO  EACH  SUPERFICIAL  FOOT. 
Example.— Required  the  number  of  bricks  in  100  superficial  feet  of  wall 

12  inches  thick.    Under  12  inch,  and  opposite  100,  you  will  find  the  answet^ 

2260,  the  number  of  bricks  required. 


Superficial 
feet  of 
Wall. 

Number  of  Bricks  to  Thickness  of 

4-inch. 

8-inch. 

12-inch.  |  16-inch. 

20-inch. 

24-inch.. 

1 

7 

15 

23 

30 

38 

45 

2 

15 

30 

45 

60 

75 

90 

3 

23 

45 

68 

90 

113 

135 

4 

30 

60 

90 

120 

150 

180 

5 

38 

75 

113 

150 

188 

225 

6 

45 

90 

135 

180 

225 

270 

7 

53 

105 

158 

210 

263 

315 

8 

60 

120 

180 

240 

300 

360 

9 

'  68 

135 

203 

270 

338 

405 

10 

75 

150 

225 

300 

375 

450 

20 

150 

300 

450 

600 

750 

900 

30 

225 

150 

675 

900 

1125 

1350 

40 

300 

600 

900 

1200 

1500 

1800 

60 

375 

750 

1125 

1500 

1875 

2250 

60 

450 

900 

1350 

1800 

2250 

2700 

70 

525 

1050 

1575 

2100 

2625 

315» 

80 

600 

1200 

1800 

2400 

3000' 

3600 

90 

675 

1350 

2025 

2700 

3375 

4050 

100 

750 

1500 

2250 

3000 

3750 

4500 

200 

1500 

3000 

4500 

6000 

7500 

9000 

300 

2250 

4500 

6750 

9000 

11250 

13500 

400 

3000 

6000 

9000 

12000 

15000 

18000 

600 

3750 

7500 

11250 

15000 

18750 

22500 

600 

4500 

9000 

13500 

18000 

22500 

27000 

700 

5250 

10500 

15750 

21000 

26250 

31500 

800 

6000 

12000 

18000 

24000 

30000 

36000 

900 

6750 

13500 

20?50 

27000 

33780 

45000 

1000 

7500 

15000 

22500 

30000 

37500 

45000 

FACTS  FOR  BUILDERS.— 1000  shingles,  laid  4  ins.  to  the  weather,  will 
•over  100  sq.  ft.  of  surface,  and  5  Ibs.  of  shingle  nails  will  fasten  them  on. 

One-:ifth  more  siding  and  flooring  is  needed  than  the  number  of  sq.  ft. 
of  surface  to  be  covered,  because  of  the  lap  in  the  siding  and  matcning. 

1000  laths  will  cover  70  yards  of  surface,  and  11  Ibs.  of  lath  nails  will  nail 
them  on.  8  bushels  of  good  lime,  16  bushels  of  sand,  and  1  bushel  of  hair, 
Will  make  enough  good  mortar  to  plaster  100  sq.  yds. 

A  cord  of  stone,  3  bushels  of  lime,  and  a  cubic  yard  of  sand,  will  lay  1C* 
cubic  ft.  of  wall. 

6  courses  of  brick  will  lay  1  ft.  in  height  on  a  chimney,  16  bricks  in  * 
'course  'will  make  a  flue  4  ins.  wido  and  12  ins.  long,  and  8  brickfc  in  a 
course  will  make  a  flue  8  ins.  wide  and  16  ins.  long. 

Cement,  1  bush.,  aud  sand,  2  bush.,  will  cover  3%  sq.  yds.  1  in.  thicJc,  4% 
sq.  yds.  %  inch  thick,  and  6%  sq.  yds.  %  inch  thick.  1* bush,  cement  and, 
1  of  sand  will  cover  2*4  sq.  yds.  1  in.  thick,  3  sq.  yds.  %  inch  thick,  and  4% 
-*q.  yds.  %  inch  thick. 

8  Iba.  of  Asphalte  Flooring  composition  will  cover  1  superficial  ft.  ^inca 
thick.  308  pounds  of  finely  ground  cement  will  make  from  3*7  to  3*8  cubi« 
feet  of  stiff  paste.  1  cwt.  of  mastic  and  1  gal.  of  oil  will  cover  1%  yd*,  at 
*i,  or  2%  at  %  inch  in  thickness.  Pointing  Mortar  consists,  by  weight,  of 
finely  ground  cement,  1  part  to  from  3  to  3%  parts  of  fine  sihcious  aax 
mix  under  cover,  Lu  small  quantities  at  a  time, 


EXPANSION    OP    BODIES,    ETC. 


135 


EXPANSION. \ND  CONTRACTION  OF  BODIES.— The  following  tabl« 
inhibits  the  linear  dilatation  of  various  bodies  from  32°  to  212°,  ae 
•erding  to  Laplace,  Smeaton,  Roy,  etc. 


Laplace. 

1  Smeaton. 

F 

j  Trough  ton. 

1 

Vhnt  glass  

TTTW 

120  5 
923 

TTBT 

.  .      ..1 

"      solid  rod     .,  

TY8T 
TOGO 
Hi 
T24 

TtsT 

T^Tff 

Palladium,  per  Wollaston  .  .  . 
•Gold  (French  standard)  
Silver  (  French  standard).  .  .  . 

T 
T 

T 

y 

nr 
r? 
& 

T 



iTfr 

..... 

TST 

TST 



Brass  16,  tin  1  

T3T. 

T 

r 
r 

T 
T' 

I 
T 
•£ 

1 
¥ 

T 
T 

f 

"¥ 
IF 

^ 

Solder,  tin  1,  lead  2  

1 

TmT 

Steel  (yellow  temper)  
Tin,  Falmouth  

T*r 

^ 

•m* 

t 

m 

Water  

\lcohol  

Ail  the  gases  

Bt  47°  below  zero;  wine  freezes  at  20°;  sea  water  freezes  at  28°3. 
.Alcohol  has  been  exposed  to  110°  and  120°  below  zero  without  freea- 
ing.  Granite  decomposes  at  a  red  heat.  The  second's  pendulum,  of 
39.139  ins.,  is  lengthened  by  30°  of  temperature  128th  of  an  inch,  or  9 
ribrati  ms  in  24  hours. 

The  heat  conducting  powers  of  metals,  etc.,  are  as  follows:  Gold, 
1000°;  platinum,  981°;  silver,  973;  copper,  898.2;  iron,  374.3;  zinc, 
.%?;  tin,  303-9;  lead,  179.6;  marble,  23.6;  porcelain,  12.2;  fine  clay,  11.4. 

1  Ib.  of  coke  melts  94  Ibs.  of  ice;  1  Ib.  of  coal,  90  Ibs.;  1  Ib.  of 
wood,  52  Ibs. ;  1  Ib.  of  charcoal,  95  Ibs. ;  1  Ib.  of  peat,  19  Ibs.  Th« 
'Capacity  of  the  solar  heat  all  over  the  globe  is  the  ability  to  melt  a» 
Icy  covering  46  feet  in  thickness, 

6  Ibs.  white  lead  added  to  1  gal.  t»r  varnish,  and  applied  M  paint,  nil 
prevent  damp  coming  through  waUft*  __ 


134  I»YERS  AND   BLEACHERS'   RECEIPTS. 

To  PREVENT  DECAY  OF  FARM  IMPLEMENTS.— When  not  in  ni* 
have  them  sheltered  from  the  sun,  wind,  rain,  and  snow.  By  this 
means,  sleighs,  wagons,  carts,  ploughs,  thresh  ing-machines,  har- 
rows, and  the  like,  would  last  twice  as  long  as  they  would  If  left  hi 
the  open  air,  swelling  from  moisture  one  week,  and  shrinking  the 
next  from  the  influence  of  the  sun  and  wind. 

OILING  OR  CLEANING  OLD  CARRIAGE-TOPS.— Enamel  leather-topg 
ehould  be  first  washed  with  Castile  soap  and  warm  water,  then 
ciled  with  neat' s-foot  oil ;  or  sweet  oil  and  a  coat  of  enamel  varnish 
put  on,  the  leather  will  look  like  new.  Dashes  may  be  cleaned  hi  the 
same  manner,  but  varnish  color  is  not  very  beneficial  to  patent 
leather ;  however,  when  old  and  cracked,  it  may  be  colored  to 
\mprove  the  appearance. 

DYERS,  BLEACHERS,  AND  CLOTHIERS' 
DEPARTMENT. 

In  accommodation  to  the  requirements  of  dyers,  many  of  the 
following  receipts  describe  dyes  for  large  quantities  of  goods, 
but  to  make  them  equally  adapted  for  the  use  of  private  fam- 
ilies they  are  usually  giren  in  even  quantities,  so  that  it  is  quite 
an  easy  matter  to  ascertain  the  quantity  of  materials  required  for 
dyeing,  when  once  the  weight  of  the  goods  is  known  ;  the  quantity 
01  materials  used  being  reduced  hi  proportion  to  the  smaller  quantity 
of  goods. 

Use  soft  water  for  all  dyeing  purposes,  if  it  can  be  procured, 
using  4  gals,  water  to  1  Ib.  of  goods;  for  larger  quantities,  a  little  less 
water  will  do.  Let  all  the  implements  used  in  dyeing  be  kept 
perfectly  clean.  Prepare  the  goods  by  scouring  well  with  soap 
and  water,  washing  the  soap  well  out  and  dipping  in 
•warm  water,  previous  to  immersion  in  the  dye  or  mordant.  Goods 
should  be  well  aired,  rinsed,  and  properly  hung  up  after  dyeing. 
Silks,  and  fine  goods  should  be  tenderly  handled,  otherwise  injury  to 
the  fabric  will  result. 

SAXON  BLUE.— For  IOC  Ibs.  thibet  or  comb  yarn,  use  alum,  20  Ibs., 
cream  of  tartar  3  Ibs.,  mordant  2  Ibs.  ;  extract  of  indigo  3  Ibs.,  or 
carmine  1  Ib.,  makes  a  better  color.  When  all  is  dissolved  cool  the 
kettle  to  180°  Fahr.  ;  enter  and  handle  quickly  at  first,  then  let  it  boil 
$  hour,  or  until  even.  Long  boiling  dims  the  color.  Zephyr  worsted 
yarn  ought  to  be  prepared,  first  by  boiling  it  in  a  solution  of  alum 
and  sulphuric  acid,  then  the  indigo  is  added  afterwards. 

GREEN  FUSTIC  DYE. — For  50  Ibs.  of  goods  use  50  Ibs.  of  fustic  with 
«lum  11  Ibs.  Soak  hi  water  until  the  strength  is  extracted,  put  hi  the 
goods  until  of  a  good  yellow  color,  remove  the  chips,  and  add  extract 
cf  indigo  hi  small  quantities  at  a  time,  until  the  color  is  satisfactory. 

PURPLE  BLUE  ON  WOOL. — 100  Ibs.  of  wool  are  first  dipped  in  the 
"blue  vat  to  a  light  shade,  then  boiled  in  a  solution  of  15  Ibs.  of  alum, 
•And  3  Ibs.  of  half  refined  tartar,  for  lj  hours,  the  wool  taken  out, 
•cooled,  and  let  stand  24  hours.  Then  boil  in  fresh  water  8  Ibs.  of 
powdered  cochineal  for  a  few  minutes,  cool  the  kettle  to  170C  Fahr. ; 
handle  the  prepared  wool  in  this  for  1  hour,  when  it  is  ready  to  cool, 
rinse,  and  dry.  By  coloring  first  with  cochineal,  as  aforesaid,  an* 


DYERS    AXD    BLEACHERS*    RECEIPTS.  199 

finishing  in  the  blue  vat,  the  fast  purple  or  dahlia,  so  much  admired 
in  German  broadcloths,  •will  be  produced.  Tin  acids  must  not  be  used 
in  this  color. 

BLUE  DYE  FOB  HOSIERY. — 100  Ibs.  of  wool  are  colored  with  4  Ibs 
Guatemala  or  3  Ibs.  Bengal  indigo,  in  the  soda  or  wood  vat ;  theo 
boil  in  a  kettle  a  few  minutes,  5  Ibs.  of  cudbear  or  8  Ibs.  of  orcht 
paste  ;  add  1  Ib.  of  soda,  or  better,  1  pail  of  urine,  then  cool  the  dye 
to  about  170°  Fahr.  ;  and  enter  the  wool.  Handle  well  for  about  20 
fninutes,  then  take  it  out,  cool,  rinse,  and  dry.  It  is  all  the  same  if 
the  cudbear  is  put  in  before  or  after  the  indigo.  3  ozs.  of 
analine  purple  dissolved  in  alcohol,  i  pt,  can  be  used  instead  of 
the  cudbear.  (Wood  spirit  is  cheaper  than  alcohol,  and  is  much  used 
now  by  dyers  for  the  purpose  of  dissolving  analine  colors).  It  pro- 
duces a  very  pretty  shade,  but  should  never  be  used  on  mixed  goods 
which  have  to  be  bleached. 

LOGWOOD  AND  INDIGO  BLUE  DYE  FOB  CLOTH.— 100  Ibs.  of  cloth, 
color  the  cloth  first  by  one  or  two  dips  in  the  vat  of  indigo  blue.  and. 
rinse  it  well,  then  boil  it  in  a  solution  of  20  Ibs.  of  aluni,  2  Ibs.  of  half 
refined  tartar,  and  5  Ibs.  of  mordant,  for  2  hours,  then  take  it  out  and 
cool.  In  fresh  water  boil  10  Ibs.  of  good  logwood  for  half  an  hour 
in  a  bag  or  otherwise  ;  cool  off  to  170°  Fahr.  before  entering ; 
handle  well  over  a  reel,  let  it  boil  for  half  an  hour,  then  take  it  out, 
cool,  and  rinse.  This  is  a  very  firm  blue. 

DYE  FOB  WOOL  OB  SILK. — Color  between  Purple  and  Slue.  Fox 
40  Ibs.  of  goods,  take  bi-chromate  of  potash  8  ozs.,  alum  1  Ib.,  dissolve 
all  and  bring  the  water  to  a  boil,  and  put  in  the  goods ;  boil  1  hour  ; 
then  empty  the  dye,  and  make  a  new  dye  with  logwood  8  Ibs.,  or  ex- 
tract of  logwood  1  Ib.  4  ozs.,  and  boil  in  this  1  hour  longer.  Grade 
the  color  by  using  more  or  less  logwood,  as  you  wish  it  dark  or  light 
in  the  color. 

NEW  BLEACH  FOB  WOOL,  SILK,  OB  STBAW.— Mix  together  4  Ibs. 
oxalic  acid,  4  Ibs.  table  salt,  water  50  gals.  The  goods  are  laid  in  this, 
mixture  for  1  hour,  they  are  then  generally  well  bleached,  and  only 
require  to  be  thoroughly  rinsed  and  worked.  For  bleaching  straw  it- 
is  best  to  soak  the  goods  in  caustic  soda,  and  afterwards  to  make  use- 
of  chloride  of  lime  or  Javelle  water.  The  excess  of  chlorine  is  after- 
wards removed  by  hyposulphite  of  soda. 

To  Fix  DYES.— New  Process.  Mr.  Kipping,  of  Manchester,  England, 
has  a  new  process  of  fixing  dyes.  He  dissolves  20  ozs.  of  gelatine  in 
water,  and  adds  3  ozs.  of  bichromate  of  potash.  This  is  done  in  a  dark 
loom.  The  coloring  matter  is  then  added  and  the  goods  submitted 
ihereto ;  after  which  they  are  exposed  to  the  action  of  light ;  the, 
pigment  thus  becomes  insoluble  in  water  and  the  color  is  fast. 

SCARLET  WITH  LAC  DYE. — For  100  Ibs.  of  flannel  or  yarn,  take  25 
Ibs.  of  ground  lac  dye,  15  Ibs.  of  scarlet  spirit  (made  as  per  directions: 
below),  5  Ibs.  of  tartar,  1  Ib.  of  flavine,  or  according  to  shade,  1  Ib.  of  tin 
crystals,  5  Ibs.  of  muriatic  acid.  Boil  all  for  15  minutes,  then  cool  th« 
dye  to  170°  Fahr.  ;  enter  the  goods,  and  handle  them  quickly  at  first. 
Let  them  boil  1  hour,  rinse  them  while  yet  hot,  before  the  gum  an£ 
\impurities  harden.  This  color  stands  scouring  with  soap  better  than 
cochineal  scarlet  To  this  dye,  a  bmall  quantity  of  sulphuric  acid  may 
be  used,  as  it  dissolves  the  gum. 

MUHIATB  0?  TIN  OB  SCABUBZ  SPIRIT.— Take  16  Ibs.    muriata* 


1C36  DYERS    AND   BLEACHERS'  RECEIPTS. 

•eid,  22°  B.,  1  Ib.  feathered  tin,  water  2  Ibs.  The  acid  should  be  pnt 
in  a  stone  ware  pot,  and  the  tin  added,  and  aUow  to  dissolve  ;  the 
;mixtureshould  be  kept  a  few  days  before  using.  The  tin  is  feathered 
*>r  granulated  by  melting  in  a  suitable  vessel,  and  pouring  it  from  a 
height  of  about  5  feet  into  a  pailful  of  water.  This  is  a  most  power-  < 
lul  agent  in  certain  colors,  such  as  scarlets,  oranges,  pinks,  &c. 

SCARLET  DYE  WITH  COCHINEAL. — For  50  Ibs.  of  wool,  yam,  or 
•doth,  use  cream  of  tartar  1  Ib.  9  ozs.  ;  cochineal  pulverized,  12^  ozs., ' 
•muriate  of  tin  or -scarlet  spirit  8  Ibs. ;  after  boiling  the  dye,  enter  the 
:gopds,  work  them  well  for  15  minutes,  then  boil  them  1^  hours,  slowly 
agitating  the  .goods  while  boiling,  wash  in  clean  water,  and  dry  out  of 
the  gun. 

PURPLE  DYE. — For  40  Ibs.  of  goods,  use  alum  3  Ibs.,  muriate  of  tin 
4  tea  cups,  pulverized  cochineal  1  Ib.,  cream  of  tartar  2  Ibs.  BoU  th» 
.alum,  tin,  and  cream  of  tartar,  for  20  minutes,  add  the  cochineal  and 
i>oil  5  minutes,  immerse  the  goods  2  hours,  remove  and  enter  them  in 
i  new  dye  composed  of  Brazil  wood  3  Ibs.,  logwood  7  Ibs.,  alum  4  Ibs., 
muriate  of  tin  8  cupfuls,  adding  a  little  extract  of  indigo,  made  as 
follows: 

CHEMIC  BLUEING  OK  EXTRACT  OP  INDIGO. — Take  oil  of  vitriol  2  Ibs., 
and  stir  into  it  finely,  pulverized  indigo  8  ozs.,  stirring  briskly  for  the 
first  4  hour,  then  cover  it  up,  and  stir  4  or  5  times  daily  for  a  few  days, 
•flxea  add  a  little  pulverized  chalk,  stirring  it  up,  and  keep  adding  it 
•as  long  as  it  f  cams  ;  it  will  neutralize  the  acid.  Keep  it  closely  corked. 

LIGHT  SILVER  DRAB. — For  50  Ibs.  of  goods  use  logwood  £  Ib., 
-aluitt,  about  the  same  quantity  ;  boil  well,  enter  the  goods,  and  dip 
them  for  1  hour.  Grade  the  color  to  any  desired  shade,  by  using 
•equal  parts  of  logwood  and  alum. 

CHROME  BLACK  FOR  WOOL. — For  40  Ibs.  of  goods,  use  blue  vitriol 
;3  Ibs.,  boil  it  a  short  time,  then  dip  the  wool  or  fabric  |  of  an  hour, 
Airing  frequently  ;  take  out  the  goods,  and  make  a  dye  with  logwood 
'.24  Ibs.  ;  boil  £  hour,  dip  f  of  an  nour,  air  the  goods,  and  dip  £  of  an 
tour  longer,  wash  in  strong  soap  suds.  A  good  fast  color. 

BLACK  DYE  ON  WOOL,  FOR  MIXTURES. — For  50  Ibs.  of  wool  take 
bichromate  of  potash  1  Ib.  4  ozs.,  ground  argal  15  ozs.,  boil  together 
and  put  in  the  fabric,  stirring  well,  and  let  it  remain  in  the  dye  5 
hours;  take  it  out,  rinse  slightly  in  clean  water,  then  make  a  new  dye, 
into  which  put  logwood  17£  Ibs.  Boil  1£  hours,  adding  chamber  lye  5 
pts.  Let  the  fabric  remain  in  all  night,  and  wash  out  in  clean  water. 

RED  MADDER.— This  color  is  mostly  used  for  army  uniforms,  &e. 
"To  100  Ibs.  of  fabric  use  20  Ibs.  of  alum,  5  Ibs.  of  tartar,  and  5  Ibs.  of 
^muriate  of  tin.  When  these  are  dissolved,  enter  the  goods,  and  let 
them  boil  for  2 hours,  then  take  them  out,  let  cool,  and  lay  overnight. 
Into  fresh  water,  stir  75  Ibs.  of  good  madder,  and  enter  the  fabric  at  120° 
¥ahr.  and  bring  it  up  to  200°  in  the  course  of  an  hour,  handle  well  to 
•ecure  evenness,  then  rinse  and  dry. 

DARK  SNUFF  BROWN  ON  WOOL.— For  50  Ibs.  of  goods,  take  cam- 
wood 10  Ibs.,  boil  for  20  minutes,  then  dip  the  goods  for  f  of  an  hour, 
then  take  them  out,  and  add  to  the  dye,  fustic  25  Ibs. ;  boil  12  minuted 
and  dip  the  goods  3  of  an  hour,  then  add  blue  vitriol  10  ozs.,  copperai 
3  lias.  8  ozs.,  dip  again  40  minutes;  add  more  copperas  if  the  shade  ia 
esquired  darker. 

Wnnc  COLOR  DYE.— For  50  Ibs.  of  goods  use  camwood  10  Ibs.,  M 


DYERS  AND   BLEACHERS*   RECEIPTS.  1ST 

fO  minutes,  dip  the  goods  %  hour,  boll  again,  and  dip  40  minutes, 
then  darken  with  blue  vitriol  15  ozs.,  and  should  you  wish  it  darker, 
«,dd  5  Ibs.  of  copperas. 

PINK  DYE  FOR  WOOL.— For  60  Ibs.  of  goods,  take  alum  6  Ibs.  32 
ozs.,  boil  and  immerse  the  goods  50  minutes,  then  add  to  the  dye 
icochineal  well  pulverized,  1  Ib.  4  ozs.,  cream  of  tartar,  5  Ibs.,  boil  fcuc 
enter  the  goods  while  boiling,  until  the  color  is  satisfactory. 

DARK  BLUE  DYE.—  Suitable  for  Thibet*  and  Lastings.  BoO  JOT 
Ibs.  of  the  fabric  for  1£  hours  in  a  solution  of  alum  25  Ibs.,  tartar « 
Ibs.,  mordant  G  Ibs.,  extract  of  indigo  6  Ibs. ;  cool  them  as  usual  Boi 
in  fresh  water  from  8  to  10  Ibs.  of  logwood,  hi  a  bag  or  otherwise,  the* 
cool  the  dye  to  170°  Fahr.  ;  reel  the  fabric  quickly  at  first,  then  let  i 
ooil  strongly  for  1  hour.  This  is  a  very  good  imitation  of  indigo  blui 

ORANGE  DYE. — For  50  Ibs.  of  goods,  use  argal  3  Iba.,  muriate  of  tir 
1  qt,  boil  and  dip  1  hour;  then  a^d  to  the  dye,  fustic  25  Ibs.,  maddc* 
2^  qts.,  and  dip  again  40  minutes.  If  preferred,  cochineal  1  Ib.  4  oz» 
snay  be  used  instead  of  the  madder,  as  a  better  color  is  induced  by  it. 

SKY  BLUE  ON  COTTON.— 60  Ibs.  of  goods,  blue  vitriol  5  Ibs.  Boi' 
A  short  tune,  then  enter  the  goods,  dip  3  hours,  and  transfer  to  a  bath 
of  strong  lime  water.  A  fine  brown  color  will  be  imparted  to  the  goodf 
if  they  are  then  put  through  a  solution  of  prussiate  of  potash. 

A  BROWN  DYE  ON  WOOL  may  bo  induced  by  a  decoction  of  oak 
t>ark,  with  variety  of  shade  according  to  the  quantity  employed.  I? 
the  goods  be  first  passed  through  a  mordant  of  alum  the  color  will  be 
brightened. 

BROWN  ON  COTTON.— Catechu  or  terra  japonica  gives  cotton  a 
fcrown  color,  blue  vitriol  turns  it  on  the  bronze,  green  copperas  darken* 
It,  when  applied  as  a  mordant  and  the  stuff  boiled  in  the  bjtfh  boiling 
tot  Acetate  of  alumina  as  a  mordant,  brightness  it  The  FreneT 
«olor  named  "  Carmelite  "  is  given  with  catechu  lib.,  vardlgris 4  ozs., 
and  sal-ammoniac  5  ozs. 

BROWN  ON  WOOL  AND  SILK. — Infusion  or  decoction  of  wal-iu* 
peels  dyes  wool  and  silk  brown  color,  which  is  brightened  by  alum. 
Horse-chestnut  peels  also  impart  a  brown  color;  a  mordant  of  muriatt 
of  tin  turns  it  on  the  bronze,  and  sugar  of  lead  the  reddish  brown. 

SOLITAIRE. — Sulphate  or  muriate  of  manganese  dissolved  in  watei 

trith  a  little  tartaric  acid  imparts  this  beautiful  bronze  tint.     The 

«tuff  after  being  put  through  the  solution  inuot  be  turned  through  a 

weak  lye  of  potash,  and  afterwards  through  another  of  chloride  of 

lime,  to  brighten  and  fix  it.     Prussiate  of  copper  gives  a  bronze  01 

,  yellowish  brown  color  to  silk.     The  piece  weU  mordanted  with  blue 

s  Vitriol,  may  be  passed  through  a  solution  of  prussiate  of  potash. 

FULLER'S  PURIFIER  FOR  CLOTHS. — Dry,  pulverize,  and  sift  th« 

following  ingredients  :  Fuller's  earth  6  Ibs.,  French  chalk  4  ozs.,  pipe 

clay  1  Ib.  ;  make  into  a  paste  with  rectified  oil  of  turpentine  1  oz., 

alcohol  2  ozs.,  melted  oil  soap  1^  Ibs.      Compound  the  mixture  into 

4  cakes  of  any  desired  size,  for  sale  if  required,  keeping  them  in  water, 

or  small  wooden  boxe,<% 

*  GREEN  ON  COTTON. — For  40  Ibs.  of  goods,  use  fustic  10  Ibs. ,  blue 
•vitriol  10  ozs.,  soft  soap  2^  qts.,  and  logwood  chips  1  Ib.  4  ozs.  Soak 
the  logwood  over  night  in  a  brass  vessel,  put  it  on  the  fire  hi  the 
morning  adding  the  other  ingredients.  When  quite  hot  it  is  ready  for 
dyeing  ;  enter  the  goods  at  once,  and  handle  wta.  Different  shades 


138  DYERS   AND   BLEACHERS*   RECEIPTS. 

may  be  obtained  by  letting  part  of  the  goods  remain  longer  in  tbl 
dye. 

"PINK  DYE  FOB  COTTON.— For  40  Ibs.  of  goods,  use  redwood  20. 
Ibs. ,  muriate  of  tin  2£  Ibs.  ;  boil  the  redwood  1  hour,  turn  off  into  a 
large  vessel,  add  the  muriate  of  tin,  and  put  in  the  goods,  let  it  stand 
a  few  minutes  (5  or  10),  and  a  nice  pink  will  be  produced.  It  is  quite 
a  f.'ist  color. 

PURPLE  DYE  FOR  SILK.— For  10  Ibs.  of  goods,  enter  your  goods  in 
blue  dye  bath,  and  secure  a  light  blue  color,  dry,  and  dip  in  a  warm 
solution  contaiuing  alum  2^  Ibs.  Should  a  deeper  color  be  required^ 
add  a  little  extract  of  indigo. 

YELLOW  ON  SILK. — For  10  Ibs.  goods,  use  sugar  of  lead  7£  ozs., 
alum  2  Ibs.,  enter  the  goods  and  let  them  remain  12  hours,  remove 
them,  drain,  and  make  a  new  dye  with  fustic  10  Ibs.  Immerse  until 
the  color  suits. 

PURPLE  ON  COTTON. — Get  up  a  tub  of  hot  logwood  liquor,  enter  5 
pieces,  give  them  5  ends,  hedge  out ;  enter  them  into  a  clean  alum 
tub,  give  them  5  ends,  hedge  out;  get  up  another  tub  of  logwood 
liquor,  enter,  give  them  5  ends,  hedge  out ;  renew  your  alum  tub, 
give  them  5  ends  in  that,  and  finish. 

II LACK  ON  COTTON. — For  40  Ibs.  goods,  use  sumac  30  Ibs.,  boil  £ 
hour,  let  the  goods  steep  over  night,  and  immerse  them  in  lime  water 
40  minutes,  remove,  and  allow  them  to  drip  £  hour,  now  add  copperas 
4  Ibs.  to  the  sumac  liquor,  and  dip  1  hour  more  ;  next  work  them 
through  lime  water  for  20  minutes,  next  make  a  new  dye  of  logwood 
20  Ibs.,  boil  2\  hours,  and  enter  the  goods  3  hours,  then  add  bi-chro- 
mnte  of  potash  1  Ib.  to  the  new  dye,  and  dip  1  hour  more.  Work  ia 
clean  cold  water  and  dry  out  of  the  sun. 

KED  DYE  FOR  WOOL.— For  40  Ibs.  of  goods,  make  a  tolerably  thick 
prute  of  lac  dye  and  sulphuric  acid,  and  allow  it  to  stand  for  a  day. 
Now  take  tartar  4  Ibs.,  tin  liquor  2  Ibs,  8  ozs.,  and  3  Ibs.  of  the  above 
pnste,  make  a  hot  bath  with  sufficient  water,  and  enter  the  goods  for 
|  hour,  afterwards  carefully  rinse  and  dry. 

YELLOW  ON  COTTON. — For  40  Ibs.  goods,  use  sugar  of  lead  3  Ibs. 
8  ozs.,  dip  the  goods  2  hours.  Make  a  new  dye  with  bi-chromate  of 
potash  2  Ibs.,  dip  until  the  color  suits,  wring  out  and  dry,  if  not  yellovr 
en<  »ugh  repeat  the  operation. 

VIOLET  DYE  ON  SILK  OR  WOOL. — A  good  violet  dye  may  be  given 
by  passing  the  goods  first  through  a  solution  of  verdigris,  then  through 
a 'decoction  of  logwood,  and  lastly  alum  water.  A  fast  violet  may  ba 
given  by  dyeing  the  goods  crimson  with  cochineal,  without  alum  or 
tartar,  *ana  after  rinsing,  passing  them  through  the  indigo  vat. 
Linens  or  Cottons  are  first  galled  with  18° 1 0  of  gall  nuts,  next  passed 
through  a  mordant  of  alum,  iron  liquor,  and  sulphate  of  copper, 
working  them  well,  then  worked  in  a  madder  bath  made  with  ai* 
equal  weight  oi  root,  and  lastly  brightened  with  soap  or  soda. 

SLATE  DYE  ON  SILK.— For  a  small  quantity,  take  a  pan  of  warm 
water,  and  about  a  teacupf ul  of  logwood  liquor,  pretty  strong,  and  a 
piece  of  pearlash  the  size  of  a  nut ;  take  grav  colored  goods  and 
handle  a  little  in  this  liquid,  and  it  is  finished.  If  too  much  logwood 
*8  used,  the  color  will  be  too  dark.  A  Straw  color  on  silk.— Use 
•martweed,  boil  hi  a  brass  vessel,  and  set  with  alum. 

LUO.C  DYB  ON  SILK.— For  5  Ibs.  of  silk,  use  archil  1\  ttw,  mix  it 


DYERS   AND   BLEACHERS'    RECEIPTS* 

well  with  the  liquor  ;  make  it  boil  £  hour,  dip  the  silk  quickly,  theo 
^et  it  cool,  and  wash  it  in  river  water,  and  a  fine  hall  violet,  or  lilac, 
more  or  less  full,  will  be  obtained. 

GBEEN  DYE  ON  SILK.— Take  green  ebony,  boil  it  in  water,  and 
iet  it  settle  ;  take  the  clear  liquor  as  hot  as  you  can  bear  your  hands 
in  it  and  handle  your  goods  in  it  until  of  a  bright  yellow  ;  then  take 
water  and  put  in  a  little  sulphate  of  indigo  ;  handle  your  goods  in  this 
till  of  the  shade  desired.  The  ebony  may  previously  be  boiled  in  a 
bag  to  prevent  it  sticking  to  the  silk. 

BROWN  ON  SILK. — Dissolve  annatto  1  lb.,  pearlash  4  Ibs.,  hi  boiling 
water,  and  pass  the  silk  through  it  for  2  hours,  then  take  it  out, 
squeeze  it  well  and  dry  ;  next  give  it  a  mordant  of  alum,  and  pass  it 
first  through  a  bath  of  Brazil-wood,  and  afterwards  through  a  bath 
of  logwood  to  which  a  little  green  copperas  has  been  added,  wring  ;t 
out  and  dry,  afterwards  rinse  well. 

BROWN  DVB  ON  COTTON  OB  LINEN.— Give  the  pieces  a  mixed 
jnordant  of  acetate  of  alumina  and  acetate  of  iron,  and  then  dye  them 
in  a  bath  of  madder,  or  madder  and  fustic,  when  the  acetate  of 
-alumina  predominates  the  dye  has  an  amaranth  tint.  A  cinnamon 
tint  is  obtained  by  first  giving  a  mordant  of  alum,  then  a  madder 
bath,  then  a  bath  of  fustic,  to  which  a  little  green  copperas  has  been 
added. 

MULBERBY  ON  SILK. — For  5  Ibs.  of  silk,  use  alum  1  lb.  4  ozs.,  dip 
60  minutes,  wash  out,  and  make  a  dye  with  Brazil-wood  5  ozs.,  a:iu 
logwood  1|  ozs.  by  boiling  together;  dip  in  this  £  hour,  then  add  more 
Brazil-wood  and  logwood,  equal  parts,  until  the  color  suits. 

GREEN  DYE  ON  WOOL  AND  SILK.— Equal  quantities  of  yellow  oak 
And  hickory  bark,  make  a  strong  yellow  bath  by  boiling,  shade  to  the 
<iesired  tint  by  adding  a  small  quantity  of  extract  of  indigo. 

ORANGE  DYE.— For  40  Ibs  of  goods,  use  sugar  of  lead  2  Ibs.,  boil 
15  minutes,  when  a  little  cool,  enter  the  goods,  and  dip  for  2  hours, 
\vring  them  out,  make  a  fresh  dye  with  bi-chromate  of  potash,  4  Ibs., 
madder  1  lb.,  immerse  until  of  the  desired  color.  The  shade  may  be 
varied  by  dipping  in  lime  water. 

BLUE  ON  COTTON.— For  40  Ibs.  of  goods,  use  copperas  2  Ibs.,  boil 
and  dip  20  minutes,  then  dip  in  soap  suds,  and  return  to  the  dye  3  or 
4  times  ;  then  make  a  new  bath  with  prussiate  of  potash  £  lb.,  oil  of 
Vitriol  1$  pts. ;  boil  £  hour,  rinse  out  and  dry. 

SOLFEBINO  AND  MAGENTA  DYES  ON  WHITE  WOOLLEN,  SlLK,   OH 

COTTON  AND  WOOLLEN  MIXTURES. — For  1  lb.  of  woollen  gooti*, 
Magenta  shade,  96  grs.  apothecaries'  weight,  of  aniline  red,  will  be 
required;  dissolve  in  a  little  warm  alcohol;  using  say  6  fluid  ozs.  of 
alcohol,  or  about  6  gills  alcohol  per  oz.  of  aniline.  Many  dyers  n<a 
wood  spirit  because  of  its  cheapness.  For  a  Solferino  shade,  use  i>4 
grs.  aniline  red,  dissolved  in  4  ozs.  alcohol,  to  each  1  lb.  of  goods 
Cold  water  1  qt.  will  dissolve  these  small  quantities  of  aniline  TOM  I, 
but  the  cleanest  and  quickest  way  will  be  found  by  using  the  alcoh<  >1, 
or  wood  spirit.  Clean  the  cloth  and  goods  by  steeping  at  a  gent: a 
heat  in  weak  soap  suds,  rinse  in  several  messes  of  clean  water  and  lay 
aside  moist.  The  alcoholic  solution  of  aniline  ie  to  be  added  from  time 
to  time  to  the  warm  or  hot  dye  bath,  till  the  color  on  the  goods  is  of 
the  desired  shade.  The  goods  are  to  be  removed  from  the  dye  bath 
before  each  addition  of  the  alcoholic  solution,  and  the  bath  w  to  V»« 


;40  DYERS   AND    BLEACHERS*   RECEIPTS. 

well  stirred  before  the  goods  are  returned.  The  alcoholic  solution 
should  be  first  dropped  into  a  little  water,  and  well  mixed,  and  th» 
mixture  should  then  be  strained  into  the  dye  bath.  If  the  color  i» 
not  dark  enough  after  working  from  20  to  30  minutes,  repeat  the  re- 
moval of  the  goods  from  the  bath,  and  the  addition  of  the  solution, 
and  the  re-immersion  of  the  goods  from  15  to  30  minutes  more,  or  un- 
til suited,  then  remove  from  the  bath,  and  rinse  in  several  messes  of 
clean  water,  and  dry  in  the  shade.  Use  about  4  gals,  water  for  dye-' 
bath  for  1  lb.  of  goods;  less  water,  for  larger  quantities. 

LIQUID  DYB  COLOKS. — 1.  Blue.  Dilute  Saxon  blue  or  sulphate  of 
indigo  with  water.  If  required  for  delicate  work,  neutralize  with 
chalk.  2.  Purple.  Add  a  little  alum  to  a  strained  decoction  of  log- 
wood. 3.  Green.  Dissolve  sap  green  in  water  and  add  a  little  alum. 
4.  Yellow.  Dissolve  annatto  in  a  weak  lye  of  subcarbonate  of  soda  or 
potash.  5.  Golden  color.  Steep  French  berries  in  hot  water,  strain, 
and  add  a  little  gum  and  alum.  6.  Red.  Dissolve  carmine  in  am- 
monia, or  in  weak  carbonate  of  potash  water,  or  infuse  powdered 
cochineal  in  water,  strain,  and  add  a  little  gum  in  water.  The  pre- 
ceding colors,  thickened  with  a  little  gum,  may  be  used  as  inks  in 
writing,  or  as  colors  to  tint  maps,  foils,  artificial  flowers,  &c.,  or  to 
paint  on  velvet. 

To  CLEANSE  WOOL.— Make  a  hot  bath  composed  of  water  4  parts, 
urine  1  part,  enter  the  wool,  teasing  and  opening  it  out  to  admit  th» 
full  action  of  the  liquid  ;  after  20  minutes'  immersion,  remove  from 
the  liquid  and  allow  it  to  dram,  then  rinse  it  in  clean  running  water, 
and  spread  out  to  dry.  The  liquid  is  good  for  subsequent  operations, 
only  keep  up  the  proportions,  and  use  no  soap. 

STABCH  LUSTRE.— A  portion  of  stearine,  the  size  of  an  old-fashioned 
cent,  added  to  starch  £  half  lb.,  and  boiled  with  it  for  2  or  3  minute* 
will  add  greatly  to  the  beauty  of  linen,  to  which  it  may  be  applied. 
See  also  Starch  Polish  under 'the  Grocers'  Department. 

To  DYE  HATS. — The  hats  should  be  at  first  strongly  galled  bv 
boiling  them  a  long  time  in  a  decoction  of  galls  with  a  little  logwood, 
that  the  dye  may  penetrate  the  better  into  their  substance  ;  after 
which  a  proper  quantity  of  vitriol  and  decoction  of  logwood,  with  a 
little  verdigris,  are  added,  and  the  hats  continued  in  this  mixture  for 
a  considerable  time.  They  are  afterwards  put  into  a  fresh  liquor  of 
logwood,  galls,  vitriol,  and  verdigris,  and,  when  the  hats  are  of  great 
price,  or  of  a  hair  which  with  difficulty  takes  the  dye,  the  same  pro- 
cess is  repeated  a  third  time.  For  obtaining  the  most  perfect  color, 
the  hair  or  wool  ia  dyed  blue  previously  to  its  being  formed  into 
hats. 

CHESTNUT  BROWN  ON  STRAW  BONNETS. — For  25  hats,  use  ground 
ganders  1£  IDS.,  ground  curcuma  2  Ibs.,  powdered  gall  nuts,  or  sumac  £ 
lb.,  rasped  logwood  T^  lb.  Boil  all  together  with  the  hats  in  a  large 
kettle  (so  as  not  to  crowd),  for  2  hours,  then  withdraw  the  hats,  rinse, 
and  let  them  remain  over  night  in  a  bath  of  nitrate  of  4°  Baume,  whei* , 
they  are  washed.  A  darker  brown  may  be  obtained  by  increasing  the 
quantity  of  ganders.  To  give  the  hats  the  desired  lustre,  they  are 
brushed  with  a  brush  of  dog's  (couch)  grass,  when  dry. 

VIOLET  DYE  ON  STRAW  BONNETS.— Take  alum  4  Ibs.,  tartaria 
«cid  1  lb.,  chloride  of  tin  1  lb.  Dissolve  and  boil,  allow  the  hats  *» 


DYERS   AND   BLEACHERS*   RECEIPTS,  14> 

remaftn  in  the  booing  solution  2  hours,  then  add  as  much  of  a  decoction 
of  logwood  and  carmine  of  indigo  as  is  requisite  to  induce  the  desired: 
shade,  and  lastly,  rinse  finally  in  water  in  which  some  alum  has  been 
dissolved. 

SILVER  GREY  DYE  ON  STRAW. — For  25  hats,  select  your  whitest  hats 
and  soften  them  in  a  bath  of  crystallized  soda  to  which  some  clean 
lime  water  has  been  added.  See  "  Lime  water  "  below.  Boil  for  2 
hours  in  a  large  vessel,  using  for  a  bath  a  decoction  of  the  following, 

•  viz. :  alum  4  Ibs.,  tartaric  acid  f  lb.,  some  ammoniacal  cochineal,  and 

•  carmine  of  indigo;  a  little  sulphuric  acid  maybe  necessary  in  order  to 
neutralize  the  alkali  of  the  cochineal  dye.     If  the  last-mentioned 
ingredients  are  used,  let  the  hats  remain  for  an  hour  longer  in  the 
"boiling  bath,  then  rinse  in  slightly  acidulated  water. 

LIME  WATER  FOR  DYERSV  USE.— Put  stone  lime  1  lb.,  and  strong: 
lime  water  1£  Ibs.  into  a  pail  of  water  ;  rummage  well  for  7  or  fc 
minutes,  then  let  it  rest  until  the  lime  is  precipitated  and  the  water 
clear;  add  this  quantity  to  a  tubful  of  clear  water. 

DARK  STEEL  COLOR. — Mix  black  and  white  wool  together  in  the 
proportion  of  50  Ibs.  of  black  wool  to  7£  Ibs.  of  white.  For  large  or 
small  quantities  keep  the  same  proportion,  mining  carefully  and 
thoroughly. 

To  RENDER  ANILINE  COLORS  SOLUBLE  IN  WATER. — A  solution  of 
gelatine  in  acetic  acid  of  almost  the  consistence  of  syrups  is  first  made, 
and  the  aniline  in  fine  powder  is  gradually  added,  stirring  all  the  time 
BO  as  to  make  a  homogeneous  paste.  The  mixture  is  then  to  be  heated 
over  a  water  bath  to  the  temperature  of  boiling  water  and  kept  at 
that  heat  for  some  tune. 

ANILINE  GREEN  ON  SILK.— Iodine  green  or  night  green  dissolves', 
easily  in  warm  water.  For  a  liquid  dye,  1  lb.  may  be  dissolved  in  1'. 
gal.  alcohol,  and  mixed  with  2  gals,  water,  containing  1  oz.  sulphuric 
acid. 

To  DYE  ANILINE  SCARLET. — For  every  40  Ibs.  of  goods,  dissolve 
J5  Ibs.  white  vitriol  (sulphate  of  zinc)  at  180°  Fah.,  place  the  goods, 
into  this  bath  for  10  minutes,  then  add  the  color,  prepared  by  boiling 
lor  a  few  minutes,  1  lb.  aniline  scarlet  in  3  gals,  water,  stirring  the 
same  continually.  This  solution  has  to  be  filtered  before  being  add* 
ed  to  the  bath.  The  goods  remain  in  the  latter  for  15  minutes,  when 
they  have  become  browned  and  mast  be  boiled  for  another  half  hour 
in  the  same  bath  after  the  addition  of  sal-ammoniac.  The  more  of 
this  is  added  the  deeper  will  be  the  shade. 

BISMARCK  BROWN  FOR  DYEING.— Mix  together  1  lb.  Bismarck,  5 
gals,  water,  and  f  lb.  sulphuric  acid.  This  paste  dissolves  easily  in 
not  water  and  may  be  used  directly  for  dyeing.  A  liquid  dye  may 
be  prepared  by  making  the  bulk  of  the  above  mixture,  to  2  gals,  with 
alcohol.  To  dye  with  the  above  mixture,  sour  with  sulphuric  acid  ; 

•  add  a  quantity  of  sulphate  of  soda,  immerse  the  wool,  and  add  the 
color  by  small  portions,  keeping  the  temperature  under  212°  Fahv 
Very  interesting  shades  may  be  developed  by  combining  the  coloz 
with  indigo  paste  or  picric  acid. 

To  DYE  WOOL  WITH  ANILINE  GREEN.— For  wool,  prepare  two 
baths,  one  containing  the  dissolved  dye  and  a  quantity  of  carbonate 
of  soda  or  borax.  La  this  the  wool  is  placed,  and  the  temperature  im 
raised  to  212°  Fah.  A  greyish  green  is  produced,  which  must  b*. 


142       DYERS  AND  BLEACHERS*  RECEIPTS. 

tightened  and  fixed  in  a  second  bath  of  water  100°  Fah.v  to  which 
some  acetic  aoid  has  been  added.  Cotton  requires  preparation  by 
sumac. 

ANILINE  BLUE. — To  100  Ibs.  of  fabric  dissolve  1£  Iba.  aniline 
'blue  in  3  qta.  hot  alcohol ;  strain  through  a  filter  and  add  it  to  a 
bath  of  130°  Fah.  ;  also  10  Ibs.  glauber  salts,  and  5  Ibs.  acetic  acid. 
Enter  the  goods  and  handle  them  well  for  20  minutes  ;  next  heat  it 
•%  slowly  to  200°  Fah.  ;  then  add  5  Ibs.  sulphuric  acid  diluted  with  water. 
Let  the  whole  boil  20  minutes  longer ;  then  rinse  and  dry.  If  the 
aniline  be  added  in  two  or  three  proportions  during  the  process  of 
•coloring,  it  will  facilitate  the  evenness  of  the  color. 

ANILINE  RED. — Enclose  the  aniline  in  a  small  muslin  bag;  have  a 
iettle  (tin  or  brass)  filled  with  moderately  hot  water  ana  rub  the  sub- 
irtance  out.  Then  immerse  the  goods  to  be  colored,  and  in  a  short 
.time  they  are  done.  It  improves  the  color  to  wring  the  goods  out  of 
strong  soap  suds  before  putting  them  in  the  dye.  Tnis  is  a  permanent 
color  on  wool  or  silk. 

ANILINE  VIOLET  AND  PURPLE.— Acidulate  the  bath  by  sulphuric 
.acid,  or  use  sulphate  of  soda  :  both  these  substances  render  the  shade 
.bluish.  Dye  at  212°  Fah.  To  give  a  fair  middle  shade  to  10  Ibs.  of 
woolj  a  quantity  of  solution  equal  to  \  to  f  ozs.  of  the  solid  dye  will  be 
:  required.  The  color  of  the  dyed  fabric  is  improved  by  washing  in  soap 
.and  water,  and  then  passing  through  a  bath  soured  by  sulphuric  acid, 

ANILINE  BLACK  FOR  DYEING. — Water  20  to  30  parts,  chlorate  of 
potassa  1  part ;  sal-ammoniac  1  part ;  chloride  of  copper  1  part ; 
aniline  hydrochloric  acid,  of  each  1  part,  previously  mixed  together. 
It  is  essential  that  the  preparation  should  oe  acid,  and  the  more  acid 
it  is  the  more  rapid  will  be  the  production  of  the  blacks;  if  too  much 
«o,  it  may  hi  jure  the  fabric. 

NEW  MORDANT  FOR  ANILINE  COLORS. — Immerse  the  goods  for 

some  hours  in  a  bath  of  cold  water  in  which  chloride  or  acetate  of 

zinc  has  been  dissolved  until  the  solution  shows  2°  Baume  ;  for  the 

wool  the  mordanting  bath  should  be  at  a  boiling  heat,  and  the  goods 

should  also  be  placed  in  a  warm  bath  of  tannin,  90°  Fah.,  for  half  an 

'hour.    In  dyeing,  a  hot  solution  of  the  color  must  be  used  to  which 

-should  be  added,  in  the  case  of  the  cotton,  some  chloride  of  zinc, 

.  And,  in  the  case  of  the  wool,  a  certain  amount  of  tannin  solution. 

To  DYE  ANILINE  YELLOW.— This  color  is  slightly  soluble  in 
'water,  and  for  dyers'  use  may  be  used  directly  for  the  preparation  of 
the  bath  dye,  but  is  best  used  by  dissolving  1  Ib.  of  dye  hi  2  gals. 
afoohoL  Temperature  of  bath  should  be  under  200°  Fah.  The  color 
ie  much  improved  and  brightened  by  a  trace  of  sulphuric  acid. 

To  DYE  WITH  ALKALI  BLUE  AND  NICHOLSON'S  BLUE. — Dissolve  1 
filb.  of  the  dye  in  10  gals,  boiling  water,  add  this  by  small  portions  to 
flie  dye  bath,  which  should  be  rendered  alkaline  by  borax.    The 
'  'iabric  should  be  well  worked  about  between  each  addition  of  the 
color.    The  temperature  must  be  kept  under  212°  Fah.    To  develop 
me  color,  wash  with  water  and  pass  through  a  bath  containing  sul- 
phuric acid. 

ANILINE  BROWN  DYE. — Dissolve  1  Ib.  of  the  brown  hi  2  gals,  of 
;  spirit,  specific  gravity  8200,  add  a  sufficient  quantity  to  the  dye  bath, 
.  and  immerse  the  fabric.  Wool  possesses  a  very  strong  affinity  fof 
•,thi*  color  and  no  mordant  is  required. 


AND  BLEACHERS'  RECEIPTS.  143 

To  EXTRACT  On,  SPOTS  FROM  FINISHED  GOODS.— Saturate  tne  spot 
with  benzine,  then  place  two  pieces  of  very  soft  blotting  paper  under 
and  two  upon  it,  press  well  with  a  hot  iron,  and  the  grease  will  be  J 
absorbed.  t 

To  PRESERVE  GOODS  AND  CLOTHING  FROM  MILDEW.— Alum,  21b§., 
dissolved  in  60  Ibs.  water ;  blue  vitriol,  2  Ibs.,  dissolved  in  8  Ibs.  of  . 
v/ater  ;  to  which  is  added  gelatine  1  lb.,  dissolved  in  30  Ibs.  of  water ; 
acetate  of  lead,  ^  lb.  dissolved  in  30  Ibs.  of  water.  The  solutions  are 
all  hot,  and  separately  mixed,  with  the  exception  of  the  vitriol,  which 
is  added. 

To  BLEACH  FEATHERS. — Place  the  feathers  from  3  to  4  hours  in  a 
tepid  dilute  solution  of  bi-chromate  of  potassa,  to  which,  cautiously, 
some  nitric  acid  has  been  added  (a  small  quantity  only).  To  remove 
•a  greenish  Lue  induced  by  this  solution,  place  them  in  a  dilute  so- 
lution of  sulphuric  acid,  in  water,  whereby  the  feathers  become 
perfectly  white  and  bleached. 

To  CLEAN  STRAW  I^NNETS.— First,  brush  them  with  soap  and 
water,  then  with  a  solution  of  oxalic  acid. 

CRIMSON.— For  1  lb.  of  sil!:;  alum,  3  oz. ;  dip  at  hand-heat,  1  hour; 
take  out  and  drain,  while  making  a  new  dye,  by  toiling,  10  minutes,    • 
cochineal,  3  oz. ;  brused  nut-galls,  2  oz. ;  and  cream  of  tartar,  \  o/.,  in 
one  pail  of  water;  when  a  little  cool,  begin  to  dip,  raising  the  "heat  to 
a  boil,  continuing,  to  dip  1  hour  ;  wash,  and  dry. 

CINNAMON  OR  BROWN  ON  COTTON  AND  SILK. — Give  the  goods  as    . 
much  color,  from  a  solution  of  bluo  vitriol,  2  oz.,  to  water,  one  gal.,  as 
it  will  take  up  in  dipping  15  minutes ;  then  run  it  through  lime-water; 
this  will  make  a  beautiful  sky-blue  of  much  durability;  it  has  now    ' 
to  be  run  through  a  solution  of  prussiate  of  potash,  1  oz.,  to  water, 
Igal. 

ANILINE  BLACK  ON  SILK  OR  COTTON.— "Water,  20  to  30  parts,   . 
chlorate  of  potassa,  1  part;  sal-ammoniac,  1  part;  chloride  of  copper, 
1  part;  aniline,  1  part;  and  hydrocloric,  1  part;  previously  mixed 
together.    The  fabric  or  yarn  is  dried  in  ageing  rooms  at  a  low  tem- 
perature for  24  hours,  and  washed  afterwards. 

To  COLOR  STRAW  HATS  OR  BONNETS  A  BEAUTIFUL  SLATE. — 
First,  soak  t?.e  bonnet  in  rather  strong  warm  guds  for  15  minutes  to 
remove  sizing  or  stiffening;  then  rinse  in  warm  water,  to  get  out  the 
soap;  now  scald  cudbear,  1  oz.,  in  sufficient  vrater  to  cover  the  hat  or 
lx>nnet;  work  the  bonnet  in  this  dye,  at  180°  of  heat,  until  you  get  a 
Jight-pury'e,  now  have  a  bucket  of  cold-water,  blued  with  the  extract 
of  indigo,  £  oz.,  and  work  or  stir  the  bonnet  in  this,  until  the  tint 
pleases ;  dry,  then  rinse  out  with  cold  water,  and  dry  again  in  the  - 
shade.  If  you  get  the  pornle  too  deep  in  shade  the  final  slate  will  be 
too  dark. 

To  CLEAN  OSTRICH  FEATHERS.— Cut  some  white  curd  soap  m 
small  pieces,  pour  boiling  water  on  them  and  add  a  little  pearl  ash.   . 
"When  the  soap  is  quite  dissolved,  and  the  mixture  cool  enough  for 
the  hand  to  bear,  plunge  the  feathers  into  it,  and  draw  them  through 
the  hand  till  the  dirt  appears  squeezed  out  of  them,  pass  them  through 
a  dean  lather  with  some  blue  in  it,  then  rinse  them  in  cold  water  with  • 
blue  to  give  them  a  good  color.     Beat  them  against  the  hand  to  shake 
off  the  water,  and  dry  by  shaking  them  near  a  fire.      When  perfectlj 
dry,  coil  each  fibre  separately  with  a  blunt  knife,  or  ivory  folder. 


144  EYEBS  AND  BLEACHERS'  RECEIPTS. 

To  CLXAN  FURS.— For  dark  furs;  warm  a  quantity  of  new  bran  in 
a  pan,  taking  care  that  it  does  not  burn,  to  prevent  which  it  must  be 
brislJ^  stirred.  When  well  warmed  rub  it  thoroughly  into  the  fur 
•with  the  hand.  Repeat  this  two  or  three  times,  then  shake  the  fur, 
and  give  it  another  sharp  brushing  until  free  from  dust.  For  white 
lurs;  lay  them  on  a  table,  and  rub  well  with  bran  made  moist  with. 
warm  water,  rub  until  quite  dry,  and  afterwards  with  dry  bran.  The 
•wet  bran  should  be  put  on  with  flannel,  then  dry  with  book  muslin. 
Light  furs,  in  addition  to  the  above,  should  be  well  rubbed  with  mag- 
nesia or  a  piece  of  book  muslin,  after  the  bran  process,  against  the 
way  of  the  fur. 

WASHING  FLUID.— Take  1  Ib.  sal  soda,  £  Ib.  good  stone  lime,  and  5 
ots.  of  water;  boil  a  short  time,  let  it  settle,  and  pour  off  the  clear 
fluid  into  a  stone  jug,  and  cork  for  use;  soak  your  white  clothes  over 
night  in  simple  water,  wring  out  and  soap  wristbands,  collars,  and 
dirty  or  stained  places;  have  your  boiler  half  filled  with  water  just 
beginning  to  boil,  then  put  in  one  common  teacupf  ul  of  fluid,  stir  and 
put  in  your  clothes,  and  boil  for  half  an  hour,  then  rub  lightly  through. 
one  suds  only,  and  all  is  complete. 

CHIP  OR  STRAW  HATS  OR  BONNETS  may  be  dyed  black  by  boiling: 
them  three  or  four  hours  in  a  strong  liquor  of  logwood,  adding  a  little 
copperas  occasionally.  Let  the  bonnets  remain  in  the  liquor  all  night; 
then  take  out  to  dry  in  the  air.  If  the  black  is  not  satisfactory,  dye 
again  after  drying.  Rub  inside  and  out  with  a  sponge  moistened  io 
fine  oil;  then  block.  Red  Dye. — Boil  ground  Brazil-wood  in  a  ley  of 
potash,  and  boil  your  straw  tiats,  &c.,  in  it.  Blue  Dye. — Take  a  suffi- 
cient quantity  of  potash  ley,  1  Ib.  of  litmus  or  lacmus,  ground  ;  make 
a  decoction  and  then  put  in  the  straw,  and  boil  it. 

DVES  FOR  HATS. — The  ordinary  bath  for  dyeing  hats,  employed  by 
the  London  manufactures,  consists,  for  twelve  dozen,  of  144  Ibs.  of 
logwood ;  12  Ibs.  of  green  sulphate  of  iron  or  copperas ;  7£  Ibs.  verdi- 
gris. The  logwood  having  been  introduced  into  the  copper,  and 
digested  for  some  time,  the  copperas  and  verdigris  are  added  in  suc- 
cessive quantities,  and  in  the  above  proportions,  along  with  every 
successive  two  or  three  dozens  of  hats  suspended  upon  the  dripping: 
machine.  Each  set  of  hats,  after  being  exposed  to  the  bath  with, 
occasional  airings  during  forty  minutes,  is  taken  off  the  pegs,  and  laid 
out  upon  the  ground  to  be  more  completely  blackened  by  the  peroxy- 
dizement  of  the  iron  with  the  atmospheric  oxygen.  In  three  or  four 
hours,  the  dyeing  is  completed.  When  fully  dyed,  the  hats  are  well 
washed  in  running  water. 

WATERPROOF  STIFFENING  FOR  HATS.— Mix  18  Ibs.  of  shellac  with 
3£  Ib.  of  salt  of  tartar  (carbonate  of  potash),  and  5£  gals,  water.  Thee* 
i  materials  are  to  be  put  in  a  kettle,  and  made  to  boil  gradually  till 
j  the  lac  is  dissolved,  when  the  liquid  will  become  as  clear  as  water, 
.  without  any  scum  upon  the  top,  and  if  left  to  cool,  will  have  a  thia 
crust  upon  the  surface,  of  whitish  cast,  mixed  with  the  light  impuri- 
'-  ties  of  the  gum.  When  this  skin  is  taken  off,  the  hat  body  is  to  b« 
I  dipped  into  the  mixture  in  a  cold  state,  so  as  to  absorb  as  much  as 
'.  possible  of  it;  or  it  may  be  applied  with  a  brush  or  sponge.  The  hat 
>  lxxly,being  thus  stiffened,  may  stand  till  it  becomes  dry,  or  nearlyso ;  and 
\  After  it  has  been  brushed,  it  must  be  immersed  in  very  dilute  sulphuric 
;  «iv  acetic  acid,  in  order  to  neutralize  the  potash,  and  cause  the  sheila* 


DYERS    AND    BLEACHERS*  RECEIPTS.  145 

to  set.    If  the  hats  are  not  to  be  napped  immediately,  they  may  be 
thrown  into  a  cistern  of  pure  -water,  and  taken  out  as  wanted. 

METHOD  OF  BLEACHING  STRAW. — Dip  the  straw  in  a  solution  of 
Oxygenated  muriatic  acid,  saturated  with  potash.  (Oxygenated 
Huriate  of  lime  is  much  cheaper).  The  straw  is  thus  rendered  very 
3diite,  and  its  flexibility  is  increased. 

BLEACHING  STRAW  GOODS. — Straw  is  bleached  by  simply  exposing 
it  in  a  closed  chamber  to  the  lumes  of  burning  sulphur,  an  old  flour 
t«irrel  is  the  apparatus  most  used  for  the  purpose  by  milliners,  a  flat 
stoiie  being  laid  on  the  ground,  the  sulphur  ignited  thereon,  and  tha 
barrel  containing  the  goods  to  be  bleached  turned  over  it.  The  goods 
should  be  previously  washed  hi  pure  water. 

VARNISH  FOR  FADED  RUBBER  GOODS. — Black  Japan  varnish  dilu- 
ted with  a  little  linseed  oil. 

To  BLEACH  LINEN. — Mix  common  bleaching-powder,  in  the  pro- 
portion of  1  Ib.  to  a  gallon  of  water;  stir  it  occasionally  for  three  dajs, 
let  it  settle,  and  pour  it  off  clear.  Then  make  a  ley  of  1  Ib.  of  soda  to 
1  gallon  of  boiling  soft  water,  in  which  soak  the  linen  for  12  hour?, 
and  boil  it  half  an  hour;  next  soak  it  in  the  bleaching  liquor,  made  as. 
above;  and  lastly,  wash  it  in  the  usual  manner.  Discolored  linen  or 
muslin  may  be  restored  by  putting  a  portion  of  bleaching  liquor  into 
the  tub  wherein  the  articles  are  soaking. 

DYE  FOR  FEATHERS. — Black :  Immerse  for  2  or  3  days  in  a  bath, 
nt  first  hot,  of  logwood,  8  parts,  and  copperas  or  acetate  of  iron, 
1  part.  Slue :  with  the  indigo  vat.  Brown :  by  using  any  of  th» 
brown  dyea  for  silk  or  woollen.  Crimson :  a  mordant  of  alum,  fol- 
lowed by  a  hot  bath  of  Brazil  wood,  afterwards  by  a  weak  dye  of 
cudbear.  Pink  or  Rose:  with  saf -flower  or  lemon  juice.  Plum: 
with  the  red  dye,  followed  by  an  alkaline  bath.  Red :  a  mordant  of 
alum,  followed  by  a  bath  of  Brazil-wood.  Yellow :  a  mordant  of 
alum,  followed  by  a  bath  of  turmeric  or  weld.  Green  Dye.  Take  of 
verdigris  and  verditer,  of  each  1  oz.  ;  gum  water,  1  pt.  ;  mix  them, 
well  and  dip  the  feathers,  they  having  been  first  soaked  hi  hot  water, 
into  the  said  mixture.  For  Purple,  use  lake  and  indigo.  For  Car- 
nation, vermilion  and  smalt.  Thin  gum  or  starch  water  should  b& 
used  in  dying  feathers. 

COLORS  FOB  ARTIFICIAL  FLOWERS.— The  French  employ  velvet,, 
fine  cambric  and  Ttid  for  the  petals,  and  taffeta  for  the  leaves.  Very 
recently  thin  plates  of  bleached  whalebone  have  been  used  for  some 
portions  of  the  artificial  flowers.  Colors  and  Stains.  Blue. — Indigo 
dissolved  in  oil  of  vitriol,  and  the  acid  partly  neutralized  with  salt  of. 
tartar  or  whiting.  Green. — A  solution  of  distilled  verdigris.  Lilac.— 
Liquid  archil.  Tied. — Carmine  dissolved  in  a  solution  of  salt  o«f  tar-^ 
..  tar,  or  in  spirits  of  hartshorn.  Violet.— Liquid  archil  mixed  with  a 
little  salt  of  tartar.  Yellow.— Tincture  of  turmeric.  The  colors  are 
generally  applied  with  the  fingers. 

BLACK  VARNISH  FOR  CHIP  AND   STRAW  HATS. — Best  alcohol, 

4  oz.  ;  pulverized  black  sealing-wax,  1  oz.  ;  put  them  into  a  phial, 

•  and  put  the  phial  into  a  warm  place,  stirring  or  shaking  occasional! y- 

nntil  the  wax  is  dissolved.    Apply  it  when  warm  before  the  fire  or 

»n  the  sun.    This  makes  a  beautiful  gloss. 

EASY  METHOD  OF  PREVENTING  MOTHS  IN  FURS  OR  WOOLLENS. 
4  -Sprinkle  the  f or*  or  woollen  stuffs,  as  well  as  the  drawers  or  boxea 

j 


146  DTEBS   AND    BLEACHERS'   RECEIPTS. 

in  which  they  are  kept,  with  spirits  of  turpentine,  the  unpleasant 
scent  of  which  will  speedily  evaporate  on  exposure  of  the  stuffs  to 
the  air.    Some  persons  place  sheets  of  paper  moistened  with  spirits 
of  turpentine,  over,  under,  or  between  pieces  of  cloth,  &c.,  and  find 
it  a  very  effectual  method.    Many  woollen  drapers  put  bits  of  cam- 
phor, the  size  of  a  nutmeg,  in  papers,  on  different  parts  of  the  shelves 
m  their  shops,  and  as  they  brush  their  cloths  every  two,  three  or  four ' . 
months,  this  keeps  them  free  from  moths  :  and  this  should  be  done  * 
tn  boxes  where  the  furs,  &c.,  are  put.    A  tallow  candle  is  frequently 
put  within  each  muff  when  laid  by.     Snuff  or  pepper  is  very  good.      ' 

CLOTHING  RENOVATOR.— Soft  water,  1  gal.  ;  make  a  strong  decoc- 
tion of  logwood  by  boiling  the  extra'ct  with  the  water.  Strain,  when 
cool,  add  2  oz.  gum  arabic  in  powder  ;  bottle,  cork  well,  and  set  aside 
for  use  ;  clean  the  coat  well  from  grease  and  dirt,  and  apply  the 
above  liquid  with  a  sponge  evenly.  Dilute  to  suit  the  color,  and 
hang  in  the  shade  to  dry  ;  afterwards  brush  the  nap  smooth,  and  it 
Trill  look  like  new. 

WATERPROOF  FOR  POROUS  CLOTH.— Dissolve  2$  Ibs.  alum  in 
4  gals,  water  ;  dissolve  also  in  a  separate  vessel  the  same  weight  of 
acetate  of  lead  in  the  same  quantity  of  water.  When  both  are  well 
dissolved,  mix  the  solutions  together  ;  and.  when  the  sulphate  of  lead 
resulting  from  this  mixture  has  been  precipitated  to  the  bottom  of 
the  vessel  in  the  form  of  a  powder,  pour  off  the  solution,  and  plunge 
into  it  the  fabric  to  be  rendered  waterproof.  Wash  and  nib  it  well 
during  a  few  minutes,  and  hang  it  in  the  air  to  dry. 

To  REMOVE  GREASE. — Aqua  ammonia,  2  oz.  ;  soft  water,  1  quart ; 
saltpetre,  1  teaspoonful  ;  shaving  soap  in  shavings,  1  oz.  ;  mix 
altogether  ;  dissolve  the  soap  well,  and  any  grease  or  dirt  that  cannot 
l»e  removed  with  this  preparation,  nothing  else  need  be  tried  for  it. 

WATERPROOFING  FOR  CLOTHING.— Boiled  oil,  15  Ibs.  ;  bees-wax, 

1  Ib.  ;  ground  litharge,  13  Ibs.  ;  mix  and  apply  with  a  brush  to  the 
article,  previously  stretched  against  a  wall  or  a  table,  previously  well 
washing  and  drying  each  article  before  applying  the  composition. 

To  RENEW  OLD  SILKS.— Unravel  and  put  them  in  a  tub,  cover 
them  with  cold  water,  let  them  remain  one  hour  ;  dip  them  up  and 
down,  but  do  not  wring  ;  hang  up  to  drain,  and  iron  while  very 
damp,  and  they  will  look  beautiful. 

DYES  FOR  FURS. — For  black,  use  the  nair  dye  described  in  these 
/cceipts.  Brown,  use  tincture  of  logwood,  "fied,  ground  Brazil- 
wood, ^  Ib.  ;  water,  1^  quarts  ;  cochineal,  i  oz. ;  boil  the  Brazil-wood 
tn  the  water  one  hour  ;  strain  and  add  the  cochineal  ;  boil  fifteen 
ninutes.  Scarlet  color,  boil  £  oz.  saffron  In  £  pint  of  water,  and  pass 
3ver  the  work  before  applying  the  red.  Slue,  logwood,  7  oz.  ;  blue 
vitriol,  1  oz.  ;  water,  22  oz.  ;  boil.  Purple,  logwood,  11  oz.  ;  alum, 
6  oz.  ;  water,  29  oz.  Green,  strong  vinegar,  1£  pints  ;  best  verdigris,  • 

2  oz.  ;  ground  fine  ;  sap  green,  £  oz.  ;  mix  all  together  and  boil. 
POTTER'S  INVISIBLE  WATERPROOFING.— Imbue  the  cloth  on  tha  j 

wrong  side  with  a  solution  of  isinglass,  alum,  and  soap  dissolved  i»'( 
water,  forming  an  emulsion  of  a  milky  thickness  ;  apply  with  a 
brush,  rubbing  in  well.    When  dry,  it  is  brushed  on  the  wrong  side 
ugainst  the  grain,  and  then  gone  over  with  a  brush  dipped  in  water  • 
afterwards  brushed  down  smooth. 
TC  JUISE  A  NAP  ON  CLOVH.— Clean  the  article  well ;  soak  it  ia 


MEDICAL    DEPARTMENT.  147 

cold  water  for  half  an  hour  :  put  it  on  a  board,  and  rub  the  thread- 
bare parts  with  a  half-worn  natter's  card  filled  with  flocks,  or  with  a 
teazle  or  a  prickly  thistle  until  a  nap  is  raised  ;  then  lay  the  nap  the 
right  way  with  a  hatter's  brush,  and  hang  up  to  dry. 

BLACK  REVIVER  FOR  CLOTH. — Bruised  galls,  1  Ib.  ;  logwood, 
2  Ibs.  ;  green  vitriol,  £  Ib.  ;  water,  5  quarts  ;  boil  two  hours  ;  strain,, 
and  i*  is  read^  for  use. 


MEDICAL  DEPARTMENT,  &c. 

RULES  FOB  ACTION-,  VERY  SHORT  BUT  VERT  SAFE.— In  health, 
and  disease  endeavor  always  to  live  on  the  sunny  side.  Sir  Jame* 
Wylie,  late  physician  to  me  Emperor  of  Russia,  remarked  during 
long  observation  in  the  hospitals  of  that  country,  that  the  cases  of  death 
occurring  in  rooms  averted  from  the  light  of  the  sun,  were  four  times 
more  numerous  than  the  fatal  cases  in  the  rooms  exposed  to  the  di- 
rect action  of  the  solar  rays.  When  poison  is  swallowed,  a  good  off- 
hand remedy  is  to  mix  salt  and  mustard,  1  heaped  teaspoonful  of 
each,  hi  a  glass  of  water  and  drink  immediately.  It  is  quick  in  it* 
operation.  Then  give  the  whites  of  2  eggs  in  a  cup  of  coffee,  or  the 
eggs  alone  if  coffee  cannot  be  had.  For  acid  poisons  give  acids.  la 
cases  of  opium  poisoning,  give  strong  coffee  and  keep  moving. 
For  light  burns  or  scalds,  dip  the  part  in  cold  water  or  in  flour,  if  the 
ekin  is  destroyed,  cover  with  varnish.  If  you  fall  into  the  water,  float, 
on  the  back,  with  the  nose  and  mouth  projecting.  For  apoplexy, 
raise  the  head  and  body  ;  for  fainting,  lay  the  person  flat.  Suck  pois- 
oned wounds,  unless  your  mouth  is  sore,  Enlarge  the  wound,  or  better 
cut  out  the  part  without  delay,  cauterize  it  with  caustic,  the  end  of  a. 
cigar  or  a  hot  coal.  If  an  artery  is  cut,  compress  above  the  wound ;  if 
a  vein  is  cut,  compress  below.  If  choked,  get  upon  all-fours  and 
cough.  Before  passing  through  smoke  take  a  full  breath,  stoop  low, 
then  go  ahead  ;  but  if  you  fear  carbonic  acid  gas,  walk  erect  and  be 
careful.  Smother  a  fire  with  blankets  or  carpets ;  water  tends  to  spread 
burning  oil  and  increase  the  danger.  Remove  dust  from  the  eye* 
by  dashing  water  into  them,  and  avoid  rubbing.  Remove  cinders,  &c. , 
•with  a  soft,  smooth  wooden  point.  Preserve  health  and  avoid  catching 
told,  by  regular  diet,  healthy  food  and  cleanliness.  Sir  Astley  Cooper 
eaid:  'The  methods  by  which  I  have  preserved  my  own  health,  are 
temperance,  early  rising,  and  sponging  the  body  every  morning  with 
cold  water,  immediately  after  getting  out  of  bed  ;  a  practice  which  I 
have  adopted  for  30  years  without  ever  catching  cold."  Water  di- 
lited  with  2  per  cent,  of  carbolic  acid  will  disinfect  any  room  or  build* 
tiag,  if  liberally  used  as  a  sprinkle.  Diphtheria  can  be  cured  by  a  gar- 
tele  of  lemon  juice,  swallowing  a  little  so  as  to  reach  all  the  affected 
Wrts.  To  avert  cold  from  the  feet,  wear  two  pairs  of  stockings  made 
1  from  different  fabrics,  one  pair  of  cotton  or  silk,  the  other  of  wool,  and 
the  natural  heat  of  the  feet  will  be  preserved  if  the  feet  are  kept  clean, 
In  arranging  sleeping  rooms  Ae  soundest  and  most  refreshing  slum- 
ber  will  be  enjoyed  when  the  head  is  toward*  the  north.  Late  hoax* 


148  MEDICAL   DEPARTMENT,   ETC. 

and  anxiouf  pursuits  exhaust  vitality,  producing  disease  and  prem- 
ature death,  therefore  the  hours  of  labour  and  study  should  be  short 
Take  abundant  exercise  and  recreation.    Be  moderate  in  eating  and 
drinking,  using  simple  and  plain  diet  avoiding  strong  drink,  tobacco, 
anuff ,  opium  and  every  excess.    Keep  the  body  warm,  the  temper  ; 
calm,  serene  and  placid  ;  shun  idleness  ;  if  your  hands  cannot  be  Use-  < 
fully  employed,  attend  to  the  cultivation  of  your  minds.    For  pure 
health  giving  fresh  air,  go  to  the  country.    Dr.  Stockton  Hough  as-  ! 
serts  that  if  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  world  were  living  in  cities  of  the  t 
magnitude  of  London,  the  human  race  would  become  extinct  hi  a 
century  or  two.    The  mean  average  of  human  life  in  the  United  State? 
Is  39|  years,  while  in  New  York  and  Philadelphia  it  is  only  23  years  ; 
about  50  per  cent,  of  the  deaths  in  these  cities  being  of  children  un- 
der five  years  of  age.    A  great  percentage  of  this  excessive  mortality 
is  caused  by  bad  air  and  bad  food. 

To  ASCERTAIN  THE  STATE  OF  THE  LUNGS.— Draw  in  as  much 
breath  as  you  conveniently  can,  then  count  as  long  as  possible  in  a 
slow  and  audible  voice  without  drawing  in  more  breath.  The  number 
of  seconds  must  be  carefully  noted.  In  a  consumptive  the  time  does 
not  exceed  10,  and  is  frequently  less  than  6  seconds  ;  in  pleurisy  and 
pneumonia  it  ranges  from  9  to  4  seconds.  When  the  lungs  are  sound 
the  time  will  range  as  high  as  from  20  to  35  seconds.  To  expand 
the  lungs,  go  into  the  air,  stand  erect,  throw  back  the  head  and 
shoulders,  and  draw  in  the  air  through  the  nostrils  as  much  as  possible. 

After  having  then  filled  the  lungs,  raise  your  arms,  still  extended, 
and  suck  in  the  air.  When  you  have  thus  forced  the  arms  backward, 
with  the  chest  open,  change  the  process  by  which  you  draw  hi  your 
"breath,  till  the  lungs  are  emptied.  Go  through  the  process  several 
times  a  day,  and  it  will  enlarge  the  chest,  give  the  lungs  better  play, 
and  serve  very  much  to  ward  off  consumption. 

REMEDY  FOR  NEURALGIA.— Hypophosphite  of  soda  taken  in  1 
dram  doses  3  times  per  day  in  beef  tea  is  a  good  remedy  for  this 
painful  affection.  So  is  the  application  of  bruised  horse-radish,  or 
the  application  of  oil  of  peppermint  applied  lightly  with  a  camel  hair 

REMEDY  FOR  HEADACHE—A  Parisian  physician  has  published  a 
new  remedy  for  headaches.  He  uses  a  mixture  of  ice  and  salt,  in 
proportion  of  one  to  one-half,  as  a  cold  mixture,  and  this  he  applies 
Dy  means  of  a  little  purse  of  silk  gauze,  with  a  rim  of  gutta  percha,  to 
limited  spots  on  the  head,  when  rheumatic  headaches  are  felt  It 
gives  instantaneous  relief.  The  application  is  from  £  minute  to  1£ 
minutes,  and  the  skin  is  rendered  white  and  hard  by  the  applications. 

To  CURE  A  COLD. — Before  retiring  soak  the  feet  in  mustard  water1] 
as  hot  as  can  be  endured,  the  feet  should  at  first  be  plunged  in  a  pail 
Jxalf  full  of  lukewarm  water,  adding  by  degrees  very  hot  water  until 
tlxe  desired  heat  is  attained,  protecting  the  body  and  knees  withy 
blankets  so  to  direct  the  vapor  from  the  water  as  to  induce  a  good 
sweat.  Next,  to  2  table  spoonfuls  of  boiling  water,  add  1  table  spoonful 
of  white  sugar  and  14  drops  of  strong  spirits  of  camphor.  Drink  the 
whole  and  cuddle  in  bed  under  plenty  of  bedclothes  and  sleep  it  off. 

REMEDY  FOR  CONSUMPTION.— The  following  is  said  to  be  an  effectual 
remedy,  and  will  in  time  completely  cure  the  disorder.  Live  temper- 
ately, avoid  spirituous  liquors,  wear  flannel  next  the  skin,  and  take, 


MEDICAL   DEPARTMENT,   ETC.  **# 

«er«ry  morning,  half  a  pint  of  new  milk,  mixed  with  a  wine  glassful 
•of  the  expressed  j  uice  of  green  horehound.    One  who  has  tried  it  says, 
"*'  Four  weeks'  use  of  the  norehound  and  milk  relieved  the  pains  of  my  <• 
breast,  gave  me  ability  to  breathe  deep,  long  and  free,  strengthened* 
.and  harmonized  my  voice  and  restored  ine  to  a  better  state  of  health, , 
than  I  had  enjoyed  for  years." 

TRICHINA  is  the  term  applied  to  a  minute,  slender,  and  transparent 
worm,  scarcely  l-20th  of  an  inch  hi  length,  which  has  recently  beeu 
discovered  to  exist  naturally  in  the  muscles  of  swine,  and  is  frequently 
transferred  to  the  human  stomach  when  pork  is  used  as  food.  Enough 
'of  these  filthy  parasites  have  been  detected  in  half  a  pound  of  pork 
to  engender  30,000,000  more,  the  females  being  very  prolific,  each  giv- 
ing birth  to  from  60  to  100  young,  and  dying  soon  after.  The  young 
thread-like  worm  at  first  ranges  freely  through  the  stomach  and  in- 
testines, remaining  for  a  short  time  within  the  lining  membrane  of  the 
mtestines,  causing  irritation,  diarrhoea,  and  sometimes  death,  if 
present  in  sufficient  numbers.  As  they  become  stronger,  they  begin 
to  penetrate  the  walls  of  the  intestines  in  order  to  effect  a  lodgment  iu 
the  voluntary  muscles,  causing  intense  muscular  pain  and  severe  en- 
during cramps,  and  sometimes  tetanic  symptons.  After  4  weeks  migra- 
tion they  encyst  themselves  permanently  on  the  muscular  fibre,  and 
fcegin  to  secrete  a  delicate  sac  which  gradually  becomes  calcareous. 
In  this  torpid  state  they  remain  during  the  person's  lifetime. 

REMEDY  FOB  DIPHTHERIA.— The  treatment  consists  In  thoroughly 
•*wabbing  the  back  of  the  mouth  ?.nd  throat  with  a  wash  made  thus  : 
Table  salt,  2  drams ;  black  pepper,  golden  seal,  nitrate  of  potash, 
-alum,  1  dram  each  ;  mix  and  pulverize  ;  put  into  a  teacup  half  full  of 
water  ;  stir  well,  and  then  fill  up  with  good  vinegar.  Use  every  half 
hour,  one,  two,  and  four  hours,  as  recovery  progresses.  The  patient 
may  swallow  a  little  each  time.  Apply  1  oz.  each  of  spirits  turpentine, 
-.sweet  oil,  and  aqua-ammonia,  mixed,  every  hour  to  the  whole  of  the 
-throat,  and  to  tne  breast  bone  every  four  hours,  keeping  flannel  to 
the  part 

HOLLO  WAY'S  OINTMENT  AND  PILLS. — Butter,  22  oz.  ;  beeswax.  3 
-oz.  ;  yellow  rosin,  3  oz.  ;  melt ;  add  vinegar  of  cantharides,  1  oz.  ; 
-evaporate ;  and  add  Canada  balsam,  1  oz.  ;  oil  of  mace,  £  dram ; 
balsam  of  Peru,  15  drops.  Pills :  Aloes,  4  parts  ;  myrrt,  jalap,  and 
•ginger,  of  each  2  parts  ;  mucilage  to  mix. 

ABERNETHY'S  PILLS.— Each  pill  contains  2  grams  of  blue  pill  and 
3  grains  compound  extract  of  colocynth. 

WORM  LOZENGES. — Powdered  lump  sugar,  10  oz.  ;  staecn  5  oz.  ; 
mix  with  mucilage ;  and  to  every  ounce  add  12  grain  calomel ; 
divide  in  20  grain  lozenges.  Dose,  two  to  six. 

SOOTHING  SYRUP. — Alcohol,  oil  of  peppermint,  castor  oil,  of  each, 
'  1  oz.  ;  mix  ;  add  oil  of  anise,  £  dram  ;  magnesia,  60  grains  ;  pulv*- 
;rized  ginger,  40  grains ;  water,  2  oz.  ;  white  sugar  to  form  a  syrup. 

SOOTHING  SYRUP. — Take  1  Ib.  of  honey  ;  add  2  tablesp^onfuls  of 
paregoric,  and  the  same  of  oil  of  anise  seed  ;  add  enough  water  to 
make  a  thick  syrup,  and  bottle.  For  children  teething,  dose,  tea- 
spoonful  occasionally. 

INFANT'S  SYRUP.— The  syrup  is  made  thus  :  1  Ib.  best  box  raisins  ; 
j  ounce  of  anise  seed  ;  two  sticks  licorice  ;  split  the  raisins,  pound  tb« 
anise  seed,  and  cut  the  licorice  fine  ;  add  to  it  3  quarts  of  *ai»  water, 


150  MEDICAL   DEPARTMENT,   ETC. 

and  boil  down  to  2  quarts.  Feed  three  or  four  times  a  day,  as  mudi 
as  the  child  will  willingly  drink.  The  raisins  strengthen,  the  anise 
expels  the  wind,  and  the  licorice  is  a  physic. 

BRANDRETH'S  PILLS. — Take  2  Ibs.  of  aloes,  1  Ib.  of  gamboge,  4  oz. 
of  extract  of  colocynth,  ^  Ib.  of  Castile  soap,  3  fluid  drams  of  oil  of 
peppermint,  and  1  fluid  dram  of  cinnamon.  Mix,  and  form  into 
pills. 

DAVIS'  PAIN  KILLER  IMPROVED. — Powdered  guaiac  20  Ibs.  ;  cam- 
phor, 2  Ibs.  ;  powdered  cayenne  pepper,  6  Ibs.  ;  caustic  liquor  oi, 
ammonia,  1  Ib.  ;  powdered  opium,  ^  Ib.  ;  digest  these  ingredients  in 
32  gals,  alcohol  for  two  weeks,  and  filter. 

COMPOUND  SYRUP  OF  HYPOPHOSPHITES  AND  IRON.— Dissolve  25(5 
grs.  each  of  hypophosphites  of  soda,  lime  and  potassa,  and  126  grs. 
nypophosphite  of  iron,  in  12  oz.  water,  by  a  water  bath.  Filter  and 
add  sufficient  water  to  make  up  for  the  evaporation.  Add  18  ozs. 
sugar  by  gentle  heat,  to  make  21  fluid  ozs.  syrup.  Each  fluid  oz.  con- 
tains 12  grs.  each  of  the  hypophosphites  of  soda,  lime  and  potassa,  and 
six  grs.  hypophosphite  of  iron. 

CURE  FOB  DRUNKENNESS. — Warrantee  ..  certain  Remedy.  Confine 
the  patient  to  his  room,  furnish  him  with  his  favorite  liquor  of  dis- 
cretion, diluted  with  §  of  water,  as  much  wine,  beer,  coffee  and  tea  as 
he  desires,  but  containing  J  of  spirit ;  all  the  food — the  bread,  meat 
and  vegetables  steeped  in  spirit  and  water.  On  the  fifth  day  of  this- 
treatment  he  has  an  extreme  disgust  for  spirit,  being  continually 
drunk.  Keep  up  this  treatment  till  he  no  longer  desires  to  eat  or 
drink,  and  the  cure  is  certain. 

FAHNESTOCK'S  VERMIFUGE. — Castor  oil,  oil  of  worm  seed,  each  1 
oz.  ;  oil  anise,  £  oz.  ;  tincture  myrrh,  £  dram ;  oil  turpentine,  10 
minims.  Mix. 

SWAIM'S  VERMIFUGE.— Wormseed,  2  oz.  ;  valerian,  rhubarb,  pink- 
root,  white  agaric,  of  each  1£  oz.  ;  boil  in  sufficient  water  to  yield  & 
quarts  of  decoction  ;  and  add  to  it  10  drops  of  oil  of  tansy  and  45 
drops  of  oil  of  cloves,  dissolved  in  a  quart  of  rectified  spirits.  Dose, 

1  tablespoonf  ul  at  night. 

AYER'S  CHERRY  PECTORAL.— Take  4  grains  of  acetate  of  morphia ; 

2  fluid  drams  of  tincture  of  bloodroot  ;  3  fluid  drams  each  of  anti- 
monial  wine  and  wine  of  ipecacuanha,  and  3  fluid  oz.  of  syrup  ot 
•wild  cherry.    Mix. 

SPASMS. — Acetate  of  morphia,  1  gr.  spirit  of  sal  volatile,  1  oz.  sul- 
phuric ether,  1  oz.  camphor  julep,  4  ozs.  Mix.  Dose,  1  teaspoonful 
in  a  glass  of  cold  water,  or  wine,  as  required.  Keep  closely  corked, 
and  shake  well  before  using. 

RAD  WAY' s  READY  RELIEF.— According  to  Peckolt,  is  an  ethereal 
tincture  of  capsicum,  with  alcohol  and  camphor. 

RADWAY'S  RENOVATING  RESOLVENT.— A  vinous  tincture  of  ginger 
and  cardamon,  sweetened  with  sugar. 

AYER'S  SARSAPARILLA.— Take  3  fluid  ozs.  each  of  alcohol,  fluid 
Kextracts  of  sarsparilla  and  of  stillingia  ;  2  fluid  ozs.  each,  extract  of 
jfyellow-dock  and  of  podophyllin,  1  oz.  sugar,  90  grs.  iodide  of 
•"potassium,  and  10  grs.  iodide  of  iron. 

'  BROWN'S  BRONCHIAL  TROCHES. — Take  1  Ib.  of  pulverized  extract 
of  licorice  ;  1^  Ib.  of  pulverized  sugar  ;  4  oz  of  pulverized  cubebs  ;; 
4  CMS.  pulverized  gum  arable  ;  1  oz.  of  pulverized  extract  conium. 


MEDICAL   DEPARTMENT,   ETC.  15 J 

BTTSSTA  SALVE.— Take  equal  parts  of  yellow  wax  and  swoet  ofl ; 
melt  slowly,  carefully  stirring  ;  when  cooling,  stir  in  a  small  quantity 
of  glycerine.  Good  for  all  kinds  of  wounds,  &c. 

DENTISTS'  COMPOSITION  FOR  FILLING  DECAYED  TEETH. — Gold,  1 
part ;  mercury,  8  parts  ;  incorporated  by  heating  together ;  when 
mixed  pour  them  into  cold  water.  Or,  tinfoil  and  quicksilver  ;  melt 
together  in  a  convenient  vessel,  take  a  small  quantity,  knead  it  in  the  v 
palm  of  the  hand,  and  apply  quick.  Or,  mix  a  little  finely-powdered  I 
glass  with  some  mineral  succedaneum  ;  apply  as  usual.  Or,  take 
some  mineral  succedaueum,  and  add  some  steel  dust.  Or,  mineral 
succedaneum  mixed  with  levigated  porcelain  or  china.  Or,  gypsum, 
1  part ;  levigated  porcelain,  1  part ;  levigated  iron  filings,  1  part ; 
make  into  a  paste  with  equal  parts  of  quick-drying  cop.il  and  mastic: 
Tarnish.  Or,  quicksilver,  40  grains  ;  steel  filings,  26  grains.  Or,  sil- 
Ter,  72  parts  ;  tin,  20  parts  ;  zinc,  6  parts.  Better  than  any,  pure 
gold,  1  part ;  silver,  3  parts  ;  tin,  2  parts  ;  melt  the  first  two,  add  the- 
tin,  reduce  all  to  a  fine  powder,  use  with  an  equal  quantity  of  pur* 
mercury. 

Gutta-percha,  softened  by  heat,  is  recommended.  Dr.  Rollfs  ad- 
vises melting  a  piece  of  caoutchouc  at  the  end  of  a  wire,  and  intro- 
ducing it  while  warm. 

Amalgams  for  the  teeth  are  made  with  gold  or  silver,  and  quick- 
silver, the  excess  of  the  latter  being  squeezed  out,  and  the  stiff  amal- 
gam used  warm.  Inferior  kinds  are  made  with  quicksilver  and  tin, 
or  zinc.  A  popular  nostrum  of  this  kind  consists  of  40  grains  of 
dtu'cksilver  and  20  of  fine  zinc  filings,  mixed  at  the  time  of  using. 
The  following  is  said  to  be  the  most  lasting  and  least  objectionable 
amalgam  :  Melt  2  parts  of  tin  with  1  of  cadmium,  run  it  into  an  in- 
g^t,  and  reduce  it  to  filings.  Form  these  into  a  fluid  amalgam  with. 
TOercury,  and  squeeze  out  the  excess  of  mercury  through  leather: 
Work  up  the  solid  residue  in  the  hand,  and  press  it  into  the  tooth. 
Another  cement  consists  of  about  73  parts  of  silver,  21  of  tin,  and  6 
of  zinc,  amalgamated  with  quicksilver.  Beyond  all  doubt,  gold  foil 
is  the  best  filling  in  use. 

POUDRE  METALLIQUE.— The  article  sold  under  this  name  in  Paris 
appears  to  be  an  amalgam  of  silver,  me  %cury,  and  ammonium,  with 
an  excess  of  mercury,  which  is  pressed  out  before  using  it. 

To  EXTRACT  TEETH  WITH  LITTLE  OR  NO  PAIN. — Tincture  of  aco- 
nite, chloroform,  and  alcohol,  of  each  1  oz.  ;  mix;  moisten  two  pled- 
gets of  cotton  with  the  liquid,  and  apply  to  the  gums  on  each  side  of 
the  tooth  to  be  extracted,  uolding  them  in  their  place  with  pliers  or 
other  instruments  for  from  five  to  ten  minutes,  rubbing  the  gum  free- 
ly inside  and  out. 

TOOTH  WASH— To  REMOVE  BLACKNESS.— Pure  muriatic  acid,  1  ox.} 
water,  1  oz.  ;  honey,  2  oz.  ;  mix.  Take  a  tooth-brush,  and  wet  it 
freely  with  this  preparation,  and  briskly  rub  the  black  teeth,  and  in 
a  moment's  time  they  will  be  perfectly  white  ;  then  immediately 
wash  out  the  mouth  with  water,  that  the  acid  may  not  act  upon  the 
enamel  of  the  teeth. 

DENTISTS'  NERVE  PASTE. — Arsenic,  1  part;  rose  pink,  2  parts.  To 
destroy  the  nerve,  apply  this  preparation  on  a  pledget  of  cotton,  pre« 
viously  moistened  with  creosote,  to  the  cavity  of  the  tooth,  let  it  r^ 
main  4  hours,  then  wash  out  thoroughly  with  water.  Another*— 


152  MEDICAL   DEPARTMENT,    ETC. 

Areenons  acid,  30  grs. ;  acetate  of  morphia,  20  grs. ;  creosote,  q.  a.  fot 
paste.    Mix. 

ALLOYS  FOB  DENTIST'S  MOULDS  AND  DIES. — 1.  Tin,  very  hard. — Tin, 
16  parts;  antimony,  1  part;  zinc,  1  part;  2.  Tin,  softer  than  the  last. 
Tin,  8  parts;  zinc,  1  part;  antimony,  1  part;  3.  Copper  Alloy,  very 
ftard— Tin,  12  parts;  antimony,  2  parts;  copper,  1  part;  4.  Cadmium 
A  Alloy,  about  the  hardness  of  zinc.— Tin,  10  parts;  antimony,  1  partjj 
cadmium,  1  part. 

DENTISTS'  EMERY  WHEELS.— Emery,  4  Ibs. ;  shellac,  $  Ib.  ;  melt 
the  shellac  over  a  slow  fire  ;  stir  in  the  emery,  and  pour  into  a  mould 
•of  plaster  of  Paris.  When  cold  it  is  ready  for  use. 

BASE  FOB  ARTIFICIAL  TEETH. — PROPORTIONS. — India-rubber,  1 
Ib.  ;  sulphur,  £  Ib.  ;  vermillion,  1  Ib.  4  oz. 

NITROUS  OXIDE,  OR  LAUGHING  GAS. — Take  two  or  three  ounces  of 
•nitrate  of  ammonia  in  crystals  and  put  it  into  a  retort,  taking  car® 
that  the  heat  does  not  exceed  500°  ;  when  the  crystals  begin  to  melt, 
the  gas  will  be  produced  in  considerable  quantities.  The  gas  may 
«lso  be  procured,  though  not  so  pure,  by  pouring  nitric  acid,  diluted 
irith  five  or  six  times  its  weight  of  water,  on  copper  filings  or  small 
pieces  of  tin.  The  gas  is  given  out  till  the  acid  begins  to  turn  brown ; 
the  process  must  then  be  stopped 

To  INHALE  THE  LAUGHING  GAS. — Procure  an  oiled  or  varnished  . 
«ilk  bag,  or  a  bladder,  furnished  with  a  stop-cock,  into  the  mouth,  and 
at  the  same  time  hold  the  nostrils,  and  the  sensation  produced  will  be 
of  a  highly  pleasing  nature  ;  a  great  propensity  to  laughter,  a  rapid 
•flow  of  vivid  ideas,  and  an  unusual  fitness  for  muscular  exertion,  are 
the  ordinary  feelings  which  it  produces.  The  sensations,  produced  by 
"breathing  this  gas,  are  not  the  same  in  all  persons,  but  they  are  of  an 
agreeable  nature,  and  not  followed  by  any  depression  of  spirits  like 
those  occasioned  by  fermented  liquors. 

MAGNETIC  PAIN  KILLER,  FOR  TOOTHACHE  AND  ACUTE  PAIN. — Lau- 
dnum  1  dr.  gum  camphor  4  drs.  oil  of  cloves  ^  dr.  oil  of  lavender  1  dr. 
add  then  to  1  oz.  alcohol,  6  drs.  sulphuric  ether,  and  5  fluid  drs. 
chloroform.  Apply  with  lint,  or  for  toothache  rub  on  the  gums,  and 
upon  the  face  against  the  teeth. 

CURE  FOR  LOCK  JAW,  SAID  TO  BE  POSITIVE.— Let  any  one  who  hag 
an  attack  of  lock  jaw  take  a  small  quantity  of  spirits  of  turpentine, 
•warm  it,  and  pour  it  on  the  wound — no  matter  where  the  wound  is,  or 
-what  its  nature  is— and  relief  will  follow  in  less  than  one  minute. 
Turpentine  is  also  a  sovereign  remedy  for  croup.  Saturate  a  piece  of 
flannel  with  it,  and  place  the  flannel  on  the  throat  and  chest— and  in 
very  severe  cases  three  to  five  drops  on  a  lump  of  sugar  may  be 
taken  internally. 

NEW  METHOD  OF  EMBALMING. — Mix  together  5  pounds  dry  sul- 
phate of  alumine,  1  quart  of  warm  water,  and  100  grains  of  arsenious 
acid.  Inject  3  or  4  quarts  of  this  mixture  into  all  the  vessels  of  the 
human  body.  This  applies  as  well  to  all  animals,  birds,  fisLes,  &c. 
This  process  supersedes  the  old  and  revolting  mode,  and  has  been  in- 
troduced into  the  great  anatomical  schools  of  Paris. 

NITRATE  OF  SILVER. — Pure  silver,  li  oz.  ;  nitric  acid,  1  oz.  diluted 
with  water,  2  oz.  ;  heat  by  a  sand-bath  until  ebullition  ceases,  and 
the  water  is  expelled  then  pour  into  moulds.  This  substance  moat 
be  kept  from  the  light 


MEDICAL    DEPARTMENT,    ETC.  153 

SHAMPOO  COMPOUND.— Mix  borax  |  Ib.  with  salts  tar 
tar  i  Ib.  and  dissolve  1  oz.  of  the  mixture  in  1  pt  water. 

CLIFFORD'S  HAIR  DYE. — No  1.  Pyrogallic  acid  1  oz.  ;  water  1  qt. 
No  2.  Nitrate  of  silver  1  oz.  ;  water  4  ozs.  ;  ammonia  1  oz.  Keep 
your  materials  free  from  grease,  cool,  and  in  the  dark.  Apply  each 
Ko.  alternately  to  the  hair,  first  cleaning  the  hair  well. 

BAY  RUM.— French  proof  spirit  1  gal.  ext.  Bay  6  ozs.  Mix  and  color 
^rith  caramel,  needs  no  filtering. 

HAIR  INVIGORATOR.— Bay  rum,  2  pints  ;  alcohol,  1  pint ;  castor 
oil,  1  oz.  ;  carb.  ammonia,  ^  oz.  ;  tincture  of  cantharides,  1  oz.  Mix 
them  well.  This  compound  will  promote  the  growth  of  the  hair, 
and  prevent  it  from  failing  out. 

RAZOR-STROP  PASTE. — Wet  the  strop  with  a  little  sweet  oil,  and 
apply  a  little  flour  of  emery  evenly  over  the  surface. 

OIL  OF  ROSES. — Olive  oil,  1  Ib. ;  otto  of  roses,  50  drops ;  oil  of 
rosemary,  25  drops;  mix.  Another,  roses  (hardly  opened)  12  oz.; 
olive  oil,  10  oz.,  beat  them  together  in  a  mortar ;  let  them  remain 
for  a  few  days,  then  express  the  oil. 

BALM  OF  BEAUTY.— Pure  soft  water,  1  qt  ;  pulverized  Castile 
«oap,  4  oz.  ;  emulsion  of  bitter  almonds,  6  oz.  ;  rose  and  orange 
flower  water,  of  each,  8  oz. ;  tincture  of  benzoin,  2  drs.  ;  borax,  1 
dr. ;  add  5  grs.  bichloride  of  mercury  to  every  8  oz.  of  the  mix- 
ture. To  use,  apply  on  a  cotton  or  linen  cloth  to  the  face,  &c. 

ORIENTAL  COLD  CREAM.-- Oil  of  almonds,  4  oz. ;  white  wax  and 
epermaceti,  of  each,  2  drs.  ;  melt,  and  add  rose  water,  4  oz.  ;  orange 
flower  water,  1  oz.  ;  used  to  soften  the  skin,  apply  as  the  Last. 

SHAVING  CREAM. — White  wax,  spermaceti,  almond  and  oil,  of 
each  £  oz.  :  melt,  and  while  warm,  beat  in  2  squares  of  Windsor 
*oap  previously  reduced  to  a  paste  with  rose  water. 

CIRCASSIAN  CREAM. — Take  2  ounces  of  perfectly  fresh  suet,  either 
mutton  or  venison ;  3  ounces  of  olive  oil ;  1  oz.  gum  benzoine  in 
powder,  and  £  oz.  of  alkanet  root.  Put  the  whole  into  a  jam  jar, 
which,  if  without  a  lid,  must  be  tied  over  with  a  bladder,  and  place 
the  jar  in  a  sauce  pan  containing  boiling  water,  at  the  side  of  the 
fire.  Digest  for  a  whole  day,  then  strain  away  all  that  is  fluid 
through  fine  muslin,  and  stir  till  nearly  cold.  Add,  say  1  dram  of 
essence  of  almonds,  roses,  bergamot  or  any  other  perfume  desired. 

FRECKLE  CURE.— Take  2  oz.  lemon  juice,  or  half  a  dram  of 
powdered  borax,  and  one  dram  of  sugar  ;  mix  together,  and  let 
them  stand  in  a  glass  bottle  for  a  few  days,  then  rub  on  the  fac« 
occasionally. 

YANKEE  SHAVING  SOAP.— Take  3  Ibs.  white  bar  soap;  1  Ib.  Castile 
soap;  1  quart  rain  water;  ^  pt.  beef's  gall;  1  gill  spirits  of  turpen- 
tine. Cut  the  soap  into  thin  slices,  and  boil  five  minutes  after  the 
soap  is  dissolved,  stir  while  boiling  ;  scent  with  oil  of  rose  or 
almonds.  If  wished  to  color  it,  use  ^  oz  vermilion. 

BLOOM  OF  YOUTH.— Boil  1  ounce  of  Brazil  wood  in  3  pints  of 
water  for  15  minutes  ;  strain.  Add  f  oz.  isinglass,  £  oz.  cochi- 
neal, 1  oz.  alum,  ^  oz.  borax.  Dissolve  by  heat,  and  strain. 

COLOGNE  WATER. — Oils  of  rosemary  and  lemon,  of  each  £  oz. ; 
oils  of  bergamot  and  lavender,  each  f  oz. ;  oil  cinnamon,  8  drops  ; 
oils  of  cloves  and  rose,  each  15  drops  ;  best  deodorized  alcohol,  2  qts. ; 
ahake  two  or  three  times  per  day  for  a  week. 


154  MEDICAL   DEPARTMENT,   ETC. 

We  prqpose  to  give  the  formula  for  the  following  preparation^ 
and  shall  commence  with  what  is  said  to  be 

BOGLE'S  HYPERION  FLUID. — To  8  oz.  of  90  or  95  per  cent,  alcohol,, 
colored  red  with  alkanet,  add  1  oz.  of  castor  oil :  perfume  with1 
geranium  and  verbena. 

LYON'S  KATHAIRON. — To  8  oz.  of  80  per  cent,  alcohol,  colored 
yellow  by  a  few  drops  extract  of  annatto,  add  2  oz.  castor  oil,  and 
I>erfume  with  a  little  bergamot. 

PHALON'S  HAIR  RESTORATIVE. — To  8  oz.  of  90  per  cent,  alcohol, 
colored  by  a  few  drops  tincture  of  alkanet  root,  add  1  oz.  of  cas* 
tor  oil,  and  perfume  with  a  compound  of  bergamot,  neroli,  verbena, 
and  orange. 

MRS.  ALLEN'S. — To  16  oz.  of  rose  water,  diluted  with  an  equal 
part  of  salt  water,  add  \  oz.  of  sulphur  and  £  oz.  of  sugar  of  lead  ; 
let  the  compound  stand  five  days  before  using. 

BATCHELO&'S  HAIR-DYE. — Xo.  1.  Tol  oz.  of  pyro-gallic  acid,  dis- 
solved in  1  oz.  alcohol,  add  1  qt.  of  soft  water.  No.  2.  To  1  oz.  nitrate 
of  cilver,  dissolved  in  1  oz.  of  concentrated  ammonia,  add  4  oz.  of 
soft  water.  Apply  each  No.  alternately,  with  separate  brushes,  to  the 
Lair.  4 

CHRIST ADORO'S  HAIR-DYE. — No.  1.  To  1  oz.  of  pyre-gallic  acid,  dis- 
solved in  1  oz.  alcohol,  add  1  qt.  soft  water.  No.  2.  To  1  oz.  crys- 
tallized nitrate  of  silver,  dissolved  in  1  oz.  concentrated  aqua^ 
ammonia  and  1  oz.  soft  water,  add  \  oz.  gum  arabic  and  3  oz.  soft 
water.  Keep  covered  from  the  light. 

PHALON'S  INSTANTANEOUS  HAIR-DYE. — Xo.  1.  To  1.  oz.  pyro- 
gallic  acid,  and  £  oz.  of  taunia,  dissolved  in  2  oz.  of  alcohol,  add  i  qt. 
cf  soft  water.  No.  2.  To  1  oz.  crj-stallized  nitrate  of  silver,  dissolved 
in  1  oz.  concentrated  aqua-ammonia,  add  1  oz.  gum  arabic,  and  14 
oz.  soft  water.  Keep  in  the  dark. 

HARRISON'S. — No.  1.  To  1  oz.  pyro-gallic  acid,  1  oz.  of  tannia  dis- 
'  eolved  in  2  oz.  alcohol,  add  1  qt.  soft  water.  No.  2.  To  1  oz.  crys-* 
tallized  nitrate  of  silver,  dissolved  in  1  oz.  of  concentrated  aqua* 
ammonia,  add  6  oz.  soft  water  and  £  oz.  gum  arabic.  No.  3.  1  oz, 
hydro-sulphate  of  potassa,  dissolved  in  1  qt.  of  soft  water.  Thig 
last  ingredient  is  intended  to  produce  a  deep  black  color  if  th& 
others  should  fail.  Keep  away  from  the  light. 

PHALON'S  (ONE  PREPARATION.) — To  1  oz.  crystallized  nitrate  ol 
silver,  dissolved  in  2  oz.  of  aqua-ammonia,  add  5  oz.  soft  water. 
This  is  not  an  instantaneous  dye  ;  but  after  exposure  to  the  light 
and  air,  a  dark  color  is  produced  upon  the  surface  to  which  it 
is  applied.  Remember  to  remove  all  grease,  &c.,  from  the  hair  before- 
applying  these  dyes. 

PROFESSOR  WOOD'S. — To  8  oz.  vinegar,  diluted  with  an  equal 
part  of  soft  water,  add  2  drs.  sulphur,  and  2  drs.  sugar  of  lead. 

ALPINE  HAIR-BALM. — To  16  oz.  of  soft  water  add  8  oz.  of  alcohol 
.and  i  oz.  spirits  turpentine,  £  oz.  sulphur,  and  £  oz.  sugar  of  lead. 
1    GLYCERINE  PREPARATION. — New  rum,  1  qt.  ;  concentrated  spirits. 
"of  ammonia,   15  drops  ;  glycerine  oil,  1  oz.  ;  lac  sulphur,  5^  drs.  ; 
BUgar  of  lead,  5^  drs. ;  put  the  liquor  into  a  bottle,  add  the  ammonia, 
then  the  other  components.    Shake  the  compound  occasionally  for 
fcur  or  five  days. 

CRYSTALLINE  CBBAX.— Oil  of  almonds,  8  oz. ;  spermaceti,  1  oz.  t 


MEDICAL   DEPARTMENT,    ETC.  155 

together.  When  a  little  cooled,  add  ^  oz.  or  less  of  essence  of 
bergamot  or  other  perfume  ;  put  into  wide-mouthed  bottles,  and  let 
it  stand  till  cold.  Camphorated  crystalline  cream  may  be  made  by 
using  camphorated  oil  (L.  Camphorw)  instead  of  oil  of  almonds. 

MACASSAB  OIL.— Olive  oil,  1  qt.  ;  alcohol,  2^  pz.  ;  rose  oil,  1^  oz.  ; 
then  tie  1  oz.  of  chipped  alkanet  root  in  a  muslin  bag,  and  put  it  in , 
the  oil,  let  it  alone  for  some  days  till  it  turns  the  color  of  a  pretty 
ted,  then  remove  to  other  oils.  Do  not  press  it. 

Ox  MARROW. — Melt  4  oz.  ox  tallow  ;  white  wax,  1  oz.  ;  fresh  lard, 
€  oz.  ;  when  cold,  add  1^  oz.  oil  of  bergamot. 

BEARS'  OIL. — Use  good  sweet  lard  oil,  1  qt. ;  oil  bergamot,  1^  oz. 

EXTRACT  OF  PATCHOULI.— Mix  1£  oz.  ottur  of  Patchouli,  and  |  oz. 
ctto  of  rose,  with  1  gal.  rectified  spirits. 

SEA  FOAM  FOR  BABBERS.— Alcohol,  4  oz.  ;  castor  oil,  1  oz.  ;  am- 
monia, i  oz.  ;  water,  1  pt.  Dissolve  the  castor  oil  and  ammonia  in 
the  alcohol,  then  add  the  alcohol  mixture  to  the  water. 

PYROGALLIC  HAIR  DYE. — Pyrogallic  acid,  £  oz. ;  dissolve  it  in  hot 
distilled  water  1J  oz. ;  when  the  solution  cools  add  gradually  rectified 
•spirit,  £  fluid  oz. 

FINE  SHAMPOO  LIQUID. — Dissolve  £  oz.  carb.  of  ammonia  and  1  oz, 
of  borax  in  1  qt.  water,  then  add  2  oz.  glycerine,  3  qts.  of  New  Eng- 
land rum,  and  1  qt.  of  bay  rum ;  moisten  the  hair  with  this  liquor, 
shampoo  with  the  hands  until  a  slight  lather  is  formed,  then  wash 
off  with  clean  water. 

BARBER'S  SHAMPOO  MIXTURE.— Soft  water,  1  pt. ;  sal  soda,  1  oz.; 
cream  tartar,  £  oz.  Apply  thoroughly  to  the  hair. 

CHEAP  BAY  RUM.— Saturate  a  £  Ib.  block  of  carb.  of  magnesia 
vith  oil  of  Bay  ;  pulverize  the  magnesia,  place  it  in  a  filter,  and  pour 
vater  through  it  until  the  desired  quantity  is  obtained,  then  add 
alcohol.  The  quantity  of  water  and  alcohol  employed  depends  on 
the  desired  strength  and  quantity  of  the  Bay  rum.  Another — Oil  of 
Bay,  10  fluid  drs.;  oil  of  pimento,  1  fluid  dr.  ;,  acetic  ether,  2  fluid 
•dre. ;  alcohol  3  gals. ;  water,  2^  gals.  Mix,  and  after  2  weeks'  repose, 
filter. 

LIQUID  FOB  FORCING  THE  BEABD. — Cologne,  2  oz. ;  liquid  hartshorn, 
1  dr.  ;  tinct.  cantharides,  2  drs.  ;  oil  rosemary,  12  drops  ;  lavender, 
12  drops.  Apply  to  the  face  daily  and  await  results.  Said  to  be 
reliable. 

COURT  PLASTER. — Brush  silk  over  with  a  solution  of  isinglass,  in 
tpirits  or  warm  water,  dry  and  repeat  several  times.  For  the  last 
application  apply  several  coats  of  balsam  of  Peru.  Used  to  close 
cuts  or  wounds,  by  warming  it  and  applying.  It  does  not  wash 
off  until  the  skin  partially  heals. 

BALM  OF  A  THOUSAND  FLOWERS.— Deodorized  alcohol,  Ipt.  ;  nice 
•white  bar  soap,  4  oz.  ;  shave  the  soap  when  put  in,  stand  in  a  warm/ 
place  till  dissolved  ;  then  add  oil  of  citron ella,  1  dr.,  and  oils  oft 
neroli  and  rosemary,  of  each  £  dr. 

NEW  YORK  BARBERS'  STAB  HAER  OIL.— Caster  oilGfc  pts. ;  alcohol, 
1£  pts.  ;  citron  ella  and  lavender  oil,  each  £  oz. 

FRAKGIPANXI.— Spirits,  1  gal.  ;  oil  bergamot,  1  oz.  :  oil  of  lemon, 
1  oz.  ;  macerate  for  4  days,  frequently  snaking  ;  then  add  water,  1 
gal. ;  orange-flower  water,  1  pint,  essence  of  vanilla,  2  oz.  Mix. 

JOCKEY  CLUB,— Spirits  of  wine,  5  gal.  ;  orange-flower  water,  1 , 


156  MED10AL    DEPARTMENT,    ETC. 

gal.  ;  "balsam  of  Peru,  4  oz.  ;  essence  of  bergamot,  8  oz.  ;  essence 
of  musk,  8  oz.  ;  essence  of  cloves,  4  oz.  ;  essence  of  neroli,  2  oz, 

LADIES'  OWN. — Spirits  of  wine,  1  gal. ;  otto  of  roses,  20  drops  -, 
essence  of  thyme,  ^  oz.  ;  essence  of  neroli,  £  oz.  ;  essence  of  vanilla, 
^  oz. ;  essence  of  bergamot,  4  oz.  ;  orange-flower  water,  6  oz. 

Kiss  ME  QUICK. — Spirit,  1  gal.  ;  essence  of  thyme,  |  oz.  ;  essenca 
of  orange-flowers,  2  oz. ;  essence  neroli,  ^  oz.  ;  otto  of  roses,  30  drops; 
essence  of  jasmine,  1  or,. ;  essence  of  balm  mint  ^  oz. ;  petals  of  roses. 
4  oz. ;  oil  lemon,  20  drops ;  calorus  aromaticus,  ^  oz. ;  essence  neroli,  $ 
voz.  Mix  and  strain. 

UPPER  TEN.— Spirits  of  wine,  4  qts.  ;  essence  of  cedrat,  2  drs.  ; 
essence  of  violets,  J  oz. ;  essence  of  neroli,  ^  oz.  ;  otto  of  roses,  20 
drops  ;  orange-flower  essence,  1  oz. ;  oil  of  rosemary,  30  drops  ;  oils 
l>ergamot  and  neroli,  each  i  oz. 

INDIA  CHOLAGOGUE. — Quinine,  20  grs. ;  Peruvian  bark,  pulverized, 

1  oz.  ;  sulphuric  acid,  15  drops,  or  1  scruple  of  tartaric  acid  is  best ; 
"bi-andy,  1  gill ;  water  to  make  one  pint ;  dose,  5  teaspoonf  uls  every 

2  hours,  In  the  absence  of  fever  ;  an  excellent  remedy. 
FEBRIFUGE  WINE. — Quinine,  25  grs.  ;  water,  1  pint ;  sulphuric 

acid,  13  drops  ;  epsom  salts,  2  oz. ;  colo*  with  tincture  of  red  sanders. 
Dose,  a  wine  glass  3  times  per  day.  This  is  a  world-renowned  med- 
icine. 

BARRELL'S  INDIAN  LINIMENT. — Alcohol,  1  qt. ;  tincture  of  cap- 
gicum,  1  oz. ;  oil  of  origanum,  sassafras,  pennyroyal,  and  hemlock,  of 
each  £  oz.  Mix.  , 

GOD  LIVER  OIL,  as  usually  prepared,  is  nothing  more  orlessthan  cod 
oil  clarified,  by  which  process  it  is  in  fact  deprived  in  a  great  measure 
of  its  virture.  Cod  oil  can  be  purchased  from  any  wholesale  oil  deal- 
er for  one  thirtieth  part  of  the  price  of  cod  liver  oil  as  usually  sold> 
and  it  is  easy  to  clarify  it.  Dealers  might  turn  this  information  to 
.^ood  account.  To  make  it  more  palatable  and  digestible,  put  1  oz.  of 
"fine  table  salt  to  each  quart  bottle. 

COD  LIVER  OIL. — The  first  livers  are  placed  in  a  jacketed  pai> 
heated  by  steam,  and  when  the  oil  is  separated  from  the  scraps  it  is 
passed  through  felt  bags  until  it  is  perfectly  clear.  To  remove  a  por- 
tion of  the  stearine,  it  is  subjected  to  refrigerating  mixtures  in  the 
cummer,  and  the  incongealable  portion  is  drawn  off  and  placed  in 
•bottles, 

PAREGORIC.— Best  opium,  $  dr. ;  dissolve  in  about  2  tablespopnfuls 
of  boiling  water ;  then  add  benzoic  acid  \  dr. ;  oil  of  anise,  %  a  fluid  dr. ; 
clarified  honey,  1  oz. ;  camphor  gum,  I  scruple;  alcohol,  76  per  cent., 
11  fluid  oz.  ;  distilled  water,  4  fluid  oz.  ;  macerate  (keep  warm)  for 
two  weeks.  Dose  for  children,  5  to  20  drops;  adults  ;  1  to  2  tea- 
'  spoonfuls. 

COUGH  SYRUP.— put  1  qt.  horehound  tea,  1  qt.  of  water,  and  boil 
it  dDwn  to  1  pt.  ;  add  2  or  3  sticks  licorice  ;  2  oz.  syrup  of  squills,  and 
a  tablespoonf ul  essence  of  lemon.  Take  a  tablespoonful  3  times  a  day 
or  as  the  cough  requires. 

COUGH  SYRUP. — Syrup  of  squills,  2  oz.  ;  tartarized  antimony,  8 

grs.  ;  sulphate  of  morphine,  5  grs. ;  pulverized  arabic,  £  oz.  ;  honey, 

1  oz. ;  water,  1  oz. ;  mix.    Dose  for  an  adult,  1  small  teaspoonful;  re*- 

peat  in  half  an  hour  if  it  does  not  relieve  :  child  in  proportion. 

'     VEGETABLE  SUBSTITUTE  FOB  CALOMEL.— Jalap,  1  oz.  senna,  2  oz.  - 


MEDICAL    DEPARTMENT,   ETC.  15? 

peppermint,  1  oz.  (a  little  cinnamon  if  desired),  all  pulverized  and  si£ 
ted  through  gauze.  Dose,  1  teaspoonful  put  in  a  cup  with  2  or  3 
spoonfuls  of  hot  water,  and  a  good  lump  of  white  sugar  ;  wrhen  cool, 
^  drink  all  ;  to  be  taken  fasting  in  the  morning  ;  drink  freely  ;  if  it  does 
;aot  operate  in  3  hours,  repeat  £  the  quantity  ;  use  instead  of  calomel. 
DYNAMIC  POWER  OF  VARIOUS  KINDS  OF  FOOD. — Onelb.,  of  oat- 
meal will  furnish  as  much  power  as  2  Ibs.  of  bread  and  more  than 
3  Ibs  of  lean  veal.  One  lb.,  butter  gives  a  working  force  equal  to 
that  of  9  Ibs.  of  potatoes,  12  Ibs.  of  milk  and  more  than  5  Ibs.  of 
lean  beef.  One  lb.  of  lump  sugar  is  equal  in  force  to  2  Ibs.,  of  ham, 
or  8  Ibs.  of  cabbage.  The  habitual  use  of  spirituous  liquors  is  inimical 
to  health,  and  inevitably  tends  to  shorten  life.  A  mechanic  or  laboring 
man  of  average  size,  requires,  according  to  Moleschott,  23  ozs.,  of  dry 
solid  matter,  daily,  one  fifth  nitrogenous.  Food,  as  usually  prepared, 


nous  matter  4.587  ozs.,  fatty  matter  2.964,  carbo-hydrate  14.250,  salts 
1.058,  total  22.859  ozs.,  for  daily  use.  This  quantity  of  food  will 
vary  greatly  in  the  requirements  of  individuals  engaged  in  sedentary 
employments,  or  of  persons  with  weak  constitutions  or  impaired 
digestion,  as  also  whether  employed  in  the  open  air  or  within  doors 
much  also,  depending  on  the  temperature.  Preference  should  be 
given  to  the  food  which  most  readily  yields  the  materials  required  by 
nature  in  the  formation  of  the  human  frame.  Beef  contains  abouti 
Ibs.  of  such  minerals  in  every  100  Ibs.  Dried  extract  of  beef  con- 
tains 21  Ibs.  in  each  100  Ibs.  Bread  made  from  unbolted  wheat 
flour  is  also  very  rich  in  such  elements,  much  more  so  than  superfine 
flour  ;  hence  the  common  use  of  Graham  bread  for  dyspepsia  and 
other  ailments,  Tho  analysis  of  Liebig,  Johnston,  and  others  give  ia 
100  parts,  the  following  proportions  of  nutritious  elements,  viz., 
Indian  corn,  12.30  barley  14.00,  wheat  14,06,  oats  19.91.  A  ilsh  diet 
is  well  adapted  to  sustain  intellectual,  or  brain  labor.  What  is 
required  may  be  best  known  from  the  fact  that  a  human  body 
weighing  154  Ibs.,  contains,  on  a  rough  estimate,  of  water  14  gals, 
(consisting  of  oxygen  111  Ibs.,  of  hydrogen  14  Ibs.),  carbon  21  Ibs.. 
nitrogen  3  Ibs.  8  ozs.,  calcicum  2  Ibs.,  sodium  2^  ozs.,  phosphorus  if 
Ibs.,  potassium  £  oz.  sulphur  2  ozs.  219  grs.,  fluorine  2  ozs.,  chlorine 
2  ozs.  47  grs.,  iron  100  grs.,  magnesium  12  grs.,  silicon  2  grs.  Alter 
death,  the  human  body  is  by  gradual  decay,  slowly  resolved  into 
these  its  component  parts,  which  elements  are  again  used  in  the 
complex  and  wonderful  laboratory  of  nature,  to  vivify  the  countless 
forms  of  vegetable  life.  These  in  their  turn  fulfil  their  appointed 
law  by  yielding  up  their  substance  for  the  formation  of  other  bodies.  { 
What  a  suggestive  comment  on  mortal  ambition  to  witness  tha 
present  inhabitants  of  Egjpt  engaged  in  what  they  consider  the, 
lucrative  commerce  of  quarrying  out  the  bones  of  the  ancient  iuhab*^ 
itants  from  the  catacombs  where  they  have  been  entombed  for  thou-' 
gands  of  years  and  transporting  them  by  the  ship-load  to  England,  in 
order  to  fertilize  the  cropo  which  are  destined  to  assist  in  forming 
the  bone  and  sinew  of  the  British  nation! 

CURE  FOR  SNAKE  BITES. — The  Inspector  of  Police  in  the  Bengal 
Goverrmeiit  ret>orts  that  o/  939  eases  in  which  ammonia  waa  ireelj 


158  MEDICAL    DEPARTMENT,    ETC. 

administered  207  victims  have  recovered,  and  in  the  cured  instances 
the  remedy  was  not  administered  till  about  3^  hours  after  the  attack, 
on  the  average  of  the  fatal  cases  the  corresponding  duration  of  time 
leas  4^  hours. 

REMEDY  FOR  SMALL  Pox.— Sulphate  of  zinc,  1  gr.,  foxglove 
[digitalis,]  1  gr.,  sugar  ^  teaspoonful.  mix  with  2  teaspoon!' uls  of  water, 
add  4  oz.  of  water,  Dose  1  spoonful  every  hour,  child  hi  proportion. 
From  experience  it  is  known  that  nothing  will  break  up  this  frightful 
disease  sooner  than  continued  and  persevering  bathing,  with  the  water 
at  a  comfortable  temperature. 

RELIABLE  SMALL  Pox  REMEDY.— Tested.—  A  child  9  years  old  wa? 
effectually  cured  of  small  pox  by  administering  15  grs.  sodte  sulphicft 
dissolved  in  milk,  sweetened,  every  3  hours.  The  entire  body  was 
oiled  with  crude  petroleum  applied  by  hand.  Next  morning  the  erup- 
tion was  killed  and  dry ;  and  the  disease  broken  up.  To  prevent  pit- 
ting with  small  pox,  as  soon  as  the  disease  is  distinguished,  apply  aa 
ointment  made  of  lard  and  charcoal  to  the  face,  neck,  hands,  &c. . 
and  continue  until  all  signs  of  supperative  fever  has  ceased.  One 
case  is  worthy  of  notice,  being  that  of  a  gentleman  who  sufferoi 
terribly  for  many  days  with  this  dreadful  disease.  Everything  was 
done  for  him  that  medical  skill  could  suggest,  without  giving  the 
ilightest  relief.  Finally,  as  a  last  resort,  he  was  removed  from  the 
bed  and  placed  in  a  warm  bath:  the  transition  was  so  soothing  and 
delightful  that  he  exclaimed,  ''Oh,  my  God,  I  thank  Thee  for  this 
great  relief! "  In  a  short  time  he  fell  sound  asleep  in  the  bath,  and 
continued  in  this  position  for  many  hours,  the  water  being  renewed 
from  time  to  time  to  keep  up  the  temperature.  The  cure  proved  to 
be  immediate  and  permanent.  Nothing  is  so  conducive  to  nealth  of 
body,  and  the  eradication  of  disease  therefrom,  as  the  intelligent  use 
of  pure  water.  Sir  Astley  Cooper,  being  complimented  on  one 
occasion  for  his  great  skill,  remarked,  that  he  had  "  made  mistake* 
enough  to  fill  a  graveyard,"  but  it  is  scarcely  possible  to  make  a  mis- 
take with  water,  as  no  diseased  person  can  fail  to  derive  benefit  from 
its  use. 

PORTABLE  BATH.— MaKe  a  small  circular  boiler  of  copper  or  tin,  and 
fit  the  same  into  an  upright  tin  stand,  in  which,  directly  under  the 

boiler  lid  must  fit  tightly  and  be  provided  with  three  small  tube* 
pointing  upwards.  The  boiler  being  filled  with  water  and  the  lamp 
lighted,  as  soon  as  the  steam  gets  up,  it  rushes  through  these  tubes, 
and  the  patient,  seated  on  a  cane  chair,  with  'his  or  her  feet  in  a  pan 
of  warm  water,  with  a  suitable  cloak  tightly  fastened  around  the 
neck,  is  speedily  enveloped  in  a  cloud  of  steam.  Ten  minutes  is  the 
time  recommended  for  the  duration  of  the  first  few  baths.  It  may  bo 
afterwards  increased,  but  not  beyond  half  an  hour.  On  getting  out 
of  the  cloak,  plunge  into  a  cold  bath  for  a  few  minutes,  then  rub  the 
ekin  till  it  is  quite  dry  and  glowing  with  a  coarse  to\vel  and  a  pair  of 
good  hair-gloves.  Persons  in  health  or  disease  will  experience  a 
wonderful  recuperative  power  in  the  frequent  use  of  this  bath,  and  all 
will  find  it  incomparably  superior  to  the  use  of  drugs  in  any  form 
whatever.  In  this  connection  a  new  and  very  ingenious  inventiou 
called  SPONGIO  PILINE,  is  deserving  of  favorable  mention.  It  ccra- 
iiste  of  wool  and  small  particles  of  sponge  felted  together, 


MEDICAL   DEPARTMENT,    ETC  159 

to  a  skin  of  India-rubber,  the  -whole  being  about  half  an  inch  in  thick- 
ness, and  of  inestimable  value  as  a  means  of  applying  cold  or  tepid 
•water,  &c.,  to  such  exterior  parts  of  the  human  frame  as  may  be 
nearest  to  the  seat  of  pain  or  disease.  The  water  is  sponged  over  the 
felted  surface,  the  surplus,  if  any,  wiped  off ;  it  is  then  placed  on  the 
ikin,  and  covered  over  with  several  folds  of  bandages,  which  assist  in 
retaining  the  heat  and  moisture,  thus  attracting  healthy  blood  to  the  I 
part,  from  which  nature  selects  such  food  as  is  most  conducive  to  ex- 
pel disease  and  build  up  healthy  tissue. 

FLY  PAPER. — Coat  paper  with  turpentine  varnish,  and  oil  it  to  keep 
the  varnish  from  drying. 

SWEATING  DROPS. — Ipecac.,  saffron,  boneset,  and  camphor  gum, 
of  each,  3  oz. ;  opium,  1  oz. ;  alcohol,  2  qts.  Let  stand  2  weeks  and 
filter.  A  teaspoonf ul  in  a  cup  of  hot  sage  or  catnip  tea  every  hour 
tmtil  free  perspiration  is  induced;  good  in  colds,  fevers,  inflamma- 
tions, &c.  Bathe  the  feet  in  hot  water  at  the  same  time. 

SYRUP  FOR  CONSUMPTIVES. — Of  tamaracbark,  take  from  the  tree, 
without  rossing,  1  peck;  spikenard  root,  \  Ib. ;  dandelion  root,  £  lb.; 
tops,  2  oz.  Boil  these  sufficient  to  get  the  strength  in  2  or  3  gals. 
Water;  strain,  and  boil  down  to  1  gal. ;  when  blood  warm,  add  3  lb&. 
test  honey,  and  3  pints  best  brandy;  bottle  and  keep  in  a  cool  place. 
Dose,  drink  freely  of  it  3  times  per  day  before  meals,  at  least  a  gill  or 
more;  cure  very  certain. 

COMMON  CASTOR  OiL.-'-Pale  vegetable  oil,  1  gal. ;  castor  oil,  3  gals. ; 
mix. 

PULMONTC  "WAFERS.— Lump  sugar,  licorice,  and  starch,  of  each  2 
parts;  gum,  10  parts;  squills  and  ipecacuanha,  of  each  5  parts;  lactu- 
carium,  2  parts.  Mix,  and  divide  into  8  grain  lozenges. 

Sot  JAMES  CLARKE'S  DIARRHCEA  AND  CHOLERA  MIXTURE.-— 
Tinct.  of  opium,  tinct.  of  camphor,  and  spirits  of  turpentine,  of  each  3 
drams;  oil  of  peppermint,  30  drops;  mix.  Dose,  1  teaspoonf  ul  for 
cholera. 

VEGETABLE  OB  COMPOSITION  POWDER. — Fine  bayberry  bark,  1  lb  ; 
ginger  8  oz.,  common  cayenne,  3  oz.,  T^IT.  Dose,  1  teaspoonf  ul  in  a 
eup  of  boiling  water,  sweeten  and  add  milk. 

TINCTURES  are  made  with  1  oz.  of  gum,  root,  or  bark,  &c.,  dried, 
to  each  pint  of  proof  spirits  ;  let  it  stand  one  week,  and  filter. 

ESSENCES  are  made  with  1  oz.  of  any  given  oil,  added  to  1  pint 
alcohol.  Peppermints  are  colored  with  tinct.  turmeric;  cinnamon 
•with  tinct.  of  red  sand ers;  wintergreen  with  tinct.  kino. 

SUBSTITUTE  FOB  ARROWROOT.— Finest  potato  starch,  75  Ibs.  j 
lump  sugar.  4  Ibs. ;  finely-ground  rice,  21  Ibs.  Mix,  and  sift  through 
lawn  ;  yields  100  Ibs.  excellent  arrowroot. 

CERTAIN  CURE  FOR  CROUP.— Goose  oil  and  urine  equal  parts. 
Dose,  1  teaspoonful.  A  certain  cure  if  taken  in  time. 

CORNS  AND  WARTS. — Take  a  small  quantity  of  the  potash  paste 
recommended  for  Poll  Evil,  and  apply  to  the  corn  or  wart. 

DRUGGIST'S  COLORS. — Yellow,  take  iron  filings,  hydrochloric  acitf 
to  dissolve,  dilute  with  cold  water.  Red,  solution  of  sal  ammoniac, 
cochineal,  to  color.  Slue,  indigo,  1  part,  oil  of  vitriol,  2  parts,  dis- 
solve, then  dilute  with  water.  Green,  verdigris,  1  part,  acetic  acid, 
3  parts,  dilute  with  water,  Purplet  cochineal,  25  gra.,  sugar  of  leaa 
1  oz.,  dissolve. 


160  MEDICAL    DEPARTMENT,    ETC. 

SMELLING  SALTS.— Sub-carbonate  of  ammonia,  8  parts  ;  put  it  in 
coarse  powder  in  a  bottle,  and  pour  on  it  oil  of  lavendar,  1  part. 

TUNBRIDGK  WELLS  WATER. — Chloride  of  sodium,  5  grains  j 
tinct.  steel,  20  drops  ;  distilled  water,  l£  pints. 

MINERAL  WATER. — Epsom  salts,  1  oz.  ;  cream  tartar,  £  oz.  ;  tar* 
taric  acid,  £  oz.  ;  loaf  sugar,  1  Ib.  ;  oil  of  birch,  20  drops  ;  put  1  qt.. 
cold  water  on  2  tablespoonfuls  yeast  (winter  green  oil  will  do),  let  it 
work  2  hours  and  then  bottle. 

CONGRESS  WATER  FOR  FOUNTAINS.— Common  salt,  7|  ozs. ; 
hydrate  of  soda,  20  grs.  ;  bicarbonate  of  soda,  20  grs.  ;  calcined1 
magnesia,  1  oz.  Add  to  10  gal.  of  water,  and  then  charge  with  gas. 

KISSINGEN  WATER  FOR  FOUNTAINS. — Bicarbonate  of  soda,  1  dr. ; 
carbonate  of  lime,  2  drs.,  and  2  scr. ;  precipitate  carbonate  of  lime, 
2  scr.  ;  common  salt,  8  ozs.  ;  muriate  of  ammonia,  4  grs  ;  sulphate' 
of  soda,  2  drs.  and  2  scr. ;  sulphate  of  magnesia,  2  ozs. ;  phosphate 
of  soda,  13  grs.;  phosphate  of  lime  2  drs.  and  2  scr.  Mix.  Add 
water  f  of  a  gal.  Let  it  stand  for  6  hours,  filter,  add  carbonate  of 
magnesia,  3  drs.  and  1  scr.,  and  charge  with  10  gals,  of  water. 

VICHY  WATER  FOR  FOUNTAINS. — Sulphate  of  potass,  2  drs.; 
sulphate  of  soda,  25  grs.  ;  common  salt,  G  drs.  ;  bicarbonate  of  am- 
monia, 10  grs.  Mix.  Add  water,  1  gal.  Let  it  stand  1  day,  filter- 
and  then  charge  with  10  gal.  of  water. 

GENUINE  SEIDLITZ  POWDERS. — Rochelle  salts,  2  drs.;  bicarb., 
soda,  2  scr. ;  put  these  into  a  blue  paper,  and  35  grams  tartaric  acid1 
into  a  white  paper.  To  use,  put  each  into  different  tumblers,  fill  £ 
•with  water,  adding  a  little  loaf  sugar  to  the  acid,  then  pour  together 
and  drink  quick. 

BOTTLED  SEIDLITZ  WATER.— Fill  soda-water  bottles  with  clear 
•water  ;  add  to  each  as  below  ;  cork  and  wire  immediately  :  Rochelle 
salts,  3  drops  ;  bicarbonate  of  soda,  35  grs  ;  sulphuric  acid,  11  drops. 

EXCELLENT  TOOTH  POWDER. — Suds  of  castile  soap  and  spirits  of 
camphor,  of  each  an  equal  quantity  ;  thicken  with  equal  quantities 
of  pulverized  chalk  and  charcoal  to  a  thick  paste.  Apply  with  the 
finger  or  brush. 

RAT  EXTERMINATOR.— Warm  water,  1  qt.  ;  Lard,  2  Ibs  ;  phospho- 
rus, 1  oz.  ;  mix,  and  thicken  with  flour  ;  to  be  spread  on  bread  and 
covered  with  sugar. 

BUG  POISON.— Alcohol,  £  pint;  turpentine,  £  pint ;  crude  sal  am- 
moniac,  1  oz.  ;  mix  all  together,  and  let  it  digest  in  a  warm  place  for 
a  few  days,  and  it  is  ready  for  use. 

MEDICATED  COUGH  CANDY.— To  5  Ibs.  candy  just  ready  to  pour 
on  the  slab,  add  the  f ollowing  mixture,  and  form  it  into  sticks  to 
correspond  with  the  price  asked  for  them  :  Tinct.  squills,  2  oz. ;  cam- 
phorated tinct.  of  opium  and  tinct.  of  tolu,  of  each  ^  oz. ;  wine  of 
ipecac.,  ^  oz. ;  oils  of  gaultheria,  4  drops  ;  sassafras,  3  drops  ;  and 
of  anise  seed  oil,  2  drops,  and  use  this  freely  in  common  coughs. 

AGUE  PILL.— Quinine,  20  grs.;  Dover's  powders,  10  grs.  ;  sub- 
carbonate  of  iron,  10  grs.  ;  mix  with  mucilage  of  gum  arabic  and 
form  into  20  pills.  Dose,  2  each  hour,  commencing '  5  hours  before 
the  chill  shoula  set  in.  Then  take  1  night  and  morning  until  all  are 
taken. 

AGE  AT  WHICH  MENSTRUATION  COMMENCES. — Dr.  Walter  Rigdel 
gives  the  subjoined  statistics  obtained  from  females  who  wo*e  con 


MEDICAL    DEPARTMENT,    ETC. 


fined  at  University  College  Hospital.    In  2,696  cases  menstruation 
oocored  for  the  first  time  : 


At  the  age  of 
9  hi    3  cases. 


14 
60 
170 
353 
560 
540 
455 
272 


At  the  age  of 
18  in  150  cases. 


76 
29 
7 
8 
2 
0 
0 
2 


It  thus  appears  that  it  is  most  common  at  14  years  of  age,  and 
/Treat  care  should  be  taken  of  the  health  on  the  occurrence  of  these 
important  periods. 

ATKINSON'S  INFANT'S  PRESERVATIVE. — Carbonate  of  magnesu, 
6  drs. ;  sugar,  2  oz.  ;  oil  of  anise  seed,  20  drops  ;  sal-volatile,  2$  drs. ; 
laudunum,  1  dr.  ;  syrup  of  saffron,  1  oz.  Make  up  1  pint  with 
caraway  water. 

PILLS  TO  PROMOTE  MENSTRUAL  SECRETION.— Take  pills  of  aloe* 
and  myrrh,  4  drs.  ;  compound  iron  pills,  280  grs.  ;  mix  and  form! 
into  100  pills.  Dose,  2  twice  a  day. 

FOR  OBSTRUCTED  MENSTRUATION.— Make  a  strong  tea  of  smart 
weed,  covering  it  to  retain  the  strength,  or  use  the  extract  of  smart 
•weed  instead,  taking  1  teaspoonf  ul  of  the  latter  once  every  3  hours,, 
(or  about  10  teaspoonf uls  of  the  tea)  in  warm  water,  sweetened,, 
making  free  use  of  hot  baths  for  the  feet  and  the  lower  parts  of  the- 
body.  It  will  give  great  relief. 

INJECTION  FOR  OBSTRUCTED  MENSTRUATION.— Mix  1  to  2  fluid 
drs.  liquor  of  ammonia  with  1  pint  milk.  Use  thrice  daily. 

FOR  OBSTRUCTED  MENSTRUATION.— Sulphate  of  iron,  60  grs.; 
potassa  (sub.  carb.)  60  grs.  ;  myrrh,  2  drs.  ;  make  them  into  3$ jpv 
pills  ;  2  to  be  taken  three  times  a  day,  in  the  absence  of  fever.  For 
fainful  Menstruation,  take  pulv.  rhei.,  2  drs.  ;  pulv.  jalap,  2  dre.: 
eyrup  of  poppies  to  mix.  Divide  into  200  pills,  and  take  night  an<£ 
morning.  To  check  Immoderate  Flow — Tinct.  of  ergot,  1  oz. ,  liquor  of 
ammonia,  3  drs. ;  mix.  Dose,  teaspoonf  ul  in  water  3  times  a  day. 

STIMULANT. — IN  Low  FEVERS,  AND  AFTER  UTERINE  HEMOR- 
RHAGES.— Best  brandy  and  cinnamon  water,  of  each,  4  fluid  oz.  ;  the. 
yolks  of  2  eggs,  well  beaten  ;  loaf  sugar  £oz.  ;  oil  of  cinnamon,  ? 
drops  ;  mix.  Dose,  from  i  to  1  (fluid)  oz.,  as  often  as  required. 
This  makes  both  meat  and  drink.  Of  course,  any  other  flavoring  oils 
can  be  used,  if  preferred,  in  place  of  the  cinnamon. 

FOR  FEMALE  COMPLAINTS. — One  of  the  best  laxative  pills  for 
female  complaints  is  macrotin  and  rhubarb,  each  10  grs. ;  extract  of 
hyoBcyamus  10  grs. ;  Castile  soap,  40  grs. ;  scrape  the  soap,  and  mix 
well  together,  forming  into  common  sized  pills  with  gum  solution. 
Dose,l  pill  at  bed  time,  or  sufficiently  often  to  keep  the  bowels  in  a 
laxative  state. 

FOR  DISEASE  OF  THE  KIDNEYS. — Boil  1  oz.  of  pareira  brava  in  & 
plate  of  water  down  H  1  pint-  Dose,  a  wineglassf ul  3  times  per  day. 


«tt 


MEDICAL    DEPARTMENT,    ETC. 


To  CURE  YOMTTiNG  IN  PREGNANCY.— Mix  1  dr.  carbonate  cf 
*nagnesia;  £oz.  tinct.  of  Colombo;  5£  oz.  peppermint  water.  Dose. 
1  tablespoonful  3  times  a  day. 

HABLAND'S  VENEREAL  CUBE.— Mix  together  powdered  cubebs, 
1£  oz.  ;  balsam  capaiba,  ^  oz.  ;  powdered  gum  arable,  £  oz.  ;  cinna- 
mon water,  3  ozs.    A  tablespoonful  of  the  mixture  to  be  taken  at  . 
intervals  8  times  a  day. 

'/  INCONTINENCE  OF  URINE  OF  OLD  PEOPLE.— The  continued  uso 
of  1  to  6  drops  tinct.  of  iodine  has  proved  a  successful  remedy.  For 
other  persons,  put  4  drops  tincture  of  aconite  root  in  a  tumbler  oi 
water,  and  use  a  teaspoonf  uJ  every  half  hour  until  relieved. 

COMPOUND  EXTRACT  BUCHU.— Buchu,  in  coarse  powder,  12  oz«.  ; 
alcohol,  3  pts.  ;  water,  6  pts.  are  sufficient.  Treat  the  leaves  by 
maceration  and  displacement,  first  with  a  portion  of  the  alcohol  and 
then  with  the  remainder  mixed  with  the  water,  evaporate  the  result- 
ing  liquid  with  a  gentle  heat  to  three  pints,  and  add  2£  Ibs.  sugar, 
continue  the  heat  till  it  is  dissolved,  and  after  removing  from  the  fire, 
add  oil  of  cubebs,  oil  of  juniper;  of  each  1  fluid  dr.;  spirits  o{ 
nitric  ether,  12  fluid  ozs.,  previously  mixed,  stir  together. 

ANODYNE  FOB  PAINFUL  MENSTRUATION.— Extract  of  stramo* 
nium  and  sulphate  of  quinine,  each  16  grs. ;  macrotin,  8  grs. ;  mor- 
crotin,  8  grs.  ;  morphine,  1  gr.  ;  make  into  8  pills.  Dose,  1  pill  re* 
peating  once  or  twice  only,  40  to  50  minutes  apart,  if  the  pain  does 
not  subside  before  this  time.  Pain  must  subside  under  the  use  ol 
this  pill,  and  costiveness  is  not  increased.  * 

POWDEB  FOB  EXCESSIVE  FLOODING. — Gums  kino  and  catechu, 
each  1  gr. ;  sugar  o£  lead  and  alum,  each  ^  dr. ;  pulverize  all  and 
thoroughly  mix,  then  divide  into  7  to  10  grain  powders.  Dose,  on* 
«very  2  or  3  hours  until  checked,  then  less  often  merely  to  control  th* 
flow. 

INJECTION  FOB  LEUCORBHOZA. — When  the  glairy  mucus  discharge 
is  present,  prepare  a  tea  of  hemlock  inner  bark  and  witch  hazel  (often 
called  spotted  alder)  leaves  and  bark,  have  a  female  syringe  large 
enough  to  fill  the  vagina,  and  inject  the  tea,  twice  daily  ;  and  occa- 
sionally in  bad  cases,  say  twice  a  week,  inject  a  syringe  of  the  fol- 
lowing composition  :  For  Chronic  Female  Complaints.  White  vitriol 
and  sugar  of  lead,  each,  |  oz.  ;  common  salt,  pulverized  alum,  and 
loaf  sugar,  each,  $dr.  ;  soft  water,  1  pt.  Inject  as  above. 

FOB  PROLAPSUS  UTERI,  OB  FALLING  OF  THE  WOMB.— Not  only 
the  cheapest  but  the  best  support  will  be  found  to  be  a  piece  ot  fup 
firm  sponge,  cut  to  a  proper  size,  to  admit  when  damp  of  being 
pressed  up  the  vagina  to  hold  the  womb  in  its  place.  The  sponge 
should  have  a  stout  piece  of  small  cord  sewed  2  or  3  times  through 
;  its  centre,  up  and  down,  and  left  sufficiently  long  to  allow  its  being 
taken  hold  of  to  remove  the  sponge,  once  a  day,  or  every  other  day 
at  the  farthest,  for  the  purpose  of  washing,  cleaning,  and  using  the 
Becessary  injections  ;  and  this  must  be  done  white  the  patient  is 
lying  down,  to  prevent  the  womb  from  again  falling  or  prolapsing. 
After  having  injected  some  of  the  above  tea,  wet  the  sponge  in  the 
•ame,  and  introduce  it  sufficiently  high  to  hold  the  womb  in  its  place. 
If  pain  is  felt  about  the  head,  back,  or  loins  for  a  few  days  before  the 
menses  appear,  prepare  and  use  the  following  :  Emmena^oyne  Tinc- 
lure.  Alcohol,  1  pt,  ;  red  oxide  of  iron,  1  oz.  ;  oils  of  juniper  aad. 


MEDICAL    DEPARTMENT,    ETC. 

•ftvin,  each  £  oz.  ;  oil  of  tansey,  1  dr.  ;  tincture  of  ergot,  3  drs.;. 
tincture  Spanish  flies,  ^  oz.  :  mix  all,  and  shake  when  taken.  Dose, 
1  teaspoon  3  times  daily,  to  be  taken  in  mucilage  of  slippery  elm  or 
gum  arabic,  and  drink  freely  of  the  mucilage  also  through  the  day, 
or  use  the  following  :  i 

EMMENAGOGUE  PILL. — Precipitated  carbonate  of   iron  and  gnm* 
mvrrh,  of  each  2  drs.  ;  aloes  and  tincture  of  Spanish  flies,  of  each, 
1  dr. ;  and  oil  of  savin,  1  dr. ;  all  to  be  pulverized,  and  made  into 
100  pills  by  using  thick  gum  solution.     Dose,  1  pill,  from  1  to  3  times 
daily,  but  not  to  move  the  bowels  too  much. 

UTERINE  HEMORRHAGE.— Unfailing  cure.  Sugar  of  lead,  10  grs. ;. 
ergot,  10  grs.  ;  opium,  3  grs.;  ipecac.,  1  gr. ;  all  pulverized,  and. 
well  mixed.  Dose,  10  to  12  grs.  ;  given  in  a  little  honey  or  syrup. 

In  very  bad  cases  after  chilbbirth,  it  might  be  repeated  in  30' 
minutes,  or  the  dose  increased  to  15  or  18  grs.  ;  biit  in  cases  of  rather 
profuse  wasting,  repeat  it  once  at  the  end  of  3  hours,  or  as  the 
urgency  of  the  case  may  require. 

In  every  case  of  female  debility  make  a  liberal  use  of  iron,  as  the 
want  of  iron  in  the  system  is  often  the  cause  of  the  trouble.  Mix 
fine  iron  filings  with  as  much  ground  ginger.  Dose,  half  of  a  tea- 
gpoon  3  times  daily  in  a  little  honey  or  molasses,  increasing  or  lessen- 
ing the  dose  to  produce  a  blackness  of  the  stools.  Continue  this 
course  until  well. 

IMPERIAL  DROPS  FOB  GRAVEL  AND  KIDNEY  COMPLAINTS.— Oil 
of  origanum,  1  oz.,  oil  of  hemlock,  £  oz.,  oil  of  sassafras,  J  oz.,  oil  of 
anise,  £oz.,  alcohol,  1  pint:  mix.  Dose,  from  i  to  1  teaspoonful  $ 
times  a  day,  in  sweetened  water,  will  soon  give  relief  when  con- 
Btant  weakness  is  felt  across  the  small  of  the  back,  as  well  as  gravelly 
affections  causing  pain  about  the  kidneys. 

POSITIVE  CURE  FOR  GONORRHEA.— Liquor  of  potass,  |  oz.,  bitter 
apple.  £  oz.,  spirits  of  sweet  nitre,  $  oz.,  balsam  of  copaiba,  ^  oz.,  best: 
ctun  t  oz.  To  use,  mix  with  peppermint  water:  take  £  teaspoonful  a 
times  per  day:  cure  certain  in  9  days. 

CELEBRATED  PILE  OINTMENT. — Take  carbonate  of  lead.  £oz.,  sul- 
phate of  morphia,  15  grs. ;  stramonium  ointment,  1  oz. ;  olive  oil,  20- 
crops.  Mix  and  apply  3  times  per  day,  or  as  the  pain  may  require. 

Another — Powdered  nut  gall,  2  drs.,  camphor,  1  dr.,  melted  wax,. 
10  oz.,  tincture  of  opinm,  2  drs.,  mix. 

STAMMERING.— Impediments  in  the  speech  may  be  cured,  where- 
there  is  no  malformation  of  the  organs  of  articulation,  by  preseverance, 
for  three  or  four  months,  in  the  simple  remedy  of  reading  aloud,  with 
the  teeth  closed,  for  at  least  2  hours  each  day. 

COLD  IN  THE  HEAD.  —Dr.  Pollion,  of  France,  says  that  cold  in  th«. 
head  can  be  cured  by  inhaling  hartshorn.  The  "inhalation  by  the 
nose  should  be  seven  or  eight  times  in  five  minutes. 

CAMPHOR  ICE. — Spermaceti,  li  oz.,  gum  camphor,  £  oz.,  oil  sweeti 
Almonds,  4  teaspoonf  uls ;  set  on  tlie  stove  in  an  earthen  dish  till  dis- 
solved; heat  just  enough  to  dissolve  it.  While  warm  pour  into  small! 
} moulds,  if  desired  to  sell ;  then  paper,  and  put  into  tinfoil;  used  for 
chaps  on  hands  or  lips. 

SIMPLE  REJIEDIES  FOR  SCARLET  FEVER.— Open  the  bowels  regu- 
larly every  day  with  some  mild  aperient  medicine,  such  as  castor  oil* 
§enna,  etc.  ;  and  keep  the  patient  at  rest,  and  comfortably  warm  ; 


DEPARTMENT,  «TC. 

sponge  the  surface  with  tepid  water,  two  or  three  times  a  day  ;  whffit 
it  is  hotter  than  natural,  admit  fresh  ah  ;  live  on  a  bland  diet,  such 
AS  a  cupful  of  arrowroot,  several  times  a  day  ;  toast- water  for  com- 
mon drink.  Gargle  made  of  strong  sage  tea,  honey  aud  alum,  or  bor- 
ax, may  be  used  from  the  commencement,  if  the  throatis  affected. 

NERVE  AND  BONE  LINIMENT. — Beef's  gall.  1  qt;  alcohol,  1  pt; 
•volatile  liniment,  1  Ib. ;  sirits  of  turpentine,  1  Ib. ;  oil  organum. 
4  oz. ;  aqua  ammonia,  4  pz. ;  tincture  of  cayenne,  i  pt  ;  oil  of, 
amber,  3  oz. ;  tincture  Spanish  flies,  6  oz. ;  mix  welL 

CEPHALIC  SNUFF. — Take  asarbacca  leaves,  marjoram,  light  Scotch 
snuff,  equal  parts  ;  grind  and  sift,  use  like  common  snuff. 

DOWNER'S  SALVE. — Beeswax,  4  oz.  ;  opium,  £  oz. ;  sugar  of  lead, 
1  oz.  ;  melt  the  beeswax,  and  rub  the  lead  up  hi  the  wax,  then  the 
opium,  then  1  gill  of  sweet  oil,  incorporate  all  thoroughly  together, 
spread  lightly  on  cloth :  good  for  burns,  piles,  &c. 

ANOTHER  SALVE. — Burgundy  pitch,  beeswax,  white  pine  pitch, 
and  resin,  1  oz.  each,  mutton  tallow,  8  oz.  ;  goose  oil,  1  gill ;  tar,  1 
ill :  melt  and  mix  thoroughly.  A  first-rate  salve. 

WHOOPING  COUGH  SYRUP. —Best  rum,  1  pt.  ;  anise  oil,  2  ozs.  ; 
oBey,  1  pt.  ;  lemon  juice,  4  oz.  ;  mix.  Dose  for  adults,  1  tablespoon- 
Jul,  3  or  4  times  per  day  ;  children  1  teaspoon,  with  sugar  and  water. 

LIQUID  OPODELDOC. — Warm  brandy,  1  qt ;  add  to  it  gum  camphor, 
1  oz.  ;  sal  ammoniac,  £  oz.  ;  oils  of  origanum  and  rosemary,  each  £ 
cz.  ;  oil  wormwood,  £  oz.  ;  when  the  oils  are  dissolved,  add  6  oz.  soft 
*oap.  ' 

GREEX  MOUNTAIN  SALVE.— For  rheumatism,  burns,  pains  in  the 
oack  or  side,  &c.,  take  2  Ibs.  resin,  burgundy  pitch,  £  Ib. ;  beeswax  i 
Ib.  ;  mutton  tallow,  £  Ib.  ;  melt  slowly  ;  when  not  too  warm,  add  oil 
hemlock,  1  oz.  ;  balsam  fir,  1  oz.  ;  oil  of  origanum,  1  oz.  oil  of  red 
cedar,  1  oz.  ;  Venice  turpentine,  1  oz.  ;  oil  of  wormwood,  1  pz.  •  ver- 
digris, ^  oz.  The  verdigris  must  be  finely  pulverized  and  mixed  with 
the  oils  ;  then  add  as  above,  and  work  in  cold  water  like  wax  till  cold 
enough  to  roll  ;  rolls  5  niches  long,  1  inch  diameter,  sell  for  23  cents. 

ENGLISH  REMEDY  FOR  CANCER. — Take  chloride  of  zinc,  blood- 
root  pulverized,  and  flour,  equal  quantities  of  each,  worked  into  a 
paste  and  applied.  First  spread  a  common  sticking-plaster  much 
larger  than  the  cancer,  cutting  a  circular  piece  from  the  centre  of  it  a 
little  larger  than  the  cancer,  applying  it,  which  exposes  a  narrow  rim 
of  healthy  skin  ;  then  apply  the  cancer  plaster,  and  keep  it  on  24 
hours.  On  removing  it,  the  cancer  will  be  found  to  be  burned  into, 
and  appears  the  color  of  an  old  shoe-sole,  and  the  rim  outside  will 
appear  white  and  parboiled,  as  if  burned  by  steam.  Dress  with 
slippery  elm  poultice  until  suppuration  takes  place,  then  heal  with 
*^ay  common  salve. 

CHRONIC  GOUT — To  CURE. — Take  hot  vmegar,  and  put  into  it  all 
vte  table  salt  which  it  will  dissolve,  and  bathe  the  parts  affected  with 
a  soft  piece  of  flannel.  Rub  in  with  the  hand  and  dry  the  foot,  &c., 
by  the  fire.  Repeat  this  operation  four  times  in  24  hours,  15  minutes 
each  time,  for  four  days  ;  ther  twice  a  day  for  the  same  period  ;  then 
once,  and  follow  this  rule  whenever  the  symptoms  show  themselves  at 
any  future  time. 

GOUT  TINCTURE.— Veratrum  viride  (swamp  hellebore),  £  oz.; 
qpiuin,  i  oz,  ;  wine,  £  pt  ;  let  them  stand  lor  several  days.  Doae,  1$ 


MEDICAL   DEPARTMENT,   ETC.  165 

to  30  drops,  according  to  the  robustness  of  the  patient,  at  intervals  of 
3  to  4  hours. 

PARALYTIC  LINIMENT. — Sulphuric  ether,  6  oz.  ;  alcohol,  2  oz.  ; 
laudanum,  1  oz.  ;  oil  of  lavender,  1  oz.  ;  mix,  and  cork  tightly.  In  a 
Tecent  oase  of  paralysis  let  the  whole  extent  of  the  numb  surface  be 
thoroughly  bathed  and  rubbed  with  this  preparation,  for  several 
minutes,  using  the  hand,  at  least  three  times  daily  ;  at  the  same  tim« 
iake  internally,  20  drops  of  the  same,  in  a  little  sweetened  water. 

CHARCOAL,  A  CURE  FOR  SICK  HEADACHE. — It  is  stated  that  2  tea- 
epoons  of  finely  powdered  charcoal,  drank  in  ^  a  tumbler  of  water 
•Will,  in  less  than  fifteen  minutes,  give  relief  to  the  sick  headache, 
•when  caused,  as  in  most  cases  it  is,  by  superabundance  of  acid  on 
the  stomach.  We  have  frequently  tried  this  remedy,  and  its  efficacy 
4n  every  instance  has  been  signally  satisfactory. 

CATHARTIC  SYRUP. — Best  senna  leaf,  1  oz.  ;  butternut,  the  inner 
fcark  of  the  root,  dried  and  bruised,  2™z.  ;  peppermint  leaf,  ^  oz.  , 
fennel  seed,  ^  oz.  ;  alcohol,  ^  pt.  ;  water,  1^  pts.  ;  sugar,  2  Ibs.  ;  put 
all  into  the  spirit  and  water,  except  the  sugar,  and  let  it  stand  two 
•weeks,  then  strain,  pressing  out  from  the  dregs,  adding  the  sugar  and 
simmering  a  few  minutes  only,  to  form  the  syrup.  If  it  should  cause 
.griping  in  any  case,  increase  the  fennel  seed  and  peppermint  leaf, 
Dose,  1  tablespoon,  once  a  day,  or  less  often  if  the  bowels  become  too 
loose,  up  to  the  next  period  when  the  headache  might  have  been 
•expected,  and  it  vrill  not  be  forthcoming. 

CHILBLAINS. — To  CURE. — Mutton  tallow  and  lard,  of  each  £  Ib. ; 
melt  in  an  iron  vessel,  and  add  hydrated  oxyde  of  iron,  2  oz. ;  stirring 
continually  with  an  iron  spoon,  until  the  mass  is  of  a  uniform  black 
•color  ;  then  let  it  cool,  and  add  Venice  turpentine,  2  oz.  ;  Armenian 
bole,  1  oz.  ;  oil  of  bcrgamot,  1  dr. ;  rub  up  the  bole  with  a  little  olive 
oil  before  putting  it  in. 

FELONS.— IF  RECENT,  TO  CURE  IN  Six  HOURS.— Venice  turpentine, 
1  oz.  ;  and  put  iuto  it  half  a  teaspoon  of  water,  and  stir  with  a  rough 
•stick  until  the  mass  looks  like  candied  honey  ;  then  spread  a  good 
x#at  on  a  cloth,  and  wrap  around  the  finger.  If  the  case  is  only 
recent,  it  will  remove  the  pain  in  six  hours. 

FELON  SALVE. — A  salve  made  by  burning  one  tablespoon  of  copper- 
as, then  pulverizing  it  and  mixing  it  with  the  yolk  of  an  egg,  is  said 
to  relieve  the  pain,  and  cure  the  felon  in  24  hours  ;  then  heal  with 
cream  two  parts,  and  soft  soap  one  part.  Apply  the  healing  salve 
daily  after  soaking  the  part  in  warm  water. 

FELON  OINTMENT.— Take  sweet  oil,  £pt.,  and  stew  a  3-cent  plug 
cf  tobacco  in  it  until  the  tobacco  is  crisped  ;  then  squeeze  it  out,  and 
add  red  lead,  1  oz.,  and  boil  until  black  ;  when  a  little  cqpl,  add  pul- 
verized camphor  gum,  1  oz. 

WAJRTS  AND  CORNS.— To  CURE  IN  TEN  MINUTES.— T?jre  a  small 
piece  of  potash,  and  let  it  stand  in  the  open  air  until  it  siacks,  then 
thicken  it  to  a  paste  with  pulverized  gum  arabic,  which  prevents  it 
from  spreading  where  it  is  not  wanted.  • 

INFLAMMATORY  RHEUMATISM.— Sulphur  and  saltpetre,  of  each  1 
oz.  ;  gum  guaiac,  £  oz.  ;  colchicum  root,  or  seed,  and  nutmegs,  of  each 
J  oz  ;  all  to  be  pulverized  and  mixed  with  simple  syrup,  or  molassesv 
3  oz.  Dose,  one  teaspoon  every  2  hours  until  it  moves  the  bowela 
cather  freely  ;  then  3  or  1  times  daily  until  cured. 


"56  MEDICAL   DEPARTMENT,    ETC. 

THE  CONSERVATION  OF  HEALTH.—  This  important  object, 
sary  to  the  enjoyment  of  life,  can  only  be  secured  by  conforming  t« 
an  orderly  state  of  existence.  Every  man  is  in  duty  bound  to  dis- 
charge with  fidelity  the  debt  which  he  owes  to  that  frame,  so  "  fear- 
fully and  wonderfully  made,"  and  so  well  adapted  by  the  Divine 
contriver  to  fulfil  the  uses  of  life,  by  living  with  regularity  and  mod- 
sration,  abstaining  from  every  excess  calculated  to  induce  disease  or 
'.nflict  injury  either  on  body  or  mind.  Excessive  intellectual  labor  is 
just  as  fatal  in  its  degree  as  violent  physical  exertion.  \Ve  have  & 
lamentable  proof  of  the  truth  of  this  remark  in  the  sudden  termination 
t  of  a  most  useful  life,  that  of  the  late  Dr.  Hall,  Editor  of  Hall's  Journal 
of  Health.  As  is  well  known,  the  fatal  stroke  was  induced  by  an 
overworked  brain,  it  being  his  habit  to  apply  himself  ardently  to  study, 
writing,  &c.,  from  5  in  the  morning  to  10  in  the  evening,  an  impru- 
dence all  the  more  reprehensible  as  it  was  one  which  he  was  continu- 
ally denouncing  in  others. 

Business  men  are  particularly  liable  to  affections  of  the  heart  result- 
ing from  trade  anxieties,  &c.,  and  in  the  male,  tho  number  of  deaths 
from  enlargement  of  the  heart  are  as  seven  compared  with  five  in  the 
female.  This  phase  of  mortality  is  caused  not  only  by  intranquillity 
and  worry  of  mind  occasioned  by  lack  of  success  in  the  grand 
struggles  of  life,  but  is  too  frequently  brought  on  by  conj  ugal  infe- 
licities and  disturbances,  which  seldom  fail  to  accelerate  a  crisis  which 
terminates  in  death.  Many  a  well  meaning  man  lays  plans  which  he- 
fondly  anticipates  will  resiilt  in  securing  to  him  and  to  those  depend- 
ent on  him,  an  honestly  obtained  competence,  and  confident  of  pros- 
perity, does  his  best  endeavors,  and  often  risks  a  great  deal,  to  ensure 
success,  little  dreaming  of  the  poetic  apothegm,  that  "  the  best  laid 
schemes  o'  mice  and  men,  gang  aft  aglee."  The  result  too  often  is,  as. 
many  know  to  their  sorrow,  entire  failure,  and  subsequent  reproaches, 
opprobrium,  asperities,  ascriptions  of  incapacity,  &c.,  are  showered  on. 
his  head,  and  continued  to  the  end  of  life,  with  more  frequency  and 
greater  regularity  than  the  dispensation  of  his  daily  bread,  by  the  very- 
one  who  should  be  all  gentleness,  all  love,  and  her  husband  s  chief  com- 
forter and  consoler  under  misfortune.  This  is  the  most  fatal  kind  of 
mental  trouble,  inasmuch  as  it  involves  a  grinding  grief  of  mind,  which 
dissipates  happiness,  induces  gloom,  and  tends  to  destroy  life;  whatever 
affects  the  love,  which  is  the  real  man,  or  spirit,  reacts  upon,  and 
affects  in  an  equal  degree  the  body  which  contains  that  spirit.  That 
this  is  so,  results  from  the  correspondence  existing  between  the  soul 
and  body,  as  may  be  palpably  manifest  to  every  one  capable  of  inte- 
rior reflection,  and  this  to  such  a  degree  that  to  obtain  convincing  proof 
it  is  not  necessary  to  extend  his  observations  beyond  his  own  experi- 
ence. 

Grief  caused  by  financial  loss  and  the  reaction  which  sets  in  on  re- 
tiring from  business,  after  spending  an  active  life  in  amassing  a  for- 
tune, are  also  pregnant  with  evil  results  to  health.  No  man  has  a 
right  to  retire  from  the  duty  of  making  himself  useful  to  society,  even 
if  he  has  a  fortune,  and  can  afford  to  do  so.  If  he  does,  this  evi1^ 
like  every  other,  is  sure  to  work  out  its  own  retribution  with  a  full 
harvest  of  unexpected  misery. 

Many  of  the  influences  which  are  patent  for  evil,  and  evil  only,  ar* 
eelf  inflicted,  such  as  the  habitual  indulgence  in  alcoholic  drinks,  wine, 
beer,  &c.,  the  use  of  tobacco,  opium,  and  other  narcotics.  Eighty-seven 


\  MEDICAL   DEPARTMENT,  ETC.  167 

per  cent,  of  all  kidney  diseases  are  induced  by  alcohol.  Its  continued 
use  curtails  vitality,  destroys  the  membranes,  generates  disease  .;n  the' 
brain,  heart,  spinal  cord,  lungs,  liver,  muscles  and  blood  vessels  ;  it 
wrecks  the  system,  impedes  the  circulation,  paralyzes  manhood,  and 
precipitates  premature  decay.  Tobacco,  also,  in  every  form,  exercises 
a  most  baneful  effect  on  the  health  and  mind. 

A  distinguished  French  savant,  the  Abbe  Moigno,  increased  his 
daily  allowance  of  snuff  until  in  1861  it  was  over  20  grammes,  and  h* 
observed  a  rapid  decay  of  the  faculty  of  memory.  He  had  learned 
eome  1500  root  words  in  each  of  several  languages,  but  found  them 
gradually  dropping  put  of  his  mind,  so  as  to  necessitate  frequent  re- 
ference to  dictionaries.  At  last  he  summoned  resolution  to  abandon. 
its  .ise,  and  after  6  years  of  abstinence  writes  as  follows: 

'•'It  was  for  us  the  commencement  of  a  veritable  resurrection  of 
health,  mind,  and  memory;  our  ideas  have  [become  more  lucid,  our 
imagination  more  vivid,  our  work  easier,  our  pen  quicker,  and  wo 
hare  seen  gradually  return  that  army  of  words.  Our  memory,  in  a 
word,  has  recovered  all  its  riches,  all  its  sensibility.  That  tobacco, 
especially  in  the  form  of  snuff,  is  a  powerful  enemy  of  memory, 
which  it  has  destroyed  little  by  little,  and  sometimes  very  promptly, 
cannot  be  doubted."  With  these  known  pernicious  effects  resulting 
from  the  use  of  alcholic  drinks  and  tobacco,  abstinence  from  both 
becomes  an  imperious  necessity. 

Other  most  imiwrtant  auxiliaries  to  the  maintenance  of  health,  are 
pure  air,  perfect  ventilation  in  dwellings,  and  absolute  cleanliness  of 
person  (See  Batliinrj).  Keill  estimates  the  surface  of  the  lungs  at 
150  cubic  feet,  or  teii  times  that  of  the  external  body.  During  ordi- 
nary respiration,  16  or  17  cubic  inches  of  atmospheric  air  pass  into' 
the  lungs  20  times  in  a  minute,  or  a  cubic  foot  every  5.25  minutes; 
274  cubic  feet  in  24  hours,  or  a  cube  of  6^  feet  each  way.  The  lungsr 
generate  10.7  cubic  feet  of  deadly  carbonic  acid  gas,  and  remove- 
from  the  atmosphere  the  same  amount  of  oxygen,  every  24  hours. 
The  cause  c*  nearly  all  the  headaches  in  crowded  factories,  schools 
and  work  shops,  as  well  as  all  the  sleeping  and  snoring  in  churches, 
is  due  more  to  vitiated  air  than  to  any  other  cause.  To  the  same 
cause  is  owing  the  fe.arful  mortality  so  prevalent  in  badly  ventilated 
city  tenements,  boarding  houses,  cellars,  &c.,  as  well  as  in  houses  built 
on  low  levels,  and  boggy  land  near  stagnant  pools,  inoperative  sewers, 
imprisoned  springs,  &c.  Bad  air,  imperfect  ventilation,  uncleannes« 
and  ill  health  must  ever  go  hand  in  hand.  It  is  worthy  of  note  that, 
while  the  death  rate  in  the  filthy  eastern  districts  of  London  is  nearly' 
SO  per  1000  of  the  population,  in'White  Chapel  it  is  41,  in  Limehouse  it\ 
rises  to  48,  in  part  of  the  Aldgate  district  of  the  White  Chapel  union, 
it  ranges  between  58  and  59,  or  more  than  double  what  may  be  called 
the  fair  allowance  of  25  per  cent.  Yet  it  appears  from  the  recent 
Statistics  of  the  same  citv,  that  in  the  PEABODY  MODEL  BUILDINGS  the 
mortality  has  fallen  to  17  per  1000,  very  near  the  minimum  of  the  most 
salubrious  parts  of  England.  Decaying  vegetable  and  animal  matter 
yields  various  noxious  gases,  also  expired  breath,  all  enter  the  lung*,, 
poison  the  blood  and  permeate  the  system  ;  therefore  all  impurii/ies 
should  be  kept  away  from  our  abodes,  and  every  precaution  taken  to 
secure  pure  air.  Temperature  of  rooms  should  be  about  60°  Fsihr. 

As  the  solar  rays  exercise  a  benignant  influence  on  health  and 
purify  the  air  in  dwellings,  therefore  admit  the  blessed  suuligh* 
without  stint,  for  good  health  cannot  exist  without  it. 


t68  MEDICAL    DEPARTMENT,    ETC. 

As  disinfectants,  the  following  may  be  used  with  good*  effect 
i.  Quicklime,  to  absorb  moisture  and  putrid  fluids.  Uso  fresh  lime, 
scattering  it  about,  finely  powdered,  and  whitewash  with  lime.  2. 
Charcoal  powder,  to  absord  putrid  gases.  The  coal  should  be  dry,  and 
fresh,  mixed  with  lime.  3.  Chloride  of  lime,  to  gi»e  off  chloride  to' 
absorb  putrid  effluvia  and  to  stop  putrefaction.  4.  Sulphate  of  iron 
}  copperas}  1  Ib.  dissolved  in  1  qt.  water  and  poured  down  a  water  closet 
will  destroy  the  foulest  smells.  A  quantity  in  an  open  pan  will  purify 
the  air  in  rooms.  5.  Fluid  carbolic  acid  dissolved  at  the  rate  of  1  part 
to  100  or  150  parts  of  water  is  also  very  good. 

Among  diseases  liable  to  be  spread  by  the  distribution  of  organic, 
poisons,  may  be  mentioned  scarlet  fever,  typhus  fever,  typhoid  fever, 
yellow  fever,  measles,  small-pox,  diphtheria,  infectious  ophthalmia, 
"hydrophobia,  erysipelas,  cholera  and  glanders.  The  poisonous  par- 
ticles which  effect  contagion,  are  in  every  instance  of  organic  origin, 
^tnd  are  evolved  from  matter  composing  living  bodies.  They  float  in 
the  atmosphere,  are  inhaled  by  the  breath,  aud  are  absorbed  by  the 
trails  of  dwellings,  hospitals,  etc.,  and  are  liable  at  any  time  to  enter 
on  a  career  of  baneful  activity.  The  walls  of  hospitals  should  be 
^lass  lined,  the  better  to  prevent  contamination,  and  means  should 
be  used  to  destroy  the  contagious  matter  F*y  means  of  chemical 
agents,  such  as  powerful  heat,  nitrous  acid  gas,  bromine,  chlorine, 
iodine,  sulphurous  acid,  etc.  Solar  light  is  another  powerful  disin- 
fectant, and  as  a  means  of  health  has  been  ranked  by  Lavoiser  as 
superior  to  pure  air. 

Dust  is  highly  inimical  to  health,  and  it  is  everywhere  present  in 
'the  air  we  breathe.  Its  presence  is  made  manifest  in  a  manner  per- 
fectly startling,  by  admitting  a  beam  of  sun-light  through  an  orifice 
into  a  dark  room.  It  has  a  most  pernicious  effect  on  the  health  in 
•cities,  and  indeed  everywhere,  but  the  air  may  be  filtered  from  the 
•noxious  particles  previous  to  entering  the  lungs,  by  the  use  of  a  cot- 
ton-wool respirator.  This  contrivance  possesses  the  farther  merit  of 
being  an  effectual  barrier  to  the  admission  to  the  lungs  of  those 
germs  or  poisonous  particles  whereby  contagious  disease  is  propa- 
gated. 

Good  health  is  impossible  without  pure  water.  The  amount  of  or- 
ganic and  mineral  impurities  held  in  solution  or  suspension  by  water, 
•is  perfectly  astonishing,  and  wherever  suspicion  of  such  impurities 
•Bxists  the  water  should  be  filtered.  Good  reliable  filters  may  be  pur- 
chased ready  for  immediate  use,  but  wherever  they  cannot  be  ob- 
•iained,  an  excellent  substitute  may  be  made  from  an  oak  tub  made 
.to  hold  from  half  to  a  barrel  of  water,  according  to  the  needs  of  the 
•family.  Let  it  stand  on  end,  with  a  faucet  near  the  bottom,  or  pre- 
ferably, a  hole  through  the  bottom,  near  the  front  sida,  with  a  tube 
inserted  to  prevent  the  water  from  rotting  the  outside  of  the  tub; 
jhen  put  clean  pebbles  3  or  4  inches  in  thickness  over  the  bottom  of  < 
ihe  tub.  Spread  a  piece  of  clean  white  flannel  over  the  pebbles  , 
jiow  have  charcoal,  pulverized  to  the  size  of  small  peas  (that  made 
from  hard  maple  is  best),  and  put  in  half  a  bushel  or  so  at  a  time  ; 
-«K>u.nd  it  down  quite  firmly,  then  put  in  more  and  pound  again  until 
the  tub  is  filled  to  within  8  inches  of  the  top,  and  again  put  in  2 
laches  more  of  pebbles,  then  put  a  piece  of  clean  white  flannel  over 
dfee  whole  top  as  a  strainer.  The  flannel  may  be  washed  occasion* 


MEDICAL    DEPARTMENT,    ETC. 

ally,  to  remove  the  impurities  collected  from  the  water,  and  it  miger 
be  well  to  replenish  the  tub  with  fresh  charcoal  once  a  year  at  least. 
The  result  will  be  wholesome  water. 

Reckless  exposure  to  cold,  especially  by  aged  and  sensitive  per- 
sons,  should  be  carefully  guarded  agaiust.  From  returns  published 
by  the  Registrar  General  in  England,  it  was  found  that  during  the 
'.winter  months  the  body  wastes,  the  loss  of  weight  varying  in  an  in- 
creasing ratio  ;  that  during  summer  the  body  gains,  the  gain  varying 
in  an  increasing  ratio,  and  that  the  changes  from  gain  to  loss,  and 
from  loss  to  gain,  are  sudden,  and  take  place,  the  first  at  the  begin- 
ning of  September,  and  the  second  at  the  beginning  of  April.  Deaths 
from  pneumonia  and  bronchitis  attain  their  maximum  in  the  months 
of  January,  February,  and  March ;  in  the  succeeding  3  months  they 
decline,  and  in  the  next  quarter  reach  their  minimum,  re-commenc- 
ing to  increase  in  October,  November,  and  December.  Air  saturated 
with  moisture  tends  to  develop  rheumatic  disease,  and  organic  dis- 
•eases  of  the  heart  which  spring  from  rheumatism. 

During  cold  raw  weather,  aged  persons  should  keep  close  to  the 
house  in  apartments  warmed  by  a  cheerful,  open,  blazing  fire,  which 
is  much  preferable  to  the  oppressive  heat  from  a  hot  air  register, 
steam  pipes,  or  close  stoves.  If  called  out  by  business  during  a  cold 
morning,  do  not  go  out  too  early,  nor  until  after  a  good  warm  break- 
fast, and  be  sure  to  return  before  the  chill  of  the  evening.  Add  to 
the  clothing  early  in  the  fall,  diminish  it  very  gradually  in  the 
spring,  eat  with  great  moderation  and  regularity  of  nourishing  diet, 
and  take  a  daily  nap  on  a  lounge,  or  in  an  armchair  for  15  or  20 
minutes  after  dinner,  or  during  the  forenoon.  If  rest  is  broken  dur- 
ing the  night,  make  it  up  with  prolonged  rest  during  the  morning, 
for  as  a  rule,  those  aged  persons  will  live  the  longest  who  take  tha 
most  rest  and  work  the  least,  except  in  a  very  calm,  placid,  and  un- 
excited  way.  During  old  age  guard  against  haste,  hurry,  and  excite- 
ment of  body  and  mind,  for  nothing  can  be  more  dangerous  to  life. 

Authors,  clergymen  and  all  others  engaged  in  intense  mental 
fitudy,  should,  whenever  they  become  exhausted  by  severe  brain 
labor,  at  once  cease  from  further  effort,  and  recuperate  their  ex- 
pended energies  by  taking  as  much  sleep  as  nature  requires.  Nothing 
eoothes,  strengthens  and  invigorates  the  brain  like  refreshing  sleep. 

Clothing  should  not  be  worn  in  quantity  to  induce  oppression  or 
unnecessary  smothering,  but  only  enough  to  repel  every  feeling  re- 
sembling chilliness.  Keep  a  clean  skin  at  all  times,  and  as  a  safe  pre- 
caution wear  flannel  next  to  it,  as  it  possesses  a  powerful  influence  in 
modifying  dangerous  extremes  of  temperature.  Dr.  Pettenkofer 
states  that  equal  surfaces  of  various  materials  are  permeated  by  the 
air  as  follows,  flannel  being  taken  as  100:  Linen  of  medium  fineness, 
58;  silk,  40;  buckskin,  58;  chamois  leather,  51;  tanned  leather,  1. 

The  dress  should  fit  loosely,  should  be  warm  and  light  throughout, 
and  frequently  changed  to  remove  the  impurities  exhaled  through  the 
gkin.  Clothing  contaminated  with  excretory  matter  is  highly  inimi- 
cal to  health  if  worn  too  long.  In  cases  of  infectious  disease,  the  suf- 
ferer should  be  isolated,  and  the  infected  clothing  and  bedding  either 
destroyed  or  purified. 

Sleeping  apartments  should  be  elevated,  roomy, well  ventilated, 
.and  kept  at  a  temperature  of  about  60°.  They  should  be  free  from  direct 
draughts  on  the  sleeper.  The  mattress,  should  be  hard,  but  may  bt 
** 


170  MEDICAL   DEPA3TMFNT,    ETC. 

easy  and  springy  if  so  desired.  Feathers  should  not  b«  used,  th» 
emanations  f  rom  them  are  most  unhealthy,  and  they  generate  an  ex- 
cess of  heat  which  is  very  enfeebling  and  unwholesome.  The  sweet- 
est repose  is  obtained  with  the  head  towards  the  north, — with  the  bed 
insulated  by  means  of  glass  interposed  between  the  feet  and  the 
floor,  to  bar  the  passage  of  the  electric  currents,  which  are  liable  to ' 
>ave  the  body  depleted  of  strength  unless  they  are  retained.  Guanl 
*i  gainst  sleeping  in  new  dwellings  before  the  plaster  and  paint  hava 
cecome  fully  dry.  Thousands  of  deaths,  seemingly  very  mysterious 
and  principally  of  aged  persons,  have  taken  place  from  negtect  of  this 
precaution.  The  natural  allowance  for  sleep  is  c  ight  hours  out  of  the 
twenty- four,  and  the  most  favorable  time  is  from  10  o'clock  until  6. 
intellectual  labor  is  more  exhaustive  than  physical,  consequently  per- 
sons thus  emplo3red  require  more  rest  than  working  men.  Tl>e  most 
favorable  position  for  sleep  is  on  the  right  side;  the  worst  ie  to  lie  on 
the  back,  as  it  generates  a  perilous  heat  over  the  region  of  the  kid- 
neys and  spinal  cord.  Solitary  repose  is  the  most  beneficial  every 
way;  when  two  parties  sleep  together,  each  one  inhales  a  deleterious 
effluvia  thrown  off  by  his  neighbor,  and  the  weakest  is  always  the 
greatest  sufferer,  more  especially  is  this  the  cr.se  with  children  who 
sleep  with  aged  persons.  Add  to  this,  electric  changes  are  continual- 
ly taking  place,  which  frequently  cause  unrest,  disquiet,  and  exhaus- 
tion, when  two  sleep  together.  Refreshing  sleep  gives  rest  to  the 
brain  and  the  nervous  system.  The  retina  is  inert,  the  tympanum  is 
placid,  the  nerves  of  taste,  smell,  and  feeling,  are  dormant,  and  all 
the  powers  of  the  cerebrum  and  cerebellum  are  quiescent.  Children 
require  more  sleep  than  adults,  and  they  should  get  all  they  will  take 
of  it,  with  a  benediction  and  kind  words  to  begin  with.  It  is  atro- 
cious to  think  of  the  hard  language,  maledictions,  and  downright  lies 
addressed  to  tender  hearted  children  by  many  parents  on  putting  them 
to  bed.  They  certainly  are  not  aware  of  the  grievous  injury  they  in- 
flict by  such  'irrational  conduct.  Sleep  is  an  absolute  necessity  to  all 
animal  existence,  and  when  we  think  of  its  inestimable  benefits,  and 
wonderful  surroundings,  we  can  only  stand  mute,  and  with  emotions 
inexpressible,  refer  their  origin  to  that  INFINITE  LOVE  which  "  neith- 
er slumbers  nor  sleeps." 

In  dressing  children,  use  care  to  keep  them  warm,  keeping  flannel 
to  their  skin  during  the  entire  year,  especially  covering  the  extremi- 
ties well.  There  is  a  peculiar  fashion  most  deadly  in  its  effects,  which 
lets  children  run  about  with  bare  legs,  arms,  and  necks,  with  the  low- 
er part  of  the  dress  expanded  away  from  the  person,  thus  admitting; 
Use  chilling  cold  to  do  its  worst  Such  exposure  would  prove  certain1 
death  to  its  parents  in  less  than  a  month.  Keep  the  extremities  warm. 
bv  keeping  them  well  clothed,  and  thus  keep  up  a  free  circulation,  for 
cold  feet  and  hands  prevent  health,  and  are  the  certain  precursors  of 
disease  and  death.  Add  to  this  plenty  of  good  food,  ripe  fruit,  and 
out-door  exercise  ad  libitum,  and  you  will  have  rosy,  blooming  chil- 
dien,  as  the  result.  In  the  matter  of  out-door  exercise,  it  might  not 
be  amiss  to  use  a  little  wholesome  oversight  and  restraint,  let  them 
have  their  full  swing  in  the  enjoyment  of  exercise  calculated  to  de- 
Telop  the  frame,  such  as  running,  jumping,  playing  ball,  driving 
ho3ps,  &c. ,  but  when  it  comes  to  every  day  sport  in  the  line  of  firing 
pistols,  exploding  fire  crackers,  cracking  whips,  and  an  everlasting 
battering  of  toy  drums,  &c.,  then  I  say,  STOP  IT  AT  ONCB,  unlew 


MEDICAL   DEPARTMENT,    ETC.  171 

you  wish  to  raise  a  dangerous  boy  and  a  dangerous  man,  for  that  is 
just  the  way  to  do  it. 

Children,  or  others  who  may  be  afflicted  with    impediments  oi 
speech,  may  be  cured,  if  the  remedy  is  not  organic,  by  reading  alouo 
for  an  hour  or  two  every  day,  taking  care  to  inhale  air,  and  well  fil> 
V.the  lungs,  before  reading  each  paragraph,  as  the  cause  of  stammering 
( in  nine  cases  out  of  ten,  is  the  endeavor  to  speak  when  the  lungs  are 
empty.    Dr.  Hunt,  of  Regent  street,  London,  a  celebrated  and  suc- 
cessful stammerers'  doctor,  charged  fifty  guineas  for  effecting  cures 
ty  the  method  just  noted. 

It  is  only  in  civilized  life  that  we  find  the  most  favorable  conditions 
for  health  and  longevity.  The  poets  have  expended  much  rapturous 
sentiment  and  romance  about  "the  noble  red  man  "in  his  native 
forest,  but  a  personal  investigation  of  the  object  of  their  effusions  is 
Tery  apt  to  cause  a  sudden  revulsion  of  feeling.  A  filthy  person, 
greasy  blankets,  rank  skins,  and  other  unsavory  surroundings,  are 
apt  to  make  short  work  of  high-strung  ideas  in  the  shape  of  poetry, 
romance,  or  sentiment  Of  a  verity,  "cleanliness  is  next  to  godli- 
ness," and  it  is  indeed  a  most  auspicious  token  that  the  old  mediaeval 
ideas  regarding  the  necessary  connection  between  filth,  poverty,  and 
piety,  are  notions  belonging  to  the  past.  Human  life  has  been  abso- 
lutely lengthened  by  the  addition  of  several  years  to  a  generation, 
compared  with  what  it  was  a  hundred  years  ago,  all  owing  to  the 
observance  of  sanitary  laws,  and  it  will  continue  to  lengthen,  just  in 
the  proportion  that  these  laws  are  respected. 

Dr.  Jarvis  intimates  that  in  ancient  Rome,  in  the  period  of  200  to 
500  years  after  the  Christian  era,  the  average  duration  of  life  in  the 
most  favored  class  was  30  years,  while  in  the  present  century  the 
average  longevity  of  persons  of  the  same  class  is  50  years.  In  the 
16th  century,  the  average  longevity  in  Geneva  was  21.21  years;  be- 
tween 1814  and  1833  it  was  40.68,  and  as  large  a  proportion  now  live  to 
70  as  lived  to  43  300  years  ago.  In  1000,  only  228  medical  men  live 
from  63  to  72,  and  328  theologians.  In  the  last  50  years  the  mean 
term  of  life  seems  to  have  increased  from  33  to  41.  In  professions,  of 
those  who  attain  the  age  of  66,  there  are  found  to  be  43  Theologians, 
40  Agriculturists,  35  Men  in  office,  32  Military,  32  Clerks,  29  Advo- 
rates,  28  Artists,  27  Professors,  and  24  Medical  practitioners. 

When  man,  by  an  orderly  life,  passes  through  the  various  stages 
of  a  healthy  existence,  from  childhood  to  youth,  from  youth  to  man- 
hood, and  from  manhood  to  old  age ;  during  the  decline  of  life  he  grad- 
aally  approaches  the  verge  of  natural  decay,  and  death  takes  place 
Irom  the  gradual  effluxion  of  vitality.  Few  lives,  comparatively 
•peaking,  terminate  in  this  way,  but  when  this  consummation  is 
Attained,  and  death,  purely  natural,  takes  place,  it  must  be  regarded 
/  as  much  in  the  light  of  a  blessing  as  is  natural  birth,  for  it  is  an  orderly 
working  out  of  a  most  wise  and  beneficent  law,  and  the  nearer  advance 
,Vre  make  to  this  natural  limit  of  existence  the  better.  Death  is  usually 
Ciegarded  as  a  curse,  and  as  something  very  dreadful;  there  is  a  death 
'^nich  is  indeed  t^-rime  beyond  all  powers  of  human  conception,  but 
natural  death  is  not  so,  and  is  in  no  sense  a  calamity,  but  a  wise  pro- 
vision of  Infinite  Mercy  for  man's  highest  good. 

Harassing  thoughts,  mental  anxiety,  late  hours,  and  worriment, 
are  fruitful  causes  of  disease  in  healthy  persons,  and  of  death  in  cases 
3t  illueee.  Use  every  possible  means  to  get  rid  of  such  feelings,  and- 


J72  MEDICAL   DEPARTMENT,   ETC. 

do  not  scruple  to  make  use  of  such  diversions  or  amusements  as  wit 
etfectually  divert  an  invalid's  thoughts  from  being  too  much  eiv> 
grossed  with  self.  When  nature  calls  for  rest  and  recreation,  do  not 
neglect  the  warning.  Guard  against  extreme  fatigue  of  either  body 
or  mind, especially  a  complication  of  both  together.  Keep  the  pas- 
sions under  thorough  control;  in  doing  this  the  good  old  Quaker's, 
rale  will  be  found  of  great  assistance,  viz.,  Never  to  allow  himself  to 
speak  in  a  loud  tone  of  voice.  Nothing  preserves  health  better  than1 
a  placid  temper.  Exercise  and  physical  training  should  not  be  neg- 
lected; persons  engaged  in  sedentary  employments  should  resort  to 
•exercise,  or  rest  on  finding  their  thoughts  become  confused,  and  labor- 
ers should  not  carry  their  efforts  to  the  verge  of  exhaustion ;  the 
heart's  action  is  greatly  injured  thereby,  and  the  bad  effects  will 
become  permanent. 

Of  all  peoples,  the  Jews  are  notably  the  longest  lived  race ;  the 
reason  is  because  they  lire  orderly  lives,  they  take  care  of  themselves, 
so  to  speak,  use  proper  food,  and  abstain  from  pork,  which,  from  its- 
liability  to  prornote  diseased  conditions  of  the  blood,  and  thence  of  the 
whole  system,  is  decidedly  injurious  as  an  article  of  diet.  The  use  of 
immoderate  quantities  of  meat  has  an  unhealthy  influence  on  the 
body,  and  induces  ferocity  of  the  mind,  as  in  Indians  and  others  who 
subsist  on  it.  Plutarch  was  astonished  to  think  what  appetite  first 
induced  man  to  taste  of  a  dead  carcase,  and  Pope  said  that  the  horrid 
and  shocking  sight  of  one  of  our  modern  kitchens  gives  one  the  image- 
of  a  giant's  den  in  romance,  bestrewed  with  scattered  heads  and  man- 
gled limbs.  Vegetable  food  is  not  liable  to  distend  the  vessels,  load 
the  system,  or  becloud  the  mind,  but  the  heat,  fulness,  and  weight 
of  animal  food  is  unfavorable  to  its  efforts.  Cornaro,  the  dietetic, 
allowanced  himself  to  12  ozs.  of  dry  food  and  14  ozs.  of  liquids  per 
day,  from  the  age  of  40  to  100.  See  Dynamic  Power  of  Food. 

In  eating,  select  good  nourishing  diet,  so  as  to  insure  variety  with- 
out excess,  eat  with  regularity,  without  long  intervals  of  abstinence, 
and  eat  leisurely.  In  drinking,  avoid  taking  large  draughts  of  cold 
water,  drink  with  extrerne  moderation  during  meals,  and  avoid  drink- 
ing water  which  has  stood  long  in  rooms  or  in  lead  pipes.  Impure 
water  is  liable  to  produce  malarial  affections.  Tea  and  coffee,  if  used 
strong,  and  in  large  quantities,  are  certain  to  produce  nervous  irrita- 
bility and  brain  excitement,  but  if  used  in  moderation  and  of  mild 
strength,  they  are  most  refreshing  and  pleasant.  Nervous  persons 
will  mid  coffee  more  soothing  than  tea,  while  persons  of  a  different 
iemperament  will  be  better  suited  with  the  latter.  Beyond  all  doubt, 
and  for  almost  every  purpose,  in  health  and  disease,  pure  water  is  the 
lealthiest  beverage,  and  it  certainly  is  the  natural  drink  of  man.. 
According  to  Hoffman,  "If  there  be  any  universal  medicine  it  is 
water;  for,  by  its  assistance,  all  distempers  are  alleviated  or  cured, 
and  the  body  preserved  sound  and  free  from  corruption,  that  enemy 
io  life."  As  Dr.  Gall  said  of  another  subject,  so  the  writer  would  say 
here,  that  "This  is  TRUTH,  though  at  enmity  with  the  philosophy  of 
ages." 

ON  BATHING.— Nothing  is  of  more  transcendant  importance  to 
the  maintenance  of  health  than  cleanliness,  and  this  can  only  be 
obtained  by  the  free  use  of  water,  in  washing,  sponging,  and  bathing. 
The  modes  of  bathing  are  various,  and,  when  rightly  used,  are  most 
powerful  lor  good.  The  rule  is.  the  more  robust  the  constitution  of 


MEDICAL    DEPARTMENT,    ETC.  1/3 

the  patient,  and  higher  his  exterior  temperature,  the  colder  should 
be  tne  water.  In  bathing  it  is  always  well  to  avoid  taking  a  full  bath 
•within  two  hours  after  a  meal,  or  when  exhausted  by  fatigue,  or  when 
cooling  after  perspiration,  or  when  feeling  chilly.  Do  not  drink  cold 
water  before  bathing,  nor  eat  soon  after  it.  Females,  during  the 
menstrual  period,  should  never  take  cold  baths.  Never  take  a  cold; 
bath  while  the  feet  are  cold.  Never  chill  the  body  by  standing  or  sit- 
ting  on  the  banks  during  out-door  bathing  ;  enter  the  water  while  tbe 
ibody  is  warm,  and  avoid  remaining  too  long  in  the  water,  leaving  it 
on  the  first  feeling  of  chilliness.  Exercise  before  and  after  bathing  is 
highly  beneficial!  Feeble  and  nervous  persons  should  guard  against 
powerful  chilling  shocks  from  cold  water.  The  young  and  vigorous; 
may  bathe  early  in  the  morning  on  an  empty  stomach.  Persons  sub- 
jected to  giddiness,  faintness,  palpitation,  or  other  affections  of  tha 
heart,  should  use  a  cold  bath  with  extreme  caution. 

THE  COLD  BATH,  usually  taken  in  the  sea  or  in  a  river,  tempera- 
ture from  35°  to  65°  Fahr.,  has  a  most  powerful,  exhilarating  and1. 
tonic  effect  on  the  frame,  and  imparts  a  vigorous  glow  and  stimulus 
to  the  system.  It  should  not  be  continued  longer  than  two  or  three* 
minutes. 

THE  TEMPERATE  BATH,  ranging  from  05°  to  80°  Fahr.,  is  nnifchi 
preferable  to  the  last  for  the  use  of  invalids.  Duration  of  bath  should 
uot  be  extended  over  three  minutes,  and  the  whole  body  should  be- 
thoroughly  rubbed  dry  with  a  coarse  towel,  to  induce  a  glow. 

THE  FULL  WARM  BATH,  taken  in  the  ordinary  long  bath  tubs, 
as  arranged  by  plumbers  in  dwellings,  hotels,  &c.,  are  in  the  highest; 
degree  prornotive  of  health  and  comfort.  Fitted  with  hot  and  cold, 
•water  connections,  any  desired  temperature  may  be  obtained,  but  for  • 
the  best  effect  it  should  range  from  90°  to  98°  ;  better  under  that: 
than  over  it.  The  benefits  will  be  increased  by  the  use  of  carboijate  • 
of  soda,  4  ozs.  to  30  gals,  water.  This  rids  the  system  of  much  effete : 
Matter,  promotes  the  cure  of  disease,  and  thoroughly  cleanses  the  • 
emunctories.  After  bathing,  rub  thoroughly  dry. 

THE  HOT  BATH,  ranging  from  98°  to  112°,  thoroughly  stimulates 
the  nervous  system,  but  immersion  cannot  be  prolonged 'over  two  or 
three  minutes  without  permanent  injury.  Water  scalds  at '150°? Irate 
air  heated  to  260°  is  not  painful.  It  is  not  safe  to  tjamper  much  \rffb; 
guch  high  temperatures,  although  Berger  remained  seven  minntes  in 
an  oven,  heated  to  230°.  Blagden  exceeded  this,  remaining  eight: 
minutes  in  a  temperature  of  from  240°  to  260°.  Delaroche  could  not  re- 
main more  than  10  minutes  in  a  vapor  bath  at  100°.  Berger  was  obliged: 
to  get  out  of  a  vapor  bath  at  a  temperature  of  122°  in  twelve  and  » 
half  minutes.  The  sensation  in  hot  vapor  resembles  that  of  contact 
with  boiling  water.  Fish  actually  live  in  hot  baths  up  to  ISO10.  Trees? 
also  grow  m  a  bath  at  170°  ;  flowers  near  a  volcano,  at  210°  ;  and! 
•water-plants  are  found  in  boiling  springs.  The  king's  bath  at  Batk  t 
is  116°,  the  hot  bath  is  117°,  at  Vichy  120°,  at  Aix  la  Chapelle  140°.  ' 
In  the  hot  springs  at  Leuk,  in  Switzerland,  the  temperature  of  twenty 
eprings  varies  from  95°  to  125°  ;  the  baths  are  given  at  98°,  and,  km 
make  it  as  agreeable  as  possible,  the  patients  bathe  together,  both 
men  and  women,  dressed  for  the  occasion.  In  the  Herrabad,  you 
may  see  the  curious  spectacle  of  people  seated  up  to  their  necks  in 
the  bath,  with  coffee,  books,  cards,  newspapers,  work,  &c.,  before* 
tbem  on  little  floating  tables,  «r  gossiping  together  or  w»th  theft  ^ 


r/4 


MEDICAL    DEPARTMENT,   ETC. 


friends,  who  look  on  from  the  wooden  gallery  which  runs  around 
the  wall.  The  waters  are  both  drank  and  bathed  in,  being  considered 
excellent  for  weak  nerves,  palsy,  diseases  of  the  skin,  and  many 
chronic  complaints.  Elevation,  4675  feet  above  the  sea. 

POOB  MAN'S  VAPOR  BATH.  Heat  two  or  three  bricks  and  place 
them  under  the  patient's  chair,  sprinkle  some  water  over  the  bricks, 
and  cover  the  patient  to  keep  in  the  steam,  or,  a  large  lump  of  quick 
lime  placed  in  a  pan  or  old  iron  pot  and  sprinkled  with  water,  or 
-wrapped  up  in  a  wet,  coarse  towel.  Neither  of  these  methods,  however, 
are  fit  all  comparable  to  the  efficiency  of  a  properly  administered  va- 
por bath,  either  pure  or  medicated,  in  which  the  temperature  of  the 
steam,  &c.,  can  be  regulated  as  follows:  Temperature  of  tenid  vapor 
bath,  to  be  breathed,  90°  to  100°,  warm  ditto  100°  to  110°,  hot  ditto 
110°  to  130°;  not  to  be  breathed,  tepid  bath,  96°  to  106°,  warm  J06° 
to  120°,  hot  120°  to  130°.  These  baths  have  performed  wonders  in 
cases  of  chronic  rheumatism,  stiffness  of  joints,  indurations,  diarrhoea, 
suppressions,  &c. 

THE  .SPONGE  BATH  is  a  means  of  health  of  such  transcendant  im- 
portance, that  in  the  absence  of  other  bathing  facilities,  it  should  never 
be  neglected  for  a  single  day.  It  is  a  powerful  conserver  of  health, 
and  affords  positive  relief  in  almost  every  phase  of  disease.  The 
water  may  be  used  of  any  desired  temperature.  Apply  with  a  towel 
or  sponge,  and  when  through  polish  off  with  a  regular  hard  finish 
with  a  coarse  towel,  or  still  better,  two  of  them,  well  laid  on,  the  last 
•one  dry,  to  induce  a  glow  on  the  skin  by  friction. 


THE  SITTING  OB  SITZ  BATH,  Fig.  1,  should  be  arranged  to  admit 
of  the  complete  immersion  of  the  lower  part  of  the  back  and  abdo- 
minal regions,  the  thighs,  &c.,  with  ample  room  for  laving  the  watet 
.and  kneading  the  parts.  The  cold  tonic  bath  given  in  this  way  is  ex- 
cellent for  diseases  of  the  kidneys,  bladder,  urino-genital  organs, 
•piles,  constipation,  &c.  In  cases  of  colic,  spasm,  griping  pains, 
gravel,  suppressed  or  painful  menstruation,  inflammation,  &c.,  it 
ehould  be  given  warm  in  order  to  prove  effective.  Cover  the  patient, 
If  need  be,  to  prevent  catching  cold.  The  cuts  are  borrowed  from  an 

jllent  little  work  by  Dr.  Trail,  entitled,  "The  Bath  :  its  History 
Uses  in  Health  and  Disease  ;"  published  by  S.  R.  Well*,  X«w  t 


MBDICAL    DEPARTMENT,   ETC. 


175 


KbiAD  BATH,  Fig.  2,  is  taken  by  placing  the  patient  on  hia 
back,  on  a  mattress,  with  his  head  in  a  shallow  basin  (made  with  a 
depression  in  the  rim  to  accommodate  the  neck)  with  about  3  inches 
of  water,  warm  or  cold,  as  may  be  desired.  A  most  excellent  cooling 
Application  for  affections  of  the  head,  brain,  &c. 


•  THE  DOUCHE  BATH,  Fig.  3,  consists  of  a  jet  of  water  used  as  a 
stimulant  in  lethargic  states  of  the  system ;  also  as  a  remedy  for  swel- 
lings, sprains,  stiff  joints,  rheumatic  affections,  &c.,  applied  directly 
to  the  parts,  as  shown  above.  A  jet  from  a  hose  may  be  used  as  a 
eubstitute  for  the  douche  bath  in  certain  cases. 

THE  SHALLOW  BATH,  Fig.  4,  may  be  used  with  immense  advan- 
tage both  by  invalids  and  persons  in  health ;  the  water  may  be  used 
at  any  desired  temperature,  not  more  than  6  inches  deep,  contained  in 
a  spacious  tub.  The  water  should  be  thoroughly  applied  over  the 
In-east, abdomen,  sides,  thighs,  and  extremities;  the  head  should  be 
•wet,  and  water,  cold,  or  otherwise,  as  desired,  poured  over  the  neck 
and  shoulders  by  an  assistant.  This  bath  is  excellent  for  brain  affec- 
tions, headache,  &c.  The  bath  may  be  used  for  from  5  to  15  minutes; 
inb  thoroughly  to  dry  and  induce  a  healthy  glow  on  the  skin. 

THE  WET  SHEET  PACK,  Fig.  5.  This  is  a  most  powerful  remedial 
agent  for  invalids.  Immerse  a  cotton  or  linen  sheet  in  a  pail  of  cold 
•water,  remove  the  bed  clothes  from  the  mattress,  and  on  the  mattress 
spread  a  coverlet;  then  two  or  three  blankets,  next,  wring  out  the 
wet  sheet  in  the  bucket  of  water,  and  spread  it  over  the  blankets.  The 
patient  will  now  warm  his  feet,  divest  himself  of  clothing,  and  place 
himself  at  full  length  on  the  cold  wet  sheet,  with  his  hands  placed  over 
his  breast.  The  sheet,  blankets  and  coverlets  are  now  tucked  in  close- 
ly all  around  his  body  by  an  attendant,  the  head  is  elevated  on  pil- 
lows, and  covered  with  a  wet  cloth.  The  first  sensation  is  that  of  a 
chill,  which  gives  place  almost  immediately  to  a  comfortable  glow, 
gradually  increasing  to  a  sweat.  The  patient  should  remain  in  th» 
pack  from  25  minutes  to  an  hour  or  more.  Some  have  been  know* 


176 


MEDICAL    DEPARTMENT,   ETC. 


to  fall  asleep  in  it.  To  receive  the  fullest  benefit,  it  should  be  followed 
at  once  by  a  plunge  bath  (See  Fig.  6),  or  thorough  ablation  in  cold 
water  previous  to  dressing.  Then  rub  with  friction  by  means  of  a 
coarse  towel.  In  cases  of  severe  disease,  the  benefit  t)f  this  treat- 
ment is  manifest  from  the  very  offensive  odor  imparted  by  the  per* 


epirations  to  the  sheet.  Mercury,  also,  which  had  lodged  in  the  sys- 
tem for  years,  having  been  taken  under  the  guise  of  calomel,  has 
been  withdrawn  through  the  pores  by  the  wet  sheet,  and  detected  in 
its  woven  fabric.  The  wet  sheet  pack  is  of  great  value  in  fevers,  colds 
chronic  diseases,  and  general  derangement  of  the  system. 

SPIRIT  VAPOR  BATH.  The  patient  divested  of  all  clothing  except 
a  night  shirt,  is  seated  on  a  wooden  bottomed  chair,  and  well  covered 
before  and  behind  with  blankets  or  coverlets  reaching  from  his. 
shoulders  to  the  floor.  A  saucer  containing  a  few  spoonfuls  of  alcho- 
hoi,  whiskey  or  any  spirit  that  will  burn,  is  now  placed  on  the  floor 
under  the  chair  and  ignited.  The  vapor  ascends,  and,  confined  by  the 
blankets,  it  will  soon  induce  a  copious  perspiration  from  every  pore  o£ 
the  body  subject  to  its  action.  The  spirit  may  be  replenished  when  it 
burns  out,  but  not  while  burning  or  while  under  the  patient,  owing 
to  the  possible  resulting  danger.  The  operation  is  highly  beneficial  to 
the  system,  and  may  last  from  10  to  15  minutes,  or  until  a  free  per- 
epiration  is  induced.  Be  careful  that  no  damage  results  to  the  patient 
«r  his  clothing  from  the  burning  spirit:  , 

FOR  SPONGIO  PILINE,  see  Portable  Bath. 

SULPHUR  AND  MEDICATED  BATHS. — The  former  is  compounded  by 
mixing  sulphuret  of  potassium  4  ozs.  and  sulphuric  acid  1  oz.  in  30 
gals,  of  water.  The  latter  are  decoctions  of  vegetable  or  other  mate- 
rials in  water,  in  which  the  patient  is  immersed ;  or,  it  can  be  applied 
•with  a  sponge  if  so  desired,  and  may  be  tepid,  warm,  or  hot,  as  pre- 
ferred. 

THE  AIR  BATH,  taken  by  exposing  the  naked  body  to  the  air  in  a 
cool  room,  is  very  salutary  and  beneficial.  When  not  carried  too  far, 
it  is  very  soothing  in  its  effects,  and,  in  wakeful  states,  is  promptiva 
of  gleep.  The  good  effects  are  greatly  enhanced  by  friction  with  a 
towel  during  exposure.  The  same  remarks  are  eminently  true  when 


MEDICAL    DEPARTMENT.  17? 

tmderstpod  of  sun-bathing,  or  exposure  of  the  nude  body  So  fhe  sun, 
which,  in  certain  diseased  conditions,  has  a  most  vivifying  Mid  in- 
Yigorating  effect. 

GALVANIC,  ELECTRIC,  AND  MAGNETIC  BATHS. — The  first  is  taken 
by  placing  the  patient  in  a  wooden  bath  tub  (or  in  a  painted  metallic 
tub),  filled  with  water  impregnated  with  any  desired  drug.  The  nega- 
tive pole  of  the  battery  is  suspended  in  the  water,  and  a  wire  con* 
nected  with  the  positive  pole,  with  a  sponge  attached,  communicates 
•with  the  body.  The  electric  current  from  the  positive  pole  enters  the 
body  and  escapes  through  the  pores.  The  effect  is  beneficial  in  the 
highest  degree.  An  electro-positive  bath  is  given  while  the  patient  is 
seated  on  a  chair,  insulated  by  placing  glass  under  the  feet.  While 
the  glass  plate  of  the  electric  machine  is  being  revolved,  the  patient 
holds  the  prime  conductor,  and  his  body  becomes  charged  with  posi- 
tive electricity.  The  effect  is  very  stimulating  to  deficient  vitality. 

THE  ACID  BATH  is  highly  beneficial  in  liver  and  other  complaints, 
and  may  be  compounded  with  water  acidified  with  vinegar,  or  with 
•water,  30  gals.,  muriatic  acid,  14  ozs.  Use  the  latter  in  a  wooden  tub 
or  non-metallic  vessel,  as  the  acid  is  inimical  to  metals.  « 

THE  SHOWER  BATH,  with  cold  water,  never  fails  to  produce  a 
shock  which  nervous  and  weak  patients  find  it  very  hard  to  with- 
stand; but,  to  persons  of  strong  constitution,  it  cannot  fail  to  prove 
beneficial,  for  the  shock  is  usually  succeeded  by  a  most  agreeable  re- 
action. This  bath  may,  however,  be  rendered  agreeable,  even  to  tha 
feeble,  by  the  use  of  tepid  or  warm  water,  applied  in  the  form  of  a 
delicate  spray,  passed  through  minute  perforations  in  a  tin  vessel 
placed  overhead,  and  fitted  wuth  a  proper  apparatus  for  regulating  the 
descent. 

THE  FOOT  BATH  is  calculated  to  produce  the  most  decided  benefit 
in  correcting  cold  feet,  induced  by  liver  complaint,  etc.;  also,  to  relieve 
heat  in  the  head,  caused  by  fullness  of  blood  on  the  brain,  with  cold 
extremities.  In  such  cases,  use  warm  or  hot  water,  with  the  addition 
of  mustard  or  cayenne  pepper.  In  cases  of  swelled  limbs,  ulcers, 
rheumatic  pains,  e'tc.,  great  relief  \vill  be  obtained  by  extending  the 
treatment  to  the  legs,  knees,  limbs,  etc.,  thoroughly  washing  and  lav- 
ing the  parts. 

THE  MUD  BATH,  equivocal  as  it  may  appear,  is  nevertheless  one 
of  the  most  powerful  remedial  agents.  On  the  principle  that  charcoal 
purifies  foul  water,  absorbing  its  impurities,  so  mud  acts  on  the  body, 
opening  the  pores,  withdrawing  effete  matter,  cooling  the  skin,  and 
curing  disease.  If  any  diseased  person  doubts  this,  let  him  put  it  to 
the  test. 

THE  IODINE  BATH,  for  adults,  is  compounded  of  iodine,  1  dr. ; 
iodide  of  potassium,  2  drs. ;  water,  20  gals.  For  children's  use,  it 
should  be  weaker.  It  is  not  adapted  for  indiscriminate  use,  but  for 
diseases  affecting  the  glands,  tubercular  troubles,  scrofula,  etc.  The, 
iodine  vapor  bath  may  be  used  as  described  under  spirit  vapor  bath. 

THE  TURKISH  BATH,  by  means  of  dry  heated  air,  is  one  which 
may  be,  and  often  is,  productive  of  much  benefit  in  diseased  con- » 
ditions  of  the  body,  but  is  most  inimical  to  health  when  used  with 
regularity  as  a  social  enjoyment  or  luxury.  Wherever  it  has  become 
a  national  custom,  this  bath  has  always  proved  the  principal  agency 
in  sealing  the  doom  of  that  nation,  as  witness  the  collapsed  Rome  of 
the  past,  and  the  reeling  Turkey  of  the  present.  In  reference  to  this 


178  MEDICAL    HE-PARTMENT. 

»ne  of  the  most  prominent  medical  practitioners  of  the  day,  Dt 
Eichardson,  of  London,  writes  to  the  British  Medical  Review,  as  fol« 
tows:  "  I  predict  it  will  be  the  same  here,  under  the  same  principles. 
I  predict  that  whenever  Englishmen  give  up  the  active  occupations  I 
have  named  (he  had  been  urging  healthy  men  to  spend  the  time  re- 
quired for  the  bath  in  digging,  walking,  rowing,  rifle  drill,  cricketing, 
etc. ),  and,  in  slippered  pantaloons,  luxuriate  daily  in  a  bath,  to  rid 
themselves  of  the  products  of  excretion,  then  this  country  will  have 
passed  its  zenith.  Then  there  will  be  no  great  hero  to  bid  every  man 
do  his  duty,  no  man  to  do  the  duty,  and  no  England  for  which  the 
duty  should  be  done." 

"She  foregoing,  presenting  a  choice  of  between  20  and  30  different 
methods  of  bathing,  is  of  great  utility  to  all,  but  especially  so  in  the 
prevention  and  cure  of  the  complex  and  delicate  affections  to  which 
females  are  liable,  and  which  call  for  such  careful  treatment  from 
medical  practitioners.  There  is  room  for  deep  regret  that  this  class 
t>f  diseases  has  opened  a  wide  field  for  the  operations  of  numerous 
tapacious  and  incompetent  men,  who  are  a  disgrace  to  the  profession, 
fcnd  whose  ravenous  proclivities  and  infamous  practices  blind  them  to 
everything  but  the  acquisition  of  plunder.  The  medical  profession,  as 
fc  class,  have  always  been  held  in  high  estimation ;  so  much  so,  that,  - 
during  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Augustus,  they  were  exempted  from 
the  payment  of  taxes ;  and  tha/j  there  should  be  so  many  cormorants 
in  their  ranks,  is  regretted  by  none  more  sincerely  than  by  the  respect- 
fcble  members  of  the  profession.  The  real  impostor  is  generally 
known  by  his  resonant  puffs,  in  the  shape  of  advertisements,  in 
which,  while  uttering  the  most  savage  maledictions  against  quacks 
and  quackery,  he  almost  lays  personal  claim  to  the  powers  of  omnipo- 
tence in  the  cure  of  disease.  These  incorrigible  rascals  generally 
parade  a  dazzling  list  of  fictitious  certificates  of  cures  performed  by 
them  where  every  other  doctor  had  failed ;  but  they  will  not  hesitate 
to  act  the  thief  as  nearly  as  the  law  allows,  and  strip  their  victim  of 
his  or  her  last  dollar,  exacted  for  services  fifty  times  worse  than  use- 
less. 

Grateful,  indeed,  should  he  be  who  escapes  with  nothing  worsa 
than  the  loss  of  his  money.  The  advertising  uack  is  generally  a 
dead  shot,  something  of  the  Dr.  Hornbook  genus;  ,-  immortalized  by 
Burns,  very  profuse  in  his  promises  to  cure  disease  and  conceal  in- 
firmities, but  like  his  illustrious  prototype,  very  uncanny,  and  alto- 
gether too  ready  to  send  his  patients  "  aff  to  their  lang  hame,  to  hid* 
them  there." 

In  England,  previous  to  the  advent  of  the  modern  newspaper,  the 
quack  used  to  transfcrm  himself  into  a  living  advertisement,  by  itin- 
erating through  the  provincial  towns  in  a  blazing  uniform,  dressed 
like  a  mountebank,  with  cocked  hat  and  wig.  Accompanied  by  an.< 
Assistant,  he  would  mount  a  platform,  gather  an  immense  crowd,  and 
proceed  to  deliver  an  extravagant  eulogium  on  his  profound  skill,  pro- 
digious wealth,  and  the  wonderful  virtues  of  his  pills,  panaceas  and 
elixirs,  as  he  offered  them  for  sale.  The  assistant,  who  seemed  to  an- 
swer to  the  character  of  a  modern  clown  in  a  circus,  would  aid  with 
the  sales,  and  keep  up  the  farce  by  making  witty  remarks  on  the  doc- 
tor's wild  averments.  For  example,  after  listening  to  the  doctor's 
4  Statements  regarding  his  boundless  wealth,  and  great  condescension 
la  contenting  to  travel  for  the  purpose  of  healing  the  sick,  as  he  wa* 


MEDICAL  DEPARTME:NT. 

not  obliged  to  do  so  for  want,  the  clown  would  announce  to  the  an- 
dience  that  "  The  doctor  tells  the  truth,  we  doant  need  to  travel  for 
want,  for  we  have  enoof  of  that  at  hoam."  The  result  is  a  ^oud 
laugh,  the  crowd  is  in  good  humor,  the  pills,  elixirs,  etc.,  are  sold, 
and  the  buyers  are  sold  at  the  same  time. 

PRACTICAL  DIETETIC  ECONOMIES.  —  The  following  table,  com- 
piled from  various  authorities,  is  eminently  and  practically  useful, 
presenting  as  it  does  at  a  glance  the  available  percentage  of  nutritive 
elements  contained  in  the  leading  staples  used  as  human  food. 


Raw  Cucumbers 

2 

Broiled  Venison  .  .  . 

22 

Boiled  Beans  

87 

"    Melons 

3 

Potatoes      

22>£ 

Boiled  Rice  

88 

Boiled  Turnips 

414 

Fried  Veal 

24 

Barley  Bread 

89 

Milk 

1 

Roast  Pork  

24 

Wheat  Bread  .  . 

.  99 

Cabbage  

Roast  Poultry  

26 

Baked  Corn  Bread  . 

91 

Currants 

10 

Raw  Beef  

26 

Boiled  Barley  .  . 

9? 

Whipped  Eggs 

13 

"    Grapes 

27 

Butter  . 

92 

Beets              

14 

"    Plums  

29 

Boiled  Peas  

9T 

16 

Broiled  Mutton  . 

30 

Raw  Oils  

95 

Peaches  

20 

Oatmeal  Porridge. 

75 

Boiled  Codfish  .  . 

21 

Rye  Bread  .  . 

79 

For  further  details  on  this  -subject  see  tables  on  pp.  (523  and  765. 
The  figures  present  a  diversity,  but  the  general  results  are  fixed  and 
invariable,  presenting  to  the  economist  the  relative  amount  of  nutri- 
ment supplied  by  each  kind  of  food.  From  the  evidence  presented 
it  will  be  seen  that  the  most  wholesome  and  nutritious  articles,  aa 
oatmeal,  flour,  peas,  beans,  rice,  crushed  wheat,  corn  bread,  etc.,  are. 
vastly  superior  to  beef  in  supplying  effective  ability  to  labor,  besides 
being,  in  the  leading  markets  of  the  world,  obtainable  at  about  one- 
third  the  price  of  tha  latter.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  nutriment  sup- 
plied by  beef  is  26  per  cent.,  while  the  cereals  yield  from  75  to  95  per 
cent.  ;  while  there  is  no  room  for  dispute  as  to  the  comparative 
healthiness  of  the  different  kinds  of  diet.  The  bounding  circulation, 
good  digestion,  and  mental  activity  enjoyed  by  day,  together  with 
the  sound  sleep  accorded  by  night,  to  the  man  who  prefers  plain  to 
luxurious  living,  and  vegetable  to  animal  food,  are  certainly  well 
worth  striving  for.  If  a  fair  percentage  of  wholesome  ripe  fruit  be 
used  with  the  above  noted  diet,  its  value  and  the  enjoyment  of  usingf 
it  will  be  greatly  enhanced.  After  all  that  can  be  said,  pro  and  cony 
touching  a  vegetable  diet,  certain  are  we  that  the  average  man  who 
Jmits  himself  to  a  well-selected  regimen  of  vegetable  food  will,  ac- 
jklents  aside,  go  through  life  with  a  clear  mind  in  a  healthy  body, 
will  sleep  sounder,  and  come  nearer  the  alloted  age  of  three-score 
and  ten,  have  a  better  digestion,  and  have  fewer  headaches,  than  thr 
man  who  indulges  in  roast  beef  with  the  usual  variations  ad  libitum. 

EFFECTS  OF  TUB  SOLAR  LIGHT  ON  LUNATICS.  —  Dr.  Ponza,  di- 
rector of  the  Lunatic  Asylum  at  Alessandria,  Piedmont,  having  con- 
:  ceived  the  idea  that  the  solar  rays  might  have  some  curative  power 
in  diseases  of  the  brain,  the  experiment  was  tried  in  rooms  lighted 
"by  stained  glass,  the  walls  being  painted  the  same  color  as  the  win- 
dows. The  patients  passed  the  night  in  rooms  oriented  to  the  east 
and  south,  and  painted  and  glazed  as  above.  One  of  them,  affected 
with  morbid  taciturnity,  became  gay  and  affable  after  3  hours'  stay  i«i 
a  red  chamber;  another,  a  maniac  who  refused  all  food,  asked  for 
eome  breakfast  after  having  stayed  24  hours  in  the  game  red  chjuu* 


180  MEDICAL    DEPARTMENT. 

Aer.  In  a  blue  one,  a  highly  excited  madman  with  a  straight 
•eoat  on,  was  kept  all  day,  an  hour  after  he  appeared  much  calmer. 
The  action  of  blue  light  is  very  intense  on  the  optic  nerve,  and  seem* 
to  cause  a  sort  of  oppression.  A  patient  was  made  to  pass  the  night 
in  a  violet  chamber  ;  on  the  following  day  he  begged  Dr.  Ponza  to 
send  him  home,  because  he  felt  himself  cured,  and  indeed  he  has 
been  well  ever  since.  Dr.  Pouza's  conclusions  from  his  experiments, 
are  these:  "  The  violet  rays,  are,  of  all  others,  those  that  possess 
the  most  intense  electro-chemical  power.  The  red  light  is  also  very- 
rich  in  calorific  rays :  blue  light,  on  the  contrary,  is  quite  devoid  of 
them,  as  well  as  of  chemical  and  electric  ones.  Its  beneficent  influ- 
ence is  hard  to  explain  ;  as  it  is  the  absolute  negation  of  all  excite- 
ment, it  succeeds  admirably  in  calming  the  furious  excitement  of 
maniacs." 

WEAK  BACK. — Take  a  beef's  gall,  pour  into  it  1  pint  alcohol,  and 
bathe  frequently.  It  acts  like  a  charm. 

SPRAINED  ANKLE.— Wash  the  ankle  frequently  with  eold  salt 
And  water,  which  is  far  better  than  warm  vinegar  or  decoctions  of 
herbs.  Keep  your  foot  as  cold  as  possible  to  prevent  inflammation, 
and  sit  with  it'elevated  on  a  cushion. 

SPITTING  OF  BLOOD. — Two  spoonfuls  of  sage  juice  in  a  little 
iteney,  will  speedily  stop  either  gpittiiig  or  vomiting  blood,  or,  take 
20  grains  in.  water  every  two  hours. 

APOPLEXY. — Occurs  only  in  the  corpulent  or  among  high  livers. 
To  treat — raise  the  head  in  a  nearly  upright  position  ;  unloose  all 
tight  clothes,  strings,  etc.,  and  apply  cold  water  to  the  head,  and 
warm  water  and  warm  cloths  to  the  feet.  Have  the  apartment  cool 
.and  well  ventilated.  Give  nothing  by  the  mouth  until  the  breathing 
is  relieved,  and  then  only  draughts  of  cold  water. 

BRIGHT'S  DISEASE.  —  Dr.  Arthur  Scott  Donkin,  extols  a  skim 
milk  diet  in  this  disease.  "The  first  appreciable  action,"  he  says, 
"  of  skim  milk  taken  to  the  extent  of  6  or  7  pts.  daily,  is  that  of  a 
most  energetic  diuretic,  a  profuse  flow  of  urine  being  rapidly  pro- 
duced. The  effect  of  this  in  Bright's  disease,  is  to  flush  the  urinifer- 
ous  tubules,  and  to  dislodge  and  wash  out  the  concrete  casts  of  dis- 
eased epithelial  cells  by  which  they  are  blocked  up  and  distended. 
The  emptying  of  the  tubules  relieves  their  pressure  on  the  surround- 
ing secondary  capillaries,  the  blood  begins  to  flow  more  freely  through 
them,  the  distension  of  the  primary  malpighian  capillaries,  is  re- 
lieved ;  less  and  less  albumen  escapes  through  their  walls,  until  the 
renal  circulation  is  gradually  restored,  when  it  finally  disappears 
from  the  urine.  While  this  beneficial  change  is  progressing,  healthy 
epithelium  is  developed  in  the  tubules,  and  the  urinary  excrement  is 
withdra\yn  from  the  blood.  In  short,  a  healthy  nutrition  becomes 
rs-established  in  the  kidneys  through  the  agency  of  milk,  which, 
3bove  all  other  substances,  seems  to  exercise  a  controlling  influence 
Dver  this  process. 

REMEDY  FOR  GOUT  AND  RHEUMATISM.— Guni  guaiacum,  1  oz.;, 
rhubarb  in  powder,  2  drs. ;  flour  of  sulphur,  2  ozs. ;  cream  of  tartar, 
1  oz.,  ginger  powder  1  pz.;  make  into  an  electuary  with  molasses. 
Dose  :  2  teaspoonfuls,  night  and  morning.  Rheumatic  Plaster,  resm  £ 
lb.,  sulphur  I  lb.,  melt  them  by  a  slow  fire  ;  then  add  cayenne  pepper 
1  oz.,  camphor  gum  £  oz.  Stir  well  till  mixed,  and  temper  with  neats- 
ioot  oil.  To  guard  against  rheumatism,  adhere  to  a  regular  di«^ 
fcreath  pure  air,  and  avoid  osposure.  - 


MEDICAL    DEPARTMENT 


IHDtrSTRY  PROMOTES  BODILY  HEALTH  AND  MENTAL  ACTIVITY. 

Every  true  man  will  most  willingly  concur  in  the  royal  asseveim- 
%ion  of  old  king  Solomon,  that  the  price  of  a  wise,  virtuous,  and 
good  woman,  "is  far  above  rubies."  Poets  of  every  age  and  race, 
have  sung  her  praises,  and  many  a  man  has  had  abundant  reason  tr 


182  MEDICAL    DEPARTMENT. 

thank  his  Maker  for  an  inestimable  blessing  in  the  companionship  oft 
a  virtuous,  loving,  devoted  and  affectionate  wife.  What  earthly 
prize  can  for  a  moment  be  compared  with  this.  In  her  person  we  see 
the  perfection  of  loveliness — modesty,  grace,  and  beauty  ;  in  her 
voice  we  hear  the  sweetest  music  ;  iii  her  mind  we  see  a  fragrant 
blendhig  of  the  most  attractive  attributes,  and  the  nearest  created 
approximation  to  that  Love  which  is  Infinite.  Sherlock  avers  that 
"  The  perception  of  woman  is  as  quick  as  lightning.  Her  penetra- 
tion is  intuition :  almost  instinct.  B^  a  glance  she  will  draw  a  deep 
and  just  conclusion.  Ask  her  how"  she  formed  it,  and  .she  cannot 
answer  the  question.  While  she  trusts  her  instinct  she  is  scarcely 
ever  deceived,  but  she  is  generally  lost  when  she  commences  to  reac 
eon." 

Every  one  knows  that  this  is  true,  but  very  few  know  the  reason 
why  it  is  so.  This  we  find  unfolded  in  the  following  quotation  from 
the  illumined  Swedenborg  :  "  The  man  is  born  to  be  intellectual 
thus  to  think  from  the  understanding,  but  the  woman  is  born  to  be- 
voluntary,  thus  to  think  from  the  will;  which  also  is  evident  from  the 
inclination  or  connate  disposition  of  each,  as  also  from  their  form. 
From  the  disposition,  in  that  the  man  acts  from  reason,  but  the 
-voman  from  affection.  From  the  form,  in  that  the  man  has  a 
rougher  and  less  beautiful  face,  a  heavier  speech,  and  a  harder  body, 
but  the  woman  has  a  smoother  and  more  beautiful  face,  a  more  ten- 
der speech,  and  a  softer  body.  Similar  is  the  distinction  between 
the  understanding  and  the  will,  or  between  thought  and  affection." 
Again,  "The  male  is  born  into  the  affection  of  knowing,  of  under- 
standing, and  of  being  wise,  and  the  female  is  born  into  the  love  of 
con  joining  herself  with  that  affection  in  the  male."  The  special  at- 
tributes of  the  will  principle  are  perception,  affection,  and  every  re- 
eultant  feminine  grace,  or  in  one  word — LOVE. 


subject, 

hear  Swedenborg  once  more  :  "  Love  truly  conjugal,  considered  in 
its  origin,  and  its  correspondence,  is  heavenly,  spiritual,  pure,  and 
*lean,  above  every  love  which  is  Avith  the  angels  of  heaven  and  the 
men  of  the  church."  Again,  "  I  know  that  few  will  acknowledge, 
that  all  joys  and  delights,  from  first  to  last,  are  gathered  into  conju- 
gal love,  because  that  love  truly  conjugal,  is  at  this  day  so  rare,  that 
"what  it  is  is  not  known,  and  scarcely  that  it  is."  We  may  learn 
from  this,  that  love  is  of  heavenly  origin,  and  was  given  that  it  might. 
be  used  for  heavenly  ends  and  purposes.  It  follows  from  this  there- 
fore, that  in  order  to  attain  to  a  full  and  healthy  mental  and  physical 
development,  it  is  imperiously  necessary  that  immorality  and  un- 
chastity  in  every  form,  should  be  discountenanced  and  shunned,  for 
it  is  only  in  total  abstinence  from  impurity  and  illicit  pleasures,  that 
we  can  find  immunity  from  ruin,  degradation,  and  death.  This  in 
true  in  the  case  of  man,  and  it  is  still  more  so  in  the  case  of  woman, 
for  in  almost  every  case  after  the  first  false  step,  she  is  led  on  tc 
•wift  destruction  by  the  ascendancy  of  her  affections,  without  being 
arrested  in  her  career  by  the  wholesome  restraint  of  the  reflective  ot 
lessening  faculties  which  operate  so  powerfully  ir  man.  Every 
means  should  be  employed  that  will  operate  to  prevent  such  a  baleitLi 
•seneummatiou.  Ail  obscene,  innuoral,  and  impure  boolr ;.  everything 


MEDICAL   DEPARTMENT.  183 

In  the  shape  of  literature  which  tends  to  inflame  the  passions,  pro- 
mote licentiousness,  and  corrode  purity  of  mind,  should  be  at  onc« 
deposited  in  the  only  place  where  they  will  prove  inocuous — in  the 
tire.  Labor  to  elevate  and  train  the  faculties  of  the  soul  in  the  love 
and  practice  of  what  is  good  and  true;  rule  the  propensities,  and 
hold  them  in  abeyance,  remembering  that  no  victory  is  at  all  com- 
parable with  that  obtained  over  self. 

Perhaps  the  intenscst  longing  of  which  a  good  woman's  he«rt  i* 
susceptible,  is  after  union  and  intimate  conjunction  with  a  wortuy 
husband.  It  may  be  no  news  to  inform  such  women  that  nothing 
attracts  the  opposite  sex  to  them  compared  with  a  tender  and  win- 
ning manner,  blended  with  feminine  sweetness  of  temper.  The 
gweet  temper  is  a  crowning  charm,  together  with  the  female  grace 
which  seems  to  solicit  and  invite,  while  at  the  same  time  it  modestly 
repels.  Men  never  respect  boldness  or  audacity  in  women.  What 
they  most  desire  to  see  in  them  is  something  in  which  they  are  de< 
cidedly  deficient  themselves.  Prof.  Tyndall,  the  scientist,  a  man  of 
great  scientific  attainments,  is  now  fifty-six  years  of  age,  and  but 
lately  married.  On  being  interrogated  by  a  friend  previous  to  his- 
marriage,  as  to  what  attractions  he  saw  in  his  intended  which  drew 
forth  his  preference  for  her  more  than  for  others,  the  characteristic 
reply  was:  "Less  dynamic  force."  It  has  been  so  in  all  ages,  and; 
will  so  continue. 

In  every  possible  way  try  to  act  in  a  natural  and  becoming  man- 
ner, without  affectation.  Dress  according  to  your  means  and  Sta- 
tion, if  you  will,  but  always  in  a  modest,  unassuming  style,  and  dis- 
card at  once  and  forever  all  those  wretched  shams  and  miserable 
appliances  in  the  ehape  of  padding,  painting,  perfuming,  curling, 
tight  lacing,  etc.,  which  are  calculated  to  ruin^the  health  and  deceive 
the  observer.  Cultivate  kindness,  cheerfulness,  an  even  quiet 
temper,  and  repress  asperities  of  every  kind. 

If  the  mother  be  endowed  with  physical  vigor,  a  pure  moral  char- 
acter, and  is,  in  her  domestic  relations,  a  becoming  model  of  all  that 
is  orderly,  clean,  prompt,  dignified,  kind  and  loving,  she  is  certain  in 
the  very  nature  of  things,  to  transmit  these  beneficieut  qualities  to- 
her  offspring,  and  through  them  a  blessing  to  society.  Let  all  parents 
know  that,  by  a  law  from  which  there  is  no  appeal,  those  very  quali- 
ties and  endowments  of  mind  which  they  cultivate  in  themselves,  be 
they  good  or  evil,  they  by  that  very  act  implant  in  their  posterity. 

The  most  powerful  means  for  the  repression  of  evil  and  the  elimi- 
nation of  good,  is  constancy  in  some  useful  employment  of  body  or 
mind.  Useful  industry  promotes  bodily  health,  enhances  every 
female  grace,  sweetens  the  temper,  and  beautifies  the  countenance. 
It  is  the  great  safety-valve  which,  by  Divine  appointment,  is  designed 
to  absorb  and  utilize  the  surplus  energy  dispensed  to  every  healthy 
human  being  during  the  prime  of  life,  and  which,  if  spent  in  idle* 
ness,  frivolity,  dissipation,  or  senseless  gossiping,  is  certain  to  pro-< 
duce  the  most  malignant  evils. 

Ladies  should  never  neglect  pure  air,  and  abundant  out-door  ex- 
ercise, either  in  walking,  carriage,  or  horseback  riding.  Confinement 
In  close  rooms,  with  stove  or  furnace  heat,  is  most  unfavorable  to 
robue^,  health.  It  is  all  important,  in  consideration  of  the  perform- 
ance of  those  high  and  holy  functions  entrusted  to  woman,  that  the 
beautiful,  delicate,  and  exquisitely  constructed  body  by  which  those 
functions  are  accomplished,  should  be  kept  attuned  to  the  most  per* 


184  MEDICAL    DEPARTMENT. 

iect  state  of  health.  The  mind  should  be  kept  free  from  moral  con 
fiamination  of  every  kind,  and  trained  to  habits  of  pure  thought, 
.sobriety  and  stability.  Nothing  can  be  of  greater  importance  to 
humanity  than  the  proper  adjustment  of  the  physical  and  mental 
equilibrium  of  woman.  The  weal  or  woe  of  the  human  race  seem  to 
tarn  on  this  primary  essential  as  on  a  pivot.  What  our  children  are, 
is  in  a  great  measure  what  their  mother's  have  made  them,  for  in  the 
turn  on  this  primary  essential  as  on  a  pivot.  What  our  children  are 
is  in  a  great  measure  what  their  mothers  have  made  them,  for  in  the 
very  nature  of  things,  children  are  in  the  mother's  hand,  like  plas* 
-tic  wax  under  the  seal,  and  the  impression  is  generally  in  harmony 
either  with  what  she  has  taught  them  or  neglected  to  teach. 

Equally  important  is  the  duty  incumbent  on  every  female  to  vigi- 
lantly guard  against  forming  matrimonial  engagements  with  men  of 
defective  health  or  vitiated  morals.  The  neglect  of  this  wise  precau- 
•iton  has  caused  an  extent  of  misery  and  wretchedness  beyond  all 
iu."nan  conception.  On  this  subject,  one  of  the  ablest  living  medical 
anen,  Dr.  B.  W.  Richardson,  of  London,  England,  remarks  as  fol- 
lows: "  The  first  step  towards  the  reduction  of  diseases  is,  beginning 
At  the  beginning,  to  provide  for  the  health  of  the  unborn.  If  the 
intermarriage  of  disease  were  considered  in  the  same  light  as  the 
intermarriage  of  poverty,  the  hereditary  transmission  of  disease 
would  be  at  an  end  in  three,  or  at  most,  four  generations."  He  re- 
marks in  another  place,  "  Greater  care  than  is  at  present  manifested, 
ought  to  be  taken  with  women  who  are  about  to  become  motl.ers." 

As  many  estimable  ladies  are  pardonably  anxious  about  their 
chances  for  marriage  the  following  curious  statement,  by  Dr.  Gran- 
ville,  is  drawn  up  from  the  registered  cases  of  876  married  women  in 
France.  It  is  the  first  table  ever  constructed  to  exhibit  to  ladies  their 
chances  of  marriages  at  various  ages.  Of  the  876  tabulated,  there 
<were  married  : — 

Years  of  age.          Years  of  age.          Years  of  age.         Years  of  age. 

3  at  13  118  at  20  28  at  27  5  at  34 

11  at  14  86  at  21  22  at  28  3  at  35 

16  at  15  85  at  22  17  at  29  0  at  36 

43  at  16  59  at  23  <j  at  30  2  at  37 

45  at  17  53  at  24  7  at  31  0  at  38 

77  at  18  36  at  25  5  at  32  1  at  39 

115  at  19  24  at  26  7  at  33  0  at  40 

It  should  not  be  forgotten  that  women,  and  men,  too,  in  England, 

Canada,  and  the  Northern  States,  are  no  nearer  maturity  at  20,  than 

*he  French  at  18.    This  is  owing  to  the  warm  climate,   which  in 

France  accelerates  maturity  with  greater    rapidity  than  in  morft 

*  northern  climes.     From  salutary  experience,  it  would  be  safe  to  say 

(that  the  best  results  would  follow,  did  our  girls  not  marry  until  after 

20,  and  our  men  till  after  22,  or  evon  24. 

Women  married  at  25,  live  four  years  longer  than  unmarried 
ones;  72  married  women  live  to  45,  for  52  unmarried.  Among  mar- 
ried men,  41  attain  45,  for  18  unmarried.  At  60,  there  are  48  married  men 
lor  11  unmarried.  At  80,  the  numbers  are  9  married  for  3  unmarried. 
CEJBEBRO-SPINAL  MENINGITIS,  OR  SPOTTED  FEVER,  is  fre- 
quently caused  by  bad  diet,  malaria,  cold,  repression  of  the  secre- 
'tions,  changeable  weather,  etc.  It  is  a  most  malignant  trouble,  con- 
aiatiiig  of  inflammation  of  the  brain  and  spinal  marrow.  There  U 
•ttver,  pain  in  the  head,  rigidity  of  the  muscles,  intense  thkst,  ter- 
Tible  pain,  and  an  abundance  of  purple  spots.  The  head  is  foroefc 


MEDICAL    DEPARTMENT.  185 

tackward  with  fearful  agony,  the  intense  suffering  induces  prostra- 
tions, stupidity,  deafness, — in  some  cases  blindness,  and  if  the  dis- 
ease is  not  restrained  by  skilful  treatment,  insensibility  and  death. 
In  treating  this  disease,  keep  the  bowels  open,  and  the  body  warm: 
immersion  in  a  hot  bath,  made  strong  with  salt  and  mustard,  is  good 
to  bring  the  blood  to  the  surface.  Another  way  is  to  wrap  the  body  / 
in  a  woollen  blanket  wrung  out  of  hot  water,  and  place  outside  of  tho^ 
blanket  bottles  filled  with  hot  water,  and  cover  over  close,  as  de-« 
scribed  under  the  wet  sheet  pack  ;  this  will  induce  a  copious  perspir- 
ation and  afford  relief.  Warm  ginger  tea  is  useful  to  generate  inter- 
nal heat,  and  tincture  of  pepper  for  outward  application,  with  fric- 
tion on  the  skin.  If  the  pulse  is  high,  give  two  to  three  drops  ex- 
tract of  Veratram  viride  (American  Hellebore),  every  hour,  diluted 
by  adding  1  teaspooiifuJ  of  water  to  each  drop  of  the  extract.  Guard 
against  constipation,  retention  ot  urine,  convulsions,  etc.,  and  if  the 
head  /s  severely  pained,  relieve  by  dry  cupping  over  the  neck  and  spine. 

CROUP  SYRUP. — Crushed  blood  root,  2  teaspoonfuls  ;  vinegar,  2 
gills  ;  white  sugar,  8  tablespoonf  uls ;  boii  all  together  and  straia 
Uose,  from  £to  1  teaspoouful  every  hour  or  half  hour  'warm)  accord. 
ing  to  the  severity  of  the  case.  Sponge  the  body  with  strong  salera- 
tus  water,  and  if  inflammation  exists,  give,  for  a  child  of  1  year,  a 
/easpoonful  (every  hour)  of  a  mixture  of  5  drops  of  veratrum  in  20 
teaspoon ftils  of  water. 

SULPHURIC  ETHER.— Rectified  spirit,  3  Ibs. ;  sulphuric  acid,  2  Ibs. 
carbonate  of  potassa  ( previously  ignited),  1  oz. ;  pour  2  Ibs.  of  the 
.spirit  into  a  ghiss  retort,  add  the  acid,  place  the  vessel  on  a  sand 
bath,  so  that  the  liquor  may  boil  as  soon  as  possible,  and  the  ether  as 
it  forms,  pass  over  into  a  well  cooled  receiver;  continue  the  distilla- 
tion until  a  heavier  fluid  begins  to  pass  over,  then  lower  the  heat, 
add  the  remainder  of  the  spirit,  and  distil  as  before;  pour  off  the 
£upematent  portion,  add  the  carbonate  of  potassa  for  one  hour; 
finally,  distil  the  ether  from  a  large  retort,  and  keep  it  in  a  well- 
.stoppered  bottle. 

CHLOROFORM.— Take  chloride  of  lime  (in  powder),  4  Ibs. ;  water, 
12  Ibs. ;  mix  in  a  capacious  retort  or  still,  add,  of  rectified  spirit,  12 
fluid  ozs.,  and  cautiously  distil,  as  long  as  a  dense  liquid,  which  sinks 
in  the  water  it  passes  over  with,  is  produced  ;  separate  this  from  the 
water,  agitate  it  with  a  little  sulphuric  acid,  and,  lastly,  rectify  from 
carbonate  of  baryta.  The  only  safe  way  known  of  purifying  chlcro- 
iorm,  consists  in  agitation  with  pure  water  and  redistillation. 

Prof.  Nussbaum  has  succeeded  in  prolonging  the  anaesthesia  in- 
duced by  chloroform,  by  the  sub-cutaneous  injection  of  a  solution 
containing  1  gr.  of  acetate  of  morphia.  In  one  case  the  patient  slept 
12  hours  and  underwent  a  painful  operation,  without  any  sensation 
whatever.  The  injection  performed  without  the  previous  inhalation 
of  chloroform,  produced  no  such  effect. 

CARBONIC  OXIDE  GAS,  is  inflammable,  but  arrests  animal  life. 
Carbonic  Acid  Gas  may  be  liquefied  as  follows  : — Get  a  strong  iron 
bottle,  strong  enough  to  resist  a  pressure  of  40  atmospheres,  or  600 
Ibs.  to  the  square  inch  ;  put  into  it  about  4  ozs.  of  sodic  bicarbonate, 
Jind  a  small  pot  containing  about  the  same  quantity  of  oil  of  vitriol. 
Insert  the  latter  carefully,  so  as  not  to  spill  any  :  close  the  bottle  with 
iin  airtight  cap,  surround  by  a  mixture  of  ice  and  salt,  and  upset  th« 
inner  pot.  The  gas  becomes  condensed  and  liquified  in  the^  bottle, 
and  on  opening  the  bottle,  by  means  of  a  stop-cock  in  the  lid,  will 
f  ush  out,  and  part  will  fall  down  in  a  frozen  state  like  snow.  A  jet 


18G  MEDICAL   DEPARTMENT. 

of  the  liquid  carbonic  acid,  directed  on  the  bulb  of  a  spirit  thermons 
eter,  made  it  fall  to  194°  below  zero.  A  jet  passed  into  a  phiai  is  ex« 
panded  400  times,  and  the  cold  solidifies  it  as  a  white  powder.  Then,, 
if  the  finder  is  placed  on  the  powder,  the  expansion  repels  the  finger, 
the  cold  being  231°  below  zero  !  It  is  too  dangerously  cold  for  medi~ 
cal  applications,  but  a  mixture  of  salt  and  finely  broken  ice,  hare 
been  used  to  promote  immunity  from  pain  during  amputation,  and  in 
(cases  of  severe  headache.  Amesthesia  may  also  be  produced  bjr 
projecting  a  spray  of  sulphuric  ether  and  rhigoline,  which  produces  a 
temporary  freezing,  during  which  time  an  operation  may  be  per- 
formed without  pain  to  the  patient,  after  which  the  parts  thaw,  and 
sensibility  returns. 

RULES  TO  BE  FOLLOWED  BY  THE  BY-STANDERS  IN  CASE  OF  IN- 
JURY BY  MACHINERY  &c.,  WHERE  SURGICAL,  ASSISTANCE  CANNOT* 
BE  OBTAINED,-IU  cases  of  seve re  SHOCK,  inducing  paleness,  chilliness,, 
and  prostration,  place  the  sufferer  on  a  bed  with  the  head  but  slight- 
ly raised,  keep  up  warmth  by  wrapping  him  in  blankets  and  coverlets,, 
assisted  by  bottles  containing  hot  water,  or  by  warm  bricks,  wrap- 
ped in  cloths,  and  applied  to  the  armpits,  sides,  feet,  &c.,  stimulate- 
with  table  spoonful  doses  of  whiskey  or  brandy  every  15  or  20 minutes,, 
until  partial  recovery,  and  nourish  by  giving  strong  soup  occasionally. 
If  the  patient  is  not  bleeding,  do  not  bind  the  limb  tight,  but  cover 
the  bruised  part  lightly  with  rags. 

If  bleeding  results,  do  not  try  to  stop  it  by  binding  up  the  wound, 
but  find  the  artery  by  its  beating,  and  place  a  firm  and  smooth  wad 
Baade  of  cloth  or  rugs  rolled  up,  or  any  round  smooth  article  of  proper 
gize,  wrapped  up  and  place  over  the  artery  as  shown  in  the  figures, 
tie  a  handkerchief  around  the  limb  and  tighten  up;  put  a  stick  through: 
und\?r  the  handkerchief  as  shown  in  Fig.  B,  giving  it  just  enough  of 
twist  to  stop  the  bleeding,  then  enter  one  end  of  the  stick  under  the 


handkerchief  as  shown  in  Fig.  C,  to  secure  the  bind.  When  the  leg; 
is  bleeding  below  the  knee,  apply  the  pad  over  the  artery  at  the  back 
of  the  thigh,  as  shown  at  C,  on  Fig.  A,  and  secure  in  front  as  above 


The  artery  in  the  thigh  runs  along  the  inner  side  of  the  muscle  in 
front  near  the  bone.  A  little  above  the  knee,  it  passes  to  the  back  of 
the  bone.  In  injuries  at  or  above  the  knee,  apply  the  compress  high 
upon  the  inner  side  of  the  thigh,  at  the  point  where  two  thumbs  meet 
,*t  C  ,on  Fig.  D,  with  the  knot  on  the  outer  side  of  the  thigh. 

The  artery  in  the  arm  runs  down  the  inner  side  of  the  large  muscle. 
in  front,  quite  close  to  the  bone;  low  down  it  gets  further  forwardi 
towards  the  bend  of  the  elbow.  It  is  most  easily  found  and  com- 
pressed a,  little  above  the  middle  at  C,  as  shown  on  Fig.  E. 

Examine  the  limb  from  time  to  time,  and  relax  the  compression  il 
it  becomes  very  cold  or  purple,  but  tighten  the  handkerchief  again  in 
case  of  bleeding. 

To  transport  an  injured  person,  make  a  soft  bed  for  the  injured- 
part,  of  straw,  folded  coverlets,  &c.,  laid  on  a  board,  with  side-piece* 


MEDICAL    DEPARTMENT.  18? 

<tf  board  nailed  on,  when  tliis  can  be  done.  If  possible  let  the  patieat 
tie  laid  on  a  door,  shutter,  settee,  or  other  firm  support  comfortably 
covered,  and  carry  him  steadily.  Send  for  a  physician  in  all  cases. 
Jor  BURNS  and  SCALDS,  consult  the  Engineers'  Department  under  that 
item. 

For  Bruises,  use  tepid  applications  at  first.  After  inflammation  sub-  \ 
sides,  use  stimulating  applications,  as  vinegar  and  water,  or  camphor-, 
Ated  liniment. 

For  Sprains,  elevate  the  limb;  keep  the  joint  easy;  apply  tepid 
lotions  or  fomentations.  When  inflammation  subsides,  apply  stimulat- 
ing liniments,  and  shower  the  part  alternately  with  cold  and  tepid 
•water. 

FOB  NUMBNESS  FROM  COLD. — Restore  warmth  gradually,  in  pro- 
portion as  circulation  in  the  parts  or  body  increases. 

FOR  A  FROZEN  LIMB. — Rub  with  snow,  and  place  in  cold  water 
for  a  short  time.  When  sensation  returns,  place  again  in  cold  water; 
add  heat  very  gradually ',  by  adding  warm  water.  If  apparently  dead 
or  insensible,  strip  entirely  of  clothes,  and  cover  body,  with  exception 
of  mouth  and  nostrils,  with  snoiv  o»'  ice-cold  water.  When  the  body 
is  thawed,  dry  it,  place  it  in  a  cold  bed ;  rub  with  warm  hands  under 
the  cover;  continue  this  for  hours.  If  life  appears,  give  small  injec- 
tions of  camphor  and  water;  put  a  drop  of  spts.  camphor  on  the 
tongue;  then  rub  body  with  spirits  and  water,  finally  with  spirits; 
then  give  tea,  coffee,  or  brandy  and  water. 

IN  APPARENT  DEATH  FROM  BREATHING  Noxious  VAPORS. — Ex- 
pose the  person  to  the  air;  sprinkle  cold  water  on  face  and  head;  rub 
strong  vinegar  about  nostrils ;  give  drink  of  vinegar  and  water.  If 
suffocated  by  breathing  charcoal  fumes,  treat  in  the  -same  manner,  and. 
cxcite  breathing  as  directed  in  cases  of  drowning. 

DR.  M.  HALL'S  DIRECTIONS  FOR  RESTORING  TSE  APPARENTLY 
DROWNED. — 1.  Send  for  a  physician  in  all  cases.  2.  Treat  the  patient 
INSTANTLY  ON  THE  SPOT,  in  the  OPEN  AIR,  freely  exposing  the  lace, 
neck,  and  chest  to  the  breeze,  except  in  cold  weather.  3.  In  order 
to  CLEAR  THE  THROAT,  place  the  patient  gently  on  the  face  with  one 
tvrist  under  the  forehead,  that  all  fluid,  and  the  tongue  itself  may  fall 
iorward,  and  leave  the  entrance  into  the  windpipe  free.  4.  To  EX- 
CITE RESPIRATION,  turn  the  patient  slightly  on  his  side,  and  apply 
some  irritating  or  stimulating  agent  to  the  nostrils,  as  VERATRINE, 
DILUTE  AMMONIA,  &c.,  or  snuff,  or  apply  a  feather  to  the  throat.  5, 
Make  the  face  warm  by  brisk  friction;  then  dash  cold  water  upon  it 
6.  If  not  successful,  lose  no  time,  but,  TO  IMITATE  RESPIRATION, 
place  the  patient  ON  HIS  SIDE,  and  a  LITTLE  BEYOND;  then  again  on 
iae  face,  and  so  on  alternately.  Repeat  these  movements  deliberately 
and  perse veriugly  15  TIMES  ONLY  in  a  minute.  (When  the  patient 
lies  on  the  breast,  this  cavity  is  COMPRESSED  by  the  weight  01  the 
body,  and  expiration  takes  place.  When  he  is  turned  on  the  side  this 
pressure^  is  removed,  and  inspiration  occurs).  7.  When  the  prone 
.s  resumed,  make  a  uniform  and  efficient  pressure  ALONG 
THE  SPINK,  removing  the  pressure  immediately,  before  rotation  on  the 
fide.  ( The  pressure  augments  the  expiration :  'the  rotation  commences 
inspiration).  Continue  these  measures.  8.  Rub  THE  LIMBS  UPWARD^ 
TVITH  FIRM  PRESSURE,  and  with  energy.  (The  object  being  to  aid  thel 
return  of  venous  blood  to  the  heart).  9.  Substitute  for  the  patient'* 
tret  clothing,  if  possible,  such  other  covering  as  can  be  instautly  pioJ 


188  MEDICAL    DEPARTMENT. 

*med,  each  by-stander  supplying  a  coat  or  vest,  &c.  Meantime,  and 
from  time  to  time,  TO  EXCITE  INSPIRATION,  let  the  surface  of  tn&  body- 
be  SLAPPED  briskly  with  the  hand.  10.  Rub  the  body  briskly  till  it 
is  warm  aud  dry /then  dash  COLD  water  upon  it>  and  repeat  the 
rubbing. 

^  Avoid  the  immediate  removal  of  the  patient,  as  it  involves  a  VAX* 
VSEROUS  LOSS  OF  TIME;  also,  the  use  of  BELLOWS,  or  any  forcing  in» 
strument,  and  ALL  ROUGH  TREATMENT. 

RULE?  FOR  ACCIDENTS  ON  WATER. — When  upset  in  a  boat  or 
'thrown  into  the  water  and  unable  to  swim,  draw  the  breath  in  well;, 
keep  the  mouth  tight  shut;  do  not  struggle  and  throw  the  arms  up, 
but  yield  quietly  to  the  water;  hold  the  head  well  up,  aud  stretch  out 
the  hando  only  below  the  water;  to  throw  the  hands  or  feet  tip  will 
pitch  the  body  below  the  water,  hands  or  feet  up  will  pitch  the  body 
head  down,  and  cause  the  whole  person  to  go  immediately  under 
water.  Keep  the  head  above,  and  every  thing  else  under  water. 

Everyone  should  learn  to  swim ;  no  animal,  aquatic  fowl,  or  reptile 
requires  to  be  taught  this,  for  they  do  it  naturally.  Few  persons 
exist  who  have  not  some  time  or  other,  seen  a  bullfrog  perform  his 
masterly  movements  in  the  water,  and  it  would  detract  from  no  one's 
dignity  to  take  a  few  lessons  from  him.  In  learning,  the  beginner 
might'sustain  himself  by  a  plank,  a  block,  of  wood,  an  attachment 
composed  of  cork,  an  inflated  bladder,  a  flying  kite,  or  a  stout  cord 
attached  to  a  long  rod  held  by  an  assistant  on  the  land.  Learn  to 
swim  cost  what  it  will. 

An  officer  of  the  New  York  police  force  wears  three  medals,  aucl 
receives  850  per  mouth  from  the  Life  Saving  Benevolent  Association. 
He  has  saved  12  lives  from  death  by  drowning,  but  he  says  that  when 
a  boy  he  received  a  thrashing  every  night  from  his  father  for  going  in 
swimming. 

OXYGEN  GAS. — 1.  Use  red  oxide  of  mercury;  heat  over  a  spirit 
lamp,  or  ignited  charcoal  in  a  green  glass  retort,  or  in  a  short  tube  of 
Bohemian  glass,  closed  with  a  perforated  cork  furnished  with  a  piece 
of  bent  glass  tube  of  small  bore  to  convey  the  liberated  gas  to  the 
vessel  arranged  to  receive  it.  Pure.  1  oz.  yields  about  100  cubic 
inches.  2.  Treat  chlorate  of  potassa  as  above.  Pure.  Product  100 
cubic  inches  of  gas  from  100  grains.  3.  Bichromate  of  potassa,  ofc 
parts;  oil  of  vitriol,  4  parts;  heat  gently  as  before  ;  yields  pure  oxy- 
gen very  freely  and  rapidly.  4.  Binoxide  of  manganese  and  oil  of 
vitriol,  equal  parts :  treat  as  the  last.  Product,  256  cubic  inches  from 
1  oz.  binoxide.  5.  On  the  larne  scale  ;  expose  nitre  to  a  dull  red  heat 
in  an  iron  retort  or  gun  barrel,  Product,  1200  cubic  inches  of  gas 
(from  1  Ib.  nitre),  contaminated  more  or  less  with  nitrogen.  6.  Treat 
good  commercial  binoxide  of  manganese,  as  the  last.  Product,  1500 
to  1600  cubic  inches,  or  from  5  to  6  gals,  from  1  Ib.  of  binoxide.  7. 
Chlorate  of  potassa  !£  Ibs. ;  binoxide  of  manganese,  f  Ib. ;  treat  as 
the  last.  Gas  procured  from  manganese  or  nitre,  may  be  purified  by  | 
passing  it  through  lime  water.  When  required  for  nice  experiments, 
the  first  gas  should  be  allowed  to  pass  away,  or  else  be  gathered 
separately,  as  it  is  apt  to  be  impure.  Oxygen  gas  is  the  supporter  of 
vitality  and  fire,  and  is  often  used  as  a  remedial  agent  in  asphyxia, 
arising  from  the  inhalation  of  carbonic  acid  or  carbonic  oxide.  If 
was  first  discriminated  as  a  distinct  gas,  by  Priestly,  in  1774. 


MEDICAL   DEPARTMENT,   ETC  18* 

GEBMAN  RHEUMATIC  FLUID. — Oils  of  hemlock  and  cedar,  of  each 
$oz.,  oils  of  origanum  and  sassafras,  each  1  oz.  ;  aqua  ammonia,  1 
oz.  ;  capsicum  pulverized,  1  oz.  ;  spirits  of  turpentine  and  gum 
camphor,  each  £  oz.  ;  put  all  into  a  quart  bottle,  and  fill  with  95  per 
cent,  alcohol.  .Dose,  for  colic,  for  man,  half  a  teaspoonful ;  for  a- 
horse,  £  to  1  oz.,  in  a  little  warm  water,  every  15  minutes,  till  relieved. 

LINIMENT  FOR  OLD  SORES. — Alcohol,  1  qt.  ;  aqua  ammonia,  4oz.  ; 
oil  of  origanum,  2  oz.  ;  camphor  gum,  2  oz.  ;  opium,  2  oz.  ;  gun*/ 
myrrh,  2  oz.  ;  common  salt,  two  tablespoons.     Mix,  and  shake  occa-/ 
sionally  for  a  week. 

LINIMENT.— GOOD  SAMARITAN.— Take  98  per  cent,  alcohol,  2  qts.  ; 
and  add  to  it  the  following  articles  :  Oils  of  sassafras,  hemlock., 
spirits  of  turpentine,  tincture  of  cayenne,  catechu,  guaiac  (guac),  and 
laudanum,  of  each,  1  oz.  ;  tincture  of  myrrh,  4  oz.  ;  oil  of  origanum, 
2  oz.  ;  oil  of  wintergreen,  ^  oz.  ;  gum  camphor,  2  oz.  ;  and  chloro- 
form, 1^  oz.  This  is  one  of  the  best  applications  for  internal  pains 
known  :  it  is  superior  to  any  other  enumerated  in  this  work. 

INHALATION  OF  TAR  FOR  CONSUMPTIQN.— Mix  together  16  ozs.  of 
liquid  tar  and  one  fluid  oz.  liquor  of  potassa,  boil  them  for  a  few- 
minutes  in  the  open  air,  then  let  it  simmer  in  an  iron  vessel  over  a 
spirit  or  other  lamp  in  the  chamber  of  the  patient.  This  may  at  first 

•  excite  a  disposition  to  cough,  but  in  a  short  time  it  allays  it,  and  re- 
moves any  tendency  to  it. 

CANCER  CURE. — Drink  a  tea  made  from  the  tops  oi  red  clover  ; 
.    about  1  qt  per  day  should  be  taken  internally,  and  the  tea  should  ba 
used  as  a  wash  twice  per  day, ;  very  strongly  recommended. 

TAYLOR'S  REMEDY  FOR  DEAFNESS.— -Digest  2  ozs.  bruised  garlic  in 
|  1  Ib.  oil  of  almonds  for  a  week,  and  strain.  A  drop  poured  into  the  eaj 
1  ie  effective  in  temporary  deafness. 

CURE  FOR  EARACHE.— Take  equal  parts  of  chloroform  and  lauda- 
1    num,  dip  a  piece  of  cotton  into  the  mixture  and  introduce  into  the  ear,. 
~  and  cover  up  and  get  to  sleep  as  soon  as  possible. 
(       OTTAWA  ROOT  BEER.— Take  1  oz.  each  of  sassafras,  allspice,  yellow- 

•  dock,  and  winter  green  ;  £  oz.  each  wild  cherry  bark  and  coriander  ;. 
i  oz.  hops  and  3  qts.  molasses.    Pour  sufficient  boiling  water  on  tho> 
ingredients  and  let  them  stand  24  hours,  filter  the  liquor  and  add  $pt. 
yeast,  and  it  is  ready  for  use  in  24  hours. 

To  EXTRACT  ESSENTIAL  OIL  FROM  WOOD,  BARKS,  ROOTS,  HERBS, 
I  &c. — Take  balm,  mint,  sage,  or  any  other  herb,  &c.,  put  it  into  a  bot- 
j.  He,  and  pour  upon  it  a  spoonful  of  ether  ;  keep  in  a  cool  place  a  few 

•  hours,  and  then  fill  the  bottle  with  cold  water  ;  the  essential  oil  will 
;  »wim  upon  the  surface  and  may  be  easily  separated. 

FUMIGATING  PAPER. — Dip  light  paper  in  a  solution  of  alum ; 
',  jof  alum  1  oz.,  water  1  pt.    Dry  thoroughly,  and  on  one  side 

mixture  of  equal  parts  of  gum  benzoin,  galbanum,  or  Peruvian 
-  melt  the  gums  in  an  earthenware  dish  and  spread  with  a  hot  spatula  :; 
j    slips  of  the  paper  are  held  over  a  light,  when  the  odorous  matter  will 
1  "be  evaporated,  the  alum  preventing  the  paper  from  igniting. 
j      TRANSPARENT  CEMENT  FOR  GLASS.— Dissolve  1  part  India-rabbet 

in  chloroform,  and  add  16  parts  by  measure  of  gum  jnastic  in  powder, 
)    Digest  for  2  days,  shaking  the  bottle  frequently  ;  apply  with  a  fina 

tamel' B  hair  brush, 
MOUTH  WASH,— Proof  spirits,  1  qt. ;  borax  and  honey,  of  each  1  OK** 


•90  'jtfEDICAX   DEPARTMENT,   ETC. 

^um  myrrh,  1  oz.  ;  red  ganders  wood,  1  oz.  Rub  the  honey  and  bonui 
•well  together  in  a  mortar,  then  gradually  add  the  spirit,  the  myrrh  an4 
aanders  wood,  and  macerate  14  days. 

WASH   FOB  REMOVING  PARTICLES  OF  ZlNO  OB  IRON  FROM    THB    , 

EYE. — Muriatic  acid,  20  drops  ;  mucilage,  1  dr.  ;  mix  with  2  fluid  ozs.  V 
rose  water.    Iron  or  steel  particles  may  be  extracted  by  holding  near 
them  a  powerful  magnet. 

To  REMOVE  TUMORS.— Dr.  Simpson  of  Edinburgh  introduces  * 
^  Jiollow  acupuncture  needle,  or  very  fine  trocar  (a  surgical  instrument 
in  the  form  of  a  fine  hollow  needle)  into  their  tissue,  and  injects  a 
iew  drops  of  some  irritant  liquid,  such  as  a  solution  of  chloride  of 
zinc,  percholorde  of  iron,  or  creosote.  The  effect  is  to  destroy  the 
vitality  of  the  tumors  sc  treated,  and  admit  of  separating  them. 

COMPOUND  SYRUP  OF  HYPOPHOSPHITES. — Take  of  hypophosphite 
of  lime,  1^  oz.  ;  hypophosphite  of  soda  ^  oz  ;  hypophosphite  of  pot- 
assa,  £  oz.  ;  cane  sugar,  1  Ib.  troy  ;  hot  water,  20  fluid  ozs.  ;  orange 
water,  1  fluid  oz.  Mix  a  solution  of  the  mixed  salts  in  the  hot  water, 
filter  through  paper,  dissolve  the  sugar  in  the  solution  by  heat,  and 
strain,  and  add  the  orange  flower  water.  Dose,  a  teaspoonf  ul,  con- 
taining nearly  five  grains  of  the  mixed  salts. 

COOK'S  ELECTBO-MAGNETIC  LINIMENT.— Best  alcohol,  1  gal. ;  oil 
of  amber,  8  oz.  ;  gum  camphor,  8  oz.  ;  Castile  soap,  shaved  fine,  2 
oz.  :  beefs  gall,  4  oz.  ;  ammonia,  3  F.'s  strong,  12  oz.;  mix,  and 
•shake  occasionally  for  12  hours,  and  it  is  fit  for  use.  This  will  bo 
iound  a  strong  and  valuable  liniment. 

LONDON  LINIMENT. — Take  chloroform,  olive  oil,  and  aqua  ammo- 
ilia,  of  each  1  oz.  ;  acetate  of  morphia,  10  grs.  Mix  and  use  as  other 
liniments.  Very  valuable. 

OINTMENTS.— FOR  OLD  SORES.— Red  precipitate,  £  oz.  j  sugar  of 
lead,  i  oz.  ;  burnt  alum,  1  oz.  ;  white  vitriol,  £  oz.,  or  a  little  less  ; 
all  to  be  very  finely  pulverized  :  have  mutton  tallow  made  warm,  £ 
Ib.  ;  stir  all  in,  and  stir  until  cool. 

JUDKIN'S  OINTMENT.— Linseed  oil,  1  pt.  ;  sweet  oil,  1  oz.  ;  and  boil 
them  in  a  kettle  on  coals  for  nearly  4  hours,  as  warm  as  you  can ; 
then  have  pulverized  and  mixed  borax,  $  oz.  ;  red  lead,  4  oz.  ;  and 
eugar  of  lead,  1^  oz.  ;  remove  the  kettle  from  the  fire,  and  thicken 
in  the  powder  ;  continue  the  stirring  until  cooled  to  blood  heat,  then 
stir  in  1  oz.  of  spirits  of  turpentine  ;  and  now  take  out  a  little,  let- 
ting it  get  cold,  and  if  not  tnen  sufficiently  thick  to  spread  upon  thin 
soft  linen  as  a  salve,  you  will  boil  again  until  this  point  is  reached. 
.It  is  good  for  all  lands  of  wounds,  bruises,  sores,  burns,  white  swell- 
ings, rheumatisms,  ulcers,  sore  breasts  ;  and  even  where  there  ar» 
wounds  on  the  inside,  it  has  been  used  with  advantage,  by  applying 
a  plaster  over  the  part. 

MAGNETIC  OINTMENT.— SAID  TO  BE  TRASK'S.— Hard  raisins  cut 
in  pieces,  and  fine-cut  tobacco,  equal  weights  ;  simmer  well  together, 
then  strain,  and  press  out  all  from  the  dregs. 

MEAD'S  SALT-RHEUM  OINTMENT.— Aquafortis,  1  oz.  ;  quicKsilver 
1  oz.  ;  good  hard  soap,  dissolved  so  as  to  mix  readily,  1  oz.  ;  prepared 
chalk,  1  oz.  ;  mixed  with  1  Ib.  of  lard  ;  mix  the  above  by  putting  the 
aquafortis  and  quicksilver  into  an  earthen  vessel,  and  when  don* 
effervescing,  mix  with  the  other  ingredients,  putting  the  chalk  in  lait ; 
add  a  little  spirit*  of  turpentine  gay  £  tablespoon, 


MEDICAL   DEPARTMENT,    ETC.  191 

$REEN  OINTMENT. — Honey  and  beeswax,  each  £  Ib.  ;  spirits  of 
farpentine,  1  oz.  ;  wintergreen  oil  and  laudanum,  each  2  oz.  ;  ver- 
digris, finely  pulverized,  J  oz.  ;  lard,  1$  Ib.  ;  mix  by  a  stove  fire,  in 
a  copper  kettle,  heating  slowlv. 

ITCH  OINTMENT. — Unsaltecl  butter,  1  Ib.  ;  burgundy  pitch,  2  oz.  , 
spirits  of  turpentine,  2  oz.  ;  red  precipitate,  pulverized,  1J  oz.  ;  melt 
the  pitch  and  add  the  butter,  stirring  well  together  ;  then  remove 
from  the  fire,  and  when  a  little  cool  add  the  spirits  of  turpentine,  and 
lastly  the  precipitate,  and  stir  until  cold. 

JAUNDICE.— IN  ITS  WORST  FORMS.— Red  iodide  of  mercury,  7  grs.; 
iodide  of  potassium,  9  grs.  ;  aqua  dis.  (distilled  water),  1  oz.  ;  mix. 
Commence  by  giving  6  drops  3  or  4  times  a  day,  increasing  1  drop  a 
day  until  12  or  15  drops  are  given  at  a  dose.  Give  in  a  little  water, 
immediately  after  meals.  If  it  causes  a  griping  sensation  in  the  bowels, 
and  fulness  in  the  head,  when  you  get  up  to  12  or  15  drops,  go  back 
to  6  drops,  and  up  again  as  before. 

REMEDY  FOB  RHEUMATISM  AND  STIFF  JOINTS.— Strong  camphor 
spirits,  1  pt. ;  neat's-foot,  coon,  bear's,  or  skunk's  oil,  1  pt. ;  spirits  of 
turpentine,  £  pt  Shake  the  bottle  when  used,  and  apply  3  times 
•daily,  by  pouring  on  a  little  at  a  time,  and  rubbing  in  all  you  can  for 
20  or  30  minutes. 

ASTHMA  REMEDIES.— Elecampane,  angelica,  comfrey,  and  spike- 
nard roots  with  hoarhound  tops,  of  each  1  oz. ;  bruise  and  steep  hi 
honey,  1  pt.  Dose,  a  tablespoon,  taken  hot  every  few  minutes,  until 
relief  is  obtained,  then  several  times  daily  until  a  cure  is  effected. 

ANOTHER.— Oil  of  tar,  1  dr.  ;  tincture  of  veratrum  viride,  2  dra.  ; 
eimple  syrup,  2  drs.  ;  mix.  Dose,  for  adults,  15  drops  2  or  4  times 
daily.  Iodide  of  potassium  has  cured  a  bad  case  of  asthma,  by  taking 
5  gr.  doses  3  times  dailv.  Take  |  oz.  and  put  it  in  a  phial,  and  add  32 
teaspoons  of  water ;  then  1  teaspoon  of  it  will  contain  the  5  grs., 
which  put  into  \  pill  more  water,  and  drink  before  meals. 

COMPOSITION  POWDER. — THOMPSON'S. — Bayberry  bark,  2  Ibs.  ; 
hemlock  bark,  1  Ib.  ;  ginger  root,  1  Ib.  ;  cayenne  pepper,  2  oz.  ;  cloves, 
*>  oz.  ;  all  finely  pulverized  and  well  mixed.  Dose,  \  a  teaspoon  of  it, 
and  a  spoon  of  sugar  ;  put  them  into  a  tea-cup,  and  pour  it  half  full  of 
"boiling  water  ;  let  it  stand  a  few  minutes,  and  fill  the  cup  with  milk, 
and  drink  freely.  If  no  milk  is  to  be  obtained,  fill  up  the  cup  with 
hot  water. 

FRENCH  REMEDY  FOR  CHRONIC  RHEUMATISM.— Dr.  Bonnet,  of 
Oraulbet,  France,  states,  in  a  letter  to  the  "'Abeille  Medicale,"  that  he 
has  been  long  in  the  habit  of  prescribing  "  the  essential  oil  of  turpen- 
tine by  friction  for  rheumatism  ;  and  that  he  has  used  it  himself  with 
perfect  success,  having  almost  instantaneously  got  rid  of  rheumatic 
pains  hi  both  knees  and  in  the  left  shoulder."  ' 

DIURETICS — PILLS,  DROPS,  DECOCTION,  &c  . — Solidified  copaiba,  2 
parts  ;  alcokolic  extract  of  cubebs,  1  part ;  formed  into  pill?  with  a 
little  oil  of  juniper.  Dose,  1  or  2  pills  3  or  4  times  daily.  This  pill 
has  been  found  very  valuable  in  affections  of  the  kidneys,  bladder, 
and  urethra,  as  inflammation  from  gravel,  gonorrhoea,  gleet,  whites, 
ieucorrhoea,  common  inflammations,  &c.  For  giving  them  a  sugar 
coat,  see  that  heading,  if  desired. 

DIURETIC  DROPS.— Oil  of  cubebs,  J  oz.  ;  sweet  spirits  of  nitre,  £ 
•B.  ;  balsam  ot  copaiba,  1  oz.  ;  Hurlem  oil,  1  bottle  ;  oil  of  laveiulei, 


192  MEDICAL   DEPARTMENT,   ETC. 

20  drops  i  sprits  of  turpentine,  20  drops  :  mix.  Dose,  10  to  25  drops, 
as  the  stomach  will  bear,  three  times  daily.  It  may  be  used  in  any  or 
the  above  diseases  with  great  satisfaction. 

DIURETIC  TINCTURE.— -Green  or  growing  spearmint  mashed,  put 
into  a  bottle,  and  covered  with  gin,  is  an  excellent  diuretic. 

DIURETIC  FOR  CHILDREN.— Spirits  of  nitre— a  few  drops  in  a  little 
spearmint  tea — is  all  sufficient.  For  very  young  children,  pumpkin- 
geed,  or  water-melon-seed  tea  is  perhaps  the  best. 

DROPSY.— SYRUP  AND  PILLS.— Queeri-of-the-meadow  root,  dwarf«= 
elder  flowers,  berries,  or  inner  bark,  juniper  berries,  horse-radish, 
root,  pod  milkweed,  or  silkweed,  often  called,  root  of  each,  4  oz.  ;. 
prickly-ash  bark  of  berries,  mandrake  root,  bittersweet  baric,  of  the 
root  of  each,  2  oz.  ;  white-mustard-seed,  1  oz.  ;  Holland  gin,  1  pt. 
Pour  boiling  water  on  all  except  the  gin,  and  keep  hot  for  12  hours  ; 
then  boil  and  pour  off  twice,  and  boil  down  to  3  qts.,  and  strain,  add- 
ing 3  Ibs.  of  sugar,  and  lastly  the  gin.  Dose,  take  all  the  stomach 
will  bear,  say  a  wine  glass  a  day,  or  more. 

DROPSY  PILLS.— Jalap,  50  grs. ;  gamboge,  30  grs.  ;  podophyllhv 
£)  grs.  ;  elatarium,  12  grs.  ;  aloes,  30  grs.  ;  cayenne,  35  grs.  ;  Castile;' 
soap,  shaved  and  pulverized,  20  grs.  ;  croton  oil,  90  drop?  ;  powder  all. 
finely,  and  mix  thoroughly  ;  then  form  into  pill  mass,  by  using  a  thick: 
mucilage  made  of  equal  parts  of  gum  arabic  and  gumtragacanth,  and: 
divide  in  three-gram  pills.  Dose,  1  pill  every  2  days  for  the  first 
week  ;  then  every  3  or  4  days,  until  the  water  is  evacuated  by  the* 
combined  aid  of  the  pill  with  the  alum  syrup.  This  is  a  powerful 
medicine,  and  will  well  accomplish  its  work. 

LIVER  PILL. — Leptandrin,  40  grs.  ;  podovhyllin  and  cayenne,  30* 
grs.  each  ;  sanguinarin,  iridrn,  and  ipecac,  15  grs.  each  ;  see  that  all 
are  pulverized  and  well  mixed  ;  then  form  into  pill  mass  by  using  ^ 
dr.  of  the  soft  extract  of  mandrake  and  a  few  drops  of  anise  oil ;  then- 
roll  out  into  three-grain  pills.  Dose,  2  pills  taken  at  bed-time  will 
generally  operate  by  morning ;  but  some  persons  require  3. 

IRRITATING  PL  ASTER. — EXTENSIVELY  USED  BY  ECLECTICS. — Tar,  1 
Ib.  :  burgundy  pitch,  i  oz.  ;  white-pine  turpentine,  1  oz.  ;  resin,  2  oz. 
Boil  the  tar,  resin,  and  gum  together  a  short  time,  remove  from  the 
fire,  and  stir  in  finely  pulverized  mandrake  root,  blood  root,  poke 
loot,  and  Indian  turnip,  of  each,  1  oz. 

PILLS. — To  SUGAR  COAT. — Pills  to  be  sugar  coated  must  be  very 
dry,  otherwise  they  will  shrink  away  from  the  coating,  and  leave  it  a, 
shell  easily  crushed  off.  When  they  are  dry,  you  will  take  starch,, 
gum  arabic,  and  white  sugar,  equal  parts,  rubbing  them  very  fine  in 
a  marble  mortar,  and  if  damp,  they  must  be  dried  before  rubbing 
together  ;  then  put  the  powder  into  a  suitable  pan,  or  box,  for  tak- 
ing ;  now  put  a  few  pills  into  a  small  tin  box  having  a  cover,  and 
pour  on  to  them  just  a  little  simple  syrup,  shaking  well  to  moisteuv 
i  the  surface  only ;  then  throw  into  the  box  of  powder,  and  keep  in 
motion  until  completely  coated,  dry,  and  smooth.  If  you  are  not  ? 
very  careful,  you  will  get  too  much  syrup  upon  the  pills  ;  if  you  do, 
.put  in  more,  and  be  quick  about  it  to  prevent  moistening  the  pill  too 
'much,  getting  them  into  the  powder  as  soon  as  possible. 

POSITIVE  CURE  FOR  HYDROPHOBIA. — The  dried  root  of  elecampane, 
pulverize  it,  and  measure  out  9  heaping  tablespoonfuls,  and  mix  it 
with  2  or  3  teaspoonf  old  of  pulverized  gum  arabic  ;  then  divide  into. 


MEDICAL    DEPARTMENT,   ETC.  199 

)  eqnal  portions.  When  a  person  is  bitten  by  a  rabid  animal,  talw 
ene  of  these  portions  and  steep  it  in  1  pt.  of  new  milk,  until  nearly 
half  the  quantity  of  milk  is  evaporated  ;  then  strain,  and  drink  it  in 
the  morning,  fasting  for  4  or  5  hours  after.  The  same  dose  is  to  be 
repeated  3  mornings  in  succession,  then  skip  3,  and  so  on,  until  the  3 
doses  are  taken. 

The  patient  must  avoid  getting  wet,  or  the  heat  of  the  sun,  and 
abstain  from  high-seasoned  diet,  or  hard  exercise,  and,  if  costive,  taksy 
a  dose  of  salts.  The  above  quantity  is  for  an  adult ;  children  will 
take  less  according  to  age.  i 

EYE  PREPARATIONS. — EYE  WATER. — Table  salt  and  white  vitriol, 
of  each  1  tablespoon  ;  heat  them  upon  copper  plates  or  in  earthen- 
ware until  dry  ;  the  heating  drives  off  the  acrid  water,  called  tha 
•water  of  crystallization,  making  them  much  milder  in  their  action  ; 
now  add  to  them  soft  water  ^  pt.  ;  putting  in  white  sugar,  1  table- 
spoon ;  blue  vitriol,  a  piece  the  size  of  a  common  pea.  If  it  should 
prove  too  strong  in  any  case,  add  a  little  more  soft  water  to  a  phial 
of  it.  Apply  it  to  the  eyes  3  or  4  times  daily. 

TNDIA  PRESCRIPTION  FOR  SORE  EYES. — Sulphate  of  zinc,  3  grs.  ; 
tincture  of  opium  (laudanum),  1  dr.  ;  rose  water,  2  oz.  ;  mix.  Put  a 
drop  or  two  in  the  eye,  2  or  3  times  daily. 

ANOTHER. — Sulphate  of  zinc,  acetate  of  lead,  and  rock  salt,  of 
each  ^  oz.  ;  loaf  sugar,  1  oz.  ;  soft  water,  12  oz.  ;  mix  without  heat, 
*ind  use  as  other  eye  waters.  If  sore  eyes  shed  much  water,  put  a 
little  of  the  oxide  of  zinc  into  a  phial  of  water,  and  use  it  rather  free- 
ly. This  will  soon  effect  a  cure.  Copperas  and  water  has  cured  sora 
eyes  of  long  standing  ;  and  used  quite  strong,  it  makes  an  excellent 
application  in  erysipelas.  Allum  and  the  white  of  an  egg  is  good. 

INDIAN  EYE  WATER.— Soft  water,  1  pt.  ;  gum  arabic,  1  oz.  ;  white 
vitriol,  1  oz.  ;  fine  salt,  ^  teaspoon  ;  put  all  into  a  bottle,  and  shako 
nntil  dissolved.  Put  into  the  eye  just  as  you  retire  to  bed. 

BLACK  OIL.— Best  alcohol,  tincture  of  arnica,  British  oil,  and  oil 
of  tar,  of  each  2  oz.  ;  and  slowly  add  sulphuric  acid,  £  oz.  Thesa 
black  oils  are  getting  into  extensive  use  as  a  liniment,  and  are  indeed 
valuable,  especially  in  cases  attended  with  much  inflammation. 

VERMIFUGE  LOZENGES.— Santonin,  60  grs.  ;  pulverized  sugar,  5 
oz.  ;  mucilage  of  gum  tragacanth,  sufficient  to  make  into  a  thick 
paste,  worked  carefully  together,  that  the  santonin  shall  be  evenly 
mixed  throughout  the  whole  mass  :  then  if  not  in  too  great  a  hurry, 
cover  up  the  mortar  in  which  you  nave  nibbed  them,  and  let  stand 
from  12  to  24  hours  to  temper ;  at  which  time  they  will  roll  out 
better  than  if  done  immediately  ;  d:  vide  into  120  lozenges.  Dose,, 
for  a  child  1  year  old,  1  lozenge,  night  and  morning  ;  of  2  years,  2- 
lozenges  ;  of  4  years,  3  ;  of  8  years,  4  ;  of  10  years  or  more,  5  to  7 
lozenges  ;  in  all  cases  to  be  taken  twice  daily,  and  continuing  until 
the  worms  start  on  a  voyage  of  discovery. 

HARLEM  OIL  OR  WELSH  MEDIC  AMENTUM. — Sublimed  or  flowers  of 
sulphur  and  oil  of  amber,  of  each  2  oz.  ;  linseed  oil,  1  Ib.  ;  spirits  of ' 
turpentine  sufficient  to  reduce  all  to  the  consistence  of  thin  molasses. 
Boil  the  sulphur  in  the  linseed  oil  until  it  is  dissolved,  then  add  th» 
•il  of  amber  and  turpentine.  Dose,  from  15  to  25  drops,  morning 
and  erening.  Amongst  the  Welsh  and  Germans  it  is  extensively 
ated  lor  strengthening  the  stomach,  kidneys,  liver,  and  lunga  ;  ioa 


194  MEDICAL    DEPARTMENT,    ETC. 

asthma,  shortness  of  breath,  cough,  inward  or  outward  sores, 
*y,  worms,  gravel,  fevers,  palpitation  of  the  heart,  giddiness,  head- 
ache, &c.,  by  taking  it  internally  ;  and  for  ulcers,  malignant  sores, 
cankers,  &c.,  anointing  externally,  and  wetting  linen  with  it,  and 
applying  to  burns. 

EGYPTIAN  CURB  FOR  CHOLERA. — Best  Jamaica  ginger  root,  bruis- 
ed, 1  oz.  ;  cayenne,  2  teaspoons  ;  boil  all  in  1  qt.  of  water  to  £pt.,  and 
'add  loaf  sugar  to  form  a  thick  syrup.  Dose,  1  tablespoon  every  15 
minutes,  until  vomiting  and  purging  ceases  ;  them  follow  up  with  a 
blackberry  tea. 

INDIAN  PRESCRIPTION  FOR  CHOLERA. — First  dissolve  gum  camphor, 
ioz.,  in  1^  oz.  of  alcohol;  second,  give  a  teaspoon  of  spirits  of 
hartshorn  in  a  wine  glass  of  water,  and  follow  it  every  5  minutes 
with  15  drops  of  the  camphor  in  a  teaspoon  of  water,  for  3  doses  ; 
then  wait  15  minutes,  arid  commence  again  as  before  ;  and  continue 
the  camphor  for  30  minutes,  unless  there  is  returning  heat.  Should 
this  be  the  case,  give  one  more  dose,  and  the  cure  is  effected ;  let 
them  perspire  freely  (which  the  medicine  is  designed  to  cause),  as 
upon  this  the  life  depends,  but  add  no  additional  clothing. 

ISTHMUS  CHOLERA  TINCTURE. — Tincture  of  rhubarb,  cayenne, 
opium,  and  spirits  of  camphor,  with  essence  of  peppermint,  equal 
parts  of  each,  and  each  as  strong  as  can  be  made.  Dose,  from  5  to  30 
arops,  or  even  to  60,  and  repeat,  until  relief  is  obtained,  every  5  to  30 
minutes. 

KING  OF  OILS,  FOR  NEURALGIA  AND  RHEUMATISM.— Burning  fluid, 
1  pt.  ;  oils  of  cedar,  hemlock,  sassafras,  and  origanum,  of  each  2  oz. ; 
carbonate  of  ammonia,  pulverized,  1  oz.  ;  mix.  DIRECTIONS.— Apply 
freely  to  the  nerve  and  gums  around  the  tooth  ;  and  to  the  face,  ha 
neuralgic  pains,  by  wetting  brown  paper  and  laying  on  the  parts,  not 
too  long,  lor  fear  of  blistering, — to  the  nerves  of  teeth  by  lint. 

NEURALGIA.— INTERNAL  REMEDY.— Sal-ammoniac,  ^dr.,  dissolve 
in  water  1  oz.  Dose,  one  tablespoon  every  3  minutes,  for  20  minutes, 
at  the  end  of  which  tune,  if  not  before,  the  pain  will  have  disappeared. 

ARTIFICIAL  SKIN.— FOR  BURNS,  BRUISES.  ABRASIONS,  &c.—  PROOF 
AGAINST  WATER.— Take  gun  cotton  and  Venice  turpentine,  equal 
parts  of  each,  and  dissolve  them  in  90  times  as  much  sulphuric  ether, 
(dissolving  the  cotton  first,  then  adding  the  turpentine  ;  keep  it  corked 
tightly.  Water  does  not  affect  it,  hence  its  value  for  cracked  nipples, 
chapped  hands,  surface  bruises,  &c.,  &c. 

INDIAN  BALSAM. — Clear,  pale  resin,  3  Ibs.,  and  melt  it,  adding 
spirits  of  turpentine,  1  qt.  ;  balsam  of  tolu,  1  oz.  ;  balsam  of  fir,  4  oz.  ;, 
oil  of  hemlock,  origanum,  with  Venice  turpentine,  of  each,  1  oz.  ; 
strained  honey,  4  oz.  ;  mix  well,  aud  bottle.  Dose,  6  to  12  drops  ; 
for  a  child  of  six,  3  to  5  drops,  on  a  little  sugar.  The  dose  can  be 
varied  according  to  the  ability  of  the  stomach  to  bear  it,  and  the 
necessity  of  the  case.  It  is  a  valuable  preparation  for  coughs,  intero 
nal  pains,  or  strains,  and  works  benignly  upon  the  kidneys. 
i  WENS — To  CURE. — Dissolve  copperas  in  water  to  make  it  very 
'strong  ;  now  take  a  pin,  needle,  or  sharp  knife,  and  prick  or  cut  the 
i  wen  in  about  a  dozen  places,  just  sufficient  to  cause  it  to  bleed  ;  them 
wet  it  well  with  the  copperas  water,  once  daily. 

BRONCHOCELE.— ENLARGED  NECK.— To  CURE.— Iodide  of  potas- 
«ium  (often  called  hydriodate  of  potash),  2  drs,  ;  iodine,  1  dr.  ;  water 


MEDICAL    DEPARTMENT,    ETC. 

2%  oz.  ;  Tnbc  and  shake  a  few  minutes,  and  pour  a  little  into  a  phial 
for  internal  use.  Dose,  5  to  10  drops  before  each  meal,  to  be  taken  in. 
a  little  water.  EXTERNAL  APPLICATION.— With  a  feather,  wet  th« 
enlarged  neck,  from  the  other  bottle,  night  and  morning,  until  well. 
It  will  cause  the  scarf  skin  to  peel  off  several  times  before  the  cur« 
is  perfect,  leaving  it  tender;  but  do  not  omit  the  application  more  than, 
one  day  at  most,  and  you  may  rest  assured  of  a  cure,  if  a  cure  can  bo 
performed  by  any  means  whatever.  ; 

DALEY'S  CARMINATIVE. — Magnesia,  2  drs.  ;  oil  peppermint,  3  dropsy 
oil  nutmeg,  7  drops  ;  oil  anise,  9  drops  ;  tinct.  of  castor,  l£  drs. ;  tinct. 
ofassafoetida,  45  drops  ;  tinct.  of  opium,  18  drops  ;  essence  pennyroyal,, 
60  drops  ;  tinct.  of  cardamons,  95  drops  ;  peppermint  water,  7  o'z.  ;  mLv« 

POSITIVE  CURE  FOR  DIARRHOEA. — Take  2  wine  glasses  of  vinegar, 
and  one  tablespoonful  of  salt.  Mix  the  whole  thoroughly  to  dissolve 
the  salt ;  add  7  to  10  drops  of  laudanum,  according,  to  the  age  or 
strength  of  the  patient,  and  give  the  whole  at  one  dose. 

CURE  FOR  AGUE. — Cut  three  lemons  into  thin  slices  and  pound 
them  with  a  mallet,  then  take  enough  coffee  to  make  a  quart,  boil  it 
down  to  a  pint  and  pour  it  while  quite  hot  over  the  lemons.  Let  it 
etand  till  cold,  then  strain  through  a  cloth,  and  take  the  whole  at  one 
dose,  immediately  after  the  chill  is  over,  and  before  the  fever  comes  on. 

To  IMPROVE  THE  VOICE.— Beeswax,  2  drs. ;  copaiba  balsam,  3  drs.  ; 
powder  of  liquorice  root,  4  drs.  ;  melt  the  copaiba  balsam  with  the 
wax  hi  a  new  earthen  pipkin  ;  when  melted,  remove  them  from  the 
fire,  and  mix  in  the  powder  ;  make  the  pills  of  3  grs.  each.  Two  of 
these  pills  to  be  taken  occasional!  y ,  3  or  4  times  a  day.  Very  best  known. 

CURB  FOR  TAPE  WORM.— Take  at  one  dose,  ether  f  oz.  2  hours 
after  this  take  castor  oil,  1  oz.  The  worm  is  discharged  entire  or  al- 
most so,  and  always  with  the  head  intact. 

NECESSARY  RULES  FOR  SLEEP. — There  is  no  fact  more  clearly 
established  hi  the  physiology  of  man  than  this,  that  the  brain  expend* 
its  energies  and  itself  during  the  hours  of  wakef  ulness  and  that  these 
are  recuperated  during  sleep.  If  the  recuperation  does  not  equal  the 
expenditure,  the  brain  withers  ;  this  is  insanity.  Thus  it  is  in  early 
English  history,  persons  who  were  condemned  to  death  by  being  pre~ 
vented  from  sleeping  always  died  raving  maniacs,  and  those  wno  are 
etarved  to  death  become  insane  ;  the  brain  is  not  nourished  and  they 
can  not  sleep.  The  practical  inf  erences  are  three ;  1st.  Those  who 
think  most,  who  do  the  most  brain  work,  require  the  most  sleep.  2d. 
The  time  "saved"  from  necessary  sleep  is  infallibly  destructive  W 


nse  in  the  morning  at  the  moment  they  awake  ;  and,  within  a  fort- 
night, Nature,  with  almost  the  regularity  of  the  rising  sun,  will  un- 
loose the  bonds  of  sleep  the  moment  enough  repose  has  been  secured 
lor  the  wants  of  the  system.  This  is  the  only  safe  and  efficient  rule. 
(  SIGNS  OF  DISEASE  IN  CHILDREN.  —  In  the  case  of  a  baby  not  yet 
4able  to  talk,  it  must  cry  when  it  is  ill.  The  colic  makes  a  baby  cry 
'loud,  long,  and  passionately,  and  shed  tears—  stopping  for  a  momeal 
beginning  again. 


<    If  the  chest  is  affected,  it  giv*»  one  sharp  cry,  breaking  off  imnav 
diatel  y  ,  a*  if  crying  hart  k 


196  MEDICAL    DEPARTMENT,    ETC. 

If  the  head  is  affected,  it  cries,  in  sharp,  piercing  shrieks,  Tvitn  la* 
•moans  and  wails  between.  Or  there  may  be  quiet  dozing,  and  start- 
ings  between. 

It  is  easy  enough  to  perceive,  where  a  child  is  attacked  by  disease 
that  there  is  some  change  taking  place  ;  for  either  its  skin  will  be  dry 
and  hot,  its  appetite  gone  ;  it  is  stupidly  sleepy,  or  fretful  and  crying ; 
it  is  thirsty,  or  pale  and  languid,  or  in  some  way  betrays  that  some- 
<  thing  is  wrong.  When  a  child  vomits,  or  has  a  diarrhoea,  or  is  cos* 
live  f«nd  feverish,  it  is  owing  to  gome  derangement,  and  needs  atten- 
tion. But  these  various  symptoms  may  continue  for  a  day  or  two 
before  the  nature  of  the  disease  can  be  determined.  A  warm  bath, 
•warm  drinks,  etc.,  can  do  no  harm,  and  may  help  to  determine  the 
'Case.  On  coming  out  of  the  bath,  and  being  well  rubbed  with  the 
hand,  the  skin  \vill  show  symptoms  of  rash,  if  it  is  a  skin  disease 
xrhich  has  commenced.  By  the  appearance  of  the  rash,  the  nature 
•of  the  disease  can  be  learned.  Measles  are  in  patches,  dark  red,  and 
•come  out  first  about  the  face.  If  scarlet  fever  is  impending,  the  skia 
•will  look  a  deep  pink  all  over  the  body,  though  mostly  so  about  the 
neck  and  face.  Chicken-pox  shows  fever,  but  not  so  much  running 
at  the  nose,  and  appearance  of  cold,  as  in  measles,  nor  is  there  aa 
much  of  a  cough.  Besides,  the  spots  are  smaller,  and  do  not  run 
much  together,  and  are  more  diffused  over  the  whole  surface  of  the 
*kin,  and  enlarge  into  little  blisters  in  a  day  or  two. 

Let  the  room  where  the  child  is  sick  be  snady,  quiet,  and  cool.  Ba 
•careful  not  to  speak  so  suddenly  as  to  startle  the  half -sleeping  patient 
and  handle  it  Avith  the  greatest  tenderness  when  it  is  ne.cessary  to 
move  it.  If  it  is  the  lungs  that  suffer,  have  the  little  patient  some- 
•what  elevated  upon  the  pillows  for  easier  breathing,  and  do  everthing 
to  sooth  and  make  it  comfortable,  so  as  not  to  have  it  cry,  and  to  thus 
distress  its  inflamed  lungs.  If  the  child  is  very  weak,  do  not  move  it 
too  suddenly,  as  it  may  be  startled  into  convulsions.  In  administering 
a.  bath,  the  greatest  pains  must  be  taken  not  to  frighten  the  child. 
It  should  be  put  in  so  gradually,  and  so  amused  by  something  placed 
in  the  water  on  purpose  as  to  forget  its  fear  ;  keep  up  a  good  supply 
of  fresh  air,  at  a  temperature  of  about  60°  Fah.  If  a  hired  nurse 
•must  be  had,  select  if  possible  a  woman  of  intelligence,  gentle  and 
loving  disposition,  kind  and  amiable  manners,  and  of  a  most  pacific 
unruffled,  and  even  temper.  If  a  being  can  be  got  possessed  of  these 
angelic  qualities,  and  we  believe  there  are  many  such,  you  will  be 
quite  safe  in  intrusting  to  her  care  the  management  of  your  sick  child 
or  yourself  either,  in  case  of  sickness.  She  should  not  be  under 
twenty-five  or  over  fifty-five,  as  between  these  two  ages  she  will,  if 
liealthy,  be  in  her  full  strength  and  capacity. 

WHOOPING  COUGH. — To  empty  the  child'*  stomach  by  a  lobelia 
emetic,  is  the  first  step.  After  this  make  a  syrup  of  sugar,  ginger- 
root,  a  little  water,  and  enough  lobelia  tincture  to  produce  a  slight 
aausea.  This,  given  two  or  three  times  a  day.  will  loosen  the  cough 
rery  much.  See  "  Whooping  Cough  Syrup." 

DIAKRHCEA. — Nothing  is  better  for  looseness  of  the  bowels  than 
tea  made  of  ground  bayberry.  Sweeten  it  well,  and  give  a  half- 
ieacupf  ul  once  in  two  hours,  until  the  child  is  better.  Bathing  must 
*.t  be  neglected.  For  Croup  Remedy  see  "  Cure  foir  Lockjaw.  ' 

.— This  can  be  cured  with  warm  injections  of  simple  soap- 


MEDICAL    DEPARTMENT,    ETC-'  1 

Cade,  or  warm  water  with  a  wanning  tincture  in  it.  A  little  warm' 
$ea  may  be  given  at  the  same  time,  and  the  bowels  rubbed.  Every 
lamily  should  have  a  small  and  large  syringe.  Nothing  is  oftener 
needed,  particularly  in  the  care  of  children. 

FEVER. — Where  a  child  has  a  simple  fever  from  teething  or  any 
other  cause  not  connected  with  acute  disease,  give  ateaspoonful  of, 
syrup  of  rhubarb,  a  warm  hi  jection,  and  sponge-baths.    These  will  • 
generally  be  all  that  is  needed. 

RICKETS  AND  SCROFULA. — If  children  have  either  of  these,  or  both 
these  diseases,  a  good,  nutritive  diet  is  a  great  essential  Then  the 
#lkaline-bath,  a  little  lime-water,  say  a  teaspoonful  three  times  a  day, 
And  out-door  exercise,  are  the  chief  remedies. 

FITS — SPASMS — When  these  are  brought  on  by  indigestion,  place  the 
•chiW  in  a  warm  bath  immediately,  give  warm  water,  or  a  lobelia 
•emetic,  rub  the  skin  briskly,  etc. ,  to  get  \ip  an  action.  In  brain  disease 
the  warm  water  is  equally  useful.  In  fact,  unless  the  fit  is  constitu- 
tional, the  warm  bath  will  relieve  the  patient  by  drawing  the  blood  to 
•the  surface. 

ENLARGEMENT  OF  THE  BRAIN.— This  chiefly  effects  children,  and' 
consists  in  an  unnatural  growth  of  the  brnin.  The  skull  may  grow 
with  it,  and  there  be  no  symtoms  of  disease,  though  children  with  this 
large  brain  are  apt  to  die  of  some  brain  disease.  The  symptoms  of 
•enlargement  of  the  brain  are,  dullness  of  intellect,  indifference  to  ex- 
ternal objects,  irritable  temper,  inordinate  appetite,  giddiness,  and 
habitual  headache.  Sometimes  there  are  convulsions,  epileptic  fits, 
qnd  idiocy.  There  is  also  a  pecular  projection  of  the  parietal  bones 
iii  this  disease. 

Treatment. — As  much  as  possible,  repress  all  exercise  of  the  mind. 
Do  not  suffer  the  child  to  go  to  school ;  but  put  it  to  the  most  active 
.and  muscular  exercise  In  the  open  air.  The  moment  there  is  any  heat 
in  the  top  of  the  head,  apply  cold  water,  ice,  or  cold  evaporating  lo- 
tions. The  diet  should  be  very  simple,  bread  and  milk  only,  if,  as  the 
child  grows  up,  the  signs  of  the  disease  increase. 

WATER  IN  THE  HEAD. — Another  disease  of  children,  and  especially 
of  scrofulous  children.  It  is  inflammatory,  and  should  be  early  no- 
ticed. 

Symptoms. — Capricious  appetite,  a  foul  tongue,  offensive  breath  en- 
larged, and  some  times  tender  belly,  torpid  bowels,  stools  light-colored 
from  having  no  bile,  or  dark  from  vitiated  bile,  fetid,  sour-smelling, 
jslimy  and  lumpy.  The  child  grows  pale  and  thin  :  and  is  heavy,  lan- 
guid, dejected  ;  it  is  fretful,  irritable,  uneasy,  ana  apt  to  be  tottering 

The  disease  may  begin,  after  these  svmptoms,  by  pains  in  the  head, 
becoming  more  severe  and  frequent,  sharp  and  shooting,  causing  the 
child  to  waken  and  shriek  out.  As  the  drowsy  state  advances,  the 
shrieking  gives  place  to  moaning.  There  is  great  stiffness  in  the  back 
of  the  neck,  pain  in  the  limbs,  tenderness  hi  the  scalp,  vomiting,  sigh- 
ing, intolerance  of  light,  knitting  of  the  brows,  and  increased  disturb- 
ance of  the  stomach  and  bowels.  Thi»  may  last  from  ten  to  four- 
teen days,  the  patient  growing  more  weak  and  peevish.  Another 
form  of  attack  is  marked  by  acute  pain  in  the  head,  high  fever,  con- 
vulsions, flushed  face,  brilliant  eyes,  intolerance  of.  light  and  sound, 
pain,  tenderness  in  the  belly,  stupor,  great  irritability  of  stomach, 


J98  MEDICAL    DEPARTMENT,    ETC. 

•rasing  retching  and  vomiting  on  every  attempt  to  sit  np.  The  third 
mode  of  attack  is  very  insidious — the  early  symptoms  being  go  mild 
as  hardly  to  be  noticed.  In  this  case,  the  convulsions  or  palsy  come 
suddenly,  without  notice,  bringing  swift  and  unexpected  destruc- 
tion. In  the  first  stage  of  the  disease  there  is  increased  sensibility  j 
in  the  second  decreased  sensibility ;  in  the  third,  palsy,  convulsions, 
squirting  of  the  eyes,  rolling  of  the  head,  stupor,  and  a  rapid,  thread" 
like  pulse. 

Treatment.— In  the  first  stage,  purging  is  very  important,  and 
must  be  continued  for  three  or  four  days.  An  excellent  purgative 
is  this  :  pulverized  scammony,  six  grains  ;  croton  oil,  four  drops  ; 
pulverized  loaf  sugar,  sixteen  teaspoonf  uls.  Eub  well  together  in  a 
mortar.  'Give  one  teaspooiiful  every  hour  or  two,  till  it  operates. 
Apply  cold  water  or  ice  to  the  head.  In  the  second  stage  put  blisters 
upon  the  back  of  the  neck,  and  one  on  the  bowels,  if  very  tender. 
In  the  third  stage  use  the  warm  bath,  also  alteratives  and  diuretics. 
For  an  alterative,  use  iodide  of  potassium,  one  dram  ;  water,  half  an 
ounce ;  mix.  Thirty  drops  to  a  child  seveu  years  old  every  hour. 
For  a  diuretic,  use  tincture  of  digitalis,  one  ounce  ;  syrup  of  squills, 
one  ounce  ;  mix.  Ten  drops  for  a  child  seven  years  old  every  fouf 
hours.  The  patient  should  be  kept  in  a  dark  room,  acray  from  all 
noise  and  excitement,  and  should  lie  upon  a  hair  mattress,  with  his 
head  somewhat  elevated.  The  diet  in  the  first  stage  should  be  noth- 
ing more  than  gruel ;  after  that,  more  nourishing,  but  easy  of  diges- 
tion, such  as  beef-tea,  plain  chicken-broth,  animal-jellies,  etc.  At 
the  same  time  the  patient  should  be  supported  by  the  cautious  use  of 
wine-whey,  valerian,  or  ten  drops  of  aromatic  spirits  of  ammonia 
every  four  hours. 

MUMPS. — This  disease,  most  common  among  cnildren,  begins  wita 
soreness  and  stiffness  in  the  side  of  the  neck.  Soon  a  swelling  of  the 
paratoid  gland  takes  place,  which  is  painful  and  continues  to  increase 
for  four  or  five  days,  sometimes  making  it  difficult  to  swallow,  or 
open  the  mouth.  The  swelling  sometimes  comes  on  one  side  at  a 
time,  but  commonly  upon  both.  There  is  often  heat  and  sometimes 
fever,  with  a  dry  skin,  quick  pulse,  furred  tongue,  constipated  bowels, 
and  scanty  and  nigh-colored  urine.  The  disease  is  contagious. 

Treatment— Keep  the  face  and  neck  warm,  and  avoid  taking  cold, 
Drink  warm  herb  teas,  and  if  the  symptoms  are  severe,  4  to  6  grs. 
of  Dover's  powder ;  or  if  there  is  costiveness,  a  slight  physic,  and 
observe  a  very  simple  diet.  If  the  disease  is  aggravated  by  taking: 
«old,  and  is  very  severe,  or  is  translated  to  other  glands,  physic  must 
be  used  freely,  leeches  applied  to  the  swelling,  or  cooling  poultices. 
Sweating  must  be  resorted  to  in  this  case. 

SCARLET  FEVER  is  an  acute  inflammation  of  the  sum,  both  exter- 

,  nal  and  internal,  and  connected  with  an  infectious  fever. 

.     Svmvtoms. — The  fever  shows  itself  between  two  and  ten  days  after 

'  exposure.    On  the  second  day  of  the  fever  the  eruption  conies  out  ia 

minute  pimples,  which  are  either  clustered  together,  or  spread  over 

the  surface  in  a  general  bright  scarlet  color.    The  disease  begins  with 

languor,  pains  in  the  head,  back,  and  limbs,  drowsiness,  nausea  and 

chills,  followed  by  heat  and  thirst.    When  the  redness  appears  th» 

pulse  is  quick,  and  the  patient  is  restless,  anxious  and  often  delirious. 

The  eyes  are  red,  the  face  swollen,  and  the  tongue  covered  in  th» 


MEDICAL    DEPARTMENT,    ETC. 

fciddle  with  white  mucus,  through  which  are  seen  elevated  points  oi 
extreme  redness.  The  tonsils  are  swollen,  and  the  throat  is  red. 
By  the  evening  of  the  third  or  fourth  day  the  redness  has  reached  it* 
height,  and  the  skin  becomes  moist,  when  the  scarf-skin  begins  to 
come  off  in  scales, 

In  this  fever  the  flesh  puffs  up  so  as  to  distend  the  fingers,  and 
disfigure  the  face.  As  it  progresses  the  coating  suddenly  comes  off 
the  tongue,  leaving  it  and  the  whole  mouth  raw  and  tender.  The 
throat  is  very  much  swollen  and  inflamed,  and  ulcers  form  on  tha 
tonsils.  The  eustachian  tube  which  extends  up  to  the  ear,  the  glands 
under  the  ear  aud  jaw,  sometimes  inflame  and  break  ;  and  the  ab- 
scesses formed  in  the  ear  frequently  occasion  deafness,  more  or  less 
difficult  to  cure.  The  symptoms  of  this  disease  may  be  known  from 
that  of  measles  by  the  absence  of  cough  ;  by  the  finer  rash  ;  by  its 
ecarlet  color ;  by  the  rash  appearing  on  the  second  instead  of  the- 
fourth  day  ;  and  by  the  ulceration  of  the  throat. 

Treatment. — In  ordinary  cases  the  treatment  required  is  very  simple. 
The  room  where  the  patient  lies  should  be  kept  cool,  and  'the  bed- 
covering  light.  The  whole  body  should  be  sponged  with  cool  water  as 
often  as  it  becomes  hot  and  dry,  and  cooling  drinks  should  be  admin- 
istered. A  few  drops  of  belladonna,  night  and  morning,  is  all  that  is 
needed. 

If  there  is  much  fever  and  soreness  of  throat,  give  the  following 
tincture  of  hellebore  often  enough  to  keep  down  the  pulse  : — 

Tincture  of  American  hellebore,  1  dr.  ;  tincture  of  black  cohosh,  2 
or.  ;  mix.  Take  \  teaspoonf ul  3  to  G  times  a  day. 

It  would  also  oe  useful  to  commence  treatment  with  an  emetic  • 
and  to  soak  the  feet  and  hands  in  hot  water  containing  a  little 
mustard  or  cayenne  pepper  ;  continuing  this  bath  2G  minuteg,  twice 
a  day,  for  2  or  3  days.  The  cold  stage  being  passed,  and  the  fever 
having  set  in,  warm  water  may  b*>  used  without  the  mustard  or 
pepper.  If  the  head  is  affected,  p\u  drafts  upon  the  feet ;  and  if  the 
bowels  be  costive,  give  a  mild  physic.  Solid  food  should  not  be 
allowed ;  but  when  the  lever  sets  in,  cooling  drinks,  such  as  lemonade, 
tamarind-water  r^e-water,  flaxseed  tea,  then  gruel,  or  cold  water 
may  be  r:  ,^a  in  reasonable  quantities.  To  stimulate  the  skin,, 
muriati'7  ^cid,  45  drops  in  a  tumbler  filled  with  water  and  sweetened., 
and  gj'-^a  in  doses  of  a  teaspoonful,  is  a  good  remedy. 

Wh€/e  the  disease  is  very  violent,  and  the  patient  inclines  to  sink 
immediately  ;  where  typhoid  symptoms  appear  and  there  is  great 
prostration  ;  the  eruption  strikes  in  ;  the  skin  changes  to  a  mahogany 
color  ;  the  tongue  is  a  deep  red,  or  has  on  it  a  dark  brown  fur,  and, 
the  ulcers  in  the  throat  become  putrid,  the  treatment  must  be  differ- 
ent from  the  above.  In  this  case  it  rmist  be  tonic.  Quinia  must  b« 
given  freely  ;  and  wine  whey,  mkced  with  toast-water,  will  be  nsefuL 
Quinia  is  made  as  follows  : — Sulphate  of  quinine,  1  scruple  ;  alcoholr 
4  ozg.  ;  sulphuric  acid,  5  drops  ;  Madeira  wine,  1  quart  ;  mix.  Two- 
wine-glassfuls  a  day.  Tincture  of  cayenne,  in  sweetened  water,  may- 
be  given  in  small  doses.  Gargles  are  also  necessary.  A  good  one  & 
/Wiade  of  pulverized  cayenne,  1  dram  ;  salt,  one  dram  ;  boiling  water, 
1  gill.  Mix,  and  let  them  stand  15  minutes.  Then  add  1  gill  vinegar. 
Let  it  stand  an  hour  and  strain.  Put  a  teaspoonful  in  t-he  chud » 
*iouta  once  in  an  hour.  A  warm  bath  should  be  used  daily  as  soo0 


200  MEDICAL   DEPARTMENT,   ETC. 

as  the  skin  begins  to  peel  off,  to  prevent  dropsy.  If  dropey  sets  in. 
the  bath  once  in  3  days  is  sufficient,  and  sweating  should  be  promoted 
t/y  giving  the  tincture  of  Virginia  snake-root  and  similar  articles  ;  a 
generous  diet  should  be  allowed  at  the  same  time,  to  bring  up  the 
•jhild's  strength 

MEASLES  is  an  acute  inflammation  of  the  skin,  internal  and  exter- 
nal, combined  with  an  infectious  fever. 

Symptoms.— Chills  succeeded  by  great  heat,  languor,  and  drowsi- 
ness, pains  in  the  head,  back,  and  limbs,  quick  pulse,  soreness  of 
throat,  thirst,  nausea  and  vomiting,  a  dry  cough,  and  high-colored 
urine.  These  symptoms  increase  in  violence  for  four  days.  The  eye* 
are  inflamed  and  weak,  and  the  nose  pours  forth  a  watery  secretion, 
•with  frequent  sneezing.  There  is  considerable  inflammation  in  the 
larynx,  windpipe,  and  bronchial  tubes,  with  soreness  of  the  breast  and 
lioarseness.  About  the  fourth  day  the  skin  i  5  covered  with  a  breaking- 
out  which  produces  heat  and  itching,  and  is  red  hi  spots,  upon  the 
face  first,  gradually  spreading  over  the  whole  body.  It  goes  off  hi 
the  same  way,  from  the  face  first  and  then  from  the  body,  and  the 
Hoarseness  and  other  symptoms  decline  with  it;  at  last  the  outside 
/kin  peels  off  hi  scales. 

Treatment.— In  a  mild  form,  nothing  is  required  but  a  light  diet, 
slightly  acid  drinks,  and  flax  seed  or  slippery  elm  tea.  Warm  herb 
teas,  and  frequent  sponge  baths  with  tepid  water,  serve  to  allay  the 
fever;  care  should  be  taken  not  to  let  the  patient  take  cold.  If  the 
fever  is  very  high,  and  prevents  the  rash  coming  out,  a  slight  dose  of 
salts,  or  a  nauseating  dose  of  ipecac.,  lobelia,  or  hive-syrup  should  be 
given,  and  followed  by  teasponful  doses  of  compound  tincture  of 
V irginia  snake-root  until  the  fever  is  allayed.  If  the  patient  from  any 
derangement  takes  on  a  low  typhoid  type  of  fever,  and  the  rash  does 
not  come  put  until  the  seventh  day,  and  is  then  of  a  dark  and  livid 
color,  tonics  and  stimulants  must  be  given,  and  expectoration  promo- 
ted by  some  suitable  remedy.  There  is  always  danger  of  the  lungs 
"being  left  in  an  inflamed  state  after  the  measles,  unless  the  greatest 
care  is  taken  not  to  suffer  the  patient  to  take  cold.  Should  there  be 
inuch  pain,  and  a  severe  cough,  this  must  be  treated  as  a  separate 
disease,  with  other  remedies. 

TYPHOID  FEVER. — Symptoms. — Is  generally  preceded  by  several  days 
of  languor,  low  spirits,  and  indisposition  to  exertion.     There  is  also, 
•usually,  some  pain  in  the  back   and  head,  loss   of   appetite,  and 
drowsiness,  though  not  rest.      The  disease  shows  itself   by  a  chill. 
During  the  first  week  there  is  increased  heat  of  the  surface,  frequent 
;  pulse,  furred  tongue,  restlessness,  sleeplessness,  headache,  and  pain  in 
{ the  back;  sometimes  diarrhoea  and  swelling  of  the  belly,  and  some- 
times nausea  and  vomiting. 

The  second  week  is  often  distinguished  by  small,  rose-colored  spots 
on  the  belly,  and  a  crop  of  little  watery  pimples  c~  the  neck  and  chest, 
having  the  appearance  of  minute  drops  of  sweat ;  the  tongue  is  dry 
and  black,  or  red  and  sore;  the  teeth  are  foul;  there  may  be  delirium 
and  dullness  of  hearing;  and  the  symptoms  every  way  are  more 
serious  than  during  the  first  week.  Occasionally,  the  bowels  are  at 
this  period  perforated  or  ate  through  by  ulceratibn,  and  the  patient 
suddenly  sinks.  If  the  disease  proceeds  unfavorably  into  the  third 
•week,  there  is  low,  muttering  delirium;  great  exhaustion;  sliding 


GROCERS   AND    CONFECTIONERS*  RECEIPTS.        tOf 

flown  of  the  patient  toward  the  foot  of  the  bed;  twitching  of  the 
muscles,  bleeding  from  the  bowels ;  and  red  or  purple  spots  upon  tho 
«kin.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  patient  improves,  the  countenance 
}>rightens  «.p,  the  pulse  moderates,  the  tongue  cleans,  and  the  dis- 
charges look  healthy. 

Treatment. — Give  the  patient  good  air,  and  frequent  spongings  with 
•water,  cold  or  tepid,  ag  most  agreeable.  Keep  the  bowels  in  order 
and  be  more  afraid  of  diarrhoea  than  costiveness.  Diarrhoea  should 
3>e  restrained  by  a  little  brandy,  or  by  repeated  doses  of  Dover's 
powder.  For  costiveness,  give  mild  injections,  made  slightly  loosen- 
jng  by  castor  oil,  or  common  molasses.  To  keep  down  the  fever,  and 
produce  perspiration,  give  tincture  of  veratrum  viride,  10  drops  every 
hour.  If  the  bowels  are  swelled,  relieve  them  by  hot  fomentations  ot 
hops  and  vinegar.  If  the  pain  in  the  head  is  very  severe  and  constant, 
let  the  hair  be  cut  short,  and  the  head  bathed  frequsntly  with  cold 
water.  Give  light  nourishment,  and  if  the  debility  is  great,  broth  and 
wine  will  be  needed.  Cleanse  the  mouth  with  very  weak  tea — old 
hyson.  If  the  fever  runs  a  low  course,  and  the  patient  is  very  weak, 
quinine  may  be  given  from  the  beginning.  Constant  care  and  good 
nursing  are  very  important. 

Typhus  fever  is  distinguished  from  typhoid  by  there  being  no  Eiark^d 
disease  of  the  bowels  in  typhus. 


OROCERS  AND  CONFECTIONERS'  RECEIPTS 

CHEAP  VINEGAR.— Mix  25  gais.  of  warm  rain  water,  with  4  gals, 
molasses  and  1  gal.  yeast,  and  let  it  ferment;  you  will  soon  have  the» 
best  of  vinegar;  keep  adding  these  articles  in  these  proportions  as  the 
stock  is  sold. 

FOR  GROCERS'  SALES— Take  three  barrels  ;  let  one  of  them  b<* 
your  vinegar  barrel ;  fill  this  last  up  before  it  is  quite  empty,  with 
molasses,  2  gals.  ;  soft  water,  11  gals  ;  yeast.  1  qt.  ;  keeping  these  pro- 
portions in  filling  up  the  whole  three  barrels;  sell  the  vinegar  out  of 
your  old  vinegar  barrel  as  soon  as  it  is  ready,  which  will  be  in  a  short 
lime  ;  when  nearly  empty,  fill  it  up  with  the  fluid  as  before,  and  pass 
en  to  sell  out  of  the  next  barrel ;  by  the  time  it  is  disposed  of  go  on  to 
the  last ;  then  go  back  to  the  first,  filling  up  your  barrels  in  every 
case  when  nearly  empty,  and  you  will  always  keep  a  stock  of  good 
/inegar  on  hand  unless  your  sales  are  very  large  ;  in  which  case,  fol- 
:k>w  the  next  process.  Have  the  bung-holes  open  in  the  barrels  to 
admit  air.  The  free  admission  of  warm  air  hastens  the  process. 

VINEGAR  IN  THREE  DAYS.— Get  a  quar.tity  of  maple,  beech,  o* 
basswood  chips  or  shavings,  and  soak  these  in  good  vinegar,  for  two  or 
three  days.  With  these  chips  you  will  fill  a  barrel,  which  has  beea 
pierced  with  a  large  number  of  inch  noles  all  around  the  sides  for  the 
iree  admission  of  air  among  the  chips  (the  more  holes  in  the  barrel 
•the  better,  for  the  more  air  the  sooner  the  vinegar  will  be  made)  cut 
"another  barrel  in  two  halves,  place  one  half  below  the  barrel  with  the 


K)2        GROCERS   AND   CONFECTIONERS*   RECEIPTS. 

chips  and  the  other  half  above  it.  The  top  tub  must  have  its  bottom 
pierced  with  a  number  of  gimlet  holes,  in  which  are  placed  several 
threads  of  twine,  to  conduct  the  vinegar  evenly  over  the  chips.  The 
liquid  drams  down  slowly  through  the  chips  and  out  of  a  faucet  near 
the  bottom  of  the  barrel  into  the  lower  tub.  It  should  run  through, 
every  four  hours,  and  then  be  baled  or  pumped  back.  Directions  to- 
make  vinegar  from  sugar  :  Use  1£  Ib.  to  each  gal.  of  water  ;  of  the 
dregg  of  molasses  barrels,  nse  2  Ib.  to  each  gal.  of  water  ;  small  beer, 
lager  beer,  ale,  &c.,  which  have  become  sour,  make  good  vinegar  by- 
being  reduced  with  water ;  small  beer  needs  but  little  water,  lager  beer 
a$  snuch  water  as  beer  ;  to  2  gals,  cider,  add  £  gal.  of  water  ;  you  can 
also  make  excellent  vinegar  out  of  the  artificial  cider  mentioned  below. 
Use,  in  every  case,  soft  water  to  make  vinegar,  and  use  2  qts,  yeast 
to  every  barrel.  It  makes  much  quicker  if  the  fluid  is  slightly 
lukewarm.  Leach  either  of  these  preparations  through  the  shavings. 
This  process  should  be  attended  to  during  warm  weather,  or  in 
a  room  where  a  pretty  high  temperature  is  kept  up,  as  it  will  not 
work  otherwise. 

EXCELLENT  VINEGAR,  CHEAP.— Acetic  acid,  5  Ibs.  ;  molasses,  2 
gal.  ;  yeast,  2  qts,  ;  put  them  into  a  forty-gal,  cask,  and  fill  it  up  with 
rain  water  ;  stir  it  up,  and  let  it  stand  one  to  three  weeks,  letting  ft. 
have  all  the  air  possible,  and  you  will  have  good  vinegar.  If  wanted 
stronger,  add  more  molasses.  Should  you  at  any  time  have  weaic 
vinegar  on  hand,  put  molasses  into  it  to  set  it  working.  This  will 
coon  correct  it.  Make  in  a  warm  place. 

WHITE  WINE  VINEGAR. — Mash  up  20  Ibs.  raisins,  and  add  10  gals, 
water  ;  let  it  stand  in  a  warm  place  for  one  month,  and  you  will  nave 
•pure  white  wine  vinegar.  The  raisins  may  be  used  a  second  time  the 
g:::ue  way. 

To  PRESERVE  EGGS.— To  each  patent  pailful  of  water,  add  2  pte_ 
of  fresh  slacked  lime,  and  1  pt.  of  common  salt ;  mix  well.  Fill  your 
barrel  half  full  with  this  fluid,  put  your  eggs  down  in  it  any  time  af- 
ter June,  and  they  will  keep  two  years  if  desired. 

LIQUID  MUCILAGE.— Fine  clear  glue  1  Ib.  ;  gum  arable,  10  oz.  ; 
wr.ter,  1  qt.  ;  melt  by  heat  in  a  glue  kettle  or  water  bath  ;  when  en- 
tirely melted,  add  slowly  10  ozs.  strong  nitric  acid,  set  off  to  coci. 
Then  bottle,  adding  in  a  couple  of  cloves  to  each  bottle. 

CANDIED  LEMON  PEEL. — Take  lemon  peels  and  boil  them  in  syrup  j 
then  take  them  out,  and  dry. 

BAKING  POWDER. — Tartaric  acid,  5  Ibs.  ;  pure  sesquicarbonate  oi 
soda.  8  Ibs.  ;  potato  farina,  or  other  flour  or  starch,  10  Ibs.  Dry 
sejvarately  by  gentle  heat.  Mix  this  perfectly  in  a  dry  room,  pass. 
the  mixture  through  a  sieve  and  put  up  at  once  into  damp  proof 
hard  pressed  packages.  To  use,  1  or  2  teaspoonf  uls  are  mixed  with 
dry  flour,  which  is  then  mixed  with  cold  water,  and  baked  imme- 
diately. Another. — Tartaric  acid,  1  Ib. ;  pure  bicarbonate  of  soda  £;' 
Ibs.  ;  potato  farina,  f  Ib.  Treat  the  same  as  the  last. 

To  MAKE  AN  ICE  CHEST.— Take  2  drygoods  boxes,  one  of  which  is 
enough  smaller  than  the  other  to  leave  a  space  of  about  3  inches  all 
around  when  it  is  placed  inside.  Fill  the  space  between  the  two  witk 
•awdust  packed  closely,  and  cover  with  a  heavy  lid  made  to  fit  neat- 
ly  inside  the  larger  box.  Insert  a  small  pipe  in  the  bottom  of  th* 
chest  to  carry  off  the  water  from  the  melting  ice.  For  family  use  o» 


GROCERS    AND   CONFECTIONERS*    RECEIPTS.       JOS 

n««  this  will  prove  as  serviceable  as  refrigerators  that  coet 
enty  times  as  much. 
SOAP  MANUFACTURE. — When  wood  ashes  cannot  conveniently  be 
kad  it  is  usual  for  soap  manufacturers  to  use  equal  quantities  01  re- 
cently slacked  lime,  and  sal  soda,  soda  ash  or  caustic  soda,  using  watei 
enough  to  give  the  ley  sufficient  strength  to  support  a  fresh  egg.  It 
must  be  very  strong.  The  solution  can  be  effected  by  heat,  or  stir- 
ring, or  by  both  methods,  finally  drawing  off,  or  bailing  out  the  liquid 
>clear  of  sediment,  previously  throwing  in  salt  and  giving  time  for  the 
•sediment  to  settle  ;  1  ton  of  yellow  soap  will  require  about  1000  Ibs. 
tallow  and  350  Ibs.  resin,  with  ley  sufficient.  The  same  quantity  of 
white  soap  will  require  nearly  1300  Ibs.  tallow,  boiling  in  every  case 
with  the  proper  quantity  of  ley,  until  it  forms  a  perfectly  homoge- 
neous mass  by  a  perfect  blending  of  the  component  parts  all  together, 
when  it  is  poured  out  into  suitable  frames  to  harden  and  cool.  It  ia 
afterwards  cut  up  into  proper  sized  bars  by  means  of  wires  to  which 
handles  are  attached  and  then  piled  up  to  dry. 

TRANSPARENT  SOAP. — Slice  6  Ibs.  nice  yellow  bar-soap  into  shnv- 
ings  ;  put  into  a  brass,  tin  or  copper  kettle,  with  alcohol,  £  gal.,  heat- 
ing gradually  over  a  slow  fire,  stirring  till  all  is  dissolved  ;  then  add 
1  oz.  sassafras  essence,  and  stir  until  all  is  mixed  ;  now  pour  into 
pans  about  1^  inches  deep,  and  when  cold  cut  into  square  bars  the 
length  or  width  of  the  pan,  as  desired. 

ENGLISH  BAR-SOAP. — Six  gals,  soft  water  ;  6  Ibs.  good  stone  Ihre; 
•20  Ibs.  sal-soda  ;  4  oz.  borax  ;  15  Ibs.  fat  (tallow  is  best)  ;  10  Ibs.  pul- 
verized resin,  and  4  oz.  beeswax  ;  put  the  water  in  a  kettle  on  the 
are,  and  when  nearly  boiling  add  the  lime  and  soda  ;  when  these  aro 
dissolved,  add  the  borax  ;  boil  gently,  and  stir  until  all  is  dissolved  ; 
then  add  the  fat,  resin,  and  bees- wax  :  boil  all  gently  until  it  shows 
flaky  on  the  stick,  then  pour  into  moulds. 

BEST  SOFT  SOAP. — Mix  10  Ibs.  potash  in  10  gals,  warm  soft  water 
over  night ;  in  the  morning  boil  it,  adding  6  Ibs.  grease  ;  then  put  all 
in  a  barrel,  adding  15  gals,  soft  water. 

SOAP  WITHOUT  LYE  OR  GREASE.  In  a  clean  pot  put^lb.  home- 
made hard  or  mush  soap,  and  ^  Ib.  sal-soda,  and  6  pts.  of  soft  water. 
Boil  the  mixture  15  minutes,  and  you  will  have  5  Ibs.  good,  soap  for 
7i  cents.  Hard  Soap. — Take  5  Ibs.  hard  soap,  or  7  Ibs.  soft  soap,  and 
4  Ibs.  sal-soda,  and  2  oz.  borax,  and  1  oz.  hartshorn  ;  boil  one  quarter 
hour  with  22  qts.  water  ;  add,  to  harden,  £  Ib.  resin. 

GERMAN  YELLOW  SOAP.— Tallow  and  sal-soda,  of  each  112  Ib*., 
yesin,  56  Ibs.  ;  stone  lime,  28  Ibs.  ;  palm  oil,  8  oz.  ;  soft  water,  28gn!s- 
Put  soda,  lime,  and  water  into  a  kettle  and  boil,  stirring  well  ;  then 
let  it  settle,  and  pour  off  the  lye.  In  another  kettle,  melt  the  tallow, 
resin,  and  palm  oil  ;  having  it  hot,  the  lye  being  also  boiling  hot,  mix 
all  together,  stirring  well  and  the  work  is  done.  For  small  quantiti'S. 
—Tallow  and  sal-soda  each,  1  Ib.  ;  resin,  7  oz.  ;  stone  lime,  4  oz.  : 
palm  oU,  1  oz.  ;  soft  water,  1  qt. 

HARD  SOAP  WITH  LAUD. — Sal-soda  and  lard,  each  6  Ibs.  ;  stono 
lime,  3  Ibs.  ;  soft  water,  4  gals.  ;  dissolve  the  lime  and  soda  in  tho 
^ater  by  boiling  stirring,  settling,  a»d  pouring  off ;  then  return  to 
the  kettle  (brass  or  copper),  and  add  the  lard,  and  boil  it  till  it  becomes 
soap  ;  then  pour  into  a  dish  or  moulds  ;  and,  when  cold,  cut  into  bar* 


204        GROCERS    AND    CONFECTIONERS'    RECEIPTS. 

WHITE  HARD  SOAP  WITH  TALLOW.— Fresh  slacked  lime,  gal-soda 
and  tallow,  of  each,  2  Ibs.  ;  dissolve  the  soda  in  1  gal.  boiling  soft 
water  ;  now  mix  in  the  lime,  stirring  occasionally  for  a  few  hours  ; 
after  which,  let  it  settle,  pouring  off  the  clear  liquor,  and  boiling  the 
tallow  therein  until  it  is  all  dissolved  ;  cool  it  in  a  flat  box  or  pan,  cut 
into  bars  or  cakes  as  desired.  It  may  be  perfumed  with  sassafras  oil 
or  any  other  perfume  desired,  stirring  it  hi  when  cool.  One  hundred 
pounds  soap,  very  cheap.— Potash,  6  Ibs.  ;  lard,  4  Ibs.  ;  resin,  i  Ib. 
Beat  up  the  resin,  mix  all  together,  and  set  aside  for  five  days  ;  then 
put  the  whole  into  a  10-gal.  cask  of  water,  and  stir  twice  a  day  for 
ten  days,  when  it  is  ready  for  use. 

VARIEGATED  SOAPS. — Soft  water  3qts.,  nice  white  bar  soap  31bg., 
sal-soda  2  ozs.  ;  Chinese  vermilion  and  Chinese  blue,  of  each  about 
7  grs.,  oil  sassaf  ras  ^  oz.  ;  shave  the  soap  into  thin  slices  and  add  it  to- 
the  water  as  it  begins  to  boil,  when  dissolved  set  it  off  the  fire,  take 
out  a  cup  of  soap  and  stir  in  the  verinillion,  take  out  another  cup  of 
soap  and  stir  in  the  blue  ;  then  pour  in  the  contents  of  the  first  cup, 
giving  two  or  three  turns  only  with  a  stirring  stick,  then  add  tlie  other 
rupful  in  the  same  way,  then  pour  into  moulds,  or  into  a  proper  box, 
and  when  cold  it  can  be  cut  into  bars  ;  it  will  present  a  beautiful 
streaked  appearance. 

CAMPHOR  SOAP.— Curd  soap  28  Ibs.,  otto  of  rosemary  Ijlbs.  Reduce 
the  eamphor  to  powder,  add  one  ounce  almond  oil,  then  sift  it,  when 
the  soap  is  melted  and  ready  to  turn  out,  add  the  camphor  and  rose- 
mary. White  Windsor  Soap. — Curd  soap  1  cwt.,  marine  soap  21  Ibs. 
oil  soap  14  Ibs.,  oil  caraway,  l^lbs.,  oil  thyme  and  rosemary  of  each  £ 
Ib.  oils  of  cassia  and  cloves  of  each  £  Ib.  Brown  Windsor  Soap. 
Curd  soap  f  cwt. ,  marine  soap  £  cwt. ,  yellow  soap  £  cwt. ,  oil  soap  J  cwt. 
Brown  coloring  (caramel)  £  pt.  oils  caraway,  cloves,  thyme,  cassia,  petit 
gram  and  French  lavender  of  each  2  oz.  &and  &oap.— Curd  soap  7  Ibs. 
marine  soap  7  Ibs.,  sifted  silver  sand  28 Ibs.,  oils  thyme,  cassia,  cara- 
way, and  French  lavender  of  each  2  oz. 

SOLID  CANDLES  FROM  LARD. — Dissolve  J  Ib.  alum  and  i  Ib.  salt- 
!>etre  in  |  pt.  water  on  a  slow  fire  ;  then  take  3  Ibs.  of  lard  ciit  into 
small  pieces,  and  put  into  the  pot  with  this  solution,  stirring  it  con- 
stantly over  a  very  moderate  fire  until  the  lard  is  all  dissolved  ;  then 
let  it  simmer  until  all  steam  ceases  to  rise  and  remove  it  at  once  frora 
the  fire.  If  you  leave  it  too  long  it  will  get  discolored.  These  can- 
dles are  harder  and  better  than  tallow. 

TALLOW— To  CLEANSE  AND  BLEACH.— Dissolve  alum,  5  Ibs.,  m 
water,  10  gals.,  by  boiling  ;  and  when  it  is  all  dissolved,  add  tallow. 
20  Ibs.  ;  continue  the  boiling  for  an  hour,  constantly  stirring  ana 
skimming ;  when  sufficiently  cool  to  allow  it,  strain  through  thick 
muslin  ;  then  get  aside  to  harden  ;  when  taken  from  the  water,  lay - 
it  by  for  a  short  time  to  drip. 

IMITATION  WAX  CANDLES. — Purify  melted  tallow  by  throwing  irt 
powdered  quick  lime,  then  add  two  parts  wax  to  one  of  tallow,  and 
a  most  beautiful  article  o€  candle,  resembling  wax,  will  be  the  result. 
Dip  the  wicks  in  lime  water  and  saltpetre  on  making.  To  a  gallon  of 
water  add  2  oz.  saltpetpe  and  £  Ib.  of  lime  ;  it  improves  the  light, 
and  prevents  the  tallow  from  running. 

ADAMANTINE  CANDLES  FROM  TALLOW.— Melt  together  10  oz.  mot- 
v*»  tallow  ;  camphor,  i  oz,  ;  bees- wax,  4  oz. ;  alum,  2  oz. 


TABLES,  AC.,  FOR  MERCHANTS.  20$ 

TABLE  OF  MISCEU^ANEOUS  WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES. 


Apples,  dried,  bush,  about  25  Ibs.  Mola&ses,  hhd.  from  130  to  150  gaiij 

Almonds,  seron  of,  1  to 2  cvvt.  Oats,  per  bush.,  32  Ibt*. 

Beef,  nrkin,  100  Ibs.  Oranges,   box,  double  O.  300  to'*5D 

«    or  Pork,  barrel,  200  Ibs.  Ibs. 

Buckwheat,  bush,  usually  50 Ibs.  "     single  O,  175  to  S5C 

Beans,  white,  bushel,  60  Ibs.  Ibs. 

iButter,  barrel,  224  Ibs.  Eye,  bush,  in  most  place?,. 66  Ibs. 

«<      firkin,  56  Ibs.  Salmon,  box,  120  to  130  Ibs. 

"      tub,  84  Ibs.  Salt,  hhd.,  3  bush. 

Coffee,  tierce  of,  5  to  7  cwt.  "    bbl.,  3%  bush. 

"      bags  of  Rio,  about  162  Ibs.  "    bushel  of,  fine  ground,  TOtlba 

'<        "     St.  Domingo,  about  130  Sugar,  bbl.,  200  to  2.^0  Ibs. 

Ibs.  <r  box  400  to  500  Ibs. 

«        pocket  of  Java,  about  50  Ibs.  Soap,  bbl.  256  Ibs. 

««      bale  of  Mocha,  2  to  2%  cwt.  "     box,  75  Ibs. 

Clover  seed,  cask,  7  to  9  cwt.  Tea,  chest,  Congou,  75  Ibs. 

"          "     bushel,  usually  60  Ibs.  «        "      Hyson,  60  to  84  lbs_ 

Corn,  per  bushel,  in  most  places,  56  "      %,  about  40  Ibs.  net. 

Ibs.  Timothy  Seed,  bushel,  45  Ibs, 
Cement,  barrel,  300  Ibs.  Wheat,  bushel,  60  Us. 
Colton,  bale,  N.  Orleans  and  Alaba- 
ma, 400  to  300  Ibs.  Beer,  hhd.,  54  gals. 

««    East  Indies,  320  to  380  Butt  of  Sherry,  108  gals. 

Ibs.  Brandy,  puncheon  of,  110  to  120gal«r 

"         <'  Carolina,  Georgia  &  West  "        hhd.,  55  to  60  gals. 

Indies,  300  to  312  Ibs.  Claret,  hhd.,  46  gals. 

«             "    Brazilian  160  to  200  Ibs.  Puncheon  of  Scotch  Whiskey,  110  t$ 

Dried  Peaches,  bush,  usually  33  Ibs.  130  gals. 

Flax,  bale,  Russian,  5  to  6  cwt.  '«       Rum,  100  to  110  gals. 

Fish,  quintal,  112  Ibs.  Pipe  of  Port,  115  gals. 

"    barrel,  pickled,  200  Ibs.  "      Maderia,  92  gate, 

Flaxseed,  bush,   in  most  places,  55  "      Teneriffe,  100  gals. 

Ibs.  A  hogshead  is  one-half,  a  quarte* 

Flour,  bbl.  net,  196  Ibs.  cask  is  one-fourth,  and  an  oc- 

.     "    including  bbl.,  216  Ibs.  tave  is  one-eighth  of  a  pipe,  butt, 

"    sack,  5  bushels,  280  Ibs.  or  puncheon. 

Figs,  drum,  24  Ibs.  

Ginger,  ground,  box,  24  Ibs.  BRITISH  MEASURES  OF  YOLUMJZT* 
Honey,  gal.,  12  Ibs. 

Hops,  bag  of,  about  2%  cwt.  The  Imperial  gallon  measures  277- 

Hempseed,  bush,  in  most  places  44  274  cubic  inches,  and  con  tains  1O 

i          Ibs.  Ibs     avoirdupois    of     distilled. 

Indian  Meal,  hogshead,  800  Ibs.  water  at  32°  Fahr. 

'Lime,  bbl.,  225  Ibs.  The  Ale  gallon  is  282  cnbic  inches^ 

Lemons,  box,  Sicily,  about  350  Ibs.  and  contains  10.2  Ibs,  avoirdupoi» 

Mace,  case,  about  1%  cwt. of  distilled  water. 

"~  The  wine  gallon  of  231  cubic  ins.  containing  8.355  Ibs.  avoirdupois  of  dis- 
tilled water,  is  the  government  or  customs  gallon  of  the  United  State»^ 
and  the  legal  gallon  of  each  State  in  which  no  law  exists  fixing  a  State  or 
statute  gallon,  and  the  Standard  U.S.  bushel  is  the  Winntiester,  contain- 
jng  2150.42  cubic  inches,  or  77.627413  Ibs.  avoirdupois  of  drstifled  water. 

The  Imperial  6ws/te/=2218.192  cubic  ins.  The  heaped  bushel=19.5  ins. 
diameter,  cone  6  ins.  high =2815.4872  cubic  ins.  for  Grain— 8  bushel8=r 
1  quarter.  1  quarter= 10.2694  cubic  feet.  Coat  or  Heaped  measure—* 
h«Bhels=l  sack,  12  sacks^l  chaldron  ;  1  chaldron=58.656  cubic  feet  and 
•vreighs  3136  Ibs.  1  stone=14  Ibs.  1  Quarter  is  equal  to  8V4  U.  S.  bushel* 
1  tack  flour=5  bushs.  =280  Ibs.  Anthracite  coal  per  cubic  ft.  weighs  90 1» 
102  Ibs.  Bituminous  coal,  per  cubic  ft.  79  to  82  Ibs.  Coal  as  conventional 


J06  TABLES,  AC.,  FOR  MERCHANTS. 

ly  purchased=43.56  cubic  ft.  to  a  ton  (or  about  28  bushels  and  5  p«£fe«),  fa 
1lie  U.  S.,  and  is  bought  wholesale  by  the  dealer  at  2240  Ibs.  per  ton,  and 
retailed  at  2000  Ibs.  In  commerce,  1  ton  of  flour  is  8  sacks,  and  1  ton  of 
potatoes  10  bushels.  The  weight  and  measures  in  the  Dominion  of  Can- 
JKla  are  the  same  as  those  of  Great  Britain,  but  the  United  States  bushel 
^.nd  gallon  are  most  In  use.  The  dimensions  of  a  barrel  should  be,  diam. 
<of  head,  17  Ins.,  do.  at  bung,  19  ins.-;  length,  28  ins- :  volume  7689  cub.  ins. 
A  twn  is  2  pfpes,  4  hogsheads,  3  puncheons,  8  barrels,  or  252  gals. 
•  :  QUANTITY  OF  GOODS  ESTIMATED  TO  COMPOSE  A  TON  IN  CALCULA- 
TING FREIGHTS  BY  WATER.— Lemons,  20  boxes  ;  Raisins,  20  casks ;  do., 
30  boxes  ;  do.,  160  half  boxes  ;  do.,  320  quarter  boxes  ;  Almonds,  16  frails  ; 
Grapes,  40  kegs  ;  Wine,  Malaga,  8  quarter  casks  ;  ditto,  14  Indian  barrels ; 
oassia,  25  piculs  ;  Jute,  4  bales  ;  Linseed,  1600  Ibs..  or  8%  bags  per  ton; 
linger,  110  Ibs.;  Twine,  890  Ibs.;  Matting,  4-4,  8% rolls  of  40  yds.  ;  do.,  5-4, 
*  rolls  of  40  yds.  ;  do.,  6-4,  5%  rolls  of  40  yards  ;  Gunny  bags,  large,  425; 
medium  do.,  500  ;  small  do.,  625 ;  Saltpetre,  11  to  12  ^>ags  per  ton  of  2240  Ibs. 

NEW  YORK  FREIGHTS.— QUANTITY  OF  GOODS  WHICH  COMPOSE  A 
'TON.— Extract  from  the  Bye-Laws  of  the  New  York  Chamber  of  Commerce. 
."In  freighting  vessels  by  the  ton,  in  the  absence  of  a  definite  agreement 
between  the  owner  of  the  vessel  and  freighter  of  the  goods,  the  following 
regulations  shall  be  the  standard  of  computation  :  That  the  articles  the 
bulk  of  which  shall  compose  a  Ton.  to  equal  a  Ton  of  heavy  materials,  shall 
be  in  weight  as  follows.  Coffee  an  casks,  1568  Ibs.  ;  Coffee  in  bags,  1830 
ibs. ;  Cocoa  in  casks,  1120  Ibs. ;  Cocoa  in  bags,  1307  Ibs. ;  Pimento  in  casks, 
952  Ibs. ;  Pimento  in  bags,  1110  Ibs.  ;  Dry  hides,  10  cwt. ;  Chinese  raw  silk, 
ifiewt. ;  Bohea  tea,  net,  10  cwt. ;  Green  teas,  8  cwt.  ;  Ship-bread,  bulk,  § 
cwt. ;  Ship-bread,  bags,  7  cwt. ;  Ship-bread,  casks,  6  cwt. ;  Grain,  Peas,  or 
Beans  in  casks,  22  bushels  ;  Grain,  in  bulk,  36  bushels  ;  European  salt,  31 
bushels  ;  West  India  salt,  31  bushels  ;  Sea  coal,  29  bushels  ;  Tobacco,  6 
.Mills. ;  Pig  and  Bar  iron,  Potashes,  Sugar,  Logwood,  Fustic,  Nicaragua 
•wood  and  Heavy  Dye-Woods,  Rice,  Honey,  Copper  ore,  and  all  otnef 
heavy  goods,  20  cwt.=l  ton  ;  Coffee,  cocoa,  and  dried  codfish  in  bulk.  If 
cwt.=l  ton  ;  Dried  Codfish,  in  casks  of  any  size,  12  cwt.=l  ton  ;  Oil,  Wine* 
Brandy,  or  any  kind  of  liquor,  reckoning  the  full  contents  of  the  cask,  wine 
measures  200  gals.=l  ton.  Mahogany,  Square  timber,  Oak  Plank,  Pine  and 
other  boards,  Beavers,  Furs,  Peltry,  Beeswax,  Cotton,  Wool,  and  al« 
of  all  kinds,  40  cubic  ft.=l  ton.  Flour,  in  bbls.  of  106  Ibs.  each  8  bbls.=- 
Iton;  Beef,  Tallow,  Pickled  fish,  Pitch,  Tar,  and  Turpentine,  6  bbls. =1  ton. 

A  CAR-LOAD. — As  a  general  rule  the  following  quantities  constitute 
a  car-load  throughout  Canada  and  the  United  States,  viz.  :  20,000  Ibs. 
or  70  bbls.  of  salt,  70  of  lime,  70  of  flour,  60  of  whiskey,  200  sacks  of 
flour,  6  cords  of  hard  wood,  7  of  soft  wood,  16  head  of  horses,  18  to  20 
head  of  cattle,  50  to  60  head  of  hogs,  80  to  100  head  of  sheep,  9,000 
:!eet  of  solid  boards,  17,000  feet  of  siding,  13,000  feet  of  flooring,  40,000 
shingles,  one-half  less  of  hard  lumber,  one-fourth  less  of  green  lum- 
ber, one-tenth  less  of  joists,  scantling  and  all  other  large  timber,  340 
bushels  of  wheat,  360  of  corn,  680  of  oats,  400  of  barley,  360  of  flax-seed, 
360  of  apples  430  of  Irish  potatoes,  356  of  sweet  potatoes,  1,000  busheli 
^<af  bran. 

EXCHAN«E  ON  ENGLAND. 

Exchange  is  the  method  of  adjusting  accounts  or  paying  debts,  whe 
,-3ae  debtor  and  creditor  are  distant  from  each  other,  by  means  of  an  order 
.  QT  draft  callad  a  bill  of  exchange,  so  as  to  avoid  the  transmission  of  either 
aiouey  or  goods  ;  for  example,  A  of  New  York  wishing  to  pay  a  debt  to  B, 
»f  London,  pays  an  equivalent  amount  to  C,  of  New  York,  who  has  a 
4ebtor,  D,  in  London  ;  and  A  receives  from  C  an  order,  addressed  toD. 
requesting  him  to  pay  the  amount  to  B.  This  is  sent  in  a  letter  to  B,  who 
Presents  it  to  D  for  acceptance  or  payment.  Thus  the  debtor  in  one  place 
yst  nuiwtituted  for  the  debtor  in  another,  and  two  accounts  may  be  aujusfc 
.«d  it  the  same  time  by  the  simple  transmission  «f  a  letter,  far  qf  «* 


TABLES,  AC.,  FOE  MERCHANTS. 


207 


•  IB  the  equivalency  of  a  certain  amount  of  the  currency  of  on* 
^country  to  the  currency  of  another,  the  currencies  of  both  being  of  the  . 
precise  weight  and  purity  fixed  by  their  respective  mints.     Thus  accord-  ; 
Ing  to  the  mint  regulations  of  England  and  France,  £1  sterling  is  equal 
to  25  francs,  20  centimes,  which  is  consequently  said  to  be  the  par  between 
London  and  Paris.    Exchange  is  made  to  diverge  from  par,  either  by  de-  . 
preciation  of  the  currency  in  either  country  below  the  mint  standard,  or 
by  the  difference  in  the  amounts  of  indebtedness  between  one  country 
and  another,  called  the  bo-lance  of  trade,  which  effects  the  relative  de-  ' 
.mand  for  bills  of  ezchange.     Thus  in  the  following  table,  the  present 
standard  value  of  £1  stg.  in  the  United  States,  being  $4.84.4,  when  ex- 
change is  at  9  per  cent.,  it  is  then  at  par  ;  if  higher  than  9,  it  is  abovb  par, 
if  leas  than  9,  it  is  below,  as  shown  by  the  table. 
EXCHANGE  TABLE. 


•    percent.        $4.66.7 
»!/,        "                  4.68.0 

7%  per  ceut.      $4.78.9 
8           "                 4.80.0 

10    per  cent.       $• 
1014       " 

1.88.9 
.90.0 

«%        "                  4.70.0 
€            ««                   4.71.1 

81/4 

|MJ 

4.81.1 
4.82.2 

10% 

.91.1 
.92.2 

.72.2 

8% 

4.83.3 

11 

.93.8 

||  :: 

.73.3 
.74.4 
.75.6 

9 

91/4 

4.84.4 
4.85.6 
4.86.7 

111/4 

$ 

i 
t 

.94.4 
1.95.6 
1.96.T 

714      " 

.76.7 

9% 

4.87.8 

12            "                 4.97.8 

71/?      " 

.77.8 

THE  FOLLOWING  TABLE  EXHIBITS  THE  LEGAL  EQUIVALENTS  OF 
BRITISH  MONEY  IN  AMERICAN  DOLLARS  AND  CENTS. 


s. 

$  c.  m. 

S.|$c.  m. 

£ 

$  c. 

£ 

*  c. 

£ 

$  c.  |£|  §  c. 

£|  9  c. 

~~1 

24.2 

11 

2.66.2 

1 

4  84 

11 

53  24 

21 

101  64 

31 

150  04 

41 

198  44 

2 

48.4 

12 

2.90.4 

2 

9  68 

12 

58  08 

22 

106  48 

32 

154  88 

42 

203  28 

3 

72.6 

13 

3.14.6 

3 

14  52 

13 

62  92 

23 

111  32 

33 

159  72 

43 

208  12 

4 

96.8 

14 

3.38.8 

4 

19  36 

14 

67  76 

24 

116  16 

34 

164  56 

44 

212  96 

5 

1.21.0 

15  3.63.0 

5 

24  20 

15 

72  60 

25  121  00 

35 

169  40 

46i  217  80 

6 

1.45.2 

16  3.87.2 

f> 

29  04 

16 

77  44 

26)  125  84 

36 

174  24 

50  1  242  00 

7 

1.69.4 

17 

4.11.4 

7 

33  88 

17 

82  28 

27 

130  68 

37 

179  08 

60 

290  40 

8 

1.93.6 

18 

4.35.6 

8 

38  72 

18 

87  12 

28 

135  52 

r,8 

183  92 

70!  338  80 

9 

2.17.8 

19 

4.59.8 

9 

43  56 

19 

91  96 

29 

140  36 

3!) 

188  76 

80 

387  20 

10 

2.42.0 

20 

4.84.0 

10 

48  40 

20 

96  80 

30  145  20 

40 

193  60 

90 

436  00 

FLAVORING  EXTRACTS,  VANILLA,  GINGER,  &c. — Vanilla  beans, 
4  ozs. ;  sugar,  2  ozs. ;  alcohol,  4  fluid  ozs. ;  simple  syrup,  4  ozs. ;  brandy, 
1  pt.  Cut  the  beans  finely,  and  rub  thoroughly  "with  the  sugar,  put 
all  into  a  strong  stone  bottle,  secure  tl\e  cork  with  twine,  and  boil  in 
a  water  bath  for  ^  hour,  then  transfer  tft  a  filter  and  allow  it  to  per- 
colate through,  then  add  brandy  sufficient  to  make  4  pts.  Other 
extracts,  as  ginger,  &c.,  can  be  made  in  a  similar  manner,  by  using 
the  respective  ingredients. 

Essential  oils  of  aniseed,  lavender,  peppermint,  cloves,  cinnamon, 
&c.,  are  obtained  by  submitting  parts  of  the  plants,  previously  ground 
to  a  coarse  powder,  to  distillation  with  water,  when  the  oils  are  carried 
ever  in  a  minute  state  of  division  with  the  aqueous  vapor.  The 
essential  oils  enclosed  in  the  skins  of  lemons,  oranges,  bergamots, 
&c.,  are  obtained  by  pressing  the  rinds  of  these  fruits. 

To  PRESERVE  APPLES. — Pack  in  boxes  or  barrels  elevated  from  the 
cellar  floor,  with  a  layer  of  dry  sawdust  at  the  bottom  of  each  box  or 
barrel,  then  a  layer  of  apples  placed  out  of  contact  with  each  other, 
then  a  layer  of  sawdust,  and  so  on  till  all  are  full.  Sound  apple* 
packed  in  this  way  will  keep  fresh  a  long  time. 


208      GROCERS  AND  CONFECTIONERS  RECEIPTS;  AC. 

"WEIGHTS,  IN  POUNDS,  OF  VARIOUS  ARTICLES,  AS  RATED  BY  RAILWAY 
COMPANIES,  WHEN  THEIR  WEIGHTS  CANNOT  OTHERWISE  BE  ASCER- 
TAINED. 

POUNDS. 

Ashes,  pot  or  pearl Barrel 450 

Apples,  and  barrelled  fruits Barrel 200 

Apples Bushel 50 

Barley Bushel 45 

Beef,  pork,  bacon Per  hhd 1,000 

Butter,  tallow,  lard Per  bbl 333 

Salt  fish  and  meat Per  lirkin ICO1 

Bran,  feed,  shipstuffs,  oats Bushel 35 

Buckwheat Bushel 48 

Bricks,  common Each.   . .       5 

Bark Cord.  ...2,000 

Charcoal  „ Bushel 22 

Coke,  and  cake  meal  Bushel 40 

•Clover  seed Bushel 62 

Eggs Barrel ....    200 

Fish  and  salt  meat Per  firkin 100 

Flour  and  meal  • Per  bushel,  56  Ibs,  Barrel 216 

Grain  and  seeds,  not  stated Bushel  ...      60 

Hides  (green) Each. ...      85 

Hides  (dry),  salted  or  Spanish Each 33 

Ice,  coal, 'lime Bushel 80 

Liquors,  malt  and  distilled Barrel 350 

Liquors Per  gallon 10 

Lumber— pine,  poplar,  hemlock Ft.  b.  m 4 

Lumber — oak,  walnut,  cherry,  ash Ft.  b.  m . . . .       5 

Kails  and  spikes Keg 106 

Onions,  s'heat,  potatoes Bushel 60 

Oysters Per  bushel,  100  Ibs.,  per  1,000 350 

Plastering  lath Per  1,000....    60(> 

Resin,  tar,  turpentine Barrel....    &>fr 

Sand,  gravel,  etc Per  cubic  ft 150 

Shingles Per  M.,  short,  9PO  Ibs..  Long 1  400 

Salt Per  bushel —      70 

Stone,  undressed Perch. . .  .4,000 

Stone,  dressed Cubic  ft....    180 

Timothy  and  light  grass  seed Bushel. ...      40 

Wood— h ickory Cord ....  4,500 

Wood— oak Cord 3,500 

1  ton  (2240  Ib?.')  cured  h^y  is  425  cubic  ft.;  1  ton  of  hay  in  mow,  414.37 
Ibs.,  or  a  cube  of  714  ft.  Hay,  as  usually  delivered,  weighs  5  Ibs.  per  cubic 
ft.;  do.,  well  pressed,  R  Ibs.  Straw,  loose,  weighs  3%  Ibs.  per  cubic  ft.: 
do.,  well  pressed,  534  Ibs.  U.  S.  gallon  of  water  weighs  8.33  Ibs. ;  do.,  of 
molasses,  11%;  do.,  of  turpentine,  7.31;  do.,  of  alcohol,  6.96. 

BELFAST  GINGER  ALE.— Double  refined  sugar,  powderecf,  1  lb.; 
bicarbonate  of  soda,  3i  ozs. ;  citric  acid,  4$  ozs. ;  concentrated  ess.  of 
ginger,  li  ozs. ;  ess.  ofwcayenne,  2  drs. ;  ess.  of  lemon,  40  drops.    The 
soda,  acid  and  sugar  must  be  carefully  dried  separately  at  a  tempera- 
ture not  exceeding  120° :  and  the  sugar  before  drying  must  be  thor- 
',    oughly  incorporated  with  the  essences,  to  which  a  small  quantity  of 
I    caramel,  as  color,  may  be  added.     The  whole  forms  a  powder,  a  des- 
L  eertspoonful  of  which  will  make  a  tumblerful  of  the  drink. 
i'       UNFERMENTED  WINE. — To  make  this,  boil  grapes  of  any  kind  over 
;    a  slow  fire  till  the  pulp  has  thoroughly  separated  from  the  skin,  add- 
!    Ing  just  enough  water  to  prevent  burning  at  the  bottom  of  the  vessel, 
then  press  the  juice  through  a  fine  cloth  and  add  £  its  weight  of  sugar, 

I 


GROCERS  AND  CONFECTIONERS*  RECEIPTS,  &C>       20$ 

mix  well,  bring  the  juice  to  the  boiling  point  once  more,  and  can  it 
In  air-tight  jars.  This  wine  will  keep  sweet  for  years,  and  has  the 
color  of  port. 

To  IMPROVE  SPOILED  BUTTER. — The  cut  represents  an  excellent 
arrangement  for  the  restoration  of  bad  butter  by  means  of  the  well* 
known  absorbent  and  deodorizing  qual- 
ities of  charcoal.  The  tainted  butter  is 
removed  from  the  firkin  or  other  ves- 
sel by  removing  the  staves  and  hoops 
surrounding  it.  It  is  then  placed  in  a 
clean  bag  and  buried  in  granulated 
jharcoal  in  a  suitable  barrel  or  box.  In 
a  short  time,  the  offensive  odor  and 
bad  smell  will  disappear,  and  a  fine, 
fresh,  marketable  appearance  will  be 
imparted  to  the  butter  by  the  conserv- 
ing operation  of  the  charcoal. 

Another  M- ay,  melt  the  butter  in  twice 
its  weight  of  boiling  water,  shake  well 
and  pour  the  melted  butter  into  cold 
water  to  regain  a  proper  consistence. 
Or,  wash  in  good  new  milk,  in  which  the  butyric  acid,  which  causes 
fiie  rancidity,  is  freely  soluble.  Wash  afterwards  in  cold  spring. 
«tater.  Another  good  way  is  to  wash  the  butter  in  strong  lime  water,, 
previously  permitting  the  lime  ample  time  to  settle,  and  using  the  clear 
portion. 

To  CAN  FRUIT. — The  following  instructions  for  boiling  and  can- 
ning fruit  will  prove  useful  to  many.  The  first  number  after  the 
came  of  the  fruit  has  reference  to  the  numberof  minutes  required  tot 
boiling,  and  the  second  to  the  ounces  of  sugar  required  to  each  quart. 
Currants,  6,  8 ;  cherries,  5,  6  ;  crab-apples,  25,  8  ;  blackberries,  6,  6  ;. 
gooseberries,  8,  8  ;  grapes,  10,8;  plums,  10,  8;  peaches  (whole),  15. 
4;  peaches  (halves),  8,  4  ;  pears  (whole),  30,  8  ;  quinces  (sliced),  15 
10  ;  tomatoes,  30,  (no  sugar)  ;  beans  and  peas,  3  to  4  hours,  no  sugar 

To  Can  Green  Corn.— Dissolve  2£  ozs.  tartaric  acid  in  1  pt.  water, 
and  use  1  teaspoonful  to  every  pint  of  corn  while  the  corn  is  at  boiling, 
heat.  When  opened  for  use,  add  one  teaspoonful  of  soda  to  every  3 
sai>"  of  cor'* 


$10        SROCERS   AND    CONFECTIONERS*   RECEIPTS. 

RAPID  PROCESS  OP  MARKING  GOODS  AT  ANT  DESIRED  PER 
PROFIT.— Retail  merchants,  in  buying  goods  by  wholesale,  buy  a  great 
many  articles  by  the  dozen,  such  as  boots  and  shoes,  hats  and  caps, 
.and  notions  of  various  kinds  ;  now,  the  merchant,  in  buying,  for  in- 
stance, a  dozen  hats,  knows  exactly  what  one  of  these  hats  will  retail 
for  in  the  market  where  he  deals  ;  and,  unless  he  is  a  good  accountant 
it  will  often  take  him  some  time  to  determine  whether  he  can  afford,, 
to  purchase  the  dozen  hats  and  make  a  living  profit  by  selling  them  byV 
the  single  hat ;  and  in  buying  his  goods  by  auction,  as  the  merchant 
often  does,  he-  has  not  time  to  make  the  calculation  before  the  goods  are 
tid  off.  He  therefore  loses  the  chance  of  making  good  bargains  by  be- 
ing afraid  to  bid  at  random,  or  if  he  bids,  and  the  goods  are  cried  off, 
lie  may  have  made  a  poor  bargain,  by  bidding  thus  at  a  venture.  It  then, 
becomes  a  useful  and  practical  problem  to  determine  instantly  what 
per  cent,  he  would  gain  if  he  retailed  the  hat  at  a  certain  price,  to 
tell  what  an  article  should  retail  for  to  make  a  profit  of  20  per  cent. 

RULE. — Divide  what  the  articles  cost  per  dozen  oy  10,  which  is  done 
by  removing  the  decimal  point  one  place  to  the  left. 

For  instance,  if  hats  cost  $17.50  per  dozen,  remove  the  decimal  point 
one  place  to  the  left,  making  $1.75,  what  they  should  be  sold  for 
apiece  to  gain  20  per  cent  on  the  cost.  If  they  cost  $31.00  per  dozen, 
they  should  be  sold  at  S3. 10  apiece,  etc.  We  take  20  per  cent,  as  the 
basis  for  the  f ollowing  reasons,  viz  :  because  we  can  determine  instant- 
ly, by  simply  removing  the  decimal  point,  without  changing  a  figure, 
and,  if  the  goods  would  not  bring  at  least  20  per  cent,  profit  in  tha 
home  market,  the  merchant  could  not  afford  to  purchase,  and  would 
look  for  cheaper  goods. 

The  reason  for  the  above  rule  is  obvious,  for  if  we  divide  the  cost 
of  a  dozen  by  12,  we  have  the  cost  of  a  single  article  ;  then  if  we  wish 
io  make  20  per  cent,  on  the  cost  (cost  being  1-1  or  5-5),  we  add  the 
per  cent.,  which  is  1-5,  to  the  5-5,  making  6-5  or  12-10  ;  then  as  wo 
multiply  the  cost,  divided  by  12,  by  the  12-10  to  find  at  what  price  one 
must  be  sold  to  gain  20  per  cent.,  it  is  evident  that  the  12s  will  cancel 
and  leave  the  cost  of  a  dozen  to  be  divided  by  10,  to  do  this  remove  the 
decimal  point  one  place  to  the  left. 

EXAMPLE  1.— If  I  buy  2  dozen  caps  at  $7.50  per  dozen,  what  shall  I 
retail  them  at  to  make  20  per  cent.  ?  Ans.  75  cents. 

EXAMPLE  2. — When  a  merchant  retails  a  vest  at  $4.50  and  makes 
20  per  cent,  what  did  he  pay  per  doz.  ?  Ans.  $45. 

EXAMPLE  3.— At  what  price  should  I  retail  a  pair  of  boots  that  cos* 
$85.00  per  doz.  to  make  20  per  cent  ?  Ans.  $8.50. 

Now,  as  removing  the  decimal  point  one  place  to  the  left,  on  the  co,.* 
ot  a  dozen  articles,  gives  the  selling  price  of  a  single  one  with  20  per 
cent,  added  to  the  cost,  and,  as  the  cost  of  any  article  is  100  per  cent., 
it  is  obvious  that  the  selling  price  would  be  20  per  cent,  more,  or  12<J> 
per   cent. ;    hence,    to    find   50    per.   cent,    profit  which    would  I 
make  the  selling  price   150  per  cent.,  we   would   first   find   120* 
per    cent,  then  add  30  per  cent,  by  increasing  it  one-fourth  itself  ' 
lor  85  per  cent.,  increase  it  one-eight  itself,  etc.    Hence  to  mark  an 
article  at  any  per  cent,  profit  we  find  the  following: 

— OENERAL  RULE.— First  find  20  per  cent,  profit  by  removing  the  dec- 
imal point  one  place  to  the  left  on  the  price  the  articles  cost  per  doz.; 
Jfcn,  as  20  per  cent  profit  is  120  per  oent.  add  to  or  subtract  from  this 


GROCERS    AND    CONFECTIONERS*  RECEIPTS.       211 


amount  the  fractional  part  that  the  required  per  cent,  added  to  100  if 
more  or  less  than  120. 

Merchants,  in  marking  goods,  generally  take  a  per  cent,  that  is  an  ali- 
quot part  of  100,  as  25,  33  1-3,  50,  &c.  The  reason  they  do  this  is  be- 
cause it  makes  it  much  easier  to  add  such  a  per  cent,  to  the  cost ;  for 
instance,  a  merchant  could  mark  almost  a  dozen  articles  at  50  per  cent, 
profit  in  the  time  it  would  take  him  to  mark  one  at  49  per  cent. 
The  following  is  arranged  for  the  convenience  of  business  m«n  is 
marking  the  prices  of  all  articles  bought  by  the  dozen. 
To  make  20  per  cent,  remove  the  point  one  place  to  the  left 

80 

«  60 
"  50 
"  44 

40 

37 

35 

331-3 

32 

30 

28 

26 

25 

12i 

162-3 

18f 

If  I  buy  a  doz.  shirts  for  $28.00,  what  shall  I  retail  them  for  tc* 
make  50  per  cent.  ?  Ans.  $3.50 

EXPLANATION.— Remove  the  point  one  place  to  the  left,  and  add  £ 
itseli 

ALIQUOT  PARTS  OF  100  AND  1000.— Merchants  in  selling  goods  gen- 
erally make  the  price  of  an  article  some  aliquot  part  of  100,  as  in  sell- 
ing sugar  at  12£  cents  per  lb.,  or  8  Ibs.  for  $1.00,  ^r  in  sell- 
ing calico  for  16  2-3  cents  per  yard,  or  6  yds.  for  $1.00,  etc.  Th» 
following  table  will  be  found  valuble  for  all  such  calculations. 


and  add  £  itself. 

« 

1-3    " 

M 

1-4    " 

{( 

1-5    " 

(( 

1-6    " 

« 

1-7    " 

«« 

1-8    " 

(( 

1-9    " 

(( 

1-10  " 

n 

1-12  " 

« 

1-15  " 

H 

1-20  " 

II 

1-24  '« 

subtract 

1-16  " 

u 

1-36  " 

« 

1-96  " 

12£  is  1-8  part  of  100. 

25  is  1-4  part  of  100. 

37£  is  3-8  part  of  100. 

50  is  4-8  or  i  of  100. 

62£  5-8  part'of  100. 

75  is  6-8  or  3-4  part  of  100. 

87*  is  7-8  part  of  100. 
6}  is  1-16  part  of  100. 

18|  is  3-16  part  of  100. 

3l|  is  5-16  part  of  100. 
To  multiply  by  an  aliquot  part  of  100. 
RULE.— Add  two  cyphers  to  the  multiplicand,  then  take  such  part 
©f  it  as  the  multiplier  is  part  of  100. 

^  N.  B.  If  the  multiplicand  is  a  mixed  number  reduce  the  fraction  to 
I*,  decimal  of  two  places  before  dividing. 

'  N.  B.  For  the  sake  of  uniformitv,  it  has  been  thought  best  to 
classify  the  Coal,  Interest  and  Ready  Reckoner  Tables  at  the  end  of 
the  Engineers'  Department. 


8£  is  1-12  part  of  100. 
16  2-3  is  2-12  or  1-6  of  100 
33  1-3  is  4-12  or  1-3  of  100. 
66  2-3  is  8-12  or  2-3  of  100 
83  1-3  is  10-12  or  5-6  of  100 
125  is  1-8  part  of  1000. 
250  is  2-8  or  £  of  1000. 
375  is  3-8  part  of  1000. 
625  is  5-8  part  of  1000. 
875  is  7-8  part  of  1000. 


GROCERS   AND    CONFECTIONERS*   RECEIPTS. 

TEAS.—  The  names  of  the  different  kinds  of  tea  relate  to  the  time 
of  their  being  gathered,  or  to  some  peculiarity  in  their  manufacture. 
It  is  a  general  rule,  that  all  tea  is  fine  in  proportion  to  the  tenderness 
and  immaturity  of  the  leaves.  The  quality  and  value  of  the  differ* 
ent  kinds  diminish  as  they  are  gathered  later  in  the  season. 

BLACK  TEAS.  —  As  soon  as  the  leaf-bud  begins  to  expand,  it  is 
gathered  to  make  Pekoe.  A  few  days'  later  growth  produces  black- 
leaved  Pekoe.  The  next  picking  is  called  Souchong  ;  as  the  leaves 
£row  larger  and  more  mature,  they  form  Congou  ;  and  the  last  pick- 
ing is  Bohea.  Bohea  is  called  by  the  Chinese,  Ta-cha  (large  tea),  on 
account  of  the  maturity  and  size  of  the  leaves  ;  it  contains  a  larger 
proportion  of  woody  fibre  than  other  teas,  ana  its  infusion  is  of  a 
darker  color  and  coarser  flavor.  Congou,  the  next  higher  kind,  is 
named  from  a  corruption  of  the  Chinese  Koong-foa  (great  care,  or 
assiduity).  This  forms  the  bulk  of  the  black  tea  imported,  and  is 
mostly  valued  for  its  strength. 

Souchong  —  Seaoa-chpong  (small  scarce  sort),  is  the  finest  of  the 
strongest  black  tea,  with  a  leaf  that  is  generally  entire  and  curly.  It 
is  much  esteemed  for  its  fragrance  and  fine  flavor.  Pekoe  is  a  corrup- 
tion of  the  Canton  name,  Pak-ho  (white  down),  being  the  first  sprouts 
of  the  leaf-buds  ;  they  are  covered  with  a  white  silky  down.  It  is  a 
delicate  tea,  rather  deficient  in  strength,  and  is  principally  used  for 
flavoring  other  teas. 

GREEN  TEAS.—  The  following  are  the  principal  kinds.  2wankay, 
Hyson-Skin,  Hyson,  Gunpoioder,  and  Young  Hyson. 

Young  Hyson  is  a  delicate  young  leaf,  called  in  the  original  lan- 
guage Yu-tsien  (before  the  rams),  because  gathered  in  the  early 
gpring.  Hyson,  from  the  Chinese  word  He-tchune,  which  means, 
flourishing  spring.  This  fine  tea  is  gathered  early  in  the  season,  and 
prepared  with  great  care  and  labor.  Each  leaf  is  picked  separately, 
and  nipped  off  above  the  footstalks  ;  and  every  separate  leaf  is 
rolled  in  the  hand.  It  is  much  esteemed  for  its  flavor.  Gunpowder 
Tea  is  only  Hyson  rolled  and  rounded  to  give  it  the  granular  appear- 
ance whence  it  derives  its  name.  The  Chinese  call  it  Choo-cha  (peal 
tea).  Hyson-Skin  is  so  named  from  the  Chinese  term,  in  which 
connection  skin  means  the  refuse,  or  inferior  portion.  In  preparing 
Hyson,  all  leaves  that  are  of  a  coarse  yellow,  or  imperfectly  twisted 
appearance,  are  separated,  and  sold  as  skin-tea,  at  an  inferior  price. 

fwankay  is  the  last  picking  of  green  tea,  and  the  leaf  is  not  rolled 
or  twisted  as  much  as  the  dearer  descriptions.  There  is  altogether 
less  trouble  bestowed  on  the  preparation. 

COFFEES.—  JAVA  COFFEE.—  Use  of  the  imported  article,  20  Ibs.  » 
dried  dandelion  root,  7  Ibs.  ;  chiccory,  13  Ibs.  Roast  and  grind 
well  together. 

FOR  WEST  INDIA,  use  rye  roasted  with  a  little  butter,  and  ground 
very  fine. 

FOR  TURKEY  COFFEE,  use  rice  or  wheat  roasted  with  a  little^ 
butter,  7  Ibs.  ;  chiccory,  3  Ibs.  ;  grind. 

ESSENCE   OF   COFFEE  is  made  by  boiling  down  molasses  tiL 
hard  ;  grind  to  a  powder  ;  add  \  Ib.  of  good  Java  coffee  to  every  4 
Ibs.  of  the  mixture.    Put  up  for  sale  in  round  tin  cans  or  air-tight 
r  packages. 
FFEE  FOB  POUND  PACKAGES,—  Best  Java  coffee,  1  Ib.  ;  rye,  3 


paper 
CO 


fcBOCERS   AND    CONFECTIONERS*  RECEIPTS.       219 

An.  ;  carefully  clean  the  rye  from  all  bad  grains,,  wash  to  remov* 
dust,  drain  off  the  water,  and  put  the  grain  into  your  roaster, 
carefully  stirring  to  brown  it  evenly.  Brown  the  rye  and  coffeo 
separately,  grind  and  put  up  in  tight  packages  to  preserve  the 


To  FLAVOR  TOBACCO.  —  This  is  done  by  means  of  a  mixture  of  1  part 
each  of  lemon  r>eel,  orange  peel,  fi^s,  coriander  seed  and  sassafras  : 
Jj  part  each  of  elderflowers,  elderberries,  and  cinnamon  ;  2  parts  of  , 
,  ;saltpetre,  3  of  salt,  and  4  of  sugar.  This  mixture  must  be  digested  in 
50  parts  of  water,  and,  before  applying  it  flavored  with  an  alcoholic 
solution  of  gum  benzion,  mastic,  and  myrrh.  It  is  said  that  this 
decoction  gives  a  flavor  to  common  leaves  resembling  Porto  Rico,  but 
to  this  end  the  leaves  must  be  well  dried,  about  a  year  old,  well  per- 
meated with  the  preparation,  kept  in  a  pile  for  8  days,  turned  daily, 
and  finally  dried. 

FLAVOR  FOR  CIGAR  MAKERS.  —  Take  2  ozs.  tonqua  beans  and  1 
oz.  cinnamon  ;  bruise  and  pulverize  them  to  a  powder,  and  put 
them  into  1  pint  of  Santa  Cruz  rum  ;  let  it  stand  for  a  few  days  to 
macerate  ;  stir  all  together,  and  with  this  liquid  sprinkle  your 
common  or  inferior  tobacco.  Dry  out  of  the  sun,  and  the  flavor 
-will  be  unequalled. 

TABAC  PERFUMES  AUX  FLEURS  is  made  by  putting  orange  flowers, 
jasmines,  tube  roses,  musk  roses,  or  common  roses,  to  snuff  in  a  close 
•chest  or  jar,  sifting  them  out  after  24  hours,  and  repeating  if  necessary. 

MACCABOY  SN~FF  is  imitated  by  moistening  the  tobacco  with  a 
•mixture  of  treacle  and  water,  and  allowing  it  to  ferment. 

SPANISH  SNUFF  is  made,  from  unsifted  Havana  snuff,  reduced  by 
•adding  ground  Spanish  nutshells,  sprinkling  the  mixture  with  treacle 
water,  and  allowing  it  to  sweat  for  some  days  before  packing. 

YELLOW  SNUFF  is  prepared  from  ordinary  pale  snuff,  moistened 
with  a  mixture  of  yellow  ochre  diffused  in  water,  to  which  a  fe\r 
spoonfuls  of  thin  mucilage  has  been  added. 

PERF-UMES  FOR  SNUFF.  —  Tonqua  beans,  essence  of  ditto,  ambergrii 
•musk  civet,  leaves  of  orchis  f  usca,  and  essence  of  orris  root,  e««ence 
•or  oils  of  bergarnot,  cedar,  cloves,  lavender,  petit  grain,  neroli  and 
roses,  as  well  as  several  others,  either  alone  or  compounded. 

UNERRING  TESTS  FOR  GOOD  FLOUR.  —  Good  flour  is  white,  vntn  a 
.yellowish  or  straw-colored  tint  Squeeze  some  of  the  flour  in 
Tour  hand  ;  if  *good,  it  will  retain  the  shape  given  by  pressure. 
Knead  a  little  between  your  fingers;  if  it  works  soft  and  sticky,  it  is 
poor.  Throw  a  little  against  a  dry  perpendicular  surface;  if  it  fall 
like  powder,  it  is  bad. 

To  CORRECT  MUSTY  FLOUR.  —  Carbonate  of  magnesia,  o  ibs.  ;  flour, 
765  Ibs.  ;  mix.  This  improves  bad  flour,  causing  it  to  become  more 
•wholesome,  producing  lighter  and  better  bread  than  when  alum  is 
used,  and  absorbs  and  dissipates  the  musty  smell. 

DERATED  BREAD.  —  1  Ib.  flour,  100  grs.  carb.  of  soda;  60  grs.  com- 
mon salt;  1  teaspoon  powdered  sugar;  120  grs.  muriatic  acid,  more  or 
less,  according  to  its  strength  ;  1  wine  pt.  of  water,  inferior  flour  will 
require  less.    Well  mix  the  flour,  soda,  salt,  and  sugar  in  an  earthen  , 
vessel,  then  add  the  acid  mixed  with  the  water,   stir  with  a  wooden  ' 
;Bpoou.     Bake  in  one  loaf  about  1  hour.     Bake  in  tin  or  iron  pans,  tmt 
use  of  metallic  vessels  or  spoons  while 


214         GROCERS    AND    CONFECTIONERS'    RECEIPTS. 

PATENT  SELF-RAISING  FLOUR. — Kiln-dried  flour,  1  cwt. ;  tartarie 
acid,  10i  oz. ;  mix  thoroughly.  After  2  or  3  days,  add,  of  bicarb, 
soda,  12  oz. ;  lump  sugar  ^  Ib. ;  common  salt,  1^  Ib.  Mix,  and  pass 
through  the  "  dressing  machine."  Have  all  the  articles  perfectly  dry, 
and  separately  reduced  to  liue  powder  befc  re  adding  to  the  flour.  Mix 
with  cold  water,  and  bake  at  once.  It  produces  light  and  porous 
bread. 

To  CURE  BUTTER. — Take  2  parts  of  fine  salt ;  1  part  loaf  sugar ; 
1  part  saltpetre  ;  mix  completely.    Use  1  oz.  of  this  mixture  tof 
each  pound  of  butter  ;  work  well.    Bury  your  butter  firkins  in  th*?j. 
earth  in  your  cellar  bottom,  tops  nearly  level  with  the  ground,  Jc 
store  away  in  a  very  cool  place,  covering  the  butter  with  a  clean 
cloth  and  a  strong  brine  on  the  top,  and  it  will  keep  two  years 
if  desired. 

To  KEEP  BUTTER  DURING  HOT  WEATHER.— A  simple  mode  of 
keeping  butter  in  warm  weather  is  to  invert  a  large  crock  of  earthen, 
or  a  flower  pot  if  need  be,  (varying  with  the  size  of  the  vessel  con- 
taining the  butter,)  over  the  dish  or  firkin  in  which  the  butter  is  held- 
The  porousness  of  the  earthenware  will  keep  the  butter  cool,  and  all 
the  more  so  if  the  pot  be  wrapped  hi  a  wet  cloth,  with  a  little  water  in 
the  dish  with  the  butter.  Not  the  porosity  of  the  earthenware,  but 
the  rapid  absorption  of  heat  by  external  evaporation  causes  the  butter 
to  become  hard. 

To  RESTORE  RANCID  BUTTER. — Use  1  pt  water  to  each  Ib.  of  but- 
ter, previously  adding  20  grs.  chloride  of  lime  to  each  pt  of  water ; 
wash  weU  the  butter  in  this  mixture,  afterward  re-wash  in  cold 
water  and  salt ;  or  melt  the  butter  in  a  water  bath  with  animal 
charcoal,  coarsely  powdered  and  previously  well  sifted  to  free 
it  from  dust ;  skim,  remove,  and  strain  through  flannel ;  then  salt. 

TOMATO  CATSUP.— Boil  1  bushel  of  tomatoes  till  they  are  soft; 
squeeze  them  through  a  fine  wire  sieve;  add  l£  pts.  salt,  2  oz.  cayenne 
pepper,  and  5  heads  of  onions,  skinned  and  separated;  mix  together, 
and  boil  till  reduced  one  half;  then  bottle. 

THE  NORTHERN-LIGHT  BURNING  FLUID.— Get  good  deodorized, 
benzine,  (30  to  65  gravity,  and  to  each  brl.  of  42  gals,  add  2  Ibs.  pulver- 
ized alum,  3£  oz.  gum  camphor,  and  3^  oz.  oil  of  sassafras,  or  2  oz.  oil 
bergamot;  stir  up  and  mix  thoroughly  together,  and  it  will  soon  be 
ready  for  use.  N.  B. — As  this  fluid  creates  a  much  larger  Yolume  of 
light  and  flame  than  carbon  oil,  it  is  necessary  to  use  either  a  high 
burner,  such  as  the  sun  burner,  to  elevate  the  flame  away  from  the 
lamp,  in  order  to  keep  it  cool,  or  instead  thereof,  to  use  a  burner  pro- 
vided with  a  tube  for  the  escape  of  the  gas  generated  from  the  fluid, 
such,  for  instance,  as  the  Meriden  burner. 

TEST  FOR  BURNING  OIL. — Heat  water  in  a  pot  on  the  fire  to  120° 
Fahr.  Take  a  tin  and  put  in  it  a  tablespoonf ul  of  the  oil  you  wish  to 
test,  pla«»  the  tin  containing  the  oil  in  the  hot  water,  let  it  cool  down 
1  to  112°  Fahr. ;  when  at  this  point,  approach  a  light  very  cautiously  to- 
wards the  oil,  and  if  it  takes  fire  before  the  light  touches  it  you  will 
be  safe  hi  rejecting  it. 

PRESERVED  OR  SOLIDIFIED  MILK.— 1.  Fresh-skimmed  milk,  1  gal. ; 

•eequicarbonate  of  soda  (in  powder),  1^  dr.    Mix;  evaporate  to  4  part 

by  heat  of  steam  or  waterbath,  with  constant  agitation  ;  then  add  of 

'  powdered  gugar  6£  Ibs.  and  complete  the  evaporation  at  a  reduced 


GROCERS  AND  CONFECTIONERS'  RECEIPTS.     211 


temperature.    Reduce  the  dry  mass  to  powder,  add  the  cream 
drained,  which  was  taken  from  the  milk.     After  thorough  admixture, 

rtthe  whole  into  well  stopped  bottles  or  tins,  and  hermetically  seal 
Carbonate  of  soda,  i  dr.  ;  water,  1  fluid  oz.  ;  dissolve  ;  add  of  fresh 
milk,  one  qt.  ;  sugar,  1  Ib.  ;  reduce  by  heat  to  the  consistency  of  a  syrup, 
and  finish   the   evaporation   on  plates  by  exposure,  in  an  oven,  t 
Observe  —  About  1  oz.  of  the  powder  agitated  with  1  pt.  of  water  forms  ] 
a  good  substitute  for  milk. 

SEALING-WAX,  Red.  —  Shellac  (very  pale),  4  oz.  ;  cautiously  melt  ia 
a  bright  copper  pan  over  a  clear  charcoal  fire  ;  when  fused,  add 
Venice  turpentine,  1J  oz.  Mix,  and  further  add  vermilion,  3  oz.  ; 
remove  the  pan  from  the  fire,  and  pour  into  a  mould.  For  a  black 
color,  use  ivory  black,  or  lampblack,  instead  of  the  vermilion  ;  for  a 
blue  color,  use  Prussian  blue,  instead  of  the  vermilion,  same  quantity. 
Each  color  must  be  well  mixed  with  the  composition;  of  the  lampblack, 
use  only  sufficient  to  color. 

HORTICULTURAL  INK.  —  Copper,  1  part  ;  dissolve  in  nitric  acid,  10 
parts,  and  add  water,  10  parts  ;  used  to  write  on  zinc,  or  tin  labels. 

BOTTLE  WAX  —  BLACK.  —  Black  resin,  6^  Ibs.  ;  beeswax,  ^  Ib.  ;  finely 
powdered  ivory  black,  1^  Ibs.  Melt  together.  RED,  as  the  last,  but 
substitute  Venetian  red,  or  red  lead,  for  the  ivory  black. 

GOLD-COLORED  SEALING-WAX.  —  Bleached  shellac,  3  Ibs.;  Venice 
turpentine  1  Ib.  ;  Dutch  leaf  ground  fine,  1  Ib.  ,  or  less.  The  leaf  should, 
be  ground,  or  powdered  sufficiently  fine,  without  being  reduced  to 
dust.  Mix  with  a  gentle  heat,  and  pour  into  moulds. 

LITHOGRAPHIC  INK.—  Venice  turpentine,!  part,  lampblack  2  parts, 
hard  tallow  soap  6  parts,  mastic  in  tears,  8  parts,  shellac  12  parts, 
wax  16  parts;  melt,  stir,  and  pour  it  out  on  a  slab. 

INKS.—  1.  Fine  Black  writing  Ink.—  To  2  gals,  of  a  strong  decoc- 
tion of  logwood,  well  strained,  add  1^  Ibs.  blue  galls  hi  coarse  powder, 
6  ozs.  sulphate  of  iron,  1  oz.  acetate  of  copper,  6  ozs.  of  well  ground 
sugar,  and  8  oz.  gum  arabK  Set  the  above  on  the  fire  until  it  begins 
to  boil;  strain,  and  then  set  it.  away  until  it  has  acquired  the  desired 
black.  2.  Green  Ink.  Cream  of  tartar  1  part,  verdigrw  °  parts, 
water  8  parts.  Boil  till  reduced  to  the  proper  color.  3.  Blue  Ink. 
Take  sulphate  of  indigo,  dilute  it  with  water  till  it  produces  the-  re- 
quired color.  4.  Violet  Ink.  Is  made  by  dissolving  some  violet 
aniline  in  water  to  which  some  alcohol  has  been  added:  it  takes  \erjr 
little  aniline  to  make  a  large  quantity  of  the  ink.  5.  Gold  Ink. 
Mosaic  gold,  two  parts,  gum  arabic,  one  part,  rubbed  up  to  a  proper 
condition.  6.  Silver  Ink.  Triturate  in  a  mortar  equal  parts  of  silver 
foil  and  sulphate  of  potassa.  until  reduced  to  a  fine  powder,  then  wash 
the  salt  out,  and  mix  the  residue  with  a  mucilage  of  equal  parts  of 
gum  arabic  water.  7.  Fullam's  Recipe  for  Indelible  Stencil-plate 
Ink.  1  Ib.  precipitate  carbonate  of  iron;  1  Ib.  sulphate  of  iron;  l£ 
Ibs.  acetic  acid.  Stir  over  a  fire  until  they  combine  ;  then  add  3  Ibs. 
printer's  varnish  and  2  Ibs.  fine  book  ink,  and  stir  until  well  mixed- 
Add  1  Ib.  of  Ethiop's  mineral.  8  Exchequer  Ink.  Bruised,  galls,  40 
Ibs.  ;  gum.  10  Ibs.  ;  green  sulphate  of  iron,  9  Ibs.  ;  soft  water.45  gals. 
Macerate  for  3  weeks  with  frequent  agitation  and  strain.  This  ink 
will  endure  for  ages.  9.  Asiatic  Ink.  Bruised  galls,  14  Ibs.  ;  gum,  If 
Ibs.  Put  them  in  a  small  cask,  and  add  of  boiling  soft  water,  15  gait 
Allow  the  whole  to  macerate,  with  irequeab  agitation,  for  two  weekf 


216        GROCERS   AND    CONFECTIONERS*   RECEIPTS. 

then  further  add  green  copperas,  5  Ibs.,  dissolved  in  7  pts.  water. 
Again  mix  well,  and  agitate  the  whole  daily  for  two  or  three  weeks  ' 
10.  Extra  good  Black  Ink.    Bruised  galls,  2  Ibs.,  logwood  chips,  4 
green  copperas  and  gum,  of  each,  1  Ib. ;  water,  7  gals.    Boil  2  hours  / 
and  strain.    Product.  5  gals.    11.  Broicn  Ink.    A  strong  decoction  of .' 
catechu.    The  shade  may  be  varied  by  the  cautious  addition  of  a  little  | 
1  weak  solution  of  bichromate  of  potash.     12.  Indelible  Ink.     Nitrate 
of  silver,  £  oz. ;  water,  f  oz.    Dissolve,  add  as  much  of  the  strongest 
liquor  of  ammonia  as  will  dissolve  the  precipitate  formed  on  its  first 
addition;  then  add  of  mucilage  1^  dr.,  and  a  little  sap  green,  syrup  of 
buckthorn,  or  finely  powdered  indigo,  to  color.    Turns  black  on  being, 
held  near  the  fire,  or  touched  with  a  hot  iron.    13.  Indelible  Ink  for 
Glass  or  Metal.    Borax,  1  oz;  shellac,  2  oz. ;  water,  IS  fluid  oz. ;  boil 
in  a  covered  vessel,  add  of  thick  mucilage,  1  oz. ;  triturate  it  with 
levigated  indigo  and  lampblack  q.  g.,  to  give  it  a  good  color.    After  2 
hours'  repose,  decant  from  the  dregs  and  bottle  for  use.    It  may  be 
bronzed  after  being  applied.    Resists  moisture,  chlorine,  and  acids. 
14.  Common  Ink.    To  1  gal.  boiling  soft  water,  add  |  oz.  extract  log- 
wood ;  boil  two  minutes ;  remove  from  the  fire,  and  stir  in  48  grains 
"bichromate  of  potash,  and  8  grains  prussiate  of  potash ;  for  10  gals,  use 
€^  oz.  logwood  extract;  1  oz.  bichromate  of  potash,  and  80  grains 
prussiate  of  potash ;  strain.    15.  Black  Copying  Ink,  or  Writing  fluid    - 


an  iron  kettle  until  the  strength  is  obtained.  This  ink  will  stand  the 
action  of  the  atmosphere  for  centuries,  if  required.  16.  Red  Ink. 
In  an  ouuce  phial  put  1  teaspoonful  of  aqua-ammonia;  gum  arabic 
eize  of  two  or  three  peas;  and  6  grains  of  No.  40 carmine;  fill  up  with 
soft  water,  and  it  is  soon  ready  for  use. 

LIQUID  BLACKING.— Ivory  black,  2  Ibs. ;  molasses,  2  Ibs. ;  sweet  oil, 
1  Ib. ;  rub  together  till  well  mixed ;  then  add  oil  vitrol,  |  Ib. ;  add 
coarse  sugar,  £  Ib. ;  and  dilute  with  beer  bottoms;  this  cannot  be 
excelled. 

TICKETING  INK  FOR  GROCERS,  &c.— Dissolve  1  oz.  of  gum  arabic  in 
€  oz.  water,  and  strain  ;  this  is  the  mucilage  ;  for  black  color,  use 
drop  black,  powdered,  and  ground  with  the  mucilage  to  extreme  fine- 
ness ;  for  blue,  ultra-marine  is  used  in  the  same  manner  ;  for  green, 
emerald  green  ;  for  white,  flake  white  ;  for  red,  vermilion,  lake,  or 
carmine  ;  for  yellow,  chrome  yellow.  When  ground  too  thick  they  are 
thinned  with  a  little  water.  Apply  to  the  cards  with  a  small  brush.  The 
cards  may  be  sized  with  a  thin  glue,  and  afterwards  varnished,  if  it  k 
desired  to  preserve  them. 

BLUING  FOR  CLOTHES. — Take  1  oz.  of  soft  Prussian  blue,  powder  it, 
and  put  in  a  bottle  with  1  quart  of  clear  rain  water,  and  add  |  oz.  of 
pulverized  oxalic  acid.  A.  tablespoonf  ul  is  sufficient  for  a  large  wash- 
ing 

PREMIUM  METHOD  OF  KEEPING  HAMS,  &c. — To  4  gals,  water,  add  8 
fibs,  coarse  salt  ;  |  oz.  potash  ;  2  oz.  saltpetre  ;  2  Ibs.  brown  sugar. 
Boil  together,  skim  when  cold,  put  on  the  above  quantity  to  100  Ibs. 
meat ;  hams  to  remain  in  eight  weeks,  beef,  three  weeks.  Let  the 
hams  dry  several  days  before  smoking.  Meat  of  all  kinds,  salmon 
[and  other  fish,  lobsters,  &c.,  may  be  preserved  for  years  by  a  light  ap- 


GROCERS   AND    CONFECTIONERS*   RECEIPTS.       217 

plication  of  pyroligneous  acid  applied  with  a  brush,  sealing  np  in  cans 
as  usual.  It  imparts  a  splendid  flavor  to  the  meat,  is  very  cheap,  and 
an  effectual  preservative  against  loss. 

To  PRESERVE  MEATS,  SALMON,  LOBSTERS,  &c.,  HERMETICALLY 
SEALED.— The  meat  to  be  preserved  is  first  par  boiled  or  somewhat  more 
and  freed  from  bones.  It  is  then  put  into  tin  cases  or  canisters,  which 
are  quite  filled  up  with  a  rich  gravy.  A  tin  cover,  with  a  small  aper-  ( 
ture,  is  then  carefully  fixed  on  by  solder  ;  and,  while  the  vessel  is  per- 
fectly full,  it  is  placed  in  boiling  water,  and  undergoes  the  remainder  of 
The  cooking.  The  small  hole  in  the  cover  is  completely  closed  up  by 
soldering  while  the  whole  is  yet  hot.  The  canister,  with  its  ingredients, 
is  now  allowed  to  cool,  in  consequence  of  which  these  contract,  and 
the  sides  of  the  vessel  are  slightly  forced  inward  by  atmospheric  pres- 
sure, and  become  a  little  concave.  The  vessel  being  thus  hermet- 
ically sealed,  and  all  access  of  the  air  prevented,  it  may  be  sent  into 
any  climate  without  fear  of  putrefaction  ;  and  the  most  delicate 
ipod  of  one  country  may  be  used  hi  another  in  all  its  original  perfec- 
tion, months  and  years  after  its  preparation.  Lobsters  should  be  boil- 
ed longer  than  meats,  and  the  scales  removed  previous  to  putting  into 
the  canisters.  Salmon  put  up  by  this  process  is  most  delicious.  By  the 
Trench  process  the  meat  is  boiled  till  it  is  three-quarters  done,  when 
two-thirds  of  it  are  taken  out,  the  remaining  one-third  is  boiled  into  a 
concentrated  soup,  and  the  meat  previously  taken  out  is  put  into  the 
canisters,  which  are  then  filled  up  with  the  soup  ;  the  tin  cover  with 
aperture  is  soldered  on,  and  the  canister  with  its  contents  sub- 
mitted to  farther  boiling  in  hot  water,  when  the  aperture  is  closed,  as 
above  stated,  and  the  canisters  laid  away  in  store. 

To  PRESERVE  FRUITS  WITHOUT  SUGAR.— Fill  some  stone  wido- 
xnouthed  bottles  with  the  fruit  carefully  picked,  and  set  them  in 
a,  copper  or  large  kettle  ;  then  fill  the  kettle  with  cold  water  nearly 
tip  to  the  mouths  of  the  bottles.  Corks  should  be  prepared  to  fit 
the  bottles,  and  a  cloth  should  be  put  under  the  bottoms  of  the 
bottles  to  prevent  their  cracking  with  the  heat.  Light  the  fire  un- 
der the  kettle,  and  heat  the  water  to  160°  or  170°.  This  heat  should 
be  continued  for  half  an  hour,  when  the  fruit  will  be  sufficiently 
scalded  ;  after  that,  fill  up  the  bottles  with  boiling  water  to  within 
an  inch  of  the  cork,  and  cork  them  tightly.  Lay  the  bottles  on 
their  sides  ;  change  the  position  of  the  bottles  once  or  twice  a 
•week  during  the  first  two  months,  turning  them  round  to  prevent 
any  fermentation  that  might  take  place.  Fruits  could  also  be 
kept  by  the  process  mentioned  above  for  meats,  remembering  that 
they  are  to  be  scalded  only,  not  boiled,  as  in  the  case  with  meats. 

ANOTHER  METHOD. — After  paring  and  coring,  put  among  them 
sufficient  sugar  to  make  them  palatable  for  present  eating,  about 
?  or  4  Ibs-  only  to  each  bushel  ;  let  them  stand  awhile  to  dissolve 
the  sugar,  not  using  any  water  ;  then  heat  to  a  boil,  and  continue 
the  boiling  with  care  for  20  to  30  minutes,  or  sufficiently  long  to 
heat  them  through,  which  expels  the  air.  Have  ready  a  kettle  of 
hot  water,  into  which  dip  the  can  or  bottle  long  enough  to  heat  it ; 
then  fill  hi  the  fruit  while  hot,  corking  it  immediately,  dipping  the 
«nd  of  the  cork  into  the  bottle-wax  preparation  described  else- 
where. 

WOBCESXSBSHIBE  SAUCE.— White  vinegar  15  gals. ;  walnut  catsup 


GROCERS    AND    CONFECTIONERS*    RECEIPTS. 

10  gals.  ;  Maderia  wine  5  gals. ;  mushroom  catsup  10  gals.  ;  table 
salt  25  Ibs. ;  Canton  soy,  4  gals. ;  powdered  capsicum  2  Ibs. ;  powdered 
allspice  1  Ib. ;  powdered  coriander,  seeds  1  Ib. ;  cloves,  mace,  and  cin- 
namon, of  each,  ^  Ib. ;  asafcetida  £  Ib. ;  dissolved  in  brandy  1  gal.  Boil 
20  Ibs.  hogs  livers  in  10  gals,  of  water  for  12  hours,  renewing  the  water 
from  time  to  time.  Take  out  the  liver,  chop  it,  mix  with  water,  work 
through  a  sieve,  and  mix  with  the  sauce. 

GHERKINS. — Take  small  cucumbers  (not  young),  steep  for  a  week 
in  very  strong  brine  ;  it  is  then  poured  off,  heated  to  the  boiling 
point,  and  again  poured  on  the  fruit.  The  next  day  the  gherkins 
are  drained  on  a  sieve,  wiped  dry,  put  into  bottles  or  jars,  with 
some  spice,  ginger,  pepper,  or  cayenne,  and  at  once  covered  with, 
strong  pickling  vinegar. 

MIXED  PICKLES  from  cauliflowers,  white  cabbage,  French  beans,, 
onions,  cucumbers,  &c.,  are  treated  as  gherkins,  with  raw  ginger,. 
capsicum,  mustard-seed  and  long  pepper,  added  to  each  bottle. 
A  little  bruised  turmeric  improves  both  the  color  and  flavor. 

INDIAN  PICKLE. — Piccalilli. — Take  one  hard  white  cabbage 
(sliced),  2  cauliflowers,  pulled  to  pieces,  20  French  beans,  1  stick 
of  horse-radish,  sliced  fine,  2  doz.  small  white  onions,  and  1  doz. 
gherkins.  Cover  these  with  boiling  brine  ;  next  day,  drain  the- 
whole  on  a  sieve,  put  it  into  a  jar,  add  of  curry  powder,  or  tur- 
meric, 2  oz. ;  garlic,  ginger,  and  mustard-seed,  of  each  1  oz.  ;  cap- 
sicum i  oz.  Fill  up  the  vessel  with  hot  pickling  vinegar  ;  bung 
it  up  close,  and  let  it  stand  for  a  month,  with  occasional  agitation.. 

To  PRESERVE  FRUIT  JUICE  WITHOUT  HEAT. — Ingredients  :  10  Ibs., 
of  fresh-gathered,  picked,  red-ripe  currants,  or  other  fruit,  2  qts. 
cold  water,  5  oz.  tartaric  acid,  6  Ibs.  of  coarse  sifted  sugar.  Put 
the  fruit  into  a  large  earthen  pan,  pour  the  water  with  the  tartaric 
acid  dissolved  in  it  over  the  fruit,  cover  the  pan  with  some  kind  of 
lid,  and  allow  the  whole  to  steep  for  24  hours  in  a  cold  place,  and" 
It  would  be  all  the  better  if  the  pan  containing  the  fruit  could  be 
immersed  in  rough  ice.  Next,  pour  the  steeped  fruit  into  a  sus- 
pended stout  flannel  bag,  and  when  all  the  juice  has  run  through, 
tie  up  the  open  end  of  the  bag,  and  place  it  on  a  large  earthef 
dish,  with  another  dish  upon  it ;  place  a  half-hundred  weight  upo&. 
this,  to  press  out  all  the  remaining  juice,  and  then  mix  it  with  tha 
other  juice.  You  now  put  the  sifted  sugar  into  the  juice,  and  stir 
both  together  occasionally,  until  the  sugar  is  dissolved,  and  then, 
tottle  up  the  syrup,  cork,  and  tie  down  the  bottles  with  wire,  and 
keep  them  in  the  ice  well  or  in  a  cold  cellar,  in  a  reclining  position. 

To  RESTORE  INJURED  MEAT.— When  the  brine  sours  and  tainta. 
the  meat,  pour  k  off  ;  boil  it,  skim  it  well,  then  pour  it  back  again 
on  the  meat  boiling  hot ;  this  will  restore  it,  even  when  much 
injured.  If  tainted  meat  is  injured,  dip  it  in  the  solution  of  chlo- 
ride of  lime  prescribed  for  rancid  butter  ;  it  will  restore  it  Fly- 
blown meat  can  be  completely  restored  by  immersing  it  for  a  few 
hours  in  a  vessel  containing  a  small  quantity  of  beer  ;  but  it  wili 
taint  and  impart  a  putrid  smell  to  the  liquor.  Fresh  meat,  hams, 
fish,  &c.,  can  be  preserved  for  an  indefinite  length  of  time  without 
salt,  by  a  light  application  of  pyroligneous  acid  applied  with  a 
brush  ;  it  imparts  a  fine  smoky  flavor  to  the  meat,  and  is  a 
ual  preservative.  But  pure  acetic  acid  may  be  used  uutead. 


&3OCERS   AND    CONFECTIONERS'   RECEIPTS. 


MEAT  —  TO  KEEP  A  WEEK  OR  Two  IN  SUMMER.  —  tanners 
«r  others  living  at  a  distance  from  butchers  can  keep  fresh  meat 
very  nicely  for  a  week  or  two,  by  putting  it  into  sour  milk,  or  but- 
ter milk,  placing  it  in  a  cool  cellar.  The  bone  or  fat  need  not  be 
removed.  Rinse  well  when  used. 

MILKMAN'S  PROCESS.—  To  give  a  body  to  diluted  milk  use  the 
following  nutritive  and  healthy  compound  at  the  rate  of  8  oz,  to^ 
every  5  gals.,  stirring  it  up  in  the  milk,  till  all  is  dissolved:  arrow-1 
root,  6  oz.  ;  magnesia,  6  oz.  ;  starch,  1  Ib.  ;  flour,  i  Ib.  ;  white  sugar 
in  powder,  1  Ib.  ;  mis  all  intimately  together,  and  keep  in  a  dry 
place  for  use. 

CUSTARD  POWDERS.  —  Sago  meal  and  flour,  1  Ib.  each  ;  color  with 
turmeric  to  a  cream  color.  Flavor  with  essential  oil  of  almonds,  1 
dr.  ;  ess.  of  lemon,  2  drs.  Use  with  sweetened  rnilk  to  form  ex- 
temporaneous custards. 

CURRY  POWDER.—  Turmeric,  and  coriander  seeds,  of  each,  4  oz.  ; 
Wack  pepper,  2£  oz.  ;  ginger  14  drs.  ;  cinnamon,  mace,  and  cloves,  each, 
\  oz.  ;  cardamon  seeds,  1  oz.  ;  cummin  seeds,  2  drs.  ;  cayenne  pepper, 
a  oz.  ;  powder  and  mix. 

NAPOLEON'S  CAMP  SAUCE.—Old  strong  beer,  2  qts.,  white  wine,  1  qt, 
mnchovies,  4  ounces;  mix;  boil  for  ten  minutes  ;  remove  it  from  the 
fire,  und  add  peeled  shallots,  3  ounces  ;  macerate  for  14  days, 
and  bottle. 

PICKLED  ONIONS.  —  Choose  small  round  onions,  remove  the  skins, 
«teep  them  in  strong  brine  for  a  week  in  a  stone  vessel,  pour  it  off, 
and  heat  till  it  boils  ;  then  pour  on  the  onions,  boiling  hot  ;  after 
124  hours,  drain  on  a  seive,  then  put  them  in  bottles,  fill  up  over  them 
with  strong  spiced  vinegar,  boiling  hot,  cork  down  immediately,  and 
wax  over  the  cork.  In  a  similar  manner  are  phkled  mushroons, 
cauliflowers,  samphires,  peas,  beans,  green  gooseberries,  walnuts, 
xed  cabbages  (without  salt,  with  cold  vinegar).  Observe  that  the  soft 
and  more  delicate  do  not  require  so  much  soaking  in  brine  as  the  harder 
and  coarser  kinds,  and  may  be  often  kept  by  simply  pouring  very 
strong  pickling  vinegar  on  them  without  the  application  of  heat.  For 
peaches,  select  ripe  but  not  soft  ones  ;  rub  with  a  dry  cloth  ;  put  four 
cloves,  free  from  their  heads,  in  each  large  peach,  and  two  in  small 
ones  ;  to  1  gallon  vinegar,  put  6  Ibs.  brown  sugar  ;  put  the  peaches  in 
a  jar  and  put  the  vinegar  (diluted  with  water,  if  too  strong),  and 
sugar  in  a  preserving  kettle  over  the  fire  ;  boil  and  skim  it  ;  pour  it 
boiling  hot  over  the  peaches,  covering  them  closely  ;  repeat  the 
Operation  three  times  ;  then  seal  them  tightly  in  cans  or  bottles. 

FRENCH  PATENT  MUST  ABD.  —  Flour  of  mustard,  8  Ibs.  ;  wheat  floui; 
£  Ibs.  ;  bay  salt,  2  Ibs.  ;  cayenne  pepper,  4  oz.  ;  vinegar  to  mix. 

COMMON  MUSTARD.  —  Flour  of  mustard  28  Ibs.  ;  wheat  flour,  28  IDS.  v 
cayenne  pepper,  12  oz.,  or  as  required  ;  common  salt  10  Ibs.  ;  rape 
!>il  3  Ibs.  ;  turmeric  to  color  ;  mix  well,  and  pass  through  a  fine  seive.f 

STARCH  POLISH.  —  White  wax,  1  oz.  ;  spermaceti,  2  oz.  ;  melt  them 
together  with  a  gentle  heat.  When  you  have  prepared  a  sufficient 
amoantof  starch,  in  the  usual  way,  for  a  dozen  pieces,  put  into  it  a 
piece  of  the  polish  about  the  size  of  a  large  pea  ;  more  or  less,  accord- 
Ing  to  large  or  small  washings.  Or  thick  gum  solution  (made  by  pour- 
ing boiling  water  upon  gum  arable),  one  tablespoon  to  a  pint  of  rtarch, 
e*  clothes  a  beautiful  gloss. 


J20        GROCERS   AND    CONFECTIONERS*   RECEIPTS. 

FIBE  KINDLERS. — To  make  very  nice  fire  kindlers,  take  resin,  eatf 
quantity,  and  melt  it,  putting  in  for  each  pound  being  used,  frooi  2  fc> 
8  oz.  of  tallowy  and  when  all  is  hot,  stir  in  pine  sawdust  to  mak* 
rery  thick ;  and,  while  yet  hot,  spread  it  out  about  1  inch  thick, 
upon  boards  which  have  fine  sawdust  sprinkled  upon  them,  to  prevent 
it  from  sticking.  When  cold,  break  up  into  lumps  about  1  inch  square. 
But  if  for  sale,  take  a  thin  board  and  press  upon  it,  while  yet  vwrm, 
to  lay  it  off  into  inch  squares  ;  this  makes  it  break  regularly,  if  you 
press  the  crease  sufficiently  deep,  greasing  the  marked  board  to  prevent 
it  from  sticking.  —  — 


~~  ICE  CREAM.— Have  rich,  sweet  cream,  and  a  half-pound  of  loaf 
sugar  to  each  quart  of  cream  or  milk.  If  you  cannot  get  cream,  tho 
test  imitation  is  to  boil  a  soft  custard,  6  eggs  to  each  quart  of  milk  (eggs, 
well  beat).  Or  another  is  made  as  follows:  boil  1  quart  of  milk,  and 
stir  into  it,  while  boiling,  1  tablespoonf  ul  of  arrowroot  wet  with  cold 
milk  ;  when  cool  stir  into  it  the  yolk  of  1  egg  to  give  it  a  rich  color. 
Five  minutes'  boiling  is  enough  for  either  plan.  Put  the  sugar  in  af- 
ter they  cool ;  keep  the  same  proportions  for  any  amount  desired. 
Or  thus  :  to  6  quarts  of  milk  add  i  Ib.  Oswego  starch,  first  dissolved  ; 
put  the  starch  m  1  quart  of  the  mUk  ;  then  mix  altogether,  and  sun. 
mer  a  little  (not  boil)  ;  sweeten  and  flavor  to  your  taste ;  excellent 
The  juice  of  strawberries  or  raspberries  gives  a  beautiful  color  and 
flavor  to  ice  creams,  or  about  £  oz.  essence  or  extract  to  1  gallon,  or 
to  gait  the  taste.  Have  your  ice  well  broken,  1  qt.  salt  to  a  bucket  of 
fee.  About  one  hour's  constant  stirring,  with  occasional  scraping 
down  and  beating  together,  will  freeze  it 


NOTE. 

Pages  221  to  230  inclusive  have  been  omitted  from 
this  book  in  compliance  with  Federal  prohibition  regu- 
lations regarding  the  non-printing  of  liquor  receipts. 

THE  PUBLISHERS. 


6ROCEBS   AND    CONFECTIONERS*    RECEIPTS. 


PEPPERMINT,  ROSE,  OB  HOREHOUND  CANDY.— They  may  be  madd 
as  lemon  candy.  Flavor  with  essence  of  rose  or  peppermint  or  finely , 
powdered  horehound.  Pour  it  out  in  a  buttered  paper,  placed  in  a 
square  tin  pan. 

POPPED  CORN,  dipped  in  boiling  molasses,  and  stuck  together,  forms ' 
an  excellent  candy. 

ROCK  CANDY. — To  make  fine  rock  candy,  clarify  double  refined 
white  sugar,  filter  it,  and  boil  it  till  it  is  ready  to  crystallize,  or 
boiled  to  a  blister.  The  boiling  sugar  must  measure  35°  on  the  syrup 
weight,  a  degree  more  or  less  prevents  its  crystallization.  Then  "take " 
a  brass  kettle,  of  about  16  or  18  inches  diameter  and  from  6  to  8  inches 
deep,  smooth  and  polished  on  the  inside.  Make  8  or  10  small  holes  at 
equal  distances  from  each  other  in  a  circle  around  the  sides  of  the 
kettle,  about  2  inches  from  the  bottom;  pass  threads  through  these 
from  one  side  to  the  other,  and  stop  the  holes  on  the  outside  with  paste 
or  paper  to  prevent  the  syrup  from  running  out.  Having  thus  pre- 
pared the  kettle,  pour  in  the  syrup,  till  it  rises  about  an  inch  above 
the  threads;  then  place  it  in  a  stove  moderately  heated,  and  leave  it 
to  crystallize,  agitating  it  from  time  to  time.  The  crystallization  will 
take  place  in  six  or  seven  days.  As  soon  as  the  crystals  are  formed, 
pour  off  the  remaining  syrup,  and  throw  in  a  little  water  to  wash  the 
crystals  that  are  left  at  the  bottom  of  the  vessel.  So  soon  as  the  mass 
is  thoroughly  draiend  set  it  in  a  very  hot  stove,  leave  it  for  two  days, 
when  it  is  fit  for  use.  Straw-colored  rock  candy  is  made  by  sub- 
stituting brown  for  loaf  sugar.  The  syrup  must  be  boiled  over  a  very 
hot  fire  in  order  to  render  the  candy  perfectly  white.  The  sides  of  th» 
kettle  should  be  sponged  repeatedly  during  the  boiling  process  to 
prevent  the  sugar  from  adhering  and  burning. 

ORANGE  ROCK  CANDY  is  made  by  flavoring  the  syrup  with  a  coup'** 
of  teaspoonf uls  of  orange  flower  water,  and  coloring  with  saffron, 
just  as  the  syrup  is  about  to  be  taken  from  the  fire.  Rose  Rock  Candy 
is  flavored  with  rose,  .water,  and  colored  with  clarified  carmine  lake. 
Vanilla  Rock  Candifis  perfumed  with  vanilla,  and  colored  with  liquid 
violet  The  degree  of  coloring  may  be  tested  by  dropping  a  little  of 
the  colored  syrup  on  a  sheet  of  white  paper. 

GINGER  CANDY.— Dissolve  1  Ib.  double-refined  sugar  in  &  pint  of 
spring  water;  set  it  over  a  clear  fire,  and  let  it  boil  to  a  thin  syrup. 
Have  ready  a  teaspoonf  ul  of  powdered  ginger,  mix  it  smoothly  witk 
2  or  3  spoonfuls  of  the  syrup,  then  stir  it  gradually  into  the  whole. 
Boil  the  mixture  into  a  flake,  watching  it  carefully,  that  it  mav  not 

J     j.l_  • •    -J.  .      J-1 _    J  J     AT * T_l-___.t_1          •          1I»  1  i*^ 


ior  a  moment  beyond  the  point,  i*  will  fall  into  <*  powder.  Should 
this  happen  by  mistake,  add  a  little  water,  and  boil  to  the  proper  con- 
sistency. Dip  the  candy  from  the  settle,  and  drop  it  in  small  <  " 
upon  buttered  pans,  then  set  it  away  to  cooL 


232        GROCERS   AND    CONFECTIONERS'   RECEIPTS. 

CBEAM  CANDY.— To  3  Ibs.  of  loaf  sugar  add  $  pt.  -water,  and  set  if 
ever  a  Blow  fire  for  half  an  hour;  then  add  a  teaspoonful  of  gum 
arable  dissolved,  and  a  tablespoonful  of  vinegar.  Boil  it  till  it  is  brit- 
tle, then  take  it  off,  and  flavor  with  vanilla,  rose,  or  orange.  Rub  tha 
iiands  with  sweet  butter,  and  pull  the  caudy  till  it  is  white;  then  twist 
or  break  it,  or  stretch  it  out  into  thin  white  strips,  and  cut  it  off. 

RED  VERDUN  SUGARED  ALMONDS. — Dry  the  almonds  in  a  stove  by 
&  slow  fire.  When  dry  enough  to  snap  between  the  teeth,  put  them 
into  a  swinging  basin  and  gum  them  by  throwing  over  them  a  littlo 
gum  arabic  solution,  cold;  swing  them  constantly  till  dry;  then  give 
them  another  coating  of  gum  arabic  mixed  with  4  oz.  sugar,  and 
swing  them  again  till  dry,  using  no  fire.  When  they  are  thoroughly 
dry,  set  them  over  a  moderate  fire.  Dissolve  some  sugar  hi  orange 
or  rose  water,  not  too  thin,  set  it  over  the  fire  2  or  3  minutes,  strain  it 
through  a  sieve,  and  pour  it  over  the  almonds  in  the  basin.  Swing 
them  till  they  are  thoroughly  coated  and  dried;  then  add  another 
coating,  composed  of  2  parts  of  carmine,  one  part  of  gum,  and  one  part 
of  sugar,  and  proceed  as  before.  If  the  almonds  are  not  perfectly 
covered,  give  them  a  coating  in  which  there  is  considerable  gum;  and 
•when  thoroughly  moistened,  throw  on  them  some  sifted  sugar,  stir 
till  the  mixture  is  all  absorbed,  then  add  successive  coatings  of  sngar 
till  they  are  large  enough,  and  put  them  into  the  stove  to  remain  till 
the  next  day,  when  in  order  to  whiten  them,  you  will  proceed  to  boil 
€  or  7  Ibs.  of  fine  clarified  sugar  to  a  blister,  add  1  Ib.  of  starch  after 
taking  it  from  the  fire,  stiring  it  constantly  till  a  paste  is  formed  a 
little  thicker  than  that  used  for  pastilles;  a  few  drops  of  blue  lake 
may  be  added  to  produce  a  pearl  white.  Put  the  almonds,  warm,  in- 
to the  swinging  basin,  add  enough  of  the  prepared  sugar  to  coat  them, 
swing  the  basin  till  they  are  nearly  dry,  then  set  on  the  fire  to  finish, 
the  drying,  then  take  the  basin  oft  the  fire,  heap  them  up  in  the  mid- 
dle, so  as  to  allow  the  bottom  of  the  vessel  to  cool;  then  add  the  coat- 
ing of  sugar,  swing  and  dry  them  as  before,  and  continue  the  process 
until  4  successive  coatings  of  equal  thickness  have  been  given;  then 
heat  them  well  in  the  basin,  put  them  into  pans,  and  set  them  in  the 
etoye  to  remain  over  night.  You  will  then  proceed  to  polish  them  by 
giving  them  a  coat  of  the  prepared  sugar  and  starch,  and  shake  them 
•violently  until  they  are  quite  dry;  give  them  another  coating  and  pro- 
ceed as  before,  and  continue  the  process  unti\  -they  have  received  4 
successive  coatings,  when  they  will  generally  be  found  sufficiently 
polished.  When  the  pollening  is  finished,  put  the  almonds  over  a  fire 
and  stir  gently  till  all  are  thoroughly  heated,  then  place  in  a  stove  till 
the  next  day  hi  a  wicker  basket  fined  with  paper. 

SPANISH  SUGABED  ALMONDS. — Make  verdun  sugared  almonds 
about  the  size  of  pigeon's  eggs,  whiten  and  polish  them  by  the  pre- 
vious directions,  and  paint  different  designs  on  '.hem  when  completed. 

SUPERFINE  VANILLA  SUGARED  ALMONDS.  Proceed  hi  the  same 
manner  as  in  the  manufacture  of  verdun  sugared  almonds,  make 
the  solution  of  sugar  in  pure  water  ;  crush  the  essence  of  vanilla 
with  a  little  sugar,  and  put  hi  the  solution. 

COMMON  SUGARED  ALMONDS. — Common  aimonds,  20  Ibs.,  sugar  3 
Ibs.,  farina,  20  Ibs.,  starch,  2  Ibs.  Heat  the  almonds  hi  the  swinging 
Ijftsin,  when  they  boil,  make  them  into  a  pulp  with  diluted  starch  ; 
five  first  a  warm  then  a  cold  coating,  cover  them  with  farina,  shaking 


GROCERS   AND    CONFECTIONERS*   RECEIPTS.        233 

flhe  basin  violently  ;  then,  when  the  almonds  have  been  coated  to  th« 
requisite  siae,  spread  them  out  on  sieves  ;  after  a  fortnight  put  them 
in  a  stove  to  finish  drying  :  whiten  them,  and  finish  by  the  process 
described  for  the  fine  sugared  almonds. 

SUPERFINE  CHOCOLATE  SUGARED  ALMONDS. — Caraccasa  cacao  nuts, 
shelled  and  roasted,  201bs.,  Martinique  sugar,  161bs.,  vanilla  4  drs., 
starch  10  oz.  The  same  method  is  required  as  for  the  superfine 
vanilla  sugar  plums,  but  care  must  be  taken  hi  adding  the  coatings 
of  gum,  to  touch  the  cacao  nuts  lightly,  as  they  are  very  easily  broken. 

SUPERFINE  SUGARED  FILBERTS.— Filberts,  50  Ibs.,  sugar,  4  Ibs., 
.starch,  4  oz.  Employ  the  same  process  as  for  sugared  almonds  and 
jflavor  to  taste.  Rose  water  is  generally  preferred  on  account  of  its 
color  and  fragrance. 

CORIANDER  SUGAR  PLUMS.— Coriander,  2 Ibs.,  farina,  30 Ibs.,  sugar, 
14  Ibs.  The  washings  of  the  basin  are  added  to  the  coriander  and 
farina  without  making  a  paste,  and  the  method  is  followed  that  haa 
!>een  prescribed  for  the  common  sugared  almonds ;  8  Ibs.  of  sugar 
.are  used  to  whiten  the^,  and  6  to  polish  them  ;  color  after  being 
polished  with  carmine,  Prussian  blue,  and  saffron. 

CORIANDER  IN  BOTTLES. — Coriander,  10  Ibs.,  farina,  10  Ibs.,  sugar 
lor  the  whitening,  3  Ibs.,  starch,  1  Ib.  These  are  simply  colored,  ana 
<lo  not  require  brilliancy.  They  are  made  of  the  size  of  small  peas, 
and  are  put  into  little  bottles.  In  making  these  follow  the  receipt  for 
<5ommon  sugared  almonds. 

ANISE-SEED  SUGAR  PLUMS.— Dry  2  Ibs.  of  green  anise-seed  in  the 
stove  ;  rub  it  in  the  hands  to  break  off  the  stems,  winnow  to  rid  of 
•dust,  then  put  it  in  a  swinging  basin,  and  coat  it  with  sugar  boiled  to 
a,  thread,  so  as  to  render  the  candies  hard  and  brittle.  When  coated 
sufficiently,  whiten  and  polish  them,  like  the  verdun  sugared  alinonds. 
They  vary  in  size,  being  generally  as  large  as  a  pea. 

MINT  SUGAR  PLUMS. — Dry  some  peppermint  seed  in  a  stove  and 
•coat  it  in  the  same  manner  as  anise  seed  (it  must  not,  however,  be 
whiter  than  rape  seed),  whiten  and  finish  like  anise  seed.  The  first 
coating  is  sometimes  composed  of  equal  parts  of  peppermint  and 
sugar. 

COMMON  TWIST  CANDY. — Clarify  3  Ibs.  of  common  brown  sugar, 
and  boil  it  till  it  is  brittle,  take  it  from  the  fire,  pour  it  in  buttered 
pans  ;  rub  the  hands  with  a  little  butter,  and  as  soon  as  it  is  cooled, 
pull  it  as  you  would  molasses  candy  until  it  is  perfectly  white  ;  then 
twist  and  braid  it,  and  cut  it  into  sticks. 

CARAMEL  is  made  by  boiling  clarified  sugar  till  it  is  very  brittle, 
then  pouring  it  on  an  oiled  slab  or  sheet  of  tin,  and,  as  soon  as  it 
is  cool  enough  to  receive  an  impression  with  the  finger,  stamping 
it  in  small  squares,  about  an  inch  in  size,  with  a  caramel  mould  ; 
then  turning  over  the  mass,  wiping  the  bottom  to  remove  any  oil 
that  may  have  adhered  from  the  slab,  and  putting  it  in  a  dry  place  to 
liarden.  If  you  have  no  caramel  mould,  you  may  score  it  on  the 
slab  with  a  common  case  knife,  after  which  they  are  glazed  with  an- 
other coating  with  sugar.  Keep  them  tightly  closed  from  the  air  af- 
ter they  are  made. 

LEMON  CARAMEL  is  made  by  grating  the  yellow  rind  of  a  lemon 
with  a  lump  of  sugar  ;  add  to  this  a  few  drops  of  lemon  juice  wtth 
water  enough  to  dissolve  the  sugar  completely  and  stir  the  whole  MK 


234     GROCERS  AND  CONFECTIONERS   RECEIPTS. 

to  the  boiled  syrup  a  few  minutes  before  it  is  taken  from  the  £ia 
Orange  and  Lime  caramels  are  prepared  in  the  same  manner  Iron 
these  respective  fruits.  Coffee  caramel,  coffee,  2  oz.,  sugar  1  Ib.  Mak« 
an  infusion  of  the  coffee,  using  as  little  water  as  possible  ;  strain  it 
through  a  cloth,  and  stir  it  gradually  into  the  boiled  syrup  a  few 
minutes  before  taking  it  from  the  fire.  Chocolate  caramel,  choco- 
late, 4  oz.,  sugar  1  Ib.  Dissolve  the  chocolate  in  as  little  water  as  pos- 
sible, and  add  it  to  the  boiled  sugar,  as  in  the  coffee  caramels.  Varv 
ilia  and  Orange  cream  caramels  are  made  by  using  the  respective  es* 
sences  of  these  fruits. 

COCOA  NUT  CANDY. — Pare  and  cut  cocoa-nut  into  slips,  or  grate 
on  a  coarse  grater  the  white  meat  of  cocoa-nuts  until  you  have  \  a 
pound  ;  dissolve  \  Ib.  of  loaf  sugar  in  2  tablespoonf  uls  of  water  ;  put 
it  over  the  fire,  and,  as  soon  as  it  boils,  stir  in  the  cocoa-nut.  Con- 
tinue  to  stir  it  until  it  is  boiled  to  a  flake,  then  pour  it  on  a  buttered 
pan  or  marble  slab,  and  cut  in  whatever  forms  you  wish,  when  it  is 
nearly  cold.  Lemon  or  other  flavors  may  be  added. 

CANDY  DROPS  OB  PASTILLES. — Pound  and  sift  double-refined  su- 
gar, first  through  a  coarse,  and  then  through  a  fine  sieve.  Put  the 
sugar  into  an  earthen  vessel,  and  dilute  it  with  the  flavoring  extract, 
mixed  with  a  little  water.  If  too  liquid,  the  syrup  will  be  too  thin, 
and  the  drops  will  run  together  ;  while,  if  top  thick,  the  syrup  will  b» 
too  compact,  and  cannot  be  poured  out  easily.  When  the  sugar  is 
mixed  in  a  rather  stiff  paste,  put  it  in  a  small  saucepan  with  a  spout 
and  set  it  over  the  fire.  As  soon  as  it  begins  to  bubble  up  the  side* 
of  the  saucepan,  stir  it  once  in  the  middle,  take  it  from  the  fire,  and 
drop  it  hi  small  lumps,  of  the  size  and  shape  required,  upon  sheets  of 
tin,  to  stand  for  2  hours,  then  put  them  in  the  stove  to  finish  drying. 
As  soon  as  they  are  perfectly  hard  and  brilliant,  take  them  from  tho 
fire,  otherwise  they  will  lose  their  aroma.  Color  the  syrup  just  be- 
fore taking  it  from  the  fire. 

ORANGE,  JASMINE,  AND  CLOVES  DROPS  aro  made  by  mixing  the 
above  paste  with  these  respective  extracts  : 

FOB  SAIAD  DROPS. —  Water  distilled  from  lettuce  is  used. 

SAFFRON  DROPS.— Make  an  infusion  of  saffron,  strain  it,  let  it 
cool,  use  it  to  mix  the  paste,  and  proceed  as  before. 

HELIOTROPE  DROPS.— Proceed  in  the  same  manner,  flavoring  th* 
Baste  with  a  few  drops  of  oil  of  neroli,  or  oil  of  orange,  jasmine  and 
tube-rose,  and  color  violet. 

PINK  DROPS.— Flavor  the  taste  with  tincture  of  red  pinks,  and 
color  with  carmine  lake. 

CINNAMON  DROPS. — Mix  5  drs.  powdered  cinnamon  and  8  oz.  of 
sugar  with  mucilage  enough  to  make  it  into  a  paste,  and  proceed 
as  above. 

CHETFINQ  GUM. — Take  of  prepared  balsam  of  tulu.  2  oz. ;  white 
eugar  loz.,  oatmeal  3  oz.,  soften  the  gum  in  water  bath  and  mix  in 
the  ingredients  ;  then  roll  in  finely  powdered  sugar  or  flour  to  form 
•ticks  to  suit 

MARSHMALIXW  AND  LICORICE  drops  are  made  the  same  way. 

ROSE  DROPS. — Mix  the  paste  with  rose  water,  and  color  with 
(Carmine  lake.  Proceed  as  above. 

LEMON  AND  OXANGE  DROPS. — Rasp  off  the  yellow  rind  of  an  orange 
or  lemon;  mi*  the  raspings  with  double-refined  uugar;  add  5  grs,  of 


GROCERS    AND    CONFECTIONERS*    RECEIPTS.        23d 

tartaric  acid  to  every  pound  of  sugar,  color  with  yellow  lake  or  saffron,: 
and  proceed  as  before.  If  too  much  tartaric  acid  is  nsed,  the  candle* 
will  adhere  to  the  sheets  of  tin. 

VIOLET  DROPS. — Flavor  the  paste  with  tincture  of  Florence  iris, 
and  color  with  blue  and  carmine  lakes.  A  few  drops  of  tartaric  acid 
may  be  added  to  sustain  the  blue. 

COFFEE  DROPS. — Substitute  a  strong,  filtered  infusion  of  coffee 
for  water,  in  mixing  the  paste. 

CHOCOLATE  DROPS. — For  every  pound  of  sugar,  take  5  pts.  good 
chocolate,  pulverize  it,  and  mix  it  into  a  paste,  as  already  directed, 
taking  care  not  to  boil  the  paste  too  long,  lest  it  granulate,  and  become- 
unfit  for  use. 

VANILLA  DROPS. — Mix  the  paste  with  extract  of  van^a,  or  finely- 

"  ground  vanilla  bean ;  to  which  add  2  oz.  3  grs.  of  tartaric  acid,  dis- 

Bolved  in  water,  to  sustain  the  blue,  without  which  it  would  disappear. 

IMITATION  CURRANT  DROPS. — Mix  the  paste  with  water,  adding  a 
little  essence  of  raspberry  and  of  violet,  or  Florence  iris,  with  a  little 
*"  tartaric  acid  dissolved  in  water;  color  with  carmine,  and  proceed  as 
•  above. 

PEPPERMINT  DROPS — Dissolve  finely-powdered  sugar  with  a  little 
strong  peppermint- water  in  a  saucepan  with  a  spout.  As  soon  as  it  is- 
thoroughly  dissolved,  add  an  equal  quantity  of  coarse-grained  sugar 
with  a  few  drops  more  of  the  peppermint,  stir  the  whole  for  a  few- 
moments,  then  drop  the  mixture  on  paper,  and  dry  it  in  the  open  air. 
In  the  same  way  are  made  lemon,  rose,  vanilla,  and  other  drops. 
Citric  and  tartaric  acid  may  be  used  to  increase  the  acidity  of  lemon, 
drops. 

EXTEMPORANEOUS  PASTILLES.— Make  the  paste  as  usual,  without 
flavoring  the  water,  drop  the  pastilles  upon  paper,  leave  them  for  two> 
hours,  then  take  them  off  and  put  them  into  the  stove  to  dry.  When 
wanted  for  use,  put  the  quantity  required  into  a  large-mouthed  jar, 
and  flavor  as  desired.  For  instance,  to  make  2  Ibs.  of  peppermint 
drops,  take  5  pts.  of  sulphuric  ether  in  which  are  diluted  a  few  drop* 
of  essence  of  peppermint,  and  pour  it  over  the  candies,  then  cover 
the  jar,  and  shake  it  until  they  are  thoroughly  moistened  ;  then  place 
them  on  a  sieve,  and  set  them  in  the  stove  for  5  minutes,  evaporate, 
the  ether.  In  this  manner  rose,  orange,  lemon,  jonquil,  tube-rose, 
mignonette,  clove,  cinnamon,  or  any  other  drops  may  be  made,  dis- 
solving their  essential  oils  hi  sulphuric  ether. 

GINGER  CANDY  TABLETS.— Take  1  Ib.  loaf  sugar,  a  few  drops  of 
acetic  acid  or  the  juice  of  half  a  lemon,  a  dessert-spoonf  ul  of  essence 
of  Jamaica  ginger.  Boil  the  sugar  with  just  water  enough  to* 
dissolve  it  to  the  ball  degree,  then  add  the  acid  and  the  essence, 
and  rub  the  sugar  with  the  back  part  of  the  bowl  of  a  silver  spoon 
up  against  the  sides  of  the  sugar-boiler  to  whiten  or  grain  it  suffi- 
ciently to  give  to  the  whole  an  opalized  appearance;  then  pour  it 
into  very  small-sized  moulds,  measuring  half  an  inch  or  an  inch 
oblong  square,  or  else  into  a  tin  pan,  the  bottom  part  of  which  is 
marked  out  in  small  tablets,  so  that  the  candy  may  be  easily  broken 
into  squares  when  dry.  Smear  the  moulds  slightly  with  oil  of  al- 
monds. When  the  sugar  is  poured  into  the  moulds,  place  im  the  screen 
lor  half  an  hour  or  more,  to  dry  them  hard. 

QBAKQE  FLOWER  CAXDY  TABLETS.— Ingredients  :  1  Ib.  loaf  sugar, 

1 


$36        GROCERS    AND    CONFECTIONERS*    RECEIPTS. 

«  tablespoonful  of  orange-flower  water,  and  a  few  drops  of  acetic 
acid.    Proceed  as  directed  in  the  preceding.    No  color. 

VANILLA  CAKDY  TABLETS. — Ingredients  ;  1  Ib.  loaf  sngar,  a  few 
drops  of  essence  of  vanilla,  sugar,  and  a  few  drops  of  acetic  acid. 
Proceed  as  for  ornaments  in  grained , sugar. 

PEPPERMINT  CANDY  TABLETS. — Ingredients  :  1  Ib.  of  loaf  sugar, 
a  few  drops  of  essence  of  peppermint,  and  a  few  drops  of  acetic  acid. 
Proceed  as  above.  No  color. 

LIQUOR  CANDY  TABLETS. — Ingredients  :  1  Ib.  of  loaf  sugar,  and 
a  gill  of  any  kind  of  liquor.  Boil  the  sugar  to  the  erack,  then  in- 
corporate the  liquor,  and  finish  as  in  the  preceding.  No  color. 

CINNAMON  CANDY  DROPS. — Use  1  Ib.  loaf  sugar,  and  a  few  drops 
essence  of  cinnamon.  Proceed  as  in  the  last.  This  may  be  colored 
lose  pink,  the  color  is  to  be  added  while  the  sugar  is  boiling. 

CLOVE  CANDY  TABLETS  are  prepared  in  the  same  way  as  the  fore- 
going, essence  of  cloves  being  used  instead  of  cinnamon. 

ROSE  CANDY  TABLETS. — Use  1  Ib.  loaf  sugar,  a  few  drops  of  es- 
sence of  roses,  a  few  drops  of  acetic  acid,  and  a  few  drops  of  prepared 
cochineal.  Proceed  as  in  the  preceding. 

FRUIT  CANDY  TABLETS. — Use  1  Ib.  of  loaf  sugar,  ^  pint  of  the  juice 
•of  any  kind  of  fruit,  either  currants,  cherries,  strawberries,  rasp- 
berries &c.,  extracted  by  pressing  with  a  spoon  through  a  clean  hair 
sieve.  Boil  the  sugar  to  the  crack,  then  incorporate  the  fruit  Juice 
by  rubbing  it  with  the  sugar,  as  directed  in  the  preceding,  and  finish 
the  candies  as  therein  indicated. 

To  FREE  MOLASSES  FROM  ITS  SHARP  TASTE,  AND  TO  RENDER 
IT  FIT  TO  BE  USED  INSTEAD  OF  SUGAR. — Take  24  Ibs.  molasses,  24 
Ibs.  water,  and  6  Ibs.  of  charcoal,  coarsely  pulverized  ;  mix  them  in  a 
kettle,  and  boil  the  whole  over  a  slow  wood  fire.  When  the  mixture 
las  boiled  half  an  hour,  pour  it  into  a  flat  vessel ,  in  order  that  the  char- 
coal may  subside  to  the  bottom  ;  then  pour  off  the  liquid,  and  place  it 
over  the  fire  once  more,  that  the  superfluous  water  may  evaporate 
and  the  molasses  be  brought  to  its  former  consistence.  24  Ibs.  of 
molasses  will  produce  24  Ibs.  of  syrup. 

PEPPERMINT  LOZENGES.— Ingredients  :  1  oz.  of  picked  gum  traga- 
canth  soaked  with  5  oz.  of  tepid  water  in  a  gallipot  (this  takes  some  6  j 
hours),  and  afterwards  squeezed  and  wrung  through  a  cloth,  about  1^ 
Ibs.  of  fine  icing  sugar,  and  a  teaspoonful  of  essence  of  peppermint. 
Work  the  prepared  gum  with  the  flattened  fist  on  a  very  clean  slab 
until  it  becomes  perfectly  white  and  elastic,  then  gradually  work  in 
the  sugar,  adding  the  peppermint  when  the  paste  has  become  a  com- 
pact, smooth,  elastic  substance  ;  a  few  drops  of  thick,  wet,  cobalt  • 
blue  should  also  be  added  while  working  the  paste,  to  give  a  brilliant 
;,  whiteness.  The  paste  thus  prepared  is  to  be  rolled  out  with  fine  su- 
gar dredged  over  the  slab  to  the  thickness  of  two  penny  pieces,  then  if 
you  possess  a  ribbed  rolling-phi,  use  to  roll  the  paste  again  in  cross 
directions,  so  as  to  imprint  on  its  whole  surface  a  small  lozenge  or 
(diamond  pattern.  You  now  use  your  tin  cutter  to  stamp  out  the  loz- 
'enges  ;  as  you  do  so  place  them  on  sugar  powdered  baking  sheets  to 
dry  in  the  screen. 

GINGER  LOZENGES. — Proceed  as  in  the  last;  use  a  tablespoonful  of 
essence  of  ginger,  or  1  oz.  of  ground  ginger  to  flavor,  and  a  few  drops 
of  thick  wet  gamboge  to  color  the  paste.  Horehound  Lozenges.  In-  t 


GROCEBS   AND   CONFECTIONERS'   RECEIPTS.        23? 

gradients :  1  oz.  of  gum  dragon  soaked  in  a  gill  of  very  strong  extract 
of  korehound,  1^  IDS  of  fine  icing  sugar.  Proceed  as  for  the  pepper- 
mint lozenges.  Cinnamon  Lozenges  are  prepared  in  the  same 
manner  as  ginger  or  peppermint,  with  this  difference  only ;  a  dessert- 
gpoouf  ul  of  essence  of  cinnamon  is  to  be  used  in  the  flavoring  of  them, 
a  few  drops  of  thick,  ground,  wet-burnt  umber  should  be  used  with  9. 
pinch  of  carmine  to  give  the  paste  the  tinge  of  cinnamon  color  Ciovs 
Lozenges.  The  same  as  peppermint  lozenges,  using  essence  of  clovej 
for  flavoring,  and  burnt  umber  to  color  the  paste.  Orange  lozenges. 
Ingredients:  1  oz.  prepared  gum,  1^  Ibs.  sugar,  2  oz.  of  orange-sugar, 
the  gum  to  be  soaked  in  2  oz.  of  orange  flower  water.  Proceed  as  for 
peppermint  lozenges.  Lemon  Lozenges.  Ingredients :  1  oz.  prepare^ 
gum,  \\  Ibs.  of  icing  sugar,  2  oz.  of  lemon  sugar,  and  a  few  drops  of 
acetic  acid.  Colt's  foot  Lozenges.  Ingredients :  1  oz.  of  gum  dragon 
soaked  in  2  oz.  of  orange  flower  water,  1^  Ib.  of  fine  icing  sugar,  an<f 
ioz.  of  essence  of  colt's  foot.  Proceed  as  for  peppermint  lozenges. 
Cayenne  and  Catechu  Lozenges.  Ingredients:  1  oz.  of  gum  dragon 
soaked  in  2  oz.  of  water,  2  Ibs.  fine  icing  sugar,  ^  oz.  essence  of 
cayenne,  and  ^  oz'.  of  prepared  catechu.  Proceed  as  for  peppenniuft 
lozenges. 

GUM  PASTILLES,  OR  JUJUBES.— Ingredients :  1  Ib.  of  picked  gum 
arabic,  14  oz.  of  the  finest  sugar  pounded  and  sifted,  ^  gill  of  doublft 
orange  flower  water,  and  1  pt.  tepid  water  to  soak  the  gum  in,  which 
is  afterwards  to  be  strained  off  clean.  Put  the  soaked  and  strained 
gum  into  a  sugar  boiler  with  the  sugar,  and  use  a  clean  spoon  to  stir 
it  over  a  very  moderate  fire,  while  it  boils  and  reduces  to  the  small 
pearl  degree ;  then  add  the  orange  flower  water,  stir  all  together  on 
the  fire,  remove  the  preparation  from  the  stove,  skim  off  the  froth, 
and  use  the  mixture  to  cast  the  jujubes  in  levelled  layers  of  starch 
powder  contained  in  a  flat  box. 

SPANISH  LICORICE  JUJUBES.— Ingredients :  1  Ib.  picked  gum  arabic, 
14  oz.  of  sugar,  and  2  oz.  of  Spanish  licorice  dissolved  in  a  gill  of  hot 
water,  and  afterwards  strained  clean.  First  prepare  the  gum  and 
"boil  it  with  sugar  as  directed  in  the  preceding  article,  and  when 
reduced  by  boiling  to  the  small  pearl  degree,  incorporate  the  prepared 
Spanish  licorice  with  it,  remove  the  scuin  from  the  surface,  and  finish, 
the  jujubes  in  the  manner  indicated  above.  Raspberry  Jujubes. 
Ingredients :  1  Ib.  picked  gum  arabic  soaked  in  1  pint  of  hot  water 
and  afterwards  strained,  14  oz.  of  sugar,  1  gill  of  filtered  raspberry 
juice,  and  a  few  drops  of  cochineal.  Proceed  as  directed  in  th» 
foregoing  case,  adding  the  raspberry  and  coloring  last  Black  Cur- 
rant Jujubes.  Proceed  in  all  respects  as  indicated  for  raspberry 
jujubes,  omitting  the  cochineal,  black  currant  juice  being  used.  Red' 
Currant  Jujubes. — The  same  as  black  currant  jujubes,  red  currant 
juice  being  used  and  a  few  drops  of  cochineal.  Ordinary  Jujubes. 
Ingredients  :  1  Ib.  gum  arabic  soaked  in  1  pt.  of  hot  water  and  after- 
wards strained,  14  oz.  sugar,  ^  oz.  essence  of  roses,  and  a  few  drops' 
jf  prepared  cochineal.  Let  the  mixture  be  prepared  as  for  other 
jujubes,  but  instead  of  casting  them  in  impressions  made  in  starch- 
powder,  when  the  preparation  is  ready,  pour  it  into  a  very  clean 
smooth  tinned  baking  sheet  to  the  depth  of  a  quarter  of  an  inch,  and) 
get  it  to  dry  in  the  screen,  or  hot  closet  (moderate  heat) ;  when  suffi- 
ciently dried,  so  that  on  pressing  the  surface  it  proves  somewhat 


838       GROCERS   AND    CONFECTIONERS*   RECEIPTS. 

felastic  to  the  touch,  remore  it  from  the  heat,  and  allow  it  to  bccomt 
told  ;  the  sheet  of  jujube  may  then  be  easily  detached,  and  ia  to  b« 
tut  up  with  scissors  in  the  shape  of  diamonds. 

S*riCK  APPLE  SUGAR.  -Boil  the  sugar  to  caramel,  flavor  with  apple 
Juiee  together  with  tartaric  or  other  acid,  pour  it  on  a  marble  slab, 
draw  it  into  sticks,  cut  them  of  equal  length,  then  roll  them  on  a  slab 
till  they  are  perfectly  cold  ;  when  finished,  wrap  them,  in  tissue-paper 
fcnd  put  them  hi  fancy  envelopes. 

CURRANT  AND  RASPBERHY  PASTE  DROPS,— Ingredients  :  1  Ib.  of 
pulp  (the  currants  and  raspberries  in  equal  proportions  boiled,  and 
afterwards  rubbed  through  a  sieve),  1  Ib.  of  sifted  sugar.  Stir  both 
together  in  a  copper  sugar-boiler  or  preserving  pan  over  a  brisk  fire, 
until  the  paste  becomes  sufficiently  reduced  to  show  the  bottom  of 
the  preserving  pan  as  you  draw  the  spoon  across  it ;  then  proceed  to 
lay  out  the  drops  about  the  size  of  a  florin,  using  a  spouted  sugar  boiler 
for  the  purpose.  The  drops  should  then  be  placed  in  the  screen  t« 
dry,  at  a  low  heat  for  an  hour  or  so.  When  the  dr.ops  are  dry,  use  a 
thin  knife  to  remove  them  from  the  tin  sheet  on  which  you  laid  them 
out,  and  put  them  away  between  sheets  of  paper  in  closed  boxes,  in  a 
dry  place.  Damson  Paste  Drops. — Ingredients:  1  Ib.  of  damson  thick 
pulp,  1  Ib.  bruised  sugar.  Stir  the  pulp  and  sugar  on  the  fire  until 
reduced  to  a  thick  paste,  then  proceed  to  lay  out  the  drops  on  square 
sheets  of  polished  tin  ;  dry  them  in  the  screen  (moderate  heat),  and 
remove  them  in  the  manner  aforesaid.  These  drops  may  be  prepared 
•with  all  kinds  of  plums  and  also  with  gooseberries.  Pear  Paste 
Drops.— Use  1  Ib.  pear  pulp  (made  by  peeling  the  pears,  and  boiling 
them  to  a  pulp  with  ^  pt.  of  cider  or  perry,  and  rubbing  this  through 
a  coarse  sieve),  1  Ib.  of  bruised  sugar.  Proceed  as  for  damson 
paste.  Apple  Paste  Drops. — Use  1  Ib.  of  apple  pulp  (made  by  peel- 
ing, slicing  and  boiling  the  apples  with  ^  pt.  cider),  1  Ib.  of  bruised 
sugar.  Proceed  as  in  the  foregoing  cases,  adding  a  few  drops  of 
cochineal  to  half  of  the  paste  for  the  sake  of  variety.  Pine  Apple 
Paste  Drops. — Use  1  Ib.  of  pine-apple  pulp  (made  by  first  peeling, 
and  then  grating  the  pine-apple  on  a  dish,  using  a  clerm  coarse  tin 
crater  for  the  *"\rpose),  1  Ib.  of  bruised  sugar.  Proceed  as  in  tb» 
former  cases. 

VASES,  BASKETS,  FIGURES,  ANEMAL,S,  &c.,  IN  GRAINED  SUGAR. — 
The  sugar  being  boiled  to  the  ball  degree,  add  a  few  drops  of  acetic 
acid,  and  work  the  sugar  with  the  back  part  of  the  bowl  of  a  silver 
tablespoon  up  against  the  side  of  the  Bugar  boiler,  fetching  up  the 
whole  in  turns,  go  that  every  portion  may  acquire  an  opalized  or 
•whitish  color.  As  soon  as  the  sugar  has  been  worked  up  to  this 
state,  which  constitutes  "graining,"  pour  it  immediately  into  the 
ready  prepared  mould  ;  and  when  it  has  become  perfectly  set  firm  in 
the  centre,  you  may  turn  the  vase,  basket,  animal,  or  whatever  the 
object  may  be,  out  of  its  mould,  and  place  it  in  the  screen  or  hot 
closet  to  dry,  at  a  very  moderate  heat.  Afterwards  they  may  be 
painted  hi  colors  to  imitate  nature. 

EVBRTON  TAFFY.— To  make  this  favorite  and  wholesome  canfly, 
take  1^  pounds  of  moist  sugar,  3  ounces,  of  butter,  a  teacup  and  a 
Jhalf  of  water,  and  one  lemon.  Boil  the  sugar,  butter,  water,  and 
iialf  the  rind  of  the  lemon  together;  and,  when  done, — which  will 
be  known  by  dropping  into  cold  water,  when  it  should  be  quite 


GROCERS   AND    CONFECTIONERS'   RECEIPTS.        239 

crisp, — let  it  stand  aside  till  the  boiling  has  ceased,  and  then  stir  in 
the  juice  of  the  lemon.  Butter  a  dish,  and  pour  it  in  about  a  quarter 
of  an  inch  in  thickness.  The  fire  must  be  quick,  and  the  taffy 
stirred  all  the  time. 

CANDY  FRUIT.— Take  one  pound  of  the  best  loaf  sugar;  dip  each 
lump  into  a  bowl  of  water,  and  put  the  sugar  into  your  preserving 
_-  kettle.    Boil  it  down,  and  skim  it  until  perfectly  clear,  and  in  a ' 
candying  state.    When  sufficiently  boiled,  have  ready  the  fruits  you. ' 
wish  to  preserve.    Large  white  grapes,  oranges  separated  into  small ' 
pieces,  or  preserved  fruits,  taken  out  of  their  syrup  and  dried,  are 
very  nice.    Dip  the  fruits  irto  the  prepared  sugar  while  it  is  hot;  put 
them  in  a  cold  place;  they  will  soon  become  hard. 

JELLIES  WITHOUT  FRUIT.— To  1  pint  of  water  put  £  oz.  alum;  boil 
a  minute  or  two;  then  add  4  Ibs.  white  sugar;  continue  the  boiling  a 
little;  strain  while  hot;  and,  when  cold,  put  in  half  a  twenty-five 
cent  bottle  of  extract  of  vanilla,  strawberry,  lemon,  or  any  other 
flavor  you  desire  for  jelly. 

PRIZE  HONEY. — Good  common  sugar,  5  Ibs.;  water,  2  Ibs.  bring 
gradually  to  a  boil,  skimming  when  cool ;  add  1  Ib.  bees'  honey  and  4 
drops  essence  of  peppermint.  If  you  desire  a  better  article,  use  white 
eugar,  and  ^  Ib.  less  water,  £  Ib  more  honey. 

ANOTHER.— Coffee  sugar,  10  Ibs. ;  water  3  Ibs. ;  cream  tartar,  2ozs. ; 
strong  vinegar,  2  tablespoons;  white  of  an  egg  well  beaten;  bees' 
honey,  £  Ib;  Lubiu's  extract  of  honeysuckle,  10  drops.  Put  on  the 
eugar  and  water  in  a  suitable  kettle  on  the  fire;  when  lukewarm  stir 
in  the  cream  tartar  and  vinegar;  add  the  egg;  when  the  sugar  is 
nearly  melted  put  in  the  honey,  and  stir  till  it  comes  to  a  boil ;  take  it 
off,  let  it  stand  a  few* minutes;  strain,  then  add  the  extract  of  honey- 
suckle last;  stand  over  night,  and  it  is  ready  for  use.  Another. — 
Common  sugar,  4  Ibs. ;  water,  1  pt. ;  let  them  come  to  a  boil,  and 
ekim.  Then  add  pulverized  alum,  £  oz.  remove  from  the  fiiy,  and 
•tir  in  cream  of  tartar,  ^  oz.  and  water,  or  extract  of  rose,  1  table- 
ppoonf ul,  and  it  is  fit  for  use. 

To  KEEP  FRUITS  FRESH. — Rosin  2  Ibs.;  tallow,  2  oz. ;  bees' -wax,, 
2  oz.  Melt  slowly  over  the  fire  in  an  iron  pot,  but  don't  boil.  Taka 
the  fruit  separately,  and  rub  it  over  with  pulverized  chalk  or  whiting 
(to  prevent  the  coating  from  adhering  to  the  fruit),  then  dip  it  into 
the  solution  once,  and  hold  it  up  a  moment  to  set  the  coating,  then 
pack  away  carefully  in  barrels,  boxes,  or  on  shelves,  in  a  cool  place. 
Unequalled  for  preserving  apples,  pears,  lemons,  &c. 

ACID  DROPS. — Pound  and  sift  into  a  clean  pan  8  ozs.  of  double 
refined  sugar,  add  slowly  as  much  water  as  will  render  the  sugar 
_  sufficiently  moist  not  to  stick  to  the  stirring  spoon,  place  the  pan 
on  a  small  stove  or  slow  fire,  and  stir  till  it  nearly  boils,  remove 
from  the  fire  and  stir  in  £  oz.  tartaric  acid.  Place  it  on  the  fire  for 
half  a  minute,  then  dip  out  small  quantities  from  the  pan,  and  let 
it  fall  in  small  drops  on  a .  clean  tin  plate ;  remove  the  drops  in  2 
hours  with  a  knife.  Ready  for  sale  in  24  hours. 

CHOCOLATE  CREAM  CANDY.— Chocolate  scraped  fine,  £  oz.,  thick 
cream.  1  pt.,  best  sugar,  3  ozs.,  heat  it  nearly  boiling,  then  remove  it 
from  the  fire  and  mill  it  well ;  when  cold,  add  the  whites  of  4  or  5 
«ggs;  whisk  rapidly  and  take  up  the  froth  on  a  sieve.  Serve  tha 
cream  in  glasses  and  pile  up  the  froth  on  top  of  them. 


240  LEATHER    WORKERS',    &C.,    RECEIPTS. 


TANNERS,  CURRIERS,  BOOT,  SHOE  AND  RITrv 
BER  M'FRS,  MARBLE  WORKERS,  BOOK< 
BINDERS,  &c. 

BEST  COLOR  FOR  SHOE  AND  HARNESS  EDGE.— -Alcohol,  1  pint ; 
tincture  of  iron,  1£  ozs.  ;  extract  logwood,  1  oz.  ;  pulverized  nutgalls, 
1  oz.  ;  soft  water,  ^  pint  ;  sweet  oil,  ^  oz. ;  put  this  last  into  the  alco- 
hol before  adding  the  water.  Nothing  can  exceed  the  beautiful  finish 
imparted  to  the  leather  by  this  preparation. 

CHEAP  COLOR  FOR  THE  EDGE.— Soft  water,  1  gallon  ;  extract 
logwood,  1  oz.  ;  boil  till  the  extract  is  dissolved  ;  remove  from  the* 
fire,  add  copperas,  2  oz.,  bichromate  of  potash,  and  gum  arable,  of 
each  £  oz.,  all  to  be  pulverized. 

BEAUTIFUL  BRONZE  FOR  LEATHER.— Dissolve  a  little  of  the  so-call- 
ed insoluble  aniline  violet  in  a  little  water,  and  brush  the  solution  over 
the  leather  :  after  it  dries  repeat  the  process. 

SUPERIOR  EDGE  BLACKING. — Soft  water  5  gallons;  bring  to  a  boil, 
and  add  8  oz.  logwood  extract,  pulverized  ;  boil  3  minutes,  remove 
from  the  fire,  and  stir  in  2£  oz.  gum  arable,  1  oz.  bichromate  of  potash, 
imd  80  grams  prussiate  of  potash. 

For  a  small  quantity  of  this,  use  water,  2  quarts  ;  extract  of  log- 
wood, |  oz. ;  gum  arable,  %  grains  ;  bichromate  of  potash,  48  grains; 
prussiate  of  potash ;  8  grams.  Boil  the  extract  in  the  water  2  minutes; 
remove  from  the  fire  and  stir  in  the  others,  and  it  is  ready  for  use. 

For  tanners'  surface  blacking,  which  is  not  required  to  take  on  a 
high  polish,  the  gum  arable  may  be  omitted. 

SIZING  FOR  BOOTS  AND  SHOES  IN  TREEING  OUT. — Water,  1  quart; 
dissolve  in  it,  by  heat,  isinglass,  1  oz.  ;  adding  more  water  to  replace 
loss  by  evaporation  ;  when  dissolved,  add  starch,  6  oz. ;  extract 
of  logwood,  beeswax,  and  tallow,  of  each,  2  oz.  Rub  the  starch  up 
first  by  pouring  on  sufficient  boiling  water  for  that  purpose.  It 
makes  boots  and  shoes  soft  and  pliable,  and  gives  a  splendid  appear- 
ance to  old  stock  on  the  shelves. 

BLACK  VARNISH  FOR  THE  EDGE.— Take  98  per.  cent  alcohol,  1 
pint ;  shellac,  3  oz.  ;  rosin,  2  oz. ;  pine  turpentine,  1  oz.  ;  lampblack,  J 
oz.  ;  mix  :  and  when  the  gums  are  all  cut,  it  is  ready  for  use.  This 
preparation  niakes  a  most  splendid  appearance  when  applied  to  boot, 
ehoe,  or  harness  edge,  and  it>  equally  applicable  to  cloth  or  wood, 
•where  a  gloss  is  required  after  being  painted. 

WATERPROOF  VARNISH  FOR  HARNESS. — India-rubber,  £  Ib.  ;  spts. 
turpentine  1  gal.  ;  dissolve  to  a  jelly,  then  take  hot  linseedt  oil  equal 
parts  with  the  mass,  and  incorporate  them  well  over  a  slow  fire. 

BLACKING  FOR  HARNESS. — Beeswax.  \  Ib. ;  ivory  black,  2  ozs. ;  spts. 
of  turpentine,  1  oz.  Prussian  blue,  ground  in  oil  1  oz. ;  copal  varnish, 
\  oz.  ;  melt  the  wax  and  stir  into  it  the  other  ingredients,  before  tha 
mixture  is  quite  cold  ;  make  it  into  balls,  rub  a  little  upon  a  brush, 
apply  it  upon  the  harness,  and  polish  lightly  with  silk. 

BEST  HARNESS  VARNISH  EXTANT.— Alcohol,  1  gallon;  white  tur- 
pentine, 1£  Ibs. ;  gum  shellac,  \\  Ibs. ;  Venice  turpentine,  1  gill.  Let 
them  stand  by  the  stove  till  the  gums  are  dissolved,  then  add  sweet 


LEATHER    WORKERS11,    AC.,    RECEIPTS.  241 

cfl,  1  gifl;  and  color  it  if  you  wish  with  lampblack,  2  oz.  This  wfll 
not  crack  like  the  old  varnish. 

HARNESS  on,.— Neat' s-foot  oil,  1  gal. ;  lampblack,  4  oz.    Mix  wen 

BRILLIANT  FRENCH  VARNISH  FOR  LEATHER. — Spirit  of  wine,  f  pint; 
vinegar,  5  pints;  guin  senega!  in  powder,  £  lb.;  loaf  sugar,  6  oz.: 
powdered  galls,  2  oz. ;  green  copperas,  4  oz.  Dissolve  the  gum  ana 
sugar  in  the  water;  strain,  and  put  on  a  slow  fire,  but  don't  boil;  now 
put  in  the  galls,  copperas,  and  the  alcohol;  stir  well  for  five  minutes; 
.set  off;  and  when  nearly  cool,  strain  through  flannel,  and  Bottle  tot 
use.  It  is  applied  with  a  pencil  brush.  Most  superior. 

LIQUID  JAPAN  FOR  LEATHER. — Molasses,  81bs. ;  lampblack,  lib.; 
sweet  oil,  1  lb. ;  gum  arable,  1  lb. ;  isinglass,  1  lb.  Mix  well  in  32  Ibs. 
water;  apply  heat;  when  cool,  add  1  quart  alcohol;  au  ox's  gall  will 
improve  it. 

WATERPROOF  OiL-BLACKDfG.  Camphene,  1  pint;  add  all  the 
India-rubber  it  will  dissolve;  curriers'  oil,  1  pint;  tallow,  7  Ibs.; 
lampblack,  2  oz.  Mix  thoroughly  by  heat. 

SHOEMAKERS'  HEEL  BALLS.— Beeswax,  8  oz. ;  tallow,  1  oz. ;  melt, 
and  add  powdered  gum  arabic,  1  oz.,  and  lampblack  to  color. 

BEST  HEEL  BALL.— Melt  together  beeswax,  2  Ibs. ;  suet,  3  ozs. ;  stir 
in  ivory  black,  4  ozs.,  lampblack,  3  oz.,  powdered  gum  arabic,  2  oz., 
powdered  rock  candy,  2  oz.,  mix  and  when  partly  cold  pour  into  tin 
or  leaden  moulds. 

CHANNELLERS  AND  SHOEMAKERS'  CEMENT.— India-rubber  dis- 
solved to  a  proper  consistence  IK  sulphuric  ether. 

CEMENT  FOR  LE  ATHEH  OR  RUBBER  SOLES  AND  LEATHER  BELTING.— 
Gutta  percha,  1  lb.;  India-rubber,  4  oz.;  pitch,  2  oz.;  shellac,  1  oz.; 
oil,  2  oz. ;  melt,  and  use  hot 

GERMAN  BLACKING.— Ivory-black,  1  part;  molasses,  |part;  sweet 
oil,  £  part;  mix,  as  before;  then  stir  in  a  mixture  of  hydrochloric  acid, 
J  part;  oil  of  vitriol,  £  part;  each  separately  diluted  with  twice  fti 
•weight  of  water  before  mixing  them.  This  forms  the  ordinary  paste 
"blacking  of  Germany,  according  to  Liebig. 

OIL  PASTE  BLACKING.  Ivory-black,  4  Ibs.;  molasses,  2  Ibs.;  sweet 
oil,  1  lb. ;  oil  of  vitrol  3  Ibs. ;  mix  and  put  in  tins. 

GOLD  VARNISH. — Turmeric.  1  aram  ;  gamboge,  1  dram  ;  turpen- 
tine, 2  pints  ;  shellac,  5  oz.  sanda  ach,  6  oz.  ;  dragon's  blood,  8 
drams  ;  thin  mastic  varnish,  c  •>*.  •  ligest  with  occasional  agitation 
for  fourteen  days  ;  then  set  aside  ^  tine  ;  and  pour  off  the  clear. 

GRAIN  BLACK  FOR  HARNESS  LEATHER.— First  stain  in  tallow  ; 
then  take  spirits  turpentine,  1  pint ;  cream  of  tartar,  1  oz.  ;  soda  1  oz.; 
gum  ishellac,  i  oz.  ;  thick  paste,  reduced  thin,  2  quarts.  Mix  welL 
This  will  finish  12  sides. 

BEAUTIFUL  STAINS  FOR  BOOTS,  SHOES  AND  LEATHER  GOODS.— 
Soft  water  1  pt;  oxalic  acid,  2"  tablespoonfuls  or  more;  if  required 
stronger,  dissolve,  and  for  a  red  color,  add  finely  pulverized  rose-pink, 
vermilion  or  drop  lake.  Blue,  add  finely  pulverized  Prussian  blue, 
or  indigo.  Yelloio,  king's  yellow,  yellow  ochre,  &c.  White,  flake 
white.  Green,  blue  and  yellow  mixed.  Orange,  red  and  yellow 
mixed.  Purple,  red  and  blue  mixed.  Pulverize  the  ingredients  well 
before  mixing  with  the  water  and  acid.  Any  other  shade  desired 
«an  be  selected  from  the  "  Compound  colors"  in  the  next  department 
STAIN.— -Skimmed  milk,  1  pt  ;  spirits  of  salts.  £oz  ;  apt* 


§42  LEATHER    WORKERS',    AC.,    RECEIPTS/ 

•t  red  lavender,  £  oz.  ;  gum  arable,  1  oz. ;  and  the  juice  of  2  lemons  i 
mix  well  together,  and  cork  Ibr  use  ;  apply  with  a  sponge  ;  whea 
dry,  polish  witk  a  brush  or  a  piece  of  flannel.  If  wished  paler,  put 
m  less  red  lavender. 

Ox  RUBBER  GOODS.— As  many  parties  require  to  use  rubber  good! 
are  entirely  ignorant  of  the  cheap  mixtures  which  are  vended 
e  quantities,  at  enormous  profits  by  manufacturers,  I  have 
t  proper  in  this  place  to  irradiate  the  subject  with  a  little . 
ht"  for  the  benefit  of  those  whom  "it  may  concern,"  and  ac- 
ingly present  the  formulae  for  compounding  the  different  mix* 
lures  which  enter  into  the  composition  of  many  articles  sold  quite 
extensively  as  pure  rubber  goods,  but  which,  owing  to  large  adulter- 
ations, in  many  cases  cost  75  per  cent,  less  than  the  prices  charged 
for  thenx.  The  first  I  shall  present  is  for 

LIGHT  BUFFER  SPRINGS.— Grind  together  clear  Java  rubber,  25 
Ibs. ;  Para  rubber,  5  Ibs. ;  common  magnesia,  10  Ibs. :  pure  sulphur,  25 
ezs.  This  is  brown  at  first,  but  in  a  few  days,  turns  grey  or  white. 
auid  just  sinks  in  water.  Springs  made  from  this  compound,  4£  x  2j 
x  t,  pressed  to  half  an  inch,  showed  3$  tons  on  the  dial. 

GREY  PACKIXO  FOR  MARINE  ENGINES,  &c.— Grind  together  clean- 
ed Java  rubber,  5  Ibs. ;  Para  rubber,  25  Ibs. ;  oxide  of  zinc,  16  Ibs. ; 
carbonate  of  magnesia,  6  Ibs. ;  Porcelain  or  Cornwall  clay,  3  Ibs. ;  red 
lead,  2  Ibs. ;  pure  sulphur,  30  ozs.  It  may  be  proper  to  state  that 
good  purified  Java  rubber  might  be  substituted  by  engineers  with 
good  effect  for  Para  rubber  in  the  above  and  some  other  com- 
positions. 

RAG  PACKING  FOR  VALVES,  BEARING  SPRINGS,  &c. — This  is  made 
principally  from  the  useless  cuttings  in  the  manufacture  of  India-* 
lubber  coats,  when  the  gum  is  run  or  spread  on  calico  foundations. 
Proportions  as  follows :  grind  together  useless  scraps,  36  Ibs. ;  black- 
lead  18  Ibs. ;  Java  gum,  16  Ibs. ;  yellow  sulphur,  1  lb. 

COMPOSITION  FOR  SUCTION  HOSE  FOR  FIRE  ENGINES,  &o,~ - 
Grind  together  Java  rubber,  20  Ibs. ;  Para  do.  10  Ibs. ;  white  lead,  14 
Ibs. :  red  lead,  14  Ibs. ;  yellow  sulphur,  1^  Ibs.  This  is  spread  upon  flax 
doth,  which  weighs  10,  16,  and  32  ozs.  to  the  square  yard. 

COMMON  BLACK  PACKING. — Grind  together,  Java  rubber,  15  Ibs. ; 
$*arado.,  15  Ibs.;  oxide  of  zinc,  15  Ibs.;  China  or  Cornwall  clay,  15 
Ibs.;  yellow  sulphur,  28  ozs. 

COMMON  WHITE  BUFFER  RINGS,  &c.— Grind  together  Java  rub- 
ber, 30  Ibs. ;  oxide  of  zinc,  18  Ibs.  carbonate  of  magnesia,  6  Ibs. ; 
dean  chalk  or  whiting,  6  Ibs. ;  flour  of  sulphur,  2  Ibs. 

VULCANITE,  OR  EBOZSITE.— If  the  amount  of  sulphur  added  to  the 
prepared  rubber  amounts  to  10  per  .cent  and  the  operations  of  vul- 
canizing is  performed  in  close  vessels,  at  a  temperature  exceeding 
SOO,  or  the  heat  required  for  VULCA^ZING  LNDIA-RUEBKR  as  de- 
cribed  under  that  head,  which  see,  an  article  will  be  produced  known 
«s  vulcanite,  or  ebonite.  It  is  a  black,  hard,  elastic  substance,  re- 
sembling horn  in  its  texture  and  appearance,  and  capable  of  taking  a 
•very  higli  polish.  It  is  of  great  use  in  the  arts,  and  is  largely  man- 
ufactured for  making  combs,  door  handles,  and  hundreds  of  articles 
t>4herto  made  in  ivory  or  bone.  Its  electrical  properties  also  are 
VTv  great 

PUBB  SPRING,  ou  WASHERS,— Grind  together  Para  gum,  39 


LEATHER   WORKERS*,   AC.,   RECEIPTS.  24f 

Ibs. ;  oxide  of  zinc,  5  Ibs. ;  carb.  magnesia,  2  Ibs. ;  common  chalk,  3 
Ibflk ;  Porcelain  or  Cornwall  clay,  2  Ibs. ;  pure  sulphur,  30  oz. 

COMPANION  QUALITY  TO  ABOVE.— Para  rubber,  30  Ibs.;  oxide  ol 
*inc.  5  Ibs. ;  Porcelain  or  Cornwall  clay,  5  Ibs. ;  pure  sulphur,  32  oz. 

"Hrpo"  CLOTH  FOB  WATERPROOF  COATS. — Grind  together  clean 
Java  gum,  30  Ibs. ;  lampblack,  5  Ibs. ;  dry  chalk  or  whiting,  11  Ibs  : 
,3ulphuret  of  lead,  5  Ibs.  This  composition  is  applied  to  waterproof 
garments. 

To  VULCANIZE  INDIA  RUBBER.— The  vulcanizing  process  patent- 
ed by  the  late  Charles  Goodyear  consists  in  incorporating  with  tho 
rubber  from  3  to  10  per  cent,  of  sulphur,  together  with  various  me- 
tallic oxides,  chiefly  lead  and  zinc,  the  quantity  of  the  latter  articles 
being  regulated  by  the  degree  of  elasticity  &c.,  required  in  the  desired 
Atilicle.  The  goods  of  one  large  establishment  are  vulcanized  in 
•cylindrical  wrought  iron  steam  heaters,  over  60  feet  long  and  from 
45  to  6  feet  hi  diameter.  These  heaters  have  doors  opening  on  hinges 
at  one  end,  and  through  these  doors  the  goods  to  be  vulcanized  are 
introduced  on  a  sort  of  railway  carriage,  then,  after  the  door  is  shut, 
*team  is  let  on,  and  a  temperature  of  from  250°  to  300°  of  heat  is 
kept  up  for  several  hours,  the  degree  of  heat  being  ascertained  by 
means  of  thermometers  attached  to  the  heaters.  The  value,  solidity, 
•and  quality  of  the  goods  is  much  increased  by  keeping  the  articles 
under  the  pressure  of  metalic  moulds  or  sheets  while  undergoing  this 
process.  The  whole  process  requires  careful  manipulation  and  great 
^experience  to  conduct  it  properly. 

To  DEODORIZE  RUBBER. — Cover  the  articles  of  rubber  with  char- 
coal dust,  place  them  in  an  enclosed  vessel,  and  raise  the  tempera- 
ture to  91°  Fahr.,  and  let  it  remain  thus  for  several  hours.  Reinovo 
•and  clean  the  articles  from  the  charcoal  dust,  and  they  will  be  found 
iree  from  all  odor. 

GUTTA-PERCHA  AND  RUBBER  WASTE.— The  waste  is  cut  into 
small  pieces,  and  100  Ibs.  of  the  same  are  placed  in  a  well-closed 
toiler  with  10  Ibs.  of  bisulphide  of  carbon  and  4  ozs.  absolute  al- 
cohol, well  stirred;  then  the  boiler  is  closed,  and  left  a  few  hours  to 
.aoak.  After  this  time  it  is  found  to  be  changed  into  a  soft  dough 
mass,  which,  after  being  ground  or  kneaded,  is  fit  to*be  formed  into 
any  shape,  when  the  solvent  will  evaporate.  If  too  much  of  the 
latter  has  been  used,  a  thick  unmanageable  liquid  is  obtained. 

To  UTILIZE  LEATHER  SCRAPS. — First  clean  the  scraps,  then  soak 
them  in  water  containing  1  per  cent,  of  sulphuric  acid  until  the 
material  becomes  soft  and  plastic,  then  compress  into  blocks  and  dry 
by  steam.  In  order  to  soften  the  blocks,  1  Ib.  of  glycerine  is  added 
to  100  Ibs.  of  the  material;  they  are  then  passed  through  rollers, 
rand  brought  to  the  proper  thickness  to  be  used  as  inner  soles  of  boots 
/aud  shoes. 

\  DEER  SKINS.— TANNING  AND  BUFFING  FOR  GLOVES.— For  each 
skin,  take  a  bucket  of  water,  and  put  it  into  1  qt.  of  lime  ;  let  th^ 
skin  or  skins  lie  in  from  3  to  4  days  ;  then  rinse  in  clean  water  kair, 
and  grain  ;  then  soak  them  in  cold  water  to  get  out  the  glue  ;  now 
«cour  or  pound  hi  good  soap-suds  for  half  an  hour  ;  after  which  take 
white  vitriol,  alum,  and  salt,  1  tablespoonf  ul  of  each  to  a  skin  ;  these 
••will  be  dissolved  in  sufficient  water  to  cover  the  skin,  and  remain  in  it 
fox  24  hours  ;  wring  out  as  dry  aa  convenient,  and  spread  on  with  a 


244  LEATHER    WORKERS*,   &C'.,    RECEIPTS. 

brnsh  $  pint  of  curriers'  oil,  and  hang  in  the  sun  about  2  days  ;  after- 
which  you  will  scour  out  the  oil  with  soap-suds,  and  nang  out  again 
until  perfectly  dry  ;  then  pull  and  work  them  until  they  are  soft ; 
and  if  a  reasonable  time  does  not  make  them  soft,  scour  out  in  sud» 
again  as  before,  until  complete.  The  oil  may  be  saved  by  pouring  or 
diking  it  from  the  top  of  the  suds,  if  left  standing  a  short  time. 
The  buff  color  is  given  by  spreading  yellow  ochre  evenly  over  the. 
g-jrrface  of  the  skin  when  finished,  rubbing  it  well  with  a  brush. 

TANNING  WITH  ACID. — After  having  removed  the  hair,  scouring, 
soaking  and  pounding  in  the  suds,  &c.,  as  in  the  last  recipe,  in  place 
of  the  white  vitriol,  alum,  and  salt  as  there  mentioned,  take  oil  of 
Vitriol  (sulphuric  acid),  and  water,  equal  parts  of  each,  and  thoroughly 
wet  the  flesh-side  of  the  skin  with  it,  by  means  of  a  sponge  or  cloth, 
upon  a  stick  ;  then  folding  up  the  skin,  letting  it  stand  for  20  minutes 
only,  having  ready  a  solution  of  sal-soda  and  water,  say  1  Ib.  to  a 
bucket  of  water,  and  soak  the  skin  or  skins  in  that  for  two  hours, 
•when  you  will  wash  in  clean  water,  and  apply  a  little  dry  salt,  letting; 
lie  in  the  salt  over  night,  or  that  length  of  time  ;  then  remove  the* 
f.esh  with  a  blunt  knife,  or,  if  doing  business  on  a  large  scale,  by 
Tieans  of  the  regular  beam  and  flesh-knife  ;  when  dry,  or  nearly  so, 
soften  by  pulling  and  rubbing  with  the  handSj  and  also  with  a  piece, 
of  pumice-stone.  This  of  course  is  the  quickest  way  of  tanning, 
End  by  only  wetting  the  skins  with  the  acid,  and  soaking  ou*;  in  20> 
minutes,  they  are  not  rotted. 

ANOTHER  METHOD.— Oil  of  vitriol,  £  oz.  ;  salt,  1  teacup  ;  milk 
sufficient  to  handsomely  cover  the  skin,  not  exceeding  3  qts.  ;  warm 
the  milk,  then  add  the  salt  and  vitriol  ;  stir  tbfe  skin  in  the  liquid  4<* 
minutes,  keeping  it  warm  ;  then  dry,  and  work  it  as  directed  in. 
tlie  above. 

CANADIAN  PROCESS. — The  Canadians  make  four  liquors  in  using 
the  japonica.  The  FIRST  liquor  is  made  by  dissolving,  for  20  sides  of 
rpper,  15  Ibs.  of  terra  japouica  in  sufficient  water  to  cover  the  upper 
being  tanned.  The  SECOND  liquor  contains  the  same  amount  of  ja- 
ponica, and  8  Ibs.  of  saltpetre  also.  The  THIRD  contains  20  Ibs.  of  ja- 
ponica and  4£  Ibs.  of  alum.  The  FOURTH  liquor  contains  only  15  Ibs. 
of  japonica,  and  1 J  Ibs.  of  sulphuric  acid  ;  and  the  leather  remains  4 
days  in  each  liquor  for  upper  ;  and  for  sole  the  quantities  and  time 
are  both  doubled.  They  count  50  calf-skins  in  place  of  20  sides  of 
rnper,  but  let  them  lie  in  each  liquor  only  3  days. 

To  TAN  FUR  SKINS,  &c.— To  remove  the  legs  and  useless  parts, 
soak  the  skin  soft,  and  then  remove  the  fleshy  substances,  and  soak. 
it  in  warm  water  1  hour.  Now  take  for  each  skin,  borax,  8altpetre> 
and  Glauber-salt,  of  each  ^  oz.,  and  dissolve  or  wet  with  soft  water 
fr.fflcientto  allow  it  to  be  spread  on  the  flesh-side  of  the  skin.  Put 
it  on  with  a  brush  thickest  in  the  centre  or  thickest  part  of  the  skin, 
and  double  the  skin  together,  flesh  side  in  ;  keeping  it  in  a  cool  place 
lor  24  hours,  not  allowing  it  to  freeze.  Then  wash  the  skin  clean, 
and  take  sal-soda  1  oz. ;  borax  ^  oz,  ;  refined  soap  2  oz.  ;  melt  them 
giowly  together,  being  careful  not  to  allow  them  to  boil,  and  apply 
the  mixture  to  the  flesh  side  at  first.  Boil  up  again  and  keep  in  a 
vrarm  place  for  24  hours  ;  then  wash  the  skin  clean  again,  as  above, 
and  have  saleratus  2  oz.,  dissolved  in  hot  rain  water  sufficient  to  well 
flatmate  the  akin;  take  alum  4  oa. ;  saltSoz.;  s»nd  dissolve  ato  in  ho* 


WORKERS',  &c.,  RECEIPTS.          £41 

tikin  water  ;  when  sufficiently  cool  to  allow  the  handling  of  it  with- 
out scalding,  put  in  the  skin  lor  12  hours  ;  then  wring  out  the  watei 
and  hang  up  for  12  hours  more  to  dry.  Repeat  this  last  soaking  and 
drying  2  or  3  times,  according  to  the  desired  softness  of  the  skin  whez 
finished.  Lastly  finish,  by  pulling  and  working,  and  finally  by  rub- 
,  ibing  with  a  piece  of  pumice-stone  and  fine  sand-paper.  This  work* 
Hike  a  charm  on  sheep-skins,  fur  skins,  dog,  wolf,  bear-skins,  &c. 

PROCESS  OF  TANNING  CAL.F,  KIP,  AND  HARNESS  LEATHER  iy 
I-ROM  6  TO  30  DAYS.— For  a  12-lb  calf-skin,  take  3  Ibs.  of  terra  jn/ 
f)on;  ,?a,  common  salt,  2  Ibs. ;  alum,  1  Ib. ;  put  them  in  a  copper  kettle 
"with  sufficient  water  to  dissolve  the  whole  without  boiling.  The  skin 
will  be  limed,  haired,  and  treated  every  way  as  for  the  old  process, 
•when  it  will  be  put  into  a  vessel  with  water  to  cover  it,  at  which  time 


to  use  the  tanning  liquid  by  adding  half  the  quantity  each  time,  by 
keeping  these  proportions  for  any  amount.  If  you  desire  to  givo  a 
«lark  color  to  the  leather,  you  will  put  in  1  ft>.  of  Sicily  sumac  :  kip 
«kins  will  require  about  20  days,  light  horse  hides  for  harness  30  days, 
calf-skins  from  6  to  10  days  at  most. 

To  TAN  RAW  HIDE.— When  taken  from  the  animal,  spread  it  flesh 
«ideup;  then  put  2  parts  of  salt,  2  parts  of  saltpetre  and  alum  com- 
bined, make  it  fine,  sprinkle  it  evenly  over  the  surface,  roll  it  up,  let 
it  alone  a  few  days  till  dissolved;  then  take  off  what  flesh  remains, 
•and  nail  the  skin  to  the  side  of  a  barn  in  the  sun,  stretch  tight,  to 
make  it  soft  like  harness  leather,  put  neat's-foot  oil  on  it,  fasten  it  uj, 
in  the  sun  again;  then  rub  out  all  the  oil  you  can  with  a  wedge- 
shaped  stick,  and  it  is  tanned  with  the  hair  on. 

To  TAN  MUSKRAT  SKINS  WITH  THE  FUB  ON. — First,  for  soaking, 
«o  10  gals,  eold  soft  water,  add  8  parts  of  wheat  bran,  old  soap,  £  pt ; 
pulverized  borax,  1  oz. ;  sulphuric  acid,  2  ozs.  If  the  skins  have  not 
teen  salted,  add  salt,  1  pt  Green  skins  should  not  be  soaked  more 
than  8  to  10  hours.  Dry  ones  should  soak  till  very  soft  The  sul- 
phuric acid  hastens  the  soaking  process  For  tan  liquor,  to  10  gala, 
warm  soft  water,  add  bran,  ^  bushel :  »ti,  well,  and  let  it  ferment  in  a 
>varm  room.  Then  add  slowly,  Muph^'io  acid.  2|  Ibs. ;  stir  all  the 
time  Musk  rat  skins  should  remai"  in  about  4  hours ;  then  take  out 
and  i  nb  with  a  fleshing  knife;  an  oid  chopping  knife  with  the  edgft 
takejj.  off  will  do.  Then  work  it  over  a  beam  until  entirely  dry. 

To  DYE  FURS. — Any  dye  that  will  color  wool  will  also  color  fu/s. 
and  an  immense  number  of  such  dyes  can  be  found  under  the  dyers 
department.  In  buying  furs,  examine  the  density  and  length  ol  rua 
•down  next  the  skin,  this  can  easily  be  done  by  blowing  briskly  agahjst 
the  set  of  the  fur,  if  it  is  very  close  and  dense  it  is  all  right,  but  ii  it 
•opens  easily  and  exposes  much  of  the  skin,  reject  it. 
,  FRENCH  FINISH  FOR  LEATHER.— Take  a  common  wooden  pailful  ol 
•craps  (the  legs  and  pates  of  calf-skins  are  best),  and  put  a  handf  ai 
each  of  salt  and  alum  upon  them,  and  let  stand  three  days  ;  then  boil 
until  they  get  a  thick  paste  ;  in  using,  you  will  warm  it,  and  in  the 
first  application  put  a  little  tallow  with  it,  and  for  a  second  time  a 
little  soft  soap,  and  use  it  in  the  regular  way  of  finishing,  and  yoof 
'•father  will  bi  soft  and  pliable,  like  Freucli 


14%  LEATHER    WORKERS',   AC.,  RECEIPTS. 

FRENCH  PATENT  LEATHER.— Work  into  the  skin  with  appropriate 
tools  3  or  4  successive  coatings  of  drying  varnish,  made  by  boiling 
linseed  oil  with  white  lead  and  litharge,  in  the  proportion  of  one 
pound  of  each  of  the  latter  to  one  gallon  of  the  former,  and  adding  a 
portion  of  chalk  or  ochre,  each  coating  being  thoroughly  dried  before 
the  application  of  the  next  Ivory  black  is  then  substituted  for  ihe 
chalk  or  ochre,  the  varnish  thinned  with  spirits  of  turpentine,  and 
five  additional  applications  made  in  the  same  manner  as  before,  except 
that  it  is  put  on  thin  and  not  worked  in.  The  leather  is  rubbed  down 
with  pumice-stone,  hi  powder,  and  then  placed  in  a  room  at  90  degrees, 
out  of  the  way  of  dust  The  last  varnish  is  prepared  by  boiling  ^  Ib. 
asphaltum  with  10  Ibs.  of  the  drying  oil  used  in  the  first  stage  of"  the 
process,  and  then  stirring  in  5  Ibs.  copal  varnish  and  10  Ibs.  of  turpen- 
tine. It  must  have  1  month's  age  before  using  it. 

CHEAP  TANNING  WITHOUT  BARK  OR  MINERAL  ASTRINGENTS. — The 
astringent  liquor  is  composed  of  water,  17  gals. ;  Aleppo  galls.  £  Ib. ; 
Bengal  catechu,  1^  oz.  and  5  Ibs.  of  tormentil,  or  septfoil  root.  Powder 
the  ingredients,  and  boil  in  the  water  1  hour  ;  when  cool,  put  in  tb& 
skins  (which  must  be  prepared  by  being  plunged  into  a  preparation  of 
bran  and  water  for  2  days  previously) ;  handle  them  frequently  during 
the  first  3  days,  let  them  alone  the  next  3  days,  then  handle  three  or 
four  times  in  one  day  ;  let  them  lie  undisturbed  for  25  days  more, 
when  the  process  will  be  complete. 

NEW  TANNING  COMPOSITION. — For  harness  leather,  4  Ibs.  catechu* 
3  pts.  common  ley,  3  oz.  of  alum.  For  wax  leather  (split  leather),  3 
Ibs.  catechu,  3  pts.  common  ley,  3  oz.  alum.  For  calf-skins  2  Ibs. 
catechu,  1  pt.  ley.  For  sheep-skins,  1  Ib.  catechu,  1  pt.  ley,  1  oz.  alum. 
The  catechu  by  itself  will  make  the  leather  hard  and  brittle,  the  ley 
will  soften  it;  the  alum  being  only  used  for  coloring,  can  be  dispensed 
with,  or  other  matter  used  in  its  place.  The  mixture  is  in  every 
case  boiled,  and  ,the  leather  is  then  immersed  in  it  long  enough  to> 
be  thoroughly  tanned,  for  which  purpose  the  harness  leather  should 
be  steeped  from  18  to  20  days,  wax  leather  from  12  to  14  days,  calf* 
skins  from  7  to  9  days,  and  sheep-skins  from  2  to  4  days. 

FRENCH  POLISH  OR  DRESSING  FOR  LEATHER. — Mix  2  pts.  best 
vinegar,  with  1  pt.  soft  water;  stir  into  it  £  Ib.  glue,  broken  up,  £  Ib. 
logwood-chips,  i  ^z.  of  finely  powdered  indigo,  £  oz.  of  the  best  soft 
soap,  £  oz.  of  isinglass;  put  the  mixture  over  the  fire,  and  let  it  boil 
ten  minutes  or  more;  then  strain,  bottle,  and  cork.  When  cold,  it  ia 
<it  for  use.  Apply  with  a  sponge. 

TANNING. — The  first  operation  is  to  soak  the  hide,  as  no  hide  can 
be  properly  tanned  unless  it  has  been  soaked  and  broken  on  a  fleshing 
heain.  If  the  hide  has  not  been  salted  add  a  little  salt  and  soak  it  in 
soft  water.  In  order  to  be  thoroughly  soaked,  green  hides  should 
•emain  in  the  liquor  from  9  to  12  days;  of  course  the  time  varies  with 
Hie  thickness  of  the  hide.  The  following  liquor  is  used  to  remove 
hair,  or  wool,  viz. :  10  gals,  cold  water  (soft) ;  8  qts.  slacked  lime,  and 
tlie  same  quantity  of  wood  ashes.  Soak  until  the  hair  or  wool  will 
pull  off  easily.  As  it  frequently  happens  it  is  desirable  to  cure  the 
hide  and  keep  the  hair  clean,  the  following  paste  should  be  made, 
dz :  equal  parts  of  lime  and  hard  wood  ashes  (lime  should  be  slaked  j 
und  made  into  a  paste  with  soft  water.  This  should  be  spread  on  the 
<i«fft  §ide  of  the  nid^  ar^l  the  ^kin  rolled  up  fle^h.  §idt  in  fpv4 


LEATHER    WORKERS*,    &C.,    RECEIPTS.  24fc 

fn  a  tub  just  covering  it  with  water.  It  should  remain  10  days  o* 
until  the  hair  will  pull  out  easily,  then  scrape  with  a  knife.  Tha 
skins  of  animals  are  composed  mainly  of  glue  or  gluten.  This  is  soluble^ 
and  the  principle  derived  from  the  bark,  tannin  or  tannic  acid  is  also 
to  a  considerable  extent  soluble ;  when  the  latter  is  allowed  to  act 
upon  the  former,  chemical  combination  takes  place,  and  leather  isjDro- 
duced,  which  is  insoluble. 

CURRIERS'  SIZE. — Take  of  sizing,  lot..;  sou  soap,  1  gill;  stuffing, 
1  gill ;  sweet  milk,  ^  pt. ;  boil  the  sizing  in  water  to  a  proper  consistence, 
strain,  and  add  the  other  ingredients;  and  when  thoroughly  mixed,  it 
.is  ready  for  use. 

CURRIERS'  PASTE. — First  Coat. — Take  of  water,  2  qts. ;  flour,  A 
pint;  Castile  soap,  1  oz. ;  make  into  paste.  Second  Coat. — Take  of 
first  paste,  i  pt. ;  gum  tragacauth,  1  gill;  water,  1  pt, ;  mix  all  together. 
This  will  finish  18  sides  of  upper. 

CURRIERS'  SKIRTING. — This  is  for  finishing  skirting  and  the  flesh 
of  harness  leather,  in  imitation  of  oak  tanning.  Take  of  chrome 
yellow,  ^  Ib.  ;  yellow  ochre,  1  Ib.  ;  cream  of  tartar,  1  pz.  ;  soda,  £ 
oz.  ;  paste  5  qts.  ;  mix  well.  This  will  finish  twelve  sides.. 

SKIRTING.— For  the  grain  to  imitate  oak  tan.  Take  of  chrome 
yellow,  £  Ib.  ;  yellow  ochre,  \  Ib.  ;  cream  of  tartar  1  oz.  ;  soda,  1 
oz.  ;  paste  2  qts.  ;  spirits  of  turpentine,  1  pt.  ;  mix  well.  This 
will  finish  twelve  sides. 

DYES  FOR  MOROCCO  AND  SHEEP  LEATHER.—  (Blue. )— Blue  is 
given  by  steeping  the  subject  a  day  in  urine  and  indigo,  then  boiling  it 
with  alum  ;  or,  it  may  be  given  by  tempering  the  indigo,  with  red 
wine,  and  wash  ing  the  skin  there  with. — Another* — Boil  elderberries  or 
dwarf -elder,  then  smear  and  wash  the  skins  therewith  and  wring  them 
out ;  then  boil  the  elderberries  as  before  in  a  solution  of  alum  water,, 
and  wet  the  skins  in  the  game  manner  once  or  twice,  diry  them,  and 
they  will  be  very  blue. — (Red.) — Red  is  given  by  washing  tile  akim  and 
iaying  them  2  hours  in  gall,  then  wringing  them  out,  dipping  them, 
in  a  liquor  made  with  ligustrum,  alum,  and  verdigris,  in  water,  and 
lastly  in  the  dye  made  of  Brazilwood  boiled  with  ley.  (Purple. ) — Pur- 
ple is  given  by  wetting  the  skins  with  a  solution*  of  roche  alnm  in 
warm  water,  and  when  dry,  again  rubbing  them  with  the  hand  with  a 
decoction  of  logwood  in  cold  water.  (Green.)— Green  is  given  try 
smearing  the  skin  with  sap-green  and  alum  boiled.  (Dark  Green.)— 
Dark  green  is  given  with  steel-filings  and  sal-ammoniac,  steeped  in 
wrhie  till  soft,  then  smeared  over  the  skin,  which  is  to  be  dried  in  the 
shade.  ( Yellow. ) — Yellow  is  given  by  smearing  the  skin  over  with  aloe* 
and  linseed-oil  dissolved  and  strained,  or  t>y  infusing  in  weld.  (Light 
Orange. ) — Orange  color  is  given  by  smearing  it  with  fustic  "berries 
boiled  in  alum  water,  or  for  deep  orange,  with  turmeric.  (Sky-color.  > 
Sky-color  is  given  with  indigo  steeped  in  boil  ing  water,  and  the>  next 
morning  warmed  and  smeared  over  the  skin.  See  Dyers'  Department, 

To  MARBLE  BOOKS  OR  PAPER. — Provide  a  wooden  trough  2  laches 
deep  and  the  length  and  width  of  any  desired?  aheetr;  boil  in  a  brass 
or  copper  pan  any  quantity  of  linseed  and  water  until  a  thick  mucil- 
age is  formed  ;  strain  it  into  the  trough,  and  let  cool ;  then  grind  on  a 
marble  slab  any  of  the  following  colors  in  small  beer.  For  Blue. — 
Prussian  blue  or  indigo.  Red. — Rose-pink,  vermilionv  or  drop  lake. 
;— King's  yellow,  yellow  ochre,  &c.  WWe.r- Flake  white* 


248  LEATHER    WORKERS*,    &C.,    RECEIPTS. 

Slack. — burnt  ivory  or  lamb  black.  Brown. — Umber,  burnt  do.; 
terra  di  sienna,  burnt  do.  Black,  mixed  with  yellow  or  red,  also 
makes  brown.  Green. — Blue  and  yellow  mixed.  Orange. — Red  and 
yelloT  mixed.  Purple. — Red  and  blue  mixed.  For  each  color  you 
must  have  two  cups,  one  for  the  color  after  grinding,  the  other  to  mix 
it  vfith  ox-gall,  which  must  be  used  to  thin  the  colors  at  discretion. 
If  too  much  gall  is  used,  the  colors  will  spread  ;  when  they  keep  their 
place  on  the  surface  of  the  trough,  when  moved  with  a  quill,  they  are 
m  for  use.  All  things  in  readiness,  the  colors  are  successively 
sprinkled  on  the  surface  of  the  mucilage  in  the  trough  with  a  brush, 
and  are  waved  or  drawn  about  with  a  quill  or  a  stick,  according  to 
taste.  When  the  design  is  j ust  formed,  the  book,  tied-tightly  between 
cutting  boards  of  the  same  size  is  lightly  pressed  with  its  edge  on  th» 
eurface  of  the  liquid  pattern,  and  then  withdrawn  and  dried.  The 
covers  may  be  marbled  in  the  same  way  only  letting  the  liquid  colors 
Tun  over  them.  In  marbling  paper  the  sides  of  the  paper  is  gently 
applied  to  the  colors  in  the  trough.  The  flim  of  color  in  the  trough- 
may  be  as  thin  as  possible,  and  if  any  remains  after  the  marbling  it 
may  be  taken  off  by  applying  paper  to  it  before  you  prepare  for 
marbling  again.  To  diversify  the  effects,  colors  are  often  mixed  with 
A  little  sweet  oil  before  sprinkling  them  on,  by  which  means  a  light 
halo  or  circle  appears  around  each  spot. 

BOOKBINDERS*  VARXISH.  —  Shellac,  8  parts  ;  gum  benzoin,  3 
parts  ;  gum  mastic,  2  parts  ;  bruise,  and  digest  in  alcohol,  48  parts  ; 
oil  of  lavender,  ^  part.  Or,  digest  shellac,  4  parts  ;  gum  mastic, 
2  parts;  gum  dammer  and  white  turpentine,  of  each,  1  part;  with 
alcohol (95  per  cent.),  28  parts. 

Bi:i>  SPRINKLE  FOR  BOOKBINDERS'  USE.— Brazilwood  (ground),  4 
parts;  alum,  1  part;  vinegar,  4  parts;  water,  4  parts.  Boil  until 
reduced  to  7  parts,  then  add  a  quantity  of  loaf  sugar  and  gum ;  bot- 
tle for  use.  Blue.— Strong  sulphuric  acid,  8  oz.;  Spanish  indigo, 
powdered,  2  oz. ;  mix  in  a  bottle  that  will  hold  a  quart,  and  place  it  in 
a  warm  bath  to  promote  solution  For  use,  dilute  a  little  to  the 
required  color  in  a  tea-cup.  Black. — No  better  black  can  be  procured 
than  that  made  by  the  receipt  for  edge  blacking,  in  this  work,  which 
see.  Orange  color. — Ground  Brazilwood,  16  parts ;  aimatto,  4  parts, 
alum,  sugar,  and  gum  arable,  each  1  part;  water,  70  parts,  boil,  strain, 
a,nd  bottle.  Purple. — Logwood  chips ;  4  parts,  powdered  alum,  1  part; 
soft  water,  24  parts;  boil  until  reduced  to  16  parts,  and  bottle  for  use. 
Grecx  —French  berries,  1  part;  soft  water,  8  parts.  Boil,  and  add  a 
little  powdered  alum,  then  bring  it  to  the  required  shade  of  green,  by 
•adding  liquid  blue.  Brown.— Logwood  chips,  1  part;  annatto,  1  part 
I)oH.  ia  water,  6  parts;  if  too  light  add  a  piece  of  copperas  the  size 
of  a  pea. 

1  TREE-MARBLE. — A  marine  in  the  form  of  trees  may  be  done  by 
"bending  the  boards  a  little  on  the  centre,  using  the  same  method  as 
the  common  marble,  having  the  covers  previously  prepared.  The  end 
«ef  a  candle  may  be  rubbed  on  different  parts  of  the  board  to  form 
knots.  Bice-Marble. — Color  the  cover  with  spirits  of  wine  and  tur- 
meric, then  place  on  rice  in  a  regular  manner,  throw  on  a  very  fine 
cprinkle  of  copperas  water  tfll  the  cover  is  nearly  black,  and  let  it  re- 
znain  till  dry.  The  cover  may  be  spotted  with  the  red  Jiquid  or 
^otaeh-water,  very  freely,  before  the  rice  ia  thrown  off  the  boards. 


LEATHER   WORKERS',   &C.,   RECEIPTS?  249 

Spotted  Marble  for  Books,  eic.~After  the  fore-edge  of  the  book  is  cut,' 
let  it  remain  in  the  press,  and  throw  on  linseeds  in  a  regular  manner, 
sprinkle  the  edge  with  any  dark  color  till  the  paper  is  covered,  then 
ghake  off  the  seeds.  Various  colors  may  be  used ;  the  edge  may  bo 
colored  with  yellow  or  red  before  throwing  on  the  seeds,  and  sprink- 
ling with  blue.  The  seeda  will  make  a  fine  fancy  edge  when  placed 
very  thick  on  different  parts,  with  a  few  slightly  thrown  on  tho  spaces 
"between.  Japan  Coloring  for  Leather  Book-covers,  etc.  —  After  tho 
Tx>ok  is  covered  and  dry,  color  the  cover  with  potash-water  mixed 
with  a  little  paste:  give  2  good  coats  of  Brazil  wash,  and  glaze  it;  put 
the  book  between  the  hands,  allowing  the  boards  to  slope  a  little; 
dash  on  copperas-water,  then  with  a  sponge  full  of  red  liquid  press 
out  on  the  back  and  on  different  parts  large  drops,  which  will  run 
down  each  board  and  make  a  fine  shaded  red;  when  the  cover  is  dry, 
^wash  it  over  2  or  3  times  with  Brazil  wash  to  give  it  a  brighter 
color.  ( See  the  various  dyes  for  leather. ) 

GOLD  SPRINKLE  FOB  BOOKS.— Put  in  a  marble  mortar  £  oz.  pure 
touey  and  one  book  of  gold  leaf,  rub  them  well  together  until  they 
are  very  fine,  add  £  pint  clear  water,  and  mix  well  together;  when  the 
•water  clears,  pour  it  off,  and  put  in  more  till  the  honey  is  all  extracted, 
and  nothing  remains  but  the  gold ;  mix  one  grain  of  corrosive  sub- 
limate in  a  teaspoonfui  of  spirits  of  wine,  and  when  dissolved,  put  the 
same,  together  with  a  little  gum  water,  to  the  gold,  and  bottle  for  use. 
The  edges  of  the  book  may  be  sprinkled  or  colored  very  dark,  with 
green,  blue,  or  purple,  and  lastly  with  the  gold  liquid  in  small  or 
large  spots,  very  regular,  shaking  the  bottle  before  using.  Burnish 
the  edges  when  dry,  and  cover  them  with  paper  to  prevent  tho  dust 
ialling  thereon.  This  sprinkle  will  have  a  most  beautiful  appearance 
on  extra  work. 

To  GILD  THE  EDGES  OF  BOOKS.— Armenian  bole,  4  parts;  sugar  can- 
dy, 1  part;  white  of  egg  to  mix.  Apply  this  composition  to  the  edge 
of  the  leaves,  previously  firmly  screwed  in  the  cutting-press ;  when 
nearly  dry,  smooth  the  surface  with  the  burnisher;  then  take  a 
damp  sponge  and  pass  over  it,  and  with  a  piece  of  cotton  wool,  take 
the  leaf  from  the  cushion  and  apply  it  to  the  work ;  when  quite  dry, 
"burnish,  observing  to  place  a  piece  of  silver  or  India  paper  between 
the  gold  and  the  agate. 

CHINESE  EDGE  FOB  BOOKS. — Color  the  edge  with  light  liquid  blue 
and  dry;  then  take  a  sponge  charged  with  vermilion  and  dab  on  spots 
according  to  fancy;  next  throw  on  rice,  and  finish  the  edge  with  dark 
liquid  blue. 

To  MAKE  PAPEB  INTO  PARCHMENT. — To  produce  this  transforma- 
tion, take  unsized  paper  and  plunge  it  into  a  solution  of  two  parts  of 
•concentrated  sulphuric  acid  combined  with  1  part  water;  withdraw 
it  immediately,  aud  wash  it  in  clean  water,  and  the  change  is  com- 
plete. It  is  now  fit  for  writing ;  for  the  acid  supplies  the  want  of  size, 
and  it  becomes  so  strong  that  a  strip  2  or  3  inches  wide  will  bear 
from  60  to  80  Ibs.  weight,  while  a  like  strap  of  parchment  will  bear 
only  about  25  Ibs. 

To  MANUFACTURE  GLUE. — This  article  is  usually  made  from  the 
parings  and  waste  pieces  of  hides  and  skins,  the  refuse  of  tanneries, 
the  tendons  and  other  offal  of  slaughter  houses.  They  ought  to  be 
obtained  and  kept  iu  the  dry  state,  to  prevent  decomposition.  For 


250  LEATHER    WORKERS*,    AC.,   RECEIPTS. 

nse,  they  are  first  steeped  for  14  or  15  days  in  milk  of  lime,  and  the* 
drained  and  dried  ;  this  constitutes  the  cleaning  or  the  preparation* 
Before  conversion  into  glue  they  are  usually  steeped  in  weak  milk  of 
lime,  well  worked  in  water,  and  exposed  to  the  air  for  24  hours. 
They  are  then  placed  in  a  copper  boiler  §  filled  with  water  and  fur* 
nished  with  a  perforated  false  bottom,  to  prevent  them  from  burning, 
and  as  much  is  piled  on  as  will  fill  the  vessel  and  rest  on  the  top  or 
it.  Heat  is  next  applied,  and  gentle  boiling  continued  until  th» 
liquor  on  cooling  becomes  a  gelatinous  mass.  The  clear  portion  is 
then  run  off  into  another  vessel,  where  it  is  kept  hot  by  a  water  bathj 
and  all  around  to  repose  for  some  hours  to  deposit,  when  it  is  run  intc 
the  congealing  boxes  and  placed  in  a  cool  situation.  The  next  morn- 
ing  the  cold  gelatinous  mass  is  turned  out  upon  boards  wetted  with 
water,  and  are  cut  horizontally  in  thin  cakes  with  a  stretched  piece  of 
brass  wire,  and  into  smaller  cakes  with  a  moistened  fiat  knife.  Thes<» 
cakes  are  placed  upon  nettings  to  dry,  after  which  they  are  dipped 
one  by  one  in  hot  water  and  slightly  rubbed  with  a  brush  wetted 
with  boiling  water,  to  give  them  a  gloss  ;  they  are  lastly  stove  dried 
lor  sale.  During  this  time  the  undissolved  skins,  &c.,  left  in  the  cop- 
per is  treated  with  water  and  the  whole  operation  is  repeated  agaio 
and  again,  as  any  gelatinous  matter  is  extracted.  The  first  runnings 
produce  the  finest  and  best  glue.  The  refuse  matter  from  the  tan- 
ners and  leather  dressers  yields  on  the  average,  when  dried,  60  per 
cent  of  its  weight  hi  glue. 

To  DYE  LEATHER  YELLOW.— Picric  acid  gives  a  good  yellow 
•without  any  mordant ;  it  must  be  used  in  very  dilute  solution,  and 
mot  warmer  than  70°  Fahr.,  so  as  not  to  penetrate  the  leathe 

GREEN  DYE  FOR  LEATHER.— Aniline  blue  modifies  picric  acid  to 
a  fine  green.  In  dyeing  the  leather,  the  temperature  of  85°  Fan*., 
must  never  be  exceeded.  See  Aniline  Dyes  in  Dyers'  Dep't. 

DYES  FOR  IVORY,  HORN,  AND  BONE. — Black. — 1.  Lay  the  articles 
for  several  hours  in  a  strong  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver,  and  expose 
to  the  light  2.  Boil  the  article  for  some  time  hi  a  strained  decoctioa 
c»f  logwood,  and  then  steep  in  a  solution  of  per-sulphate  or  acetate  of 
tron.  3.  Immerse  frequently  in  ink  until  of  sufficient  depth  of  color. 
Blue. — 1.  Immerse  for  some  dilute  solution  of  sulphate  of  indigo,  partly 
saturated  with  potash,  and  it  will  be  fully  stained.  2.  Steep  in  a 
strong  solution  of  sulphate  of  copper.  Green. — 1.  Dip  blue-stained 
articles  for  a  short  time  in  a  nitro-hydrochlorate  of  tin,  and  then  in  a 
hot  decoction  of  fustic.  2.  Boil  in  a  solution  of  verdigris  hi  vinegar 
until  the  desired  color  is  obtained.  Red.— 1.  Dip  the  article  first  in  a  tia 
mordant  used  in  dyeing,  and  then  plunge  in  a  hot  decoction  of  Brazil^ 
wood— \  Ib.  to  a  gallon  of  water  or— cochineal  2.  Steep  in  red  ink', 
till  sufficiently  stained.  Scarlet.— Use  lack  dye  instead  of  the  pre- 
ceding. Violet. — Dip  in  the  tin  mordant,  and  then  immerse  in  a  decoc- 
tion of  logwood.  Yellow. — Boil  the  articles  in  a  solution  of  alum,  1  Ib. 
to  i  a  gallon,  then  immerse  for  half  an  hour  in  the  following  mixure: 
Take  £  Ib.  of  turmeric,  and£  Ib.  pearlash;  boil  in  1  gal.  water:  when 
taken  from,  this,  the  bone  must  be  again  dipped  in  the  alum  solution. 

MOTHER  OF  PEARL  WORK.— This  delicate  substance  requires  great 
care  in  its  workmanship,  but  it  may  be  cut  with  the  aid  of  saws,  files 
and  drills,  with  the  aid  of  muriatic  or  sulphuric  acid,  and  It  is  polished 
by  colcothar,  or  the  brown  red  oxide  of  icon  left  after  the  distillation 


LEATHER  WORKERS',  &c.,  RECEIPTS.          251 

of  the  acid  from  sulphate  of  iron.  In  all  ornamental  work,  where 
pearl  is  said  to  be  used,  for  flat  surfaces,  such  as  inlaying,  mosaic 
work,  &c.,  it  is  not  real  pearl,  but  mother  of  pearl  that  is  used. 

To  POLISH  PEARL. — Take  finely  pulverized  rotten  stone  and  make 
into  a  thick  paste  by  adding  olive  oil ;  then  add  sulphuric  acid  a 
sufficient  quantity  to  make  into  a  thin  paste,  apply  on  a  velvet  cork  ; 
'rub  quickly  and,  as  soon  as  the  pearl  takes  the  polish,  wash  it. 

To  POLISH  IVORY. — Remove  any  scratches  or  file  marks  that  may 
be  present  with  finely  pulverized  pumice-stone,  moistened  witn. 


muriatic  acid,  equal  parts  :  mix.  For  etching  varnish  take  white  wax, 
2  parts  ;  tears  of  mastic,  2  parts  :  mix. 

To  GILD  IVORY. — Immerse  it  in  a  solution  of  nitro-muriate  of  gold, 
*md  then  expose  it  to  hydrogen  gas  while  damp.  Wash  it  afterwarda 
in  clean  water. 

To  SILVER  IVORY.— Pound  a  small  piece  of  nitrate  of  silver  in  a 
mortart  add  soft  water  to  it,  mix  them  well  together,  and  keep  in  vial  s 
lor  use.  When  you  wish  to  silver  any  article,  immerse  it  in  this 
solution,  let  it  remain  till  it  turns  of  a  deep  yellow  ;  then  place  it  in 
clear  water,  and  expose  it  to  the  raya  of  the  sun.  If  you  wish  to 
depicture  a  figure,  name,  or  cipher,  on  your  ivory,  dip  a  camel' s-hair 
pencil  in  the  solution,  and  draw  the  subject  on  the  ivory.  After  it  has 
turned  a  deep  yellow,  wash  it  well  with  water,  and  place  it  in  the 
sunshine,  occasionally  wetting  it  with  pure  water.  In  a  short  time  it 
will  turn  of  a  deep  black  color,  which,  if  well  rubbed,  will  change  to 
B  brilliant  silver. 

To  SOFTEN  IVORY. — In  3  oz.  spirits  of  nitre  and  15  oz.  of  spring- 
•water,  mixed  together,  put  your  ivory  to  soak  ;  and  in  three  or  four 
days  it  will  obey  your  fingers. 

To  WHITEN  Ivory. — Slake  some  lime  in  water  ;  put  your  ivory  in 
the  water,  after  being  decanted  from  the  grounds,  and  boil  it  till  it 
looks  quite  white.  To  polish  it  afterwards,  set  it  in  the  turner's  wheel ; 
and,  after  having  worked,  take  rushes  and  pumice-stones,  subtile 
powder,  with  water,  rub  it  till  it  looks  perfectly  smooth.  Next  to 
that,  heat  it  by  turning  it  against  a  piece  of  linen  or  sheep-skin  leather  ; 
and  when  hot,  rub  it  over  with  a  little  dry  whiting  diluted  in  oil  of 
olive  ;  then  with  a  little  dry  whiting  alone  :  finally  with  a  piece  of 
soft  white  rag.  When  all  this  is  performed  as  directed,  the  ivory  will 
look  very  white. 

ANOTHER  WAY  TO  BLEACH  IVORY.— Take  2  handfuls  of  lime,  slak* 
it  by  sprinkling  it  with  water  :  then  add  3  pts.  of  water,  and  stir  tha 
-whole  together  ;  let  it  settle  ten  minutes,  and  pour  the  water  into  a 
pan  for  your  purpose.  Then  take  your  ivory  and  steep  it  in  the  lime- 
water  for  24hourSj  after  which,  boil  it  in  a  strong  alum- water  1  hour, 
and  dry  it  in  the  air. 

HORN  IN  IMITATION  OF  TORTOISE-SHELL.— First  steam  and  then 
press  the  horn  into  proper  shapes,  and  afterwards  lay  the  following  | 
mixture  on  with  a  small  brush,  hi  imitation  of  the  mottle  of  tortoise- 
shell  ;  Take  equal  parts  of  quick  lime  and  litharge,  and  mix  with 
strong  soap-lees  ;  let  this  remain  until  it  is  thoroughly  dry  ;  brush  off, 
and  repeat  two  or  three  timed  it  necessary,  Such  parts  as  are  required 


252  LEATHER    WORKERS',    AC.,    RECEIPTS. 

to  bo  of  a  reddish  brown  should  be  covered  with  a  mixture  of  whiting 
And  the  stain. 

To  CUT  AND  POLISH  MARBLE. — The  marble  saw  is  a  thin  plate  ol 
soft  iron,  continually  supplied,  during  its  sawing  motion,  with  water 
and  the  sharpest  sand.  The  sawing  of  moderate  pieces  is  performed 
by  hand  :  that  of  large  slabs  is  most  economically  done  by  a  proper 
frnill.  The  first  substance  used  in  the  polishing  process  is  the  sharpest 
sand,  which  must  be  worked  with  till  the  surface  becomes  perfectly 
flat.  Then  a  second  and  even  a  third  sand,  of  increasing  fineness,  is 
to  be  applied.  The  next  substance  is  emery,  of  progressive  degrees 
of  fineness  ;  aftev  which,  tripoli  is  employed  ;  and  the  last  polish  is 
given  with  tin  putty.  The  body  with  which  the  sand  is  rubbed  upon 
the  marble  is  usually  a  plate  of  iron  ;  but,  for  the  subsequent  process, 
a  plate  of  lead  is  used,  with  fine  sand  and  emery.  The  polishmg- 
rubbers  are  coarse  linen  cloths,  or  bagging,  wedged  tight  into  an  iron 
planing  tool.  In  every  step  of  the  operation,  a  constant  trickling 
supply  of  water  is  required. 

POWERFUL  CEMENT  FOR  BROKEN  MARBLE. — Take  gum  arabic,  1 
Ib. ;  make  into  a  thick  mucilage:  add  to  it  powdered  plaster  qf  Paris, 
li  Ib.  ;  sifted  quick  lime,  5  oz.  ;  mix  well  ;  heat  the  marble,  and  ap- 
ply the  mixture. 

SEVEN  COLORS  FOR  STAINING  MARBLE.— It  is  necessary  to  heat 
the  marble  hot,  but  not  so  hot  as  to  injure  it,  the  proper  heat  being  that 
at  which  the  colors  nearly  boil.  Blue ;  alkaline  indigo  dye,  or  turn- 
sole with  alkali.  Red ;  Dragon's  blood  in  spirits  of  wine.  Yellow ; 
gamboge  in  spirits  of  wine.  Gold  Color ;  sal-ammoniac,  sulphate  of 
zinc,  and  verdigris  equal  parts.  Green ;  sap  green  in  spirits  of  pot- 
ash. Brown;  tincture  oi  logwood.  Crimson;  alkanet  root  in  tur- 
pentine. Marble  may  be  veined  according  to  taste.  To  stain  marble 
well  is  a  difficult  operation. 

PERPETUAL  INK  FOR  TOMSTONES,  ETC.— Pitch,  11  Ibs.  ;  lampblack, 
1  Ib.  ;  turpentine  sufficient ;  mix  with  heat 

To  CLEAN  OLD  MARBLE.— Take  a  bullock's  gall,  1  gill  soap  lees, 
half  a  gill  of  turpentine  ;  make  into  a  paste  with  pipeclay,  apply  it  to 
the  marble  ;  let  it  dry  a  day  or  two,  and  then  rub  it  off,  and  it  will 
appear  equal  to  new  ;  if  very  dirty,  repeat  the  application. 

To  EXTRACT  OIL  FROM  MARBLE  OR  STONE.— Soft  soap,  1  part ; 
fullers  earth,  2  parts  ;  potash,  1  part ;  boiling  water  to  mix.  Lay  it 
on  the  spots  of  grease,  and  let  it  remain  for  a  few  hours. 

To  GILD  LETTERS  ON  MARBLE. — Apply  first  a  coating  of  eize  and 
then  several  successive  coats  of  size  thickened  with  finely  powdered 
whiting  until  a  good  face  is  produced.  Let  each  coat  become  dry  and 
xub  it  down  with  fine  glass  paper  before  applying  the  next.  Then  go 
over  it  thinly  and  evenly  with  gold  size  and  apply  the  gold  leaf,  burn- 
ishing with  an  agate  ;  several  coats  of  leaf  will  be  required  to  give  a 
good  effect 

To  CLEAN  MARBLE. — Take  two  parts  of  common  soda,  1  part  pum- 
ice-stone, and  1  part  of  finely  powdered  chalk  ;  sift  it  through  a 
fije  sieve,  and  mix  it  with  water  ;  then  rub  it  well  all  over  the  mar- 
ble, and  the  stains  will  be  removed  ;  then  wash  the  marble  over  with 
soap  and  water,  and  it  will  be  as  clean  as  it  was  at  first. 

To  MAKE  A  CHEMICAL  BAROMETER.— Take  a  long  narrow  bottle, 
and  put  into  it  2J  drs.  of  camphor  ;  spirits  of  wine  11  dra. 


CABINETMAKERS,    PAINTERS*,    AC.,   BECEIPTS.     254 

eamphor  is  dissolved,  add  to  it  the  following  mixture  :  water  9  drs. , 
saltpetre,  38  grs.  ;  sal-ammoniac,  38  grs.  Dissolve  these  salts  in  th« 
water  prior  to  mixing  with  the  camphorated  spirit  ;  then  shake  all 
well  together,  cork  the  bottle  well,  wax  the  top,  but  afterwards  make 
a  very  small  aperture  hi  the  cork  with  a  red-hot  needle.  By  observ~ 
ing  the  different  appearances  which  the  materials  assume  as  the 
weather  changes,  it  becomes  an  excellent  prognosticate  of  a  com- 
ing storm  01  of  a  sunny  sky. 

TRAPPERS'  AST>  ANGLERS'  SECRET  FOR  GAME  AND  FisH.^.A  few 
drops  of  oil  of  anise,  or  oil  rhodium,  on  any  trapper's  bait,  will  en« 
tice  any  wild  animal  into  ?&.(*,  snare  trap.  India  cockle  mixed  with 
flour  dough,  and  sprinkled  on  the  surface  of  still  water,  will  intox- 
icate fish,  rendering  them  Jr^ensible  ;  when  coming  up  to  the  surface 
they  can  be  lifted  in  a  tuV  ^  iresh  water  to  revive  them,  when  they 
may  be  used  without  fear.  Fish  may  also  be  caught  in  large  numbers 
during  the  winter  season  by  watching  them  through  the  ice  and  striking 
it  with  a  mallet  directly  -Jver  where  they  happen  to  be.  Tk*  shock 
stuns  them,  and  they  will  rise,  belly  upwards  towards  the  wurface, 
•when  they  are  easily  secured  by  breaking  a  hole  in  the  ice. 


PAINTERS,  CABINETMAKERS,  GILDKRS, 
•    BRONZERS,  GLASS  STAINERS,  &c. 

COMPOHKD  COLORS— 62  TENTS— Slue.— Grind  Prussian  blue  In 
turps,  other  blue,  very  fine  in  Unseed  oil;  mix  with  white  paint  to  the' 
color  required.  Straic.— A  mixture  of  chrome  yellow  and  white  lead, 
oil  and  turps.  Steel. — Mix  ceruse,  Prussian  blue,  fine  lac,  and 
vermilion,  with  oil  and  turps.  Purple. — White  lead,  Prussian  blu« 
and  vermilion,  with  oil  and  turps.  French  Gray. — White  lead  and 
Prussian  blue  tinged  with  vermilion,  and  for  the  last  coat  substitute- 
carmine  or  lake  for  vermilion.  Drab.-— White  lead  with  a  little? 
Prussian  blue  and  French  yeft»w,  Unseed  oil  and  turps.  Another 
Drab.— White  lead  with  a  little  Prussian  blue  and  lampblack,  linseed 
*il  and  turps.  Dark  Red,  for  common  purposes. — Mix  English  Venetian, 
jpd,  in  boiled  oil,  with  a  little  red  lead  and  litharge,  to  give  a  drying; 
Jpality.  Lighter  Red. — Mix  together  equal  parts  of  Venetian  red  and 
&d  lead  in  boiled  oil  and  turps.  Imitation  of  Vermilion. — Grind  togeth- 
er, hi  oil,  red  lead  and  rose  pink.  Deep  Red. — Mix  in  oil,  vermiUon  with 
a  dust  of  Venetian  red,  or  red  lead.  Unfading  Orange — This  is  a  mix- 
tmre  of  orange  lead  (orpiment)  and  French  or  stone  yellow,  oil  and 
^urps.  Bright  Yellow,  for  floors. — White  lead  and  linseed  oil,  mixed 
with  some  French  yellow,  and  a  little  chrome  yellow  to  heighten  it, 
,some  red  lead,  burnt  white  vitriol  and  litharge,  added  to  give  it  a  dry- 
ing quality.  This  color  mixed  with  equal  parts  of  boiled  oil  and 
turpentine,  and  used  very  thin.  Dark  Yel low.— Mix  French  yellow  u> 
boiled  oil,  adding  to  it  a  lit 


;  a  little  red  lead  or  litharge  to  give  the  paint  a 
,t  Yellow. — This  is  a  mixture  of  F-ench  yellow 
and  white  lead,  with  oil  and  turpentine.    Another    French  yelior 


354     CABINETMAKERS,   PAINTERS',   AC.,    RECEIPTS." 

jrhite  lead  and  red  lead.  Another.— This  is  a  mixture  of  Prussian  tf>BL 
.French  yellow,  a  email  portion  of  Turkey  umber,  and  a  litttle  burnt 
vitriol  Ground  the  same  way.  Another,  in  oil.— Mix  Prussian  blue 
and  chrome  yellow.  Ground  the  same.  Another  Shade. — A  mixture 
of  Prussian  blue  and  French  yellow,  with  a  small  quantity  of  white 
lead  and  Turkey  umber;  ada  burnt  vitriol,  ground  the  same.  An- 
other, light. — White  mixed  with  verdigris.  A  variety  of  shades  may 
be  obtained  by  using  blue  and  yellow  with  white  lead.  Another. 
Olive. — Black  and  blue  mixed  with  yellow,  in  such  quantities  as  to 
cbtain  the  colors  or  shades  required.  For  distemper,  use  indigo  and 
yellow  pink  mixed  with  whiting  or  white  lead  powder.  Freestone 
color. — A  mixture  of  rod  lead,  Venetian  red,  French  yellow  and  lamp- 
black, (varying  the  shade  according  to  taste,)  with  linseed  oil  and 
turpentine.  Olive  Green.— Grind  separately,  Prussian  blue  and 
French  yellow,  in  boiled  oil,  then  mix  to  the  tints  required  with  a  little 
burnt  white  vitriol  to  act  as  a  dryer.  A  cheap  and  handsome  color  for 
outside  work,  such  as  doors,  carts,  wagons,  railings,  &c.  Light 
Gray  is  made  by  mixing  white  lead  with  lampblack,  using  more  or 
less  of  each  material,  as  you  wish  to  obtain  a  lighter  or  a  darker  shade. 
Buff  is  made  from  yellow  ochre  and  white  lead.  Silver  or  Pearl 
•Gray.— Mix  white  lead,  Prussian  blue,  and  a  very  slight 'portion  of 
fclack,  regulating  the  quantities  you  wish  to  obtain.  Flaxen  Gray  ia 
•btained  by  a  mixture  of  white  lead  and  Prussian  blue,  with  a  small 
quantity  of  lake.  Krick  Color.— Yellow  ochre  and  red  lead,  with  a 
fittle  white.  Oak  Wood  Color.— %  white  lead  and  £  part  umber  and 
yellow  oclire,  proportions  of  the  last  two  ingredients  being  determined 
fcy  tbe  desired  tints.  Walnut-tree  Color. --%  white  lead,  and  £  red 
ochre,  yellow  ochre,  and  umber,  mixed  according  to  the  shade  sought 
If  veining  is  required,  use  different  shades  of  the  same  mixture,  and 
for  the  deepest  places,  black.  Jonquil. — Yellow,  pink,  and  white 
lead.  This  color  is  only  proper  for  distemper.  Lemon  Yellmc.— 
Bealgar  and  orpiment  The  same  color  can  be  obtained  by  mixing 
yellow  pink  with  Naples  yellow;  but  it  is  then  only  fit  for  distemper. 
Orange  Color. — Red  lead  and  yellow  ochre.  Violet  Color. — Vermilion, 
-or  red  lead,  mixed  with  black  or  blue,  and  a  small  portion  of  white. 
Vermilion  is  preferable  to  red  lead  in  mixing  this  color.  Purpfe.— 
Park  red  mixed  with  violet  color.  Carnation. — Lake  and  white. 
Gold  color.— Massicot,  or  Naples  yellow,  with  a  small  quantity  of 
realgar,  and  a  very  little  Spanish  white.  Olive  Color  may  be  obtained 
by  black  and  a  little  blue,  mixed  with  yellow.  Yellow-pi  uk,  with  a 
little  verdigris  and  lampblack;  also  ochre  and  a  email  quantity  of 
white  will  produce  an  olive  color.  For  distemper,  indigo  and  yellow- 
jiink,  mixed  with  white  lead  or  Spanish  white,  must  be  used.  If 
veined,  it  must  be  done  with  umber.  Lead  Color. — Prussian  blue  and 
white.  Chestnut  Color. — Red  ochre  and  black,  for  a  dark  chestnut 
To  make  \<,  lighter,  employ  a  mixture  of  yellow  ochre.  Light  timber 
Co?<w.~-Spruce  ochre,  white,  and  a  little  umber.  Flesh  Color. — Lake, 
White  lead,  and  a  little  vermilion.  Light  Willow  Green.— White, 
mixed  with  verdigris.  Grass  Green. — Yellow-pink  mixed  with  vir- 
digrig  Stone  Color. — White,  with  a  little  spruce  ochre.  Dark  Lead 
CoJor.—Black  and  white,  with  a  little  Prussian  blue.  Fawn  CWor.— 
White  lead,  stone  ocnre,  with  a  little  vermilion.  Chocolate  CWor.— 
Lampblack  and  Spanish  brown.  On  account  of  the  fatness  of  lamp* 


CABINETMAKERS,   PAINTERS',   AC.,   RECEIPTS.      851 

black,  mix  some  litharge  and  red  lead.  Portland  Stone  Color.—* 
timber,  yellow  ochre,  and  white  lead.  Rose  Color. — White  lead  and 
carmine  or  lake.  Salmon  Color. — White  lead  and  blue,  yellow,  and 
red.  Pearl  Color. — White  lead,  Prussian  blue,  and  rea.  Slate  Color. 
—White  lead,  black,  red,  and  blue.  Pea  Green.— White  lead  and 
Chrome,  or  Paris  green.  Cream  Color. — White  lead,  yellow  and  red 
&traw  Color. — White  lead  and  yellow.  Peach  Blossom  Color. — White 
lead  and  vermilion.  Brown. — Venetian  red  and  lampblack.  Dark 
Gret:\ — Lampblack  and  chrome  green.  Olive  Color. — Red,  green,  OF 
blacir,  yellow  and  red.  Snuff  Color.— -Yellow,  sienna,  and  red. 

FRESCO  PAINTING. — Ste^p  good  glue  over  night  in  water  to  soften, 
$ben  melt  in  a  suitable  pot  or  kettle,  applying  the  heat  cautiously,  so 
«s  not  to  boil,  as  boiling  will  render  it  unfit  for  use.  Then  take  as 
inuch  Paris  whiting  as  you  think  you  will  use  for  your  first  coat,  beat 
it  up  thick  with  water  to  a  perfect  pulp  to  get  rid  of  lumps,  &c.  Now 
put  in  a  pail  as  much  of  this  whiting  mixture  as  will  be  required  for 
jour  work  and  proceed  to  mix  in  the  colors  required  to  produce  the 
•desired  shade.  The  colors,  previously  ground  in  water,  should  be 
•cautiously  mixed  with  the  hand,  and  the  shade  tested  by  drying  a 
little  on  a  shingle  or  white  paper;  if  too  dark,  add  more  whiting,  if 
too  light,  more  color.  Now  add  enough  of  your  melted  glue  to  bind 
or  fix  the  color  very  hard  so  as  not  to  rise  or  wash  up  with  your 
«econd  coat,  and  test  this  on  paper  or  wood  also,  otherwise  you  may 
ruin  your  worlc.  For  Yelloiv,  chrome  yellow  of  different  tints  may 
"be  used.  Buff  or  Drab  can  be  got  by  a  mixture  of  yellow  ochre,  red, 
Hue,  or  black,  and  sometimes  umber  is  intermixed  with  good  effect 
Buff  or  drab  colors  may  bo  produced  by  yellow  ochre,  «hroma 
.yellow,  or  raw  sienna,  intermixed  with  Turkey  umber.  For  Green, 
mineral  or  Paris  greens  are  first  class.  Any  good  chrome  green  will 
euit  very  well.  For  Slue,  use  cobalt  ultramarine  blue,  Prussian  blue 
.and  verditer.  For  Gray,  use  composition  of  white,  blue,  red,  and 
black.  For  Red,  use  vermilion,  Indian  red,  Venetian  red,  lake,  and 
carmine.  For  Pink  or  Rose  tints,  use  a  mixture  of  red  with  white, 
if  not  wanted  bright,  use  Indian  red,  if  a  strong  rich  color  is  desired, 
use  carmine,  lake,  Venetian  red,  or  vermilion.  For  Black,  use  blue 
black  and  the  Frankfort,  or  pure  ivory  black.  For  Browns  for 
f  hading,  &c.,  use  burnt  sienna,  uurnt  ochre,  purple  brown,  colcother, 
'burnt  umber,  Vandyke  brown.  For  other  tints,  see  COMPOUND 
COLORS.  French  Size  for  Gilding  Ornaments,  Ceilings,  &c.  Mix 
thick  glue  to  the  proper  consistence,  with  a  little  pure  honey,  this 
imparts  a  beautiful  color  to  the  gold,  and  gives  a  splendid  effect  tc 
the  work.  Previous  to  using  the  distemper  colors,  give  the  walls  and 
•ceilings,  if  new  and  clean,  a  good  coat  of  paint,  which  should  bq 
mixed  about  §  turpentine  and  £  linseed  oil,  using  as  much  Japan 
dryer  as  will  dry  it  hard;  be  careful  of  adding  too  much  oil,  as  it  wuS 
epoil  the  subsequent  work. 

In  preparing  vestibules,  halls,  &e.,  to  stand  washing,  go  overths 
•trails  with  oil  paint  for  the  first  coat,  but  for  the  last  coat  no  oil 
ghoul'!  be  used,  only  spirits  of  turpentine.  A  harder  surface  will  be 
given  «o  the  wall  by  adding  1  tablespoonful  of  good  pale  copal 
varnish  to  each  25  Ibs.  of  paint  used  for  the  last  coat.  Previous  to 
the  wall  receiving  the  last  two  goats,  let  the  design  or  panelling  be  ai) 
fcr rectlj  laid  out 


CABINETMAKERS,    PAINTERS',    AC.,    RECEIPTS. 

To  prepare  old  walls  or  ceilings  ;  if  there  are  any  stains  or  cracki. 
in  the  plaster,  repair  with  size  putty,  if  small,  or  use  plaster  of  Pan* 
£nd  a  little  putty  lirne  if  the  cracks  are  large,  damping  the  places 
with  a  brush  and  water,  then  applying  the  plaster  with  a  small 
trowel,  aiterwards  smoothing  off  neatly.  When  all  is  dry  and  hard 
prepare  the  walls  or  ceilings  with  a  coat  of  paint  prepared  as  before 
directed,  or  with  a  preparation  coat  in  size  made  of  whiting  with  an 
extra  quantity  of  meltevi  glue  containing  a  small  quantity  of  alum* 
Give  the  walls  a  good  coat  of  this,  let  it  harden  well,  then  apply 
Another  ;  this  ought  to  "be  sufficient  if  good  flowing  coats  are  applied! 

Now  mix  the  colors  to  the  proper  tints  (in  oil),  lay  in  the  panels 
first ;  then  the  stiles,  and  when  dry,  put  on  tho  flat  or  last  coat  (spirit 
color).  When  the  work  is  dry  for  panelling',  use  the  following  for 
mixing  the  finishing  colors:  Turpentine,  a  little  mastic  varnish,  a 
little  white  wax,  and  a  little  pale  damar.  Varnish,  use  but  little 
varnish,  else  too  much  gloss  will  be  produced,  the  only  use  being  to 
cause  the  color  to  set  quickly  to  permit  rapid  work. 

The  fresco  painter  will  find  continued  use  for  a  book  of  designs  to 
Illustrate  the  different  orders  of  architecture,  pillars,  columns,  scrolls, 
borders,  &c.  and  should  make  a  particular  study  in  the  line  of  sketch- 
ing anything  and  everything  calculated  to  assist  him  in  the  business. 

HOUSE  PAINTING.— Primina,  apply  as  thick  as  the  paint  will 
ppread  easih7,  rubbing  out  well  with  the  brush.  Use  litharge  as  a 
dryer.  After  sandpapering  and  dusting,  putty  up  all  the  nail  heads 
and  cracks  with  a  putty-knife.  Outside  second  Coat.  Mix  your 
paint  with  raw  oil,  using  it  as  thick  as  possible  consistent  with  easy 
spreading.  After  it  is  applied,  cross-smooth  the  work  until  it  is  level 
and  even,  then  finish  lengthwise  with  long  light  sweeps  of  the  brush. 
Outside  third  Coat.  Make  a  little  thinner  than  the  last,  rub  out  well, 
cross-smooth  and  finish  very  lightly  with  the  tip  of  the  brush. 
Inside  second  Coat.  Mix  your  paint  as  thick  as  you  can  work  it. 
using  equal  parts  of  raw  oil  and  turpentine,  rub  this  out  well  ancj 
carefully  with  the  brush,  cross-smooth  and  finish  even  and  nice. 
Inside  third  Coat.  Mix  with  3  parts  turpentine  and  1  part  oi 
raw  oil,  rub  out  well  and  smooth  off  with  great  care.  Fourth  Coat, 
Flalthifj.  Mix  with  turpentine  alone  thin  enough  to  admit  of  spread- 
ing before  it  sets.  Apply  quickly  without  cross-smoothing,  and 
finish  lengthwise  with  light  touches  of  the  tip  of  the  brush,  losing  no 
time,  as  it  gets  rapidly.  Drawn  Flatting.  Ground  white  lead  id 
mixed  with  turpentine  almost  as  thin  as  the  last-named  mixture. 
The  lead  will  soon  settle  and  the  oil  and  turpentine  rise  to  the  top, 
pour  it  off,  and  repeat  the  mixture  until  what  rises  to  the  top  is  cleat 
turpentine.  The  oil  being  all  withdrawn  by  this  process,  the  lead  is 
mixed  with  turpentine,  and  applied  thickly  and  evenly  with  great 
care.  This  is  used  as  a  fourth  coat,  and  the  room  must  be  kept  shut 
and  free  from  draught,  as  the  color  sets  as  fast  as  it  is  put  on.  See 
PORCELAIN  FINISH  FOB  PARLORS.  Plastered  Walls.  Give  them  a 
coat  of  glue  size  before  painting  in  oil.  Killing  Smoky  Walls  or 
Ceilinas.  Wash  over  the  smoky  or  greasy  walls  with  nitre,  soda,  or 
thin  lime  whitewash,  the  last  is  the  best. 

USEFUL  HINTS  TO  PAINTERS. — Painters'  Colic.  To  "2^  galf 
spruce  or  table  beer  add  1  dram  of  sulphuric  acid,  mix  well  and  let  i 
•tand  3  hours.  A  tumbler  full  2  or  3  tunes  per  day  is  said  to  be  verr 


CABINETMAKERS,  PAINTERS*,  &C.,  RECEIPTS.   25? 

beneficial  in  cases  of  lead  colic.  Sweet  oil  and  milk  are  also  good, 
but  acid,  fruits,  spirituous  liquors,  and  vinegar  should  be  avoided  ia 
every  illness  caused  by  paint.  Avoid  inhaling  the  dust  when  handlo- 
iug  dry  colors,  or  drinking  water  which  has  stood  long  in  a  painted 
room  or  paint  shop.  Never  eat  or  sleep  without  washing  the  hand* 
ind  face,  and  rinsing  the  mouth,  cleaning  well  out  under  the  nails. 
Bathe  the  whole  body  every  few  days,  avoid  spattering  your  clothes, 
and  either  wear  overalls  or  change  your  garments  every  week,  well 
airing  those  you  put  off.  Keep  your  paint  shop  clean,  well  ventilated, 
find  avoid  sleeping  in  it  at  any  time.  To  Remove  Paint  from  Cloth-' 
ing.  Saturate  the  spots  with  equal  parts  turpentine  and  spirits  of 
Itmnionia  until  they  become  soft,  then  wash  out  with  soapsudo.  7b 
dissolve  Paint  Skins,  Cleanings  of  Pots,  Brushes,  &c.  Save  then* 
carefully,  and  dissolve  them  by  boiling  them  in  oil.  To  Clean 
Brushes.  Use  turpentine  first,  then  wash  in  warm  soapsuds.  To 
Clean  Paint  Pails,  &c.  Use  strong  ley,  hot.  Sanding.  The  per- 
forated sprinkler  of  a  watering  pot  attached  to  the  nozzle  of  a  pair 
of  bellows,  is  a  first-rate  contrivance  for  applying  sand  to  painted 
work.  Apply  on  the  fourth  or  fifth  coat,  with  another  coat  on  th* 
Band.  To  remove  old  putty,  apply  nitric  or  muriatic  acid. 

PRUSSIAN  BLUE.—  Take  nitric  acid,  any  quantity,  and  as  much: 
iron  shavings  from  the  lathe  as  the  acid  will  dissolve;  heat  the  iron. 
as  hot  as  can  be  handled  with  the  hand  ;  then  add  it  to  the  acid  in 
email  quantities  as  long  as  the  acid  will  dissolve  it;  then  slowly  add 
double  the  quantity  of  soft  water  that  there  was  of  acid,  and  put 
in  iron  again  as  long  as  the  acid  will  dissolve  it.  2d.  Take  prus- 
piate  of  potash,  dissolve  it  in  the  hot  water  to  make  a  .strong  solution,. 
and  make  sufficient  of  it  with  the  first  to  give  the  depth  of  tint  de- 
sired, and  the  blue  is  made.  Another  Method.—  A  very  passable 
Prussian  blue  is  made  by  taking  sulprate  of  iron  (copperas)  and 
prussiate  of  potash,  equal  parts  of  each  ;  and  dissolving  each  separately 
in  water,  then  mixing  the  two  waters. 

CHROME  YELLOW.  —  1st  Take  sugar  of  icad  and  Paris  white,  of 
each  5  Ibs.;  dissolve  them  hi  hot  water.  2d.  Take  bichromate  of 
potash,  G£  oz.  :  and  dissolve  it  in  hot  water  also  ;  each  article  to  be 
dissolved  separately;  then  mix  all  together,  putting  ia  the  bichro-' 
mate  last  Let  stand  twenty-four  hours. 

CHROME  GREEN.  —  Take  Paris  white,  GJ  Ibs.  ;  sugar  of  lead,  and 
blue  vitriol,  of  each  3i  Ibs.  ;  alum,  10.V  oz.  ;  best  soft  Prussian  blu«,  and 
chrome  yellow,  of  each  3£  Ibs.  Mix  thoroughly  while  in  fine  powder, 
nnd  add  water,  1  gal.,  stirring  well,  and  let  stand  three  or  four  hour.0, 
Anotlier  Green,  durable  and  cheap.  —  Take  spruce  yellow,  and  color  :'t 
with  a  solution  of  chrome  yellow  and  Prussian  blue,  until  you  give  it 
the  shade  you  wish.  Another  Metlwd.  —  Blue  vitriol,  5  Ibs.  ;  sugar  of 
lead,  6J  Ibs.;  arsenic,  2i  Ibs.  ;  bichromate  of  potash,  l£  oz-;  mix  them 
thoroughly  in  fine  powder,  and  add  water  3  parts,  mixing  well  again 
and  let  stand  three  or  four  hours. 

PEA  BROWN.  —  1st.  Take  sulphate  of  copper  any  quantity,  and 
dissolve  it  in  hot  water.  2d.  Take  prussiate  of  potash,  dissolve  it  in 
'aot  water  to  make  a  strong  solution;  mix  of  the  two  solutions,  as  io 
ifee  l>l»e,  IKK!  the  color  is  made. 


-     ?ix«.  —  Brazil  weod  1  lb.,  and  boil  it  for  two  hours,  having  1 
vwl.  of  water  at  tUe  end;  ther  strain  it,  and  boM  alum,  1  Ik,  in  &• 
NOTE!    For  additional  information  on  the  mixing  of  colors  send  for 
King's  Color  Mixing  Guide  (water,  oil  and  printing  inks)  $1.00  postpaid! 
and  Bustanoby's  How  to  Mix  Colors  (oil)    .50  cents  postpaid. 


CABINETMAKERS,    PAINTERS',    &C.,    RECZIPT3. 


Dgether.    Let 

PATENT  YELLOW.— Common  salt,  100  Ibs.,  and  litharge,  4001bs.> 
are  ground  together  with  water,  and  for  some  time  in  a  gentle  heat, 
/water  being  added  to  supply  the  loss  by  evaporation;  the  carbonate 
of  scda  is  then  washed  out  with  more  water,  and  the  white  residuum 
.heated  till  it  acquires  a  fine  yellow  color. 

NAPLES  YELLOW. — No  1.  Metallic  antimony,  12  Ibs. ;  red  lead,  8 
Ibs. ;  oxide  of  zinc,  4  Ibs.  Mix,  calcine,  triturate  well  together,  and 
fuse  in  a  crucible :  the  fused  mass  must  be  ground  and  elutriated  to 
a  fine  powder. 

C.-EAP  YELLOW  PAINT.—- Whiting,  3  cwt. ;  ochre,  2  cwt. ;  ground 
white  lead,  25  Ibs.  Factitious  linseed  oil  to  grind. 

STONE  COLOR  PAIXT. — Road-dust  sifted,  2  cwt.;  ground  white 
lead,  \  cwt. ;  whiting,  1  cwt. ;  ground  umber,  14  Ibs. ;  lime  water,  6 
gals.  Factitious  linseed  oil  to  grind. 

GLAZIER'S  PUTTY.— Whiting,  70  Ibs.;  boiled  oil,  20  Ibs.  Mix;  if 
too  thin,  add  more  whiting;  if  too  thick,  add  more  oil. 

To  IMITATE  BROWN  FREESTONE.— First  make  a  pretty  thick  oil 
jpauit  of  the  same  color  as  the  stone  to  be  imitated,  which  may  be 
done  in  different  ways,  the  basis  is  white  lead  or  zinc  white,  colored 
with  umber  and  mars  red,  or  any  other  pigments  which  suit  you;  put 
it  on  as  usual,  and  while  yet  sticky  throw  common  white  sand  against 
it ;  this  will  not  affect  the  color  and  will  make  a  rough,  sandy  coat 
imitating  the  surface  of  the  stone. 

GERMAN  CARMINE. — Cochineal,  1  Ib. ;  water,  7  gals.  ;  boil  for  5 
minutes,  then  add  alum,  1  oz.  Boil  for  5  minutes  more,  filter  and  set 
laside  the  decoction  in  glass  or  porcelain  vessels  for  3  days,  then  decant 
the  liquor  and  dry  the  carmine  in  the  shade.  The  remaining  liquor 
\rill  still  deposit  of  an  inferior  quality,  by  standing. 

STAIN  FOR  FLOORS. — To  strong  ley  of  wood-ashes  add  enough 
copperas  for  the  required  oak  shade.  Put  this  on  with  a  mop  and 
«nd  varnish  afterwards. 

LEAD  COLOR  FOR  IRON. — Take  litharge  and  place  it  over  a  fire  in  a 
ladle  ;  sprinkle  over  it  flour  of  brimstone  to  turn  it  dark  ;  grind  it  in 
-oil.  It  dries  quick  and  stands  well  in  any  weather. 

A  GOOD  IMITATION  OF  GOLD. — Mix  white  lead,  chrome  yellow  and 
fcurnt  sienna  until  the  proper  shade  is  obtained. 

BEAUTIFUL  WHITE  PAINT. — For  inside  work,  which  ceases  to 
.smell,  and  dries  in  a  few  hours.  Add  1  Ib.  of  frankincense  to  2  qts. 
turpentine  ;  dissolve  it  over  a  clear  fire,  strain  it,  and  bottle  it  for  use; 
then  add  1  pt.  of  this  mixture  to  4  pts.  bleached  linseed  oil,  shaka 
.  them  well  together,  grind  white  lead  in  spirits  of  turpentine,  and 
.strain  it  ;  then  add  sufficient  of  the  lead  to  make  it  proper  for  paint- 
.ing  ;  if  too  thick  in  using,  thin  with  tu  -pen tine,  it  being  suitable  fof 
,ihe  best  internal  work  on  account  of  its  superiority  and  expense. 

FOR  A  PURE  WHITE  PAINT.— Nut-oil  is  the  best :  if  linseed  oil  is 
ased,  add  one-third  of  turpentine. 

To  Mix  COMMON  WHITE  PAINT.— Mix  or  grind  white  lead  in  lin* 
aeed  oil  to  the  consistency  of  paste  ;  add  turpentine  in  the  proportion 
of  one  quart  to  the  gallon  of  oil ;  but  these  proportions  must  U  va» 


CABINETMAKERS,  PAINTERS*,  AC.,  RECEIPTS.    259 

fled  according  to  circumstances.  Remember  to  strain  your  color  fot 
the  better  sorts  of  work.  If  the  -work  is  exposed  to  the  sun,  use  more 
turpentine  for  the  ground-color,  to  prevent  its  blistering. 

INVISIBLE  GREEN  FOB  OUTSIDE  WORK. — Mix  lampblack  and 
French  yellow  with  burnt  white  vitriol.  These  colors  mix  in  boiled 
oil.  Burnt  vitriol  is  the  best  drier  for  greens,  as  it  is  powerful  and 
colorless,  and,  consequently,  will  not  injure  the  color. 

BRIGHT  VARNISH  GREEN,  FOR  INSIDE  BLINDS,  FENDERS.  &c. — The 
work  must  first  be  painted  over  with  a  light  lead  color,  and,  wuea 
dry,  grind  some  white  lead  in  spirits  of  turpentine  ;  afterwards  take 
about  £  in  bulk  of  verdigris,  which  has  been  ground  stiff  in  linseed 
oil ;  then  mix  them  both  together,  and  put  into  a  little  resin  varnish, 
sufficient  only  to  bind  the  color.  When  this  is  hard,  which  will  be  the 
case  in  15  minutes,  pour  into  the  color  some  resin  to  give  it  a  good 

floss.  Then  go  over  the  work  a  second  time  and,  if  required,  a  third 
me.  Thus  you  will  have  a  cheap  and  beautiful  green,  witli  a  high, 
polish.  It  possesses  a  very  drying  quality,  as  the  work  may  be  com- 
pleted in  a  few  hours.  The  tint  may  be  varied  according  to  taste,  by 
substituting  mineral  green  for  verdigris  ;  and  if  a  bright  grass-green. 
is  required,  add  a  little  Dutch  pink  to  the  mixture.  N.B. — This  color 
must  be  used  when  quite  warm,  to  give  the  varnish  a  uniform  ex- 
tension. 

COMPOUND  GREENS.— This  is  a  mixture  of  whiting,  indigo  and 
Dutch  pink,  the  intensity  of  which  may  be  increased  or  diminished  by 
the  addition  of  blue  or  yellow.  These  mixtures  will  not  admit  of  any 
fixed  rules  in  regard  to  the  quantities  of  the  matters  used  in  their 
composition.  They  must  depend  on  the  taste  of  the  artist  and  the 
tone  he  is  desirous  of  giving  to  the  color. 

PEA  GREEN.— Take  one  pound  of  genuine  mineral  green,  one  pound 
•of  the  precipitate  of  copper,  one  pound  and  a  half  of  blue  verditer, 
three  pourds  of  white  lend,  three  ounces  of  sugar  of  lead,  and  three 
•ounces  of  burnt  white  vitriol.  Mix  the  whole  of  these  ingredients  in 
linseed  oil,  and  grind  them  quite  fine.  It  will  produce  a  bright  mineral 
pea-green  paint,  preserve  a  blue  tint  and  keep  any  length  of  time  in. 
any  climate,  without  injury,  by  putting  water  over  it.  To  use  this 
<:olor  for  house  or  ship  painting,  take  one  pound  of  the  green  paint 
•with  some  pale  boiled  oil,  mix  them  well  together,  and  this  will  pro- 
•duce  a  strong  pea-green  paint.  The  tint  may  be  altered  at  pleasure, 
by  adding  a  proportionate  quantity  of  white  lead  to  the  green,  which 
may  be  ground  in  linseed  oil,  and  thinned  with  spirits  of  turpentine 
ior  use.  It  may  also  be  used  for  painting  Venetian  window  blinds,  by 
adding  white  lead  and  mixing  the  color  with  boiled  oil.  For  all  the 
•aforesaid  preparations  it  will  retain  a  blue  tint,  which  is  very  desir- 
able. 

FOR  KNOTTING. — One  pint  of  vegetable  naphtha,  1  tablespoonful  of 
red  lead,  £  pint  of  japanners'  gold  size,  7  ozs.  of  orange  shellac,  mix 
::11  together,  set  in  a  warm  place  to  dissolve,  and  frequently  shake. 
Another. — Mix  white  lead,  or  red  lead  powder,  in  strong  glue  size, 
and  apply  it  warm. 

WHITE  LEAD. — The  most  usual  method  of  manufacturing  white 
lead  is  that  known  as  the  Dutch  method.    It  consists  hi  exposing  lead, 
cast  in  thin  gratings,  10  the  combined  action  of  acetic  acid,  moist  ail  j 
and  carbonic  acid  gas.    The  gratings  are  supported  a  little  above  th«/ 


$60      CABINETMAKERS,    PAINTERS',    &C.,    RECEIPTS. 

"bottom  of  earthen  pots,  similar  to  flower  pots,  in  each  of  which  &  sm*l 
quantity  of  weak  acetic  acid  is  placed.  The  pots  are  built  up  in  al- 
ternate layers  with  spent  tanners'  bark,  until  a  stack  is  formed,  each 
layer  of  pots  being  covered  with  a  board.  Fermentation  soon  takes 
place  in  the  tan,  and  serves  the  double  place  of  generating  heat  and 
supplying  carbonic  acid.  Aiter  the  lapse  of  six  or  eight  weeks,  the> 
metallic  lead  is  found  converted  into  white  masses  of  carbonic  mixed 
with  hydrated  oxide.  It  is  then  levigated,  washed,  dried,  and  ground 
with  oU. 

To  CURE  DAMP  WALLS. — Boil  2  ozs.  of  grease  with  2  quarts  of 
tar,  for  nearly  twenty  minutes,  in  an  iron  vessel,  and  have  ready 
pounded  glass,  1  Ib.  ;  slaked  lime,  2  Ibs.  ;  well  dried  in  an  iron  pot 
and  sifted  through  a  flour  sieve  ;  add  some  of  the  lime  to  the  tar  and. 
glass,  to  make  it  the  thickness  of  thin  paste,  sufficient  to  cover  a 
square  foot  at  a  time,  as  it  hardens  so  quick.  Apply  it  about  an 
eighth  of  an  inch  thick. 

To  PROTECT  WOOD  AND  BRICK  WORK  FROM  DAMP  WEATHER* 
— Take  3  pecks  of  lime,  slaked  in  the  air,  2  pecks  of  wood-ashes, 
and  1  peck  of  white  sand.  Sift  them  fine,  and  add  linseed  oil  suffi- 
cient to  use  with  a  paint  brush  :  thin  the  first  coat ;  use  it  as  thick  a* 
it  will  work  for  the  second  coat,  grind  it  fine,  or  beat  it  in  a  trough, 
and  it  is  a  good  composition. 

PUTTY  FOR  REPAIRING  BROKEN  WALLS.— The  best  putty  for  wall* 
is  composed  of  equal  parts  of  whiting  and  plaster  of  Paris,  as  it  quick- 
ly hardens.  The  walls  may  be  immediately  colored  upon  it.  Some* 
painters  use  whiting  with  size  ;  but  this  is  not  good,  as  it  rises  above* 
the  surface  of  the  walls,  and  shows  the  patches  when  the  work  is. 
finished.  Lime  must  not  be  used  as  putty  to  repair  walls,  as  it  will 
destroy  almost  every  color  it  comes  in  contact  with. 

INSTRUCTIONS  FOR  SIGN  WHITING,  WITH  THE  COLORS  TO  BE 
USED  FOR  THE  GROUND  AND  LETTERS. — On  an  oak  ground,  orna- 
mental letters,  in  ultramarine  blue,  filled  in  with  gold  and  silver  leaf, 
blocked  up  and  shaded  with  burnt  sienna.  Another. — Gold  letters 
on  a  white  marble  ground,  blocked  up  and  shaded  with  a  transparent 
"brown  or  burnt  sienna.  On  glass. — Gold  letters,  shaded  with  burnt 
sienna.  Another. — Gold  letters,  shaded  with  black,  on  a  scarlet  or 
chocolate  ground.  On  a  rich  blue  ground,  gold  letters,  double  shaded,, 
"black  and  white.  White  letters  on  a  blue  ground,  shaded  with  black, 
look  very  well.  On  a  purple  ground,  pink  letters  shaded  with  white. 
Mix  ultramarine  and  vermilion  for  a  ground  color,  white  letter* 
^haded  with  a  light  grey.  Vermilion  ground,  chrome  yellow,  stained 
with  vermilion  and  lake,  for  the  letters,  shaded  black.  A  substitute 
ior  the  above  colors:  Rose  pink  and  red  lead;  and  for  the  letters, 
«tone  yellow,  white  lead  and  Venetian  red.  A  good  substitute  for 
^old  is  obtained  by  grinding  white  lead,  chrome  yellow,  and  a  dust  of; 
vermilion  together.  Mix  your  colors  for  writing  in  boiled  oil,  and 
•me  for  drier  gold  size.  Other  good  grounds  for  gold  letters  are: 
Clues,  vermilion,  lake,  and  Saxon.  When  your  sign  is  ready  for 
•gilding,  follow  the  direction?  given  under  the  head  of  "To  Gild. 
Letters  on  Wood." 

To  GIVE  LUSTRE  TO  A  LIGHT  BLUE  GROUND.— After  the  letters 
are  written  and  dry,  paint  the  ground  over  again,  between  the  letters, 
with  the  same  color,  and  while  wet  take  pulverized  Prus-i^  b^e  and 


CABINETMAKERS,   PAINTERS*,   AC.,   RECEIPTS.      261 

•1ft  orer  the  surface;  glass,  frost,  or  smalts  may  be  used  instead  of  o* 
with  the  blue.    When  dry,  brush  off  the  loose  particles. 

GILDERS'  GOLD  SIZE. — Drying  or  boiled  linseed  oil,  thickened 
with  yellow  ochre,  or  calcined  red  ochre,  and  carefully  reduced  to  the 
utmost  smoothness  by  grinding.  Thin  with  oil  of  turpentine. 

To  GILD  LETTERS  ON  WOOD,  &c.— When  your  sign  is  prepared  aa 
smooth  as  possible,  go  over  it  with  a  sizing  made  by  white  oi  an  egg 
dissolved  in  about  four  times  its  weight  of  cold  water;  adding  a  small ' 
quantity  of  fuller's  earth,  this  to  prevent  the  gold  sticking  to  any 
yart  but  the  letters.  When  dry,  set  out  the  letters  and  cdmmence 
writing,  laying  on  the  size  as  thinly  as  possible,  with  a  sable  pencil. 
Let  it  stand  until  you  can  barely  feel  a  slight  stickiness,  then  go  to 
work  with  your  gold  leaf,  knife,  and  cushion,  and  gild  the  letters. 
Take  a  leaf  up  on  the  point  of  your  knife,  after  giving  it  a  slight  puff 
into  the  back  part  of  your  cushion,  and  spread  it  on  the  front  part  of 
the  cushion  as  straight  as  possible,  giving  it  another  slight  puff  with 
your  mouth  to  flatten  it  out.  Now  cut  it  into  the  proper  size,  cutting 
with  the  heel  of  your  knife  forwards.  Now  rub  the  tip  lightly  on 
your  hair;  take  up  the  gold  on  the  point,  and  place  it  neatly  on  the 
letters;  when  they  are  all  covered  get  some  very  fine  cottonwool, 
and  gently  rub  the  gold  until  it  is  smooth  and  bright.  Then  wash 
the  sign  with  clean  water  to  take  off  the  egg  size.  See  Gilding  on 

To  USE  SMALTS.— For  a  gold  lettered  sign,  lay  out  on  a  lead  color 
or  white  surface  the  line  of  letters,  and  roughly  size  the  shape  of 
each  letter  with/at  oil  size.  This  must  be  allowed  at  least  12  hours 
to  get  tacky  and  ready  for  gilding.  After  the  gold  leaf  is  laid  and 
perfectly  dry,  mix  up  (for  blue  smalts)  Prussian  blue  and  keg  lead 
with  oil,  adding  a  little  dryer.  Outline  carefully  around  the  letters, 
and  fill  up  all  the  outside  with  blue  paint;  then  with  a  small  sieve 
sift  on  the  smalts,  allowing  the  sign  to  lay  horizontally.  Cover  every 
part  with  plenty  of  smalts,  and  allow  it  to  remain  unmolested  until 
the  paint  is  dry.  Then  carefully  shake  off  the  surplus  smalts,  and 
the  work  is  done. 

SUPERFINE  SIZE  FOR  GILDING. —Good  drying  oil,  1  Ib. ;  pure  gum 
animi,  powdered,  4  ozs. ;  bring  the  oil  almost  to  the  boiling  point  in  a 
covered  metal  pot,  add  your  gum  gradually  and  cautiously  to  the  oil, 
stirring  all  the  time  to  dissolve  completely.  Boil  to  a  tarry  con- 
sistency and  strain  while  warm  through  silk  into  a  warm  bottle  with 
a  -wide  mouth;  keep  it  well  corked  j  use  as  required,  thinning  with 
turpentine.  This  is  the  celebrated  Birmingham  "secret  size,"  and  to 
unequalled  for  tenacity  and  durability.  Size  to  fix  the  Pearl  on  Glass 
Signs.  1.  Copal  varnish  1  part,  Canada  balsam  2  parts.  2.  Pure 
mastic  varnish.  3.  Pale,  quick  drying  copal  varnish. 

To  PAINT  BANNERS,  &c.,  ON  CLOTH  OR  SILK.— Stretch  the  fabr« 
upon  a  frame,  and  finish  your  design  and  lettering.  Use  a  size  made, 
of  bleached  shellac  dissolved  in  alcohol,  thinned  to  the  proper) 
consistence,  go  over  such  parts  as  are  to  be  gilded  or  painted,  over- 
running the  outlines  sligntly,  to  prevent  the  color  from  spreading. 
For  inside  work  the  white  of  an  egg  makes  a  good  size;  lay  the  gold 
while  the  size  is  still  wet,  when  dry,  dust  off  the  surplus  gold,  and 
proceed  with  the  shading,  painting,  &c.  A  little  honey,  combined 
with  thick  glue,  is  another  good  size. 


262  CABINETMAKERS,  PAINTERS',  AC.,  RECEIPTS. 

JAPANNED  TIN  SIGNS. — Draw  your  letters  on  paper  to  suit  yout 
piece  of  tin,  having  first  cleaned  it  with  diluted  alcohol  and  a  piece  of 
cotton.  This  will  remove  any  grease  or  other  matter  that  might  hold 
the  gold.  Then  take  some  whiting  and  rub  it  over  the  back  of  the 
paper  upon  which  your  design  is  made  and  lay  it  upon  the  Japanned' 
tin.  Next  place  a  weight  upon  the  four  corners  of  the  paper,  or 
otherwise  fix  it  securely  to  the  tin  ;  then,  with  a  fine  pointed  piece  of 
jhard  wood,  trace  the  design  carefully,  bearing  upon  the  paper  wita. 
the  point  just  hard  enough  to  cause  the  whiting  on  the  under  side  of 
the  paper  to  adhere  to  the  tin,  and  after  going  carefully  over  the 
whole,  you  will  have  transferred  the  entire  design  in  fine  white  out- 
line to  the  tin  you  are  to  finish  it  upon.  Now  size  with  oil  size,  and 
when  dry  enough  for  gilding,  lay  on  the  gold  leaf  and  dab  it  down 
thoroughly,  afterwards  brushing  off  the  loose  gold  with  your  flat 
camel-hair  brush  or  cotton. 

CHANGEABLE  SIGNS. — Make  a  wooden  sign  in  the  usual  manner,  i 
and  have  a  projecting  moulding  around  it.  Now  cut  thin  grooves 
into  the  moulding,  an  inch  apart,  allowing  each  cut  to  reach  to  the 
surface  of  the  sign.  In  each  of  these  grooves  insert  strips  of  tin  one 
inch  wide  ;  and  long  enough  to  reach  quite  across  the  sign  board. 
When  all  are  fitted,  take  out  the  tin  strips,  and  placing  them  edge  to 
edge  on  a  level  table,  paint  any  desired  words  on  their  united 
eurface  ;  when  dry,  reverse  them  and  paint  other  words  on  the/ 
opposite  side.  Now  finish  your  lettering  as  usual  on  the  wooden 
sign  board,  and  when  dry,  insert  the  painted  tin  strips  in  correct 
order  in  the  grooves.  This  will  present  the  curious  novelty  of  three- 
signs  in  one,  as  viewed  from  different  positions. 

TRANSPARENT  CLOTH. — Dissolve  together  white  rosin,  pulverized, 
S  ozs.,  bleached  linseed  oil  6  ozs.,  white  beeswax  1^  ozs.,  add  the- 
turpentine  while  hot.  Apply  to  both  sides  of  the  cloth  while  it 
is  stretched  tight.  A  good  vehicle  for  mixing  colors  for  painting  on 
cloth  or  paper  is  gum  shellac  dissolved  in  alcohol. 

TINSELLED  LETTER  GLASS  SIGNS.— Paint  the  ground-work  of  your 
sign,  on  glass,  any  desired  color,  but  be  careful  to  leave  the  lettering; 
or  design  naked,  after  it  is  dry,  take  any  of  the  fancy  colored  copper 
or  tin  foils,  crumple  them  in  your  hand  and  apply  them  over  the 
"black  lettering,  &c.,  after  partially  straightening  them  out. 

To  INCRTTST  WINDOW  GLASS  WITH  JEWELS.— Dissolve  dextrine 
in  a  concentrated  solution  of  sulphate  of  magnesia,  sulphate  of  zinc, 
eulphate  of  copper  or  other  metallic  salts,  strain  the  liquid  and 
"brush  a  thin  coat  of  it  over  the  glass  and  dry  slowly  at  the  ordinary- 
temperature,  keeping  the  glass  level.  For  protection  it  may  be* 
Tarnished.  The  effect  produced  is  that  of  an  incrustation  of  dia- 
monds, sapphires,  &c.,  according  to  the  color  of  the  salt  used. 

To  PAINT  IN  IMITATION  OF  GROUND  GLASS.— Grind  and  mix- 
white  lead  in  three-fourths  of  boiled  oil  and  one-fourth  spirits  of  tur- 
pentine, and  to  give  the  mixture  a  very  drying  quality,  add  sufficient 
quantities  of  burnt  white  vitriol  and  sugar  of  lead.  The  color  must 
be  exceedingly  thin,  and  put  on  the  panes  of  glass  with  a  large  sized 
paint  brush  in  as  even  a  manner  as  possible.  When  a  number  of  the; 
panes  arc  thus  painted,  take  a  dry  duster  quite  new,  dab  the  ends  of 
the  bristles  on  the  glass  in  quick  succession,  till  you  give  it  a  uniform 
appeajw*ee.  Repeat  this  operation  till  the  work  appears  very  soft* 


CABINETMAKERS,   PAINTERS*,   &C.,    RECEIPTS.      263 

»nd  it  will  then  appear  like  ground  glass.  When  the  glass  requires 
fresh  painting,  get  the  old  coat  off  first  by  using  strong  pearl-ash- 
water.  Another  Method.— Spirits  of  salts,  2  ozs. ;  oil  of  vitriol,  2  ozs. ; 
sulphate  of  copper,  1  oz. ;  guin  arabic,  1  oz. ;  mix  all  well  together, 
and  dab  on  the  glass  with  a  brush.  Another. — Dab  your  squares: 

-  regularly  over  with  putty;  when  dry,  go  over  them  again;  the  imita- 
tion will  be  complete. 

PAINTING  ON  GLASS. — Take  clear  rosin,  1  oz.,  melt  in  an  iron  ves- 
sel. When  all  is  melted,  let  it  cool  a  little,  but  not  harden ;  then  add 
oil  of  turpentine  sufficient  to  keep  it  in  a  liquid  state.  When  cold, 
use  it  with  colors  ground  in  oil. 

HARD  DRYING  PAINT. — (Jrlnd  Venetian  red,  or  any  other  color 
you  wish,  in  boiled  oil;  then  thin  it  with  black  japan.  It  will  dry 
very  hard  for  counter  tops,  &c. 

PASTE  FOB  PAPER  HANGINGS,  BOOKS,  PAPER  BOXES,  &c.— Good 
wheat  flour,  sifted,  4  Ibs.,  make  it  into  a  stiff  batter  with  cold  water 
in  a  pail,  beat  it  well  to  break  the  lumps,  then  add  pulverized  alum, 
2  ozs.  Into  this  pour  boiling  water,  hissing  hot  from  the  fire,  stirring 
the  batter  thoroughly  all  the  time.  As  it  cooks  it  swells  and  loses  its 
white  color,  and  when  cold,  will  make  about  f  of  a  pail  of  thick  paste. 
Thin  with  cold  water  to  adapt  it  for  easy  use  with  the  brush.  For 
painted  or  varnished  walls,  add  ^  oz.,  pulverized  rosin  to  each  2  qts. 
paste,  and  reduce  the  mass  with  thin  gum  arabic  or  glue  water.  A 
little  pulverized  corrosive  sublimate  will  enhance  the  keeping  qualities 

.  of  paste,  but  alum  used  as  above  will  do  very  well. 

To  REMOVE  OLD  PAINT. — Sal  soda,  2  Ibs.  ;  lime,  J  Ib. ;  hot  water, 
1  gal.  ;  rummage  all  together  and  apply  to  the  old  paint  while  warm. 

;  It  will  soon  loosen  the  paint  so  that  you  can  easily  remove  it.  Ano- 
ther simple  method  is  to  sponge  over  your  old  paint  with  benzine,  set 
it  on  the  fire,  and  you  can  then  flake  off  the  paint  as  quick  as  you  like. 
Do  not  attempt  to  go  over  too  much  surface  at  a  time,  otherwise  you 
might  get  more  to  do  than  you  can  attend  to. 

REFUSE  PAINT  AND  PAINT  SKINS.— Dissolve  sal  soda,  £  Ib.,  in 
ram  water,  1  gal.  ;  cover  the  refuse  paint  for  2  days,  then  heat  it, 
adding  oil  to  reduce  it  to  a  proper  consistence  for  painting  and  strain* 
ing. 

v  SPIRIT  GRAINING  FOR  OAK.— Two  pounds  of  whiting,  quarter  of 
a  pound  of  gold  size,  thinned  down  with  spirits  of  turpentine ;  then 

j   tinge  your  whiting  with  Vandyke  brown  and  raw  sienna,  ground  fine. 

i   Strike  out  your  lights  with  a  ntch  dipped  in  turpentine,  tinged  with  a 

-  little  color  to  show  the  lights.    If  your  lights  do  not  appear  clear,  add 
a  little  more  turpentine.    Turpentine  varnish  is  a  good  substitute  fo£ 

v  ,ihe  above  mentioned.  This  kind  of  graining  must  be  brushed  over 
with  beer,  with  a  clean  brush,  before  varnishing.  Strong  beer  must 
"be  used  for  glazing  up  top-graining  and  shading. 

OIL  FOR  GRAINING  OAK.— Grind  Vandyke  brown  in  turpentine, 
Add  as  much  gold  size  as  will  set,  and  as  much  soft  soap  as  will  make 
i  jit  stand  the  comb.  Should  it  set  too  quickly,  add  a  little  boiled  oil. 
JPut  a  teaspoonf ul  of  gold  size  to  half  a  pint  of,  turpentine,  and  as, 
much  soap  as  will  lie  on  a  twenty-five  cent  piece,  thea  take  a  littla 
'  soda  mixed  with  water  and  take  out  the  veins. 

To  PREPARE  THE  GROUND  FOR  OAK  ROLLERS. — Stain  your  white 
lead  with  ra*v  sienna  and  red  lead,  or  with  chrome  yellow  and  Y< 


f  64      CABINETMAKERS,   PAINTERS',    AC.,    RECEIPTS. 

iianred;  thin  it  with  oil  and  turps,  and  strain  for  use.  WhenthW 
.ground  work  is  dry,  grind  in  beer,  Vandyke  brown,  whiting  and  a 
little  burnt  sienna,  for  the  graining  color;  or  you  may  use  raw  sienna 
with  a  little  whiting,  umbers,  &c. 

To  IMITATE  OLD  OAK.— To  make  an  exceedingly  rich  color  for  the  / 
imitation  of  old  oak,  the  ground  is  a  composition  of  stone  ochre  or ' 
orange  chrome  and  burnt  sienna;  the  graining  color  is  burnt  umber 
or  Vandyke  brown,  to  darken  it  a  little.  Observe  that  the  above1 
colors  must  be  used  whether  the  imitation  is  in  oil  or  distemper. 
When  dry,  varnish. 

To  IMITATE  OLD  OAK,  IN  OIL. — Grind  Vandyke  and  whiting  in 
turpentine,  add  a  bit  of  common  soap  to  make  it  stand  the  comb,  and 
4hin  it  with  boiled  oil. 

To  IMITATE  POLLARD  OAK.— The  ground  color  is  prepared  with  a 
mixture  of  chrome  yellow,  vermilion,  and  white  lead,  to  a  rich  light 
buff.  The  graining  colors  are  Vandyke  brown  and  small  portions  of 
raw  and  burnt  sienna  and  lake  ground  in  ale  or  beer.  Fill  a  large 
tool  with  color,  spread  over  the  surface  to  be  grained,  and  soften  with 
the  badger  hair  brush.  Take  a  moistened  sponge  between  the  thumb 
and  finger,  and  dapple  round  and  round  in  kind  of  knobs,  then  soften 
very  lightly ;  then  draw  a  softener  from  one  set  of  knobs  to  the  other 
while  wet,  to  form  a  multiplicity  of  grains,  and  finish  the  knots  with 
&  hair  pencil,  in  some  places  in  thicker  clusters  than  others.  When 
dry  put  the  top  grain  on  in  a  variety  of  directions,  and  varnish  with 
turps  and  gold  size ;  then  glaze  up  with  Vandyke  and  strong  ale.  To 
finish,  varnish  with  copal. 

To  IMITATE  MOTTLED  MAHOGANY.— The  ground  is  prepared  with 
the  best  English  Venetian  red,  red  lead,  and  a  small  portion  of  white 
lead.  The  graining  colors  are  burnt  sienna,  grouna  in  ale,  with  a 
small  portion  of  Vandyke  brown,  sufficient  to  take  away  the  fiery  ap- 
pearance of  the  sienna.  Cover  the  surface  to  be  grained,  soften  with 
the  badger  hair  brush,  and  while  wet  take  a  mottling-roller  and  go 
over  the  lights  a  second  time,  in  order  to  give  a  variety  of  shade,  then 
"blend  the  whole  of  the  work  with  the  badger  softener.  Put  the  top 
grain  on  with  the  same  color.  When  dry,  varnish. 

To  IMITATE  ROSEWOOD. — Mix  vermilion  and  a  small  quantity  of 
white  )ead  for  the  ground.  Take  rose  pink,  tinged  with  a  little 
iampblack,  or  Vandyke  brown,  and  grind  very  fine  in  oil,  then  take 
£.  flat  graining  brush,  with  the  hairs  cut  away  at  unequal  distances, 
and  cut  down  the  grain  as  if  wending  round  a  knot  When  nearly 
dry,  take  a  graining  comb  that  is  used  for  oak,  and  draw  down  the 
^rain.  This  will-give  it  the  appearance  of  nature.  When  dry, 
varnish.  Another. — The  ground  color  is  prepared  with  vermilion 
and  small  quantities  of  white  lead  and  crimson  lake.  When  the 
ground  is  dry  and  made  very  smooth,  take  Vandyke  brown,  ground 
in  oil,  and  with  a  small  tool  spread  the  color  over  the  surface  in  dif- 
ferent directions  forming  kind  of  knots.  Before  the  work  is  dry,  take 
a  piece  of  leather,  and  with  great  freedom  strike  out  the  light  veins; 
having  previously  prepared  the  darkest  tint  of  Vandyke  brown,  o* 
gum  asphaltum,  immediately  take  the  flat  graining  brush  with  few 
hairs  in  it,  dra^v  the  grain  over  the  work  f»ud  s^^n.  When  varnished^ 
Ihe  imitation  will  be  excellent. 

AMOTHEJJ  ROSEWOOD  IMITATION  IN  Sizi,.— Mix  Venetian,  red 


CABINETMAKERS,  PAINTERS*,  &£.,  RECEIPTS.   26$ 

white  lead  powder,  vermilion  and  common  size,  the  consistency  ol 
•which,  when  cold,  must  be  that  oi  a  weak  trembling  jelly.     With 
this  composition  paint  the  work  twice  over.    When  the  ground  is  dry,  . 
take  some  lampblack,  finely  ground  in  beer,  and  beat  the  white  of  an 
egg  into  it;  take  the  flat  graining  brush,  dipped  in  the  black,  and  put  > 
en  the  grain.    When  dry,  stain  the  first  coat  of  varnish  with  rose  • 
pink,  finely  ground  in  turpentine,  and  finish  the  work  by  giving  it  % 
•oat  of  clear  varnish  j* 

To  IMITATE  BIRD'S-EYE  MAPLE.— The  ground  is  a  light  buff,  pre- 
pared with  white  lead,  chrome  yellow,  and  a  little  vermilion  or  Eng- 
lish Venetian  red,  to  take  off  the  rawness  of  the  yellow.  The  grain- 
lag  color  is  equal  parts  of  raw  uinber  and  sienna  ground  in  oil  to  the 
proper  consistency.  Spread  the  surface  of  the  work  with  this  color, 
and,  having  some  of  the  same  prepared  a  little  thicker,  immediately 
take  a  sash  tool  or  sponge,  and  put  on  the  dark  shades,  and  soften 
with  the  badger 's-hair  brush  before  the  color  is  dry  put  on  the  eyea 
by  dabbing  the  dotting  machine  on  the  work.  When  dry,  put  on  the 
gram  with  the  camel' s-hair  pencil  on  the  prominent  parts,  to  imitate 
the  small  hearts  of  the  wood.  When  dry,  varnish. 

To  IMITATE  CURLED  MAPLE. — Prepare  a  light  yellow  for  the 
.ground,  by  mixing  chrome  yellow  and  white  lead,  tinged  with  Vene~ 
tian  red.  The  graining  color  is  a  mixture  of  equal  portions  of  raw 
«ieuna  and  Vandyke,  ground  in  ale ;  spread  the  surface  to  be  grained 
in  an  even  manner;  then  with  a  piece  of  cork  rub  across  the  work  to 
and  fro,  to  form  the  grams  which  run  across  the  wood.  When  dry, 
varnish. 

CURLED  MAPLE  IN  OIL  FOR  OUTSIDE  WORK. — jt-repare  a  rich 
ground  by  mixing  chrome  yellow,  white  lead  and  burnt  sienna.  For 
the  graining  color,  grind  equal  parts  of  raw  sienna  and  umber  with  a 
little  burnt  copperas  in  turpentine,  and  mix  with  a  small  quantity  of 
grainer's  cream.  Thin  the  color  with  boiled  oil;  then  fill  a  tool  and 
spread  the  surface  even,  and  rub  out  the  lights  with  the  sharp  edge 
of  a  piece  of  buff  leather,  which  must  now  and  then  be  wiped  to  keep 
it  clean;  soften  the  edges  of  the  work  very  lightly,  and  wher  dry, 
put  on  the  top  grain  with  burnt  umber  and  raw  sienna,  ground  in  ale, 
with  the  white  of  an  egg  beat  into  it.  When  dry,  varnish. 

SATINWOOD. — This  ground  is  prepared  with  white  lead,  stone  ochre, 
and  small  quantities  of  chrome  yellow  and  burnt  sienna.  The  grain- 
ing color  is  one-third  of  raw  sienna  and  whiting,  ground  in  pale  ale, 
very  thin ;  then  spread  the  color  over  the  surface  to  be  grained. 
While  wet,  soften,  and  have  ready  a  wet  roller  or  mottling  brush,  in  j 
order  to  take  out  the  lights;  blend  the  whole  with  the  badger' s-hair 
brush.  When  the  work  is  dry,  take  the  flat  brush,  and  with  the  same 
color,  put  on  the  top  again.  When  dry,  varnish. 

To  IMITATE  YEW  TREE.— The  ground  is  a  reddish  buff.  For  the 
graining  color  grind  in  ale  eqiial  portions  of  Vandyke  brown  and, 
burnt  sienna,  with  a  small  quantity  of  raw  sienna.  When  the  ground 
is  dry,  spread  the  surface  even  with  the  color,  and  soften ;  then  with 
a  piece  oi  cork  with  a  sharp  edge,  rub  the  work  cross  and  cross  in 
order  to  form  the  fine  grain.  When  dry,  dip  the  tip^of  your  fingers 
in  the  graining  color  to  form  the  eyes  or  knots,  and  put  in  the  small 
touches  with  a  camel' s-hair  pencil.  When  dry,  put  on  the  top  graiifc 
wid  when  this  is  dry,  varnish. 


26b      CABINETMAKERS,   PAINTERS',   &C.,   RECEIPTS. 

To  IMITATE  BLACK  AXD  GOLD  MARBLE.— This  description  ot 
marble  is  now  in  great  demand.  The  ground  is  a  deep  jet  black,  or  a 
idead  color,  in  gold  size,  drop  black  and  turps :  second  coat,  black 
) japan.  Commence  veiuing;  mix  white  and  yellow  ochre  with  a  small 
quantity  of  vermilion  to  give  a  gold  tinge;  dip  the  pencil  in  this  color,, 
and  dab  on  the  ground  with  great  freedom  some  l*rge  patches,  from, 
which  small  threads  must  be  drawn  in  various  directions.  In  the 
deepest  parts  of  the  black,  a  white  vein  is  sometimes  seen  running 
with  a  great  number  of  small  veins  attached  to  it;  but  care  must  be 
taken  that  these  threads  are  connected  with,  and  run  in  some  degree 
in  the  same  direction  with  the  thicker  veins.  If  durability  is  not  an 
object  and  the  work  is  required  in  a  short  time,  it  may  be  executed, 
very  quick  in  distemper  colors,  and  when  varnished,  it  will  look 
well. 

RED  MARBLE.— For  the  ground,  put  on  a  white  tinged  with  lake  or 
vermilion ;  then  apply  deep  rich  reds  in  patches,  filling  up  the  inter- 
mediate spaces  with  brown  and  white  mixed  in  oil;  then  blend  them, 
.together;  if  in  quick  drying  colors,  use  about  half  turps  and  golJ. 
size.  When  dry,  varnish ;  and  while  the  varnish  is  wet,  put  in  a 
multitude  of  the  fine  white  threads,  crossing  the  whole  work  in  all 
directions,  as  the  wet  varnish  brings  the  pencil  to  a  fine  point. 

JASPER  MARBLE. — Put  on  a  white  ground  lightly  tinged  with  blue;, 
then  put  on  patches  of  rich  reds  or  rose  pink,  leaving  spaces  of  tho- 
white  grounds;  then  partly  cover  those  spaces  with  various  browns- 
to  form  fossils,  in  places  running  veins;  then  put  in  a  few  spots  of 
•white  hi  the  centre  of  some  of  the  red  patches,  and  leaving  in  places- 
masses  nearly  all  white.  When  dry,  use  the  clearest  varnish. 

BLUE  AND  GOLD  MARBLE. — For  the  ground  put  on  a  light  blue; 
then  lake  blue,  with  a  small  piece  of  white  lead  and  some  dark  com- 
mon bine,  and  dab  on  the  ground  on  patches,  leaving  portions  of  the 
ground  to  shine  between ;  then  blend  the  edges  together  with  duster 
or  softener,-  afterwards  draw  on  some  white  veins  in  every  direction, 
leaving  large  open  spaces  to  be  filled  up  with  a  pale  yellow  or  gold- 
.  paint;  finish  with  some  fine  white  running  threads,  and  a  coat  of 

Tarnish  at  last. 

-  To  IMITATE  GRANITE.— For  the  ground  color,  stain  your  white 
lead  to  a  light  lead  color,  with  lampblack  and  a  little  rose  pink. 
Throw  on  black  spots,  with  a  graniting  machine,  a  pale  red,  and  fill  up 
with  white  before  the  ground  is  dry. 

ANOTHER. — A  black  ground,  when  half  dry,  throw  in  vermilion,  a 
deep  yellow  and  white  spots. 

To  IMITATE  HAIR  WOOD.— For  the  ground  color,  take  white  lead1 
and  thin  it  with  turpentine,  and  slightly  stain  it  with  equal  quantities 
of  Prussian  blue  and  lampblack.     For  the  graining  color,  grind  in  ale 
a  mixture  of  Prussian  blue  and  raw  sienna;  when  the  ground  is  dry, 
,'epread  a  transparent  coat  of  the  graining  color  on  the  surface  of  tht^ 
"work,  and  soften;  then  with  the  cork,  mottle  by  rubbing  it  to  and 
hfra  across  the  work,  to  form  the  fine  long  grain  or  mottle.    When  ,-. 
I  this  is  done,  soften  and  top  grain  in  wavy  but  perpendicular  direc*  *' 
*  tions;  varnish  when  dry. 

SUBSTITUTE  FOR  WHITE  LEAD.— Sulphate  of  barytes  ground  in  oil 
and  applied  like  paint.  It  can  also  be  used  to  reduce  white  lead  ta 


CABINETMAKERS,    PAINTERS',    AC.,    RECEIPTS,       26? 

PAINT  FOR  BLACK  BOARDS  IN  SCHOOLS.— Common  glue,  4  oz.; 
fiourof  emery,  3oz. ;  and  just  lampblack  enough  to  give  an  inky 
color  to  the  preparation.  Dissolve  the  glue  in  £  qt.  of  warm  water, 
put  in  the  lampblack  and  emery,  stir  till  there  are  no  lumps,  the* 
apply  to  the  board  with  a  woollen  rag  smoothly  rolled.  Three  coata 
are  amply  sufficient. 

COMPOUND  IRON  PAINT.— Finely  pulverized  iron  filings,  1  partj 
brick  dust,  1  part;  and  ashes,  1  part.  Pour  over  them  #lue- wafer  or 
size,  set  the  whole  near  the  fire,  and,  when  warm,  stir  them  well 
together.  With  this  paint  cover  all  the  wood  work  which  may  be  in 
danger;  when  dry,  give  a  second  coat,  and  the  wood  will  be  rendered 
incombustible. 

FILLING  COMPOSITIONS— 12  KINDS.—!.  Work  finished  in  oil  should 
receive  a  substantial  filling  consisting  of  equal  parts  by  weight  of 
whiting,  plaster  of  Paris,  pumice-stone,  and  litharge,  to  which  may 
"be  added  a  little  French  yellow,  asphaltum,  Vandyke  brown,  and 
terra  di  sienna.  Mix  with  1  part  japan,  2  of  boiled  oil,  and  4  of  tur- 
pentine. Grind  fine  in  a  mill.  Lay  the  filling  on  with  a  brush,  rub 
it  in  well,  let  it  set  20  minutes,  then  rub  off  clean.  Let  it  harden  for 
some  time,  rub  smooth,  and  if  required,  repeat  the  process.  When 
the  filling  is  all  right,  finish  with  linseed  oil,  applying  with  a  brush, 
wipe  off,  and  rub  to  a  polish  with  fine  cotton,  and  finish  with  any  fine 
fabric.  Some  fill  with  rye  flour,  wheat  flour,  corn  starch,  Paris- 
white,  &c.,  ground  fine  in  oil  and  turpentine,  but  when  work  is  to  be 
varnished,  such  filling  should  previously  receive  one  or  two  good 
coats  of  shellac.  2.  Boiled  linseed  oi)t  1  qt. ;  turpentine:  3  qts. ;  com 
etarch,  5  Ibs. ;  japan,  1  qt. ;  calcined  magnesia,  2  oz.  Mix  thoroughly. 
3.  Whiting,  6  ozs. ;  Japan,  \  pt.;  boiled  linseed  oil,  £  pt. ;  turpen- 
tine, £  pt. ;  corn  starch,  1  oz. :  mix  well  together  and  apply  to  the- 
wood.  On  walnut  wood  add  a  little  burnt  umber;  on  cherry  a  little 
Venetian  red,  to  the  above  mixture.  4.  On  furniture  apply  a  coat  of 
boiled  linseed  oil,  then  immediately  sprinkle  dry  whiting  upon  it,  and 
run  it  in  well  with  your  hand  or  a  stiff  brush,  all  over  the  surface j 
the  whiting  absorbs 'the  oil,  and  fills  the  pores  of  the  wood  completely. 
For  black  walnut,  add  a  little  burned  umber  to  the  whiting;  for 
cherry,  a  little  Venetian  red,  &c.,  according  to  the  color  of  the  wood. 
Turned  work  can  have  it  applied  while  in  motion  in  the  lathe.  Furni- 
ture can  afterwards  be  finished  with  only  one  coat  of  varnish.  5.  Ter- 
ra alba  is  a  very  good  and  very  cheap  filling.  Many  painters  have 
been  most  shamefully  imposed  on  by  parties  selling  the  stuff  at  a  high, 
price.  6.  Furniture  Pastes. — Beeswax,  spts.  turpentine  and  linseed 
«il,  equal  parts;  melt  and  cool.  7.  Beeswax,  4  ozs.;  turpentine.  10> 
ozs. ;  alkanet  root  to  color;  melt  and  strain.  8.  Beeswax,  1  Ib.;  lin- 
seed oil,  5  ozs. ;  alkanet  root,  £  oz.,  melt  and  add  6  ozs.  turpentine, 
strain  and  cool.  9.  Beeswax,  4  ozs. ;  rosin,  1  oz. ;  oil  of  turpentine, 

2  ozs. ;  digest  until  sufficiently  colored,  then  add  beeswax  till  dissolved, 
then  add  beeswax  scraped  small,  4  ozs. ;  put  the  vessel  into  hot  waterr 
and  stir  till  dissolved.    If  wanted  pale  the  alkauet  root  should  b« 
omitted.    10.  (Wliite.)  White  wax,  1  Ib.;  liquor  of  potassa,  £  gal.; 
boil  to  a  proper  consistency.   11.  Beeswax,  1  Ib. ;  soap,  £  Ib. ;  pearlash, 

3  ozs.,  dissolved  in  water,  *  gal. ;  strain  and  boil  as  the  last    12.  Yel* 
low  wax,  18  parts;  rosin,  1  part;  alkanet  root,  1  part;  turpentine,  6 
parts;  linseed  oil  6  parts.    First  steep  the  aikauet  in  oil  with  hea^ 


368     CABINETMAKERS,   PAINTERS',   AC.,   RECEIPTS. 

wid,  -when  -well  colored,  pour  off  the  clear  on  the  other  ingredients, 
and  again  heat  till  all  are  dissolved.  13.  Furniture  Cream.— Bees- 
wax, 1  Ib. ;  soap,  4  ozs. ;  pearlash,  2  ozs. ;  soft  water,  1  gal.,  boil  to« 
gether  until  mixed. 

To  REPAIR  THE  SILVERING  OP  MIRRORS.— Pour  upon  a  sheet  of 
tin  foil  3  drs.  of  quicksilver  to  the  square  foot  of  foil.    Rub  smartly 
with  a  piece  of  buckskin  until  the  foil  becomes  brilliant.    Lay  the 
glass  upon  a  flat  table,  face  downwards,  place  the  foil  upon  tie 
damaged  portion  of  the  glass,  lay  a  sheet  of  paper  over  the  foil,  and 
place  Upon  it  a  block  of  wood  or  a  piece  of  marble  with  a  perfectly  - 
fiat  surface;  put  upon  it  sufficient  weight  to  press  it  down  tight;  let  it 
remain  in  this  position  a  few  hours.    The  foil  will  adhere  to  the  ; 
glass. 

PENCILS  FOR  WRITING  ON  GLASS. — Stearic  acid,  4  pts. ;  mutton- 
euet,  3  pts. ;  wax  2  pts;  melt  together  and  add  6  parts  of  red  lead,  and  * 
1  pt.  purified  carbonate  of  potassa,  previously  triturated  together;  set  -. 
aside  for  an  hour  in  a  warm  situation,  stirring  frequently;  then  pour 
into  glass  tubes  or  hollow  reeds* 

POLISHES— 15  KINDS.— 1.  Carvers'  Polish.— White  resin,  2  oz.; 
eeedlac,  2  oz. ;  spirits  of  wine,  1  pt.  Dissolve.  It  should  be  laid  on 
warm.  Avoid  moisture  and  dampness  when  used.  2.  French  Polish 
— Gum  shellac,  1  oz. ;  gum  arabic,  £  oz. ;  gum  copal,  £  oz.  Powder, 
and  sift  through  a  piece  of  muslin;  put  them  in  a  closely  corked  bot- 
tle with  1  pt.  spirits  of  wine,  in  a  very  warm  situation,  snaking  every 
day  till  the  gums  are  dissolved ;  then  strain  through  muslin,  and  cork 
for  use.  3.  Polish  for  Dark-colored  Woods.— Seedlac,  1  oz. ;  gum 
guaiacum,  2  drs. ;  dragon's  blood,  2  drs. ;  gum  mastic,  2  drs. ;  put  in 
a  bottle  with  1  pt.  spirits  of  wine,  cork  close,  expose  to  a  moderate 
heat  till  the  gums  are  dissolved ;  strain  into  a  bottle  for  use,  with  | 
gill  of  linseed  oil;  shake  together.  4.  Waterproof  Polish. — Gum 
"benjamin,  2  ozs. ;  gum  sandarac,  £  oz. ;  gum  anima,  J  oz. ;  spirits  of 
wine,  1  pt. ;  mix  in  a  closely  stopped  bottle,  and  place  either  in  a  sand 
bath  or  in  hot  water  till  the  gums  are  dissolved,  then  strain  off  the 
mixture,  shake  it  up  with  ±  gill  of  the  best  clear  poppy  oil,  and  put  it  ' 
by  for  use.  5.  Finishing  Polish.— Gum  shellac,  2  drs. ;  gum  benja- 
min, 2  drs. ;  put  into  £  pt.  best  rectified  spirits  of  wine  hi  a  bottle 
closely  corked;  keep  in  warm  place,  shaking  frequently  till  the  gums 
are  dissolved.  When  cold,  shake  up  with  it  two  teaspoonf  uls  of  the  best 
clear  poppy  oil.  6.  Polish  for  Removing  Stains,  Spots,  and  Mildew 
from  Furniture. — Take  of  98  per  cent,  alcohol,  \  pint;  pulverized 
resin  and  gum  shellac,  of  each,  £  oz.  Let  these  cut  in  the  alcohol ; 
then  add  linseed  oil,  $  pt. ;  shake  well,  and  apply  with  a  sponge, 
brush,  or  cotton  flannel,  or  an  old  newspaper,  rubbing  it  well  after 
the  application,  which  gives  a  nice  polish.  7.  Polish  for  Reviving 
Old  Furniture. — Take  alcohol,  1^  oz. ;  spirits  of  salts  (muriatic  acid), 
^  oz. ;  linseed  oil,  8  oz, ;  best  vinegar,  ^  pt. ;  and  butter  of  antimony,!  - 
li  oz. ;  mix,  puttinginthe  vinegar  last.  8.  Jet  or  Polish  for  Wood 
»cr  Leather,  Black,  Ked,  or  Blue- — Alcohol  (98  per  cent.),  1  pt. ;  sealing 
wax,  the  color  desired,  3  sticks;  dissolve  by  heat,  and  have  it  warm 
when  applied.  A  sponge  is  the  best  to  apply^  it  with.  9.  Polish  for 
Turners'  Work. — Dissolve  sandarac,  1  oz.,  in  spirit  of  wine,  ^  pt.:' 
next  shave  beeswax,  1  oz. ;  and  dissolve  it  in  a  sufficient  quantity  01 
•nixits  of  turpentine  to  make  it  into  a  paste,  add  the  former  mixture 


CABINETMAKERS,    PAINTERS*.    «fcCM    RECEIPTS/    26| 

by  degrees  to  it,  then  with  a  woolen  cloth  apply  it  to  the  work  while  it 
is  ia  motion  in  the  lathe,  and  with  a  soft  linen  rag  polish  it.  It  wil 
appear  as  if  highly  varnished.  10.  Furniture  Polish. — Beeswax,  4 
lb.,  and  £  of  an  oz.  of  alkanet  root;  melt  together  in  a  pipkin  until 
the  former  is  well  colored.  Then  add  linseed  oil  and  spirits  of  tur- 
pentine, of  each  half  a  gill ;  strain  through  a  piece  of  coarse  muslin. 
11.  French  Polishes.— 1.  Shellac,  3  Ibs. ;  wood  naphtha,  3  pts. ;  dis-; 
solve.  2.  Shellac,  2  Ibs. ;  powdered  mastic  and  saudarac,  of  each  1 
oz. ;  copal  varnish,  ipint;  spirits  of  wine,  1  gal.  Digest  in  the  cold 
till  dissolved.  12.  Black  Walnut  Polish.— Take  pulverized  asphal- 
tum ;  put  it  in  a  jar  or  bottle,  pour  over  it  about  twice  its  bulk  of  tur- 
pentine or  benzole,  put  in  a  warm  place,  and  shake  occasionally: 
when  dissolved,  strain,  and  apply  it  to  the  wood  with  a  cloth  or  stiff 
brush;  should  it  prove  too  dark,  dilute  with  turpentine  or  benzole. 
If  desired  to  bring  out  the  grain  still  more,  apply  a  mixture  of  boiled 
oil  and  turpentine;  this  is  better  than  oil  alone  When  the  oil  is  dry, 
the  wood  can  be  polished  with  the  following:  shellac  varnish,  2  parts, 
boiled  oil,  1  part ;  shake  it  well  before  using  Apply  with  a  cloth,  rub- 
bing briskly  13.  To  PolisJi  Wood.  — Take  a  piece  of  pumice-stone  and 
water,  and  pass  repeatedly  over  the  work  until  the  rising  of  the  grain 
is  cut  down.  Then  take  powdered  tripoli  and  boiled  linseed  oil,  and 
polish  the  work  to  a  bright  surface  14.  Clock  Cose  and  Picture 
Frame  Finish. — Copal  varnish,  2  Ibs. ;  linseed  oil  varnish,  \  oz. ;  mix 
well,  shake  often,  and  place  in  a  warm  spot  The  wood  to  be  var- 
nished is  prepared  with  a  thin  coat  of  glue- water,  and  rubbed  down 
with  fine  pumice-stone  or  something  equivalent  In  light-colored 
wood,  a  light  pigment,  such  as  chalk,  is  added  to  the  glue- water; 
in  dark  wood,  a  dark  pigment  is  added  When  ready,  the  articles  are 
varnished  with  the  above  mixture,  and,  after  drying,  rubbed  with  a 
solution  of  wax  in  ether,  thereby  receiving  a  high  polish  15  White 
Polish  for  White  Woods.— White  bleached  shellac,  3  ozs. ;  white 
gum  benzoin,  1  oz. ;  gum  sandarac,  £  oz. ;  spirits  of  wine  or  naphtha, 
1  pt.  Dissolve. 

OIL  FINISHES.—!.  Linseed  oil,  16  ozs. ;  black  resin,  4  ozs. ;  vinegar, 
4  ozs. ;  rectified  spirits,  3  ozs. ;  butter  of  antimony,  10  ozs. ;  spirit  of 
ealts,  2  ozs. ;  melt  the  resin,  add  the  oil,  take  it  off  the  fire,  and  stir  in 
the  vinegar;  let  it  boil  for  a  few  minutes,  stirring  it;  when  cool,  put 
it  into  a  bottle,  add  the  other  ingredients,  shaking  all  together.  2. 
Linseed  oil,  1  pt. ;  oil  of  turpentine,  ^  pt. ;  rectified  spirits,  4  ozs. ;  pow- 
dered resin,  1*  oz. ;  rose  pink,  ^  oz. ;  mix.  3.  Acetic  acid,  2  drs. ;  oil 
of  lavender,  £  dr. ;  rectified  spirits,  1  dr. ;  linseed  oil,  4  ozs.  4.  Linseed 
oil,  1  pt. ;  alkauet  root,  2  ozs. ;  heat,  strain,  and  add  lac  varnish,  1  oz. 

5.  Linseed  oil,  1  pt. ;  rectified  spirits,  2  ozs. ;  butter  of  antimony,  4  ozs. 

6.  Linseed  oil,  1  gal. ;  alkanet  root,  3  ozs. ;  rose  pink,  1  oz.    Boil  them, 
together  ten  minutes,  and  strain  so  that  the  oil  be  quite  clear. 

FANCY  FIGURES  ON  WOOD. — Slake  some  lime  in  stale  urine.  Dip 
a  brush  in  it,  and  form  on  the  wood  figures  to  suit  your  fancy.  When 
dry,  rub  it  well  with  a  rind  of  pork. 

STAINS  FOR  WOOD. — 1.  Cheap  Slack  Walnut  Stain. — Burnt  um- 
ber, 2  parts;  rose  pink,  1  part;  glue,  1  part;  water  sufficient;  heat  all 
together  and  dissolve  completely,  apply  to  the  work  first  with  a 
aponge,  then  go  over  it  with  a  brush,  and  varnish  over  with  shellac, 
t.  Ebony  £tain.— Drop  black,  2  parts;  rose  pink,  1  part;  turpentine, « 


270     CABINETMAKERS,   PAINTERS',   AC.,    RECEIPTS. 

sufficient  quantity.    3.  Bright  Yellow  Stain.— I.  Brush  over  with  the 
tincture  of  turmeric.    4.  Warm  the  work,  and  brush  it  over  with  wsak 
aquafortis ;  varnish  or  oil  as  usual.    5.  A  very  small  bit  of  aloes  put 
into  the  varnish  will  give  a  rich  yellow  color  to  the  wood.    6.  Extra 
Black  Stain  for   Wood. — Pour  2  quarts  boiling  water  over  1  oz.  of 
powdered  extract  of  logwood,  and,  when  the  solution  is  affected,  1  dr. 
of  yellow  chromate  of  potash  is  added,  and  the  whole  well  stirred. 
It  is  then  ready  for  use  as  a  wood-stain,  or  for  writing  ink.    When 
rubbed  on  wood,  it  produces  a  pure  black.    Repeat  with  2,  3,  or  4 
applications,  till  a  deep  black  is  produced.    7.  Imitation  of  Mahogany. 
let  the  first  coat  of  painting  be  white  lead,  the  second  orange,  and 
the  last  burnt  umber  or  sienna  :  imitating  the  veins  according  to  your 
taste  and  practice.    8.  To  Imitate  Wainscot. — Let  the  first  coat  be 
•white ;  the  second,  half  white  and  yellow  ochre;  and  the  third,  yellow 
-ochre  only;  shadow   with  umber  or  sienna.    9.  To  Imitate  Satin 
Wood. — Take  white  for  your  first  coating,  light  blue  for  the  second, 
And  dark  blue  or  dark  green  for  the  third     10.  Rosewood  Stain,  very 
bright  shade — Used  Cold. — Take  alcohol,  1  gal.;  camwood,  2  oz. ; 
«et  them  in  a  warm  place  24  hours;  then  add  extract  of  logwood,  3 
•oz. ;  aquafortis,  1  oz.  ;  and  when  dissolved,  it  is  ready  for  use ;  it 
makes  a  very  bright  ground  like  the  most   beautiful  rosewood; 
1,  2,  or  more  coats  as  you  desire.    11.  Cherry  Stain. — Rain-  water,  3 
•qts. ;  annatto,  4  oz. ;  boil  in  a  copper  kettle  till  the  annatto  is  dis- 
solved, then  put  in  a  piece  of  potash  the  size  of  a  walnut;  keep  it  on 
the  fire  about  half  an  hour  longer,  and  it  is  ready  to  bottle  for  use. 
12.  Rosewood  Stain,  very  briyht  shade. — Equal  parts  of  logwood  apd 
redwood  chips,  boil  well  in  water  sufficient  to  make  a  strong  stain ; 
.apply  it  to  the  furniture  while  hot;  2  or  3  coats  according  to  the  depth 
of  color  desired.     13.  Rose  Pink  Stain  and  Varnish. — Put  1  oz.  of 
potash  in  1  qt.  water,  with  red  sanders,  1^  ozs.;  extract  the  color  from 
the  wood  and  strain  :  then  add  gum  shellac,  |lb.,  dissolve  it  by  a 
l)risk  fire.    Used  upon  logwood  stain  for  rosewood  imitation.    14. 
J3lue  Stain  for  Wood.    1.  Dissolve  copper  filings  in  aquafortis,  brush 
the  wood  with  it,  and  then  go  over  the  work  with  a  hot  solution  of 
pearlash  (2  oz.  to  1  pt.  of  water)  till  it  assumes  a  perfectly  blue  color. 
15.  Boil  2  ozs.  of  indigo,  2  Ibs.  wood,  and  1  oz.  alum,  in  1  gal.  water, 
brush  well  over  until  thoroughly  stained.    16.  Imitation  of  Botany- 
Bay  Wood.— Boil  i  Ib.  French  berries  (the  unripe  berries  of  the 
.Rhamnus  infectorius)  in  2  qts.  water  till  of  a  deep  yellow,  and  while 
boiling  hot,  give  2  or  3  coats  to  the  work.    If  a  deeper  color  is  desired, 
.give  a  coat  of  logwood  decoction  over  the  yellow.    When  nearly  dry, , 
form  the  grain  with  No.  8,  black  stain,  used  hot,  and.  when  dry,  rust 
and  Tarnish.    17.  Mahogany  Color— Dark.— 1.  Boil  $  Ib.  of  madder 
and  2  ozs.  logwood  chips  in  a  gallon  of  water,  and  brush  well  over 
while  hot;  when  dry  go  over  the  whole  with  pearlash  solution,  2 
<drs.  to  the  quart.    2.  Put  2  ozs.  dragon's  blood,  bruised^  into  a  quart 
of  oil  of  turpentine ;  let  the  bottle  stand  in  a  warm  place,  shake  fre- 
quently, and,  when  dissolved,  steep  the  work  in  the  mixture.    18. 
Box-wood  Brown  Stain. — Hold  your  work  to  the  fire,  that  it  may  re- 
ceive a  gentle  warmth ;  then  take  aquafortis,  and,  with  a  feather, 
pass  it  over  the  work  till  you  find  it  change  to  a  fine  brown  (always 
ieeping  it  near  the  fire),  you  may  then  varnish  or  polish  it.    19. 
Liyht  Red  Brown.    Boil  £  Ib.  madder  and  £  Ib.  fustio  in  1  gal.  water; 


CABINETMAKERS,    PAINTERS',    &C.,    RECEIPTS.        271 

brush  over  the  work,  -when  boiling  hot,  until  properly  stained,  20. 
The  surface  of  the  work  being  quite  smooth,  brush  over  with  a  weak 
solution  of  aquafortis,  ^  oz.  to  the  pint ;  then  finish  with  the  follow- 
ing : — Put  4^  ozs.  dragon's  blood  and  1  oz.  soda,  botli  well  bruised,  to 

3  pts  spirits  of  wine,  let  it  stand  in  a  warm  place,  shake  frequently, 
strain  and  lay  on  with  a  soft  brush,  repeating  until  of  a  proper  color; 
polish  with  linseed  oil  or  varnish.    21.  Pwple. — Brush  the  work 
several  times  with  the  logwood  decoction  used  for  No.  6  Black ;  and, 
when  dry,  give  a  coat  of  pearlash  solution,  1  dr.  to  a  quart;  lay  it  on 
evenly.    22.  Red. — 1.  Boil  1  Ib.  Brazil  wood  and  1  oz.  pearlasn  in  a 
gal.  of  water ;  and,  while  hot,  brush  over  the  work  until  of  a  proper 
color.     Dissolve  2  ozs.  alum  in  1  qt.   water,  and  brush  the   solution 
over  the  work  before  it  dries.    23.  Take  a  gallon  of  the  above  stain, 
add  2  ozs.  more  pearlash ;  use  hot,  and  brush  over  with  the  alum 
solution.    24.    Use  a  cold  solution  of  archil,  and  brush  over  with  the 
pearlash  solution  for  No.  1,  Dark  mahogany.  25.  Mahogany  Stain  on 

Wood.— Take  nitric  acid,  dilute  with  10  parts  of  water,  and  wash  the 
wood  with  it.  To  produce  roscicood  finish,  glaze  the  same  with  car- 
mine of  Munich  lake.  Asphalturn,  thinned  with  turpentine,  forms  an 
excellent  mahogany  color  on  new  work.  26.  Mahogany  Stain  on 
Maple. — Dragon's  blood,  \  oz. ;  alkanet,  £  oz. ;  aloes,  1  dr. ;  spirits  of 
wine,  16  ozs. :  apply  it  with  a  sponge  or  brush.  27.  Crimson  Slain 
for  Musical  Instruments. — Ground  Bi&zil  wood,  1  Ib. ;  water,  3  qts. ; 
cochineal,  i  ounce ;  boil  the  Brazil  with  the  water  fbr  an  hour,  strain, 
add  the  cochineal ;  boil  gently  for  half  an  hour,  when  it  will  be  fit  for 
use.  If  you  wish  a  scarlet  tint,  boil  an  ounce  of  saffron  in  a  quart  of 
•water,  and  pass  over  the  work  before  you  stain  it.  28.  Purple  Stain. 
— Chipped  logwood,  1  Ib. ;  water,  3  qts. ;  pearlash,  4  ounces;  powdered 
indigo,  2  ounces.  Boil  the  logwood  in  the  water  half  an  hour,  add 
Uie  pearlash  and  indigo,  and  when  dissolved,  you  will  have  a  beauti- 
ful purple.  29.  Green  Stain. — Strong  vinegar,  3  pts.;  best  verdigris, 

4  ounces,  ground  fine;  gap  green,  £  ounce;  mix  together. 

BLACK  STAINS  FOR  WOOD. — 1  Drop  a  little  sulphuric  acid  into  a 
small  quantity  of  water  ;  brush  over  the  wood  and  hold  it  to  the  fire  : 
it  will  be  a  fine  black  and  receive  a  good  polish.  2.  For  a  beautiful 
black,  on  wood,  nothing  can  exceed  the  black  Japan  mentioned  under 
Tinsmiths'  Department.  Apply  two  coats  ;  alter  which,  varnish  and 
polish  it.  3.  To  1  gal  vinegar,  add  a  quarter  of  a  pound  of  iron  rust : 
let  it  stand  for  a  week  ;  then  add  a  pound  of  dry  lampblack,  ana 
three-quarters  of  a  pound  copperas  ;  stir  it  up  for  a  couple  of  days. 
Lay  on  five  or  six  coats  with  a  sponge,  allowing  it  to  dry  between 
each  ;  polish  with  linseed-oil  and  a  soft  woollen  rag,  and  it  will  look 
like  ebony.  Incomparable  for  iron  work,  ships'  guns,  shot,  &e  4..' 
Vinegar,  $gal ;  dry  lampblack,  £lb. ;  iron-rust  sifted,  31bs.:  mix  and 
let  stand  for  a  week.  Lay  three  coats  of  this  on  hot,  and  then  rub 
with  linseed  oil,  and  you  will  have  a  fine  deep  black.  5.  Add  to  the 
above  stain,  nut-galls,  1  oz.  ;  logwood-chips,  £  Ib. ;  copperas,  £  Ib.  : 
lay  on  three  coats  ;  oil  well,  and  you  will  have  a  black  stain  that  will 
stand  any  kind  of  weather,  and  is  well  adapted  for  ships'  combings, 
&c.  6.  Logwood-chips,  ^  Ib. ;  Brazil-wood,  £  Ib. ;  boil  for  1£  hours  in 
1  gal.  water.  Brush  the  wood  with  this  decoction  while  hot ;  make  a 
decoction  of  nut-galls,  by  gentle  simmering,  for  three  or  four  days,  a 
quarter  of  a  pound  of  the  galls  in  3  qts.  water  ;  give  the  wood  threa 


272     CABINETMAKERS,    PAINTERS',   &C.,   RECEIPTS. 

eoats,  and,  while  wet,  lay  on  a  solution  of  sulphate  of  iron  (2  ozs.  to  % 
quart),  and,  when  dry,  oil  or  varnish.  7.  Give  three  coats  with  a 
solution  of  copper  filings  in  aquafortis,  and  repeatedly  brush  over 
with  the  logwood  decoction  until  the  greenness  of  the  copper  is 
destroyed.  8.  Boil  £  Ib.  logwood-chips  in  2  quarts  water ;  add  an 
ounce  of  pearlash,  and  apply  hot  with  a  brush.  Then  take  2  qts.  of 
the  logwood  decoction,  and  i  oz.  of  verdigris,  and  the  same  of  cop- 
peras ;  strain,  and  throw  in  f  Ib.  of  iron  rust  Brush  the  work  well 
with  this,  and  oil. 

BLACK  WALNUT  STAix.--Spirits  of  turpentine,  1  gal. ;  pulverized 
*sphaltum,  2  Ibs. ;  dissolve  in  an  iron  kettle  on  a  stove,  stirring  con- 
stantly. Can  be  used  over  a  red  stain  to  imitate  rosewood.  To  maka 
a  perfect  black  add  a  little  lampblack.  The  addition  of  a  little  varnish 
with  the  turpentine  improves  it. 

CRYSTAL  VARNISH,  FOR  MAPS,  &c. — Canada  balsam,  1  oz.  ;  spirits, 
of  turpentine,  2  oz.  ;  mix  together.  Before  applying  this  varnish  to 
a  drawing  or  colored  print,  the  paper  should  be  placed  on  a  stretcher, 
and  sized  with  a  thin  solution  of  isinglass  in  water,  and  dried.  Apply 
with  a  soft  camel' s-hair  brush. 

To  EBONTZE  WOOD. — Mix  up  a  strong  stain  of  copperas  and  log- 
wood, to  which  add  powdered  nut-gall.  Stain  your  wood  with  this 
solution,  dry,  rub  down  well,  oil,  then  use  French  polish  made  toler- 
ably dark  with  indigo  or  finely  powdered  stone  blue. 

MISCELLANEOUS  STAINS.— Yellow  is  produced  by  diluted  nitric 
acid.  Red  is  produced  by  a  solution  of  dragon's  blood  in  spirits  of 
wine.  Slack  is  produced  by  a  strong  solution  of  nitric  acid.  Green  la 
produced  by  a  solution  of  verdigris  in  nitric  acid  ;  then,  dipped  in  a. 
|&0t  solution  pearlash  produces  a  Slue  stain.  Purple  is  produced  by 
1  a  solution  of  sal-ammoniac  in  nitric  acid. 

BEAUTIFUL  VARNISH  FOR  VIOLINS,  &c. — Rectified  spirits  of  wine, 
\  gal.  ;  add  6  oz.  gum  sandarac,  3  oz.  gum  mastic,  and  \  pt.  turpen- 
tine varnish  ;  put  the  above  hi  a  tin  can  by  the  stove,  frequently 
shaking  till  well  dissolved  :  strain  and  keep  for  use.  If  you  find  it 
harder  than  you  wish,  thin  with  more  turpentine  varnish. 

ANOTHER. — Heat  together  at  a  low  temperature  2  qts.  of  alcohol,  ifc 
pt  turpentine  varnish,  and  lib.  clean  gum  mastic  ;  when  the  latter  ia 
thoroughly  dissolved,  strain  through  a  cloth. 

VARNISH  FOR  FRAMES,  ETC.— Lay  the  frames  over  with  tin  or 
silver  foil  by  means  of  plaster  of  Paris,  glue  or  cement  of  some  kind,, 
that  the  foil  may  be  perfectly  adherent  to  the  wood  ;  then  apply  your 
gold  lacquer  varnish,  which  is  made  as  follows  :  Ground  turmeric,  1 
Ib.  ;  powdered  gamboge,  l£  ounces  ;  powdered  sandarac,  3£  Ibs.  ; 
powdered  shellac,  f  Ibs.  ;  spirits  of  wine,  2  gals.  ;  dissolve  and  strain  j 
then  add  turpentine  varnish,  1  pt.  ;  and  it  is  ready  for  use. 

DYES  FOR  VENEERS.— A  fine  Black.— Put,  6  Ibs.  of  logwood  chip* 
into  your  copper,  with  as  many  veneers  as  it  will  hold  without  press- 
ing too  tight,  fill  it  with  water,  let  it  boil  slowly  for  about  3  hours,, 
then  add  5  Ib.  of  powdered  verdigris,  %  Ib.  copperas,  bruised  gall-nuta 
4  ozs.  ;  fill  the  copper  up  with  vinegar  as  the  water  en  vapo rates  ;  let 
it  boil  gently  2  hours  each  day  till  the  wood  is  dyed  through.  A  fine, 
Slue.— Put  oil  of  vitriol,  1  Ib.,  and  4  ozs.  of  the  best  powdered  indigd 
in  a  glass  bottle.  Set  it  in  a  glazed  earthen  pan,  as  it  will  f^nnest. 
Now  put  your  veneers  into  a  copper  or  stone  trough  ; 


CABINETMAKERS,   PAINTERS  ,   AC.,   RECEIWS.      27S 

more  than  one-third  with  water,  and  add  as  much  of  the  vitriol  and 
indigo  (stirring  it  about)  as  will  make  fine  blue,  testing  it  with  a 
piece  of  white  paper  or  wood.  Let  the  veneers  remswi  till  the  dye- 
has  struck  through.  Keep  the  solution  of  indigo  a  few  weeks  before 
using  it ;  this  improves  the  color.  Fine  Yclloio. — Reduce  4  IDS.  of  the 
root  of  barberry  to  dust  by  sawing,  which  put  in  a  copper  or  brass 
trough  ;  add  turmeric,  4  ozs.  ;  water,  4  gals.  ;  then  put  in  as  many 
[white  holly  veneers  as  the  liquor  will  cover.  Boil  them  together  3 
hours,  often  turning  them.  When  cool,  add  aquafortis,  2  oz.,  and 
the  dye  will  strike  through  much  sooner.  Bright  Green. — Proceed  as. 
in  the  previous  receipt  to  produce  a  yellow  ;  but,  instead  of  aqua- 
fortis, add  as  much  of  the  vitriolated  indigo  (see  above,  under  blue- 
dye)  as  will  produce  the  desired  color.  Bright  Red. — Brazil  dust,  2 
Ibs.  ;  add  water,  4  gals.  Put  hi  as  many  veneers  as  the  liquid  "will 
cover  ;  boil  them  for  3  hours,  then  add  alum,  2  oz  ,  aquafortis,  2  oz.; 
and  keep  it  luke-warm  until  it  has  struck  through.  Purple. — To  & 
Ibs.  of  chip  logwood  and  ^  Ib.  Brazil  dust,  add  4  gals,  of  water  ;  and 
after  putting  in  your  veneers,  boil  for  3  hours  ;  then  add  pearlash,  9 
ozs.,  and  alum  2  oz. ;  let  them  boil  for  2  or  3  hours  every  day  till  the 
color  has  struck  through.  Orange. — Take  the  veneers  out  of  the 
above  yellow  dye,  while  still  wet  and  saturated,  transfer  them  to  the- 
bright  red  dye  till  the  color  penetrates  throughout. 

To  IMPROVE  THE  COLOR  OF  STAINS.— Nitric  acid,  1  oz.  ;  muriatic* 
acid,  £  teaspoonf  ul ;  grain  tin,  J  oz. ;  rain  water,  2  oz.  Mix  it  at  least 
2  days  before  using,  and  keep  your  bottle  well  corked. 

STRONG  GLUE  FOR  INLAYING  OR  VENEERING.— Select  the  best 
light  brown  glue,  free  from  clouds  and  streaks.  Dissolve  this  in  wa- 
ter, and  to  every  pint  add  half  a  gill  of  the  best  vinegar  and  £  oz.  of 
isinglass.  For  other  glues  see  Engineers'  Department 

INLAID  MOTHER  OF  PEARL  WORK,  on  sewing  machines  and  other 
fancy  work,  is  performed  by  selecting  the  thin  scales  of  the  shell 
and  cementing  them  to  the  surface  of  the  material ;  the  rest  of  the 
surface  is  covered  with  successive  coats  of  Japan  varnish,  generally 
"black,  being  subjected  to  a  baking  process  after  each  application. 
When  the  varnish  is  as  thick  as  the  shell,  it  is  polished,  the  gilding 
and  painting  added,  and  a  flowing  coat  of  varnish  put  over  the  whole. 

Another  Method. — Prepare  the  job  with  a  heavy  coat  of  black  Japan, 
then,  before  it  is  drj*,  procure  flakes  of  pearl  and  lay  them  on  the 
black  surface,  pressing  them  into  the  Japan  until  they  are  level  with 
the  surface;  then  with  colors  form  vines  and  flowers,  allowing  the 
pearl  to  form  the  body  of  the  flower  leaf,  and  shade  up  all  nicely. 

TRANSPARENT  PAINTING  ON  WINDOW  SHADES. — The  muslin  ia 
spread  on  a  frame  and  secured  tightly  with  tacks,  then  sized  with  z 
mixture  of  fine  flour  paste,  white  glue,  and  white  bar  soap;  the  soap 
*endera  the  muslin  pliable  and  soft  A  thin  coat  is  applied,  which  is 
nearly  invisible  when  dry.  A  coat  of  pure  linseed  oil,  diluted  with 


umber,  verdigris,  asphaltum,  or  other  suitable  colors.  An  outline  of 
the  design  is  drawn  with  a  small  pencil  with  black  or  umber,  after 
which  the  colors  may  be  applied,  more  or  less  diluted,  as  more  or  lesa 
transparency  is  desired.  In  general,  the  brightest  colors  should  be 


274  CABINETMAKERS,  PAINTERS*,  AC.,  RECEIPTS. 

Applied  first,  and  the  darker  shades  over  them.  These  colors  must  bd 
Jaid  evenly  and  smoothly  with  soft  brushes,  and  should  any  part  be 
dnade  too  dark,  the  best  vray  is  to  scrape  off  with  a  stick  before  the 
•.color  gets  too  dry.  The  best  designs  for  shades  consists  of  landscape 
views,  and  should  always  be  designed  to  accommodate  the  form  and  - 
position  of  the  ground  on  which  they  are  drawn.  Stencils  will  ba 
found  useful  on  this  work,  in  making  corners  or  stripes  for  borders. 

To  PAINT  MAGIC  LANTERN  SIDES.— Transparent  colors  only  are 
nsed  for  this  work,  such  as  lakes,  sap-green,  ultramarine,  verdigris, 
,gamboge,  asphaltum,  &c.,  mixed  in  oil,  and  tempered  with  light 
•colored  varnish  (white  Demar).  Draw  on  the  paper  the  design  de- 
sired, ,and  stick  it  to  the  glass  with  water  or  gum ;  then  with  a  fine 
;  pencil -put  the  outlines  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  glass  with  the  prop- 

•  er  colors;  then  shade  or  fill  up  with  black  or  Vandyke  brown,  as  you 
.find -best. 

MARINE  PAINT  FOR  METALS  IN  SALT  WATER.— Red  lead  55  parts; 
^quicksilver,  30  parts;  thick  turpentine,  7  parts.  Mix  with  boiled 
linseed  oil  to  the  proper  consistency.  The  quicksilver  must  bo 
thoroughly  amalgamated  with  the  thick  turpentine  by  grinding  or 
rubbing,  and  this  mixture  must  be  ground  with  red  lead  and  more 
boiled  oil.  As  little  oil  as  is  necessary  to  make  the  paint  lay  well  must 
be  used.  To  make  the  paint  adhere  more  firmly,  a  previous  coat  of  ox- 
ide of  iron  paint  may  be  used. 

To  IMITATE  TORTOISE  SHELL.— Paint  a  ground  of  salmon  color; 
then  when  dry  and  smoothed  off,  coat  it  over  with  rose  pink,  mixed  in 
varnish  and  turpentine ;  then  with  a  flat  piece  of  glass,  press  on  the 
surface,  and  remove  the  glass  quickly,  being  careful  not  to  push  it 
over  the  paint  so  as  to  disturb  the  curious  figures  which  the  pressure 
will  form  thereon.  Varnish  when  dry,  ani  you  will  find  you  have  a 
beautiful  imitation  of  tortoise  shell. 

BANNER  PAINTING. — Lay  out  the  letters  very  accurately  with 
charcoal  or  crayon,  then  saturate  the  cloth  with  water  to  render  the 
painting  easy.  On  large  work  a  stencil  will  be  found  useful.  Take 
a  piece  of  tin,  lay  the  straight  edge  to  the  mark,  brush  over  with  a 
aash  tool,  and  by  this  means  you  will  make  a  very  clean-edg&d 
letter.  Use  stiff  bristle  pencils  in  painting  on  canvas. 

OIL  CLOTH  PAINTING. — To  paint  canvas  for  floors,  the  canvas 
should  first  be  saturated  with  glue-water  or  flour  paste,  and  allowed 
to  dry  first  Then  paint  it  with  any  color  desired.  To  put  in  the 
figures,  cut  out  designs  in  tin  plates  or  stiff  paper,  and  stencil  them 
on  in  various  colors. 

To  IMITATE  MARBLE.— For  ichite  marble,  get  up  a  pure  white 

i-ground,  then  hold  a  lighted  candle  near  the  surface,  and  allow  the 

amoke   to   form   the  shades  and  various  tints  desired.    This  will 

make  a  very  handsome  imitation.    Slack  marble  imitation  is  made 

•  by  streaking  a  black  surface  with  colors,  using  a  feather  and  pencil. 
,Another  plan  is  to  get  up  a  smooth  black  surface ;  then  take  the  colors, 
.'green,  yellow,  red,  white,  &c.,  ground  thick  in  gold  size,  and  streak 

the  surface  with  a  stick  or  pencil.    Allow  it  to  dry,  and  apply  a  heavy 

•  coat  of  lampblack  and  yellow  ochre,  mixed  with  rough  stuff.    When 
all  is  hard,  rub  down  to  a  level  surface  with  lump  pumice-stone, 
varnish,  and  a  beautiful  varigated  marble  will  be  the  result 

ETCHING  ox  GI^ASS.— Druggists'  bottles,  bar-tmnblers,  signs,  an/ 


CABINETMAKERS,    PAINTERS',    &C.,    RECEIPTS.      275 

glassware  of  every  description,  can  be  lettered  in  a  beautiful  gtyle  of 
art,  by  simply  giving  the  article  to  be  engraved,  or  etched,  a  thin  coat 
of  the  engraver's  varnish  (see  next  receipt),  and  the  application  of 
fluoric  acid.  Before  doing  so,  the  glass  must  be  thoroughly  cleaned 
«nd  heated,  so  that  it  can  hardly  be  held.  The  varnish  is  then  to  ba 
applied  lightly  over,  and  made  smooth  by  dabbing  it  with  a  small 
ball  of  silk,  filled  with  cotton.  When  dry  and  even,  the  lines  may  bo 
traced  on  it  by  a  sharp  steel,  cutting  clear  through  the  varnish  to  tlio 
jglass.  The  varnish  must  be  removed  clean  from  each  letter,  other- 
wise it  will  be  an  imperfect  job.  When  all  is  ready,  pour  on  or  applj 
the  fluoric  acid  with  a  feather,  filling  each  letter.  Let  it  remain  until 
it  etches  to  the  required  depth,  then  wash  off  with  water,  and  remove 
the  varnish. 

ETCHING  VARNISH. — Take  of  virgin  wax  and  asphaltum,  each  2 
oz. ;  of  black  pitch  and  Burgundy  pitch,  each  i  oz. ;  melt  the  wax  and 
pitch  in  a  new  earthenware  glazed  pot,  and  add  to  them,  by  degrees, 
the  asphaltum,  finely  powdered.  Let  the  whole  boil,  simmerin  j 
gradually,  till  such  time  as,  taking  a  drop  upon  a  ]  -iate,  it  will  break 
when  it  is  cold,  or  bending  it  double  two  or  three  *imes  betwixt  tlio 
fingers.  The  varnish,  being  then  boiled  enoughs  must  be  taken  off 
the  fire,  and,  after  it  cools  a  little,  must  be  poured  into  warm  water 
that  it  may  work  the  more  easily  with  the  hands,  so  as  to  be  formed 
into  balls,  which  must  be  kneaded,  and  put  into  a,  piece  of  taffety  for 
use.  The  sand  blast  is  now  in  extensive  use  for  ornamenting  on  glass. 

FLUORIC  ACTD  TO  MAKE  FOB  ETCHING  PURPOSES. — You  can 
make  your  own  fluoric  (sometimes  called  hydro-fluoric)  acid,  by 
getting  the  fluor  or  Derbyshire  spar,  pulveriziiig  it,  and  putting  all  of 
it  into  sulphuric  acid  which  the  acid  will  cu'j  or  dissolve.  Inasmuch 
as  fluoric  acid  is  destructive  to  glass,  it  cannot  be  kept  in  commou 
"bottles,  but  must  be  kept  in  lead  or  gutta  percha  bottles. 

GLASS-GRINDING  FOR  SIGNS,  SHADES,  &c.  — After  you  have 
etched  a  name  or  other  design  upon  uncolored  glass,  and  wish  to  have 
it  show  off  to  better  advantage  by  permitting  the  light  to  pass  only 
through  the  letters,  you  can  do  so  by  taking  a  piece  of  flat  brass  suffi- 
ciently large  not  to  dip  into  the  letters,  but  pass  over  them  when  gild- 
ing upon  the  surface  of  the  glass;  then,  with  flour  of  emery,  ami 
keeping  it  wet,  you  can  grind  the  whole  surf  ace,  very  quicklv,  to  look 
like  the  ground-glass  globes  often  seen  upon  lamps,  except  the  letter, 
which  is  eaten  below  the  general  surface. 

To  DRILL  AND  ORNAMENT  GLASS. — Glass  can  be  easily  dolled 
l>y  a  steel  drill,  hardened  but  not  drawn,  and  driven  at  a  high  velo- 
city. Holes  of  any  size,  from  the  16th  of  an  inch  upwards,  can  be 
drilled,  by  using  spirits  of  turpentine,  as  a  drip ;  and,  easier  still,  by 
using  camphor  with  the  turpentine.  Do  not  press  the  glass  very 
hard  against  the  drill.  If  you  require  to  ornament  glass  by  turning 
in  a  lathe,  use  a  good  mill  file  and  the  turpentine  and  camphor  drip, 
and  you  will  find  it  an  easy  matter  to  produce  any  shape  you  choose. 

GILDING  GLASS  SIGNS,  &c. — Cut  a,  piece  of  thin  paper  to  the  size 
j«f  your  glass,  draw  out  your  design  correctly  in  black  lead-pencil  oil 
the  paper,  then  prick  through  the  outline  of  the  letters  with  a  fiuo 
needle;  tie  up  a  little  dry  white  lead  in  a  piece  of  rag;  this  is  a 
pounce-bag.  Place  your  design  upon  the  glass,  right  side  up,  dust  it 
vith.  tLe  pounce-bag;  and,  after  taking  the  paper  off,  the  dosigu  wU 


$76      CABINETMAKERS,    PAINTERS1,    &C.,   RECEIPTS. 

appear  in  white  dots  upon  the  glass;  these  will  guide  you  in  laying 
on  the  gold  on  the  opposite  side,  which  must  be  well  cleaned  prepara! 
tory  to  laying  on  the  gold.  Preparing  tJie  size. — Boil  perfectly  clea, 
water  in  an  enamelled  saucepan,  and  while  boiling,  add  2  or  3  shreds 
Df  best  selected  isinglass,  after  a  few  minutes  strain  it  through  a. 
jlean  linen  rag ;  when  cool,  it  is  ready  for  use.  Clean  the  glass  per- 
fectly.— When  this  is  done,  use  a  flat  camel' s-hair  brush  for  laying- 
on  the  size;  and  let  it  drain  off  when  you  put  the  gold  on.  When  the. 
gold  is  laid  on  and  perfectly  dry,  take  a  ball  of  the  finest  cotton  wool : 
and  gently  rub  or  polish  the  gold ;  you  can  then  lay  on  another  coat 
of  gold  if  desirable,  it  is  now  ready  for  writing.  In  doing  this,  mix  a 
little  of  the  best  vegetable  black  with  black  japan;  thin  with  turpen- 
tine to  proper  worldng  consistency;  apply  this  when  thoroughly  dry; 
wash  off  the  superfluous  gold,  and  shade  as  in  sign-writing. 

GLASS  GILDING,  ANOTHER  METHOD. — Clean  and  dry  the  glass 
thoroughly,  then  lay  out  the  lines  for  letters  with  a  piece  of  hard 
scented  soap,  then  paint  the  letters  on  the  right  side  of  the  glass- 
with  lampblack  mixed  with  oil,  hi  order  to  form  a  guide  for  the  work,. 
then  on  the  inside  lay  on  a  coat  of  the  size  mentioned  in  the  preced- 
ing receipt,  using  a  camel' s-hair  brush,  covering  the  whole  of  the  let- 
ters ;  next  lay  on  the  gold  leaf  with  a  tip,  until  every  part  of  the  let- 
ters is  covered  well.  Let  the  leaf  remain  until  the  size  is  dry,  when 
von  will  find  that  the  letters  on  the  front  side  can  be  easily  seen  and 
traced.  This  is  done  with  quick  drying  black,  mixed  with  a  little* 
varnish.  Paint  over  the  whole  directly  over  the  gold ;  allow  it  to  dry ; 
then  wipe  off  with  soap  and  water  the  lampblack  letters  from  the 
front  side;  with  pure  cold  water  and  a  clean  sponge,  wash  the  su- 
lierfluous  gold  leaf  and  size  from  the  back,  and  you  will  have  a  splen- 
did gold  letter  on  the  glass  ;  next,  shade  your  letter  to  suit  the  taste, 
always  remembering  to  shade  to  the  edge  of  the  gold,  for  then  yon 
have  only  one  edge  to  make  straight.  The  other  ^dge  may  be  left 
rough,  and  when  dry  may  be  straightened  by  scraping  with  a  knife. 

ORNAMENTAL  DESIGNS  ON  GLASS. — In  making  scrolls,  eagles  &c., 
on  glass,  some  painter*  put  on  the  outlines  and  shades  first,  and  then 
lay  the  gold  leaf  over  all  ;  another  good  way  is  to  scratch  the  shades 
on  to  the  gold  leaf  after  it  is  dry,  and  put  the  colors  on  the  back  of  the 
gold.  Silver  leaf  may  be  used  in  the  same  manner  as  gold,  but  it 
will  not  wear  as  well.  A  very  pretty  letter  may  be  made  by  incor- 
porating silver  with  gold  ;  take  paper  and  cut  any  fancy  design  to 
fit  the  parts  of  the  letter  ;  stick  it  on  the  size  before  laying  the  leaf, 
Allowing  it  to  dry  and  wash  off  as  before;  then  with  a  penknife  raise 
the  paper  figure,  and  the  exact  shape  or  form  of  the  figure  will 
1)C  found  cut  out  of  the  gold  letter  ;  clean  off  nicely,  apply  more  size, 
and  lay  silver  leaf  to  cover  the  vacant  spots  ;  wash  off  when  dry,  and 
,  a  very  handsome  letter  will  be  the  result.  Colors  may  be  used  in- 
stead of  silver,  if  desired,  or  a  silver  letter  edged  or  "  cut  up"  with. 
?o!d,  will  look  well, 

(}LASS  AND  PORCELAIN  GILDING.— Dissolve  in  luiseed  oil  an  equal 
rright  either  of  copal  or  amber  ;  add  as  much  oil  of  turpentine  aa 
vill  enable  you  to  apply  the  compound  or  size  thus  formed,  as  thim. 
as  possible,  to  the  parts  of  the  glass  intended  to  be  gilt.  The  glass 
is  to  be  placed  in  a  stove  till  it  will  almost  burn  the  fingers  when  nan- 
died  ;  at  this  temperature  the  size  becomes  adhesive,  and  a  piece  of 


CABINETMAKERS,    PAINTERS',    AC.,    KECEIPTS.      2SV1 

gold  leaf,  applied  in  the  usual  way,  will  immediately  stick.  Sweep 
«fr  the  superfluous  portions  of  the  leaf,  and  when  quite  cold  it  may  bV 
burnished  ;  taking  care  to  interpose  a  piece  of  India  paper  between 
the  gola  and  the  burnisher. 

DRILLING  CHINA,  GLASS,  &c.— To  drill  china  use  a  copper  drill 
and  emery,  moistened  with  spirits  of  turpentine.  To  drill  glass,  use 
a  steel  drill  tempered  as  hard  as  possible  and  camphor  and  water  as 
a  lubricant 

GOLD  LUSTRE  FOR  STONEWARE,  CHINA,  &c.— Gold,  6  parts;  aqn- 
regia,  36  paits.  Dissolve,  then  add  tin,  1  part ;  next  add  balsam  of 
sulphur,  3  parts  ;  oil  of  turpentine,  1  part.  Mix  gradually  into  a 
mortar,  and  rub  it  until  the  mixture  becomes  hard  ;  then  add  oil  oi 
turpentine,  4  parts.  It  is  then  to  be  applied  to  a  ground  prepared  lor 
the  purpose. 

GILDING  CHINA  AND  GLASS. — Powdered  gold  is  mixed  with  borax 
and  gum-water,  and  the  solution  applied  with  a  camel's-hair  pennl. 
Heat  is  then  applied  by  a  stove  until  the  borax  fuses,  when  the  gold 
is  fixed  and  afterwards  burnished. 

USEFUL  HINTS  FOR  CARRIAGE  PAINTERS. —  It  is  usual  to  apply 
three  coats  of  oil  paint  as  a  priming  to  commence  with,  and  it  is  BJI  re 
to  use,  say  §  drying  oil  and  £  turpentine,  with  a  little  fine  lithar  o 
ground  in,  about  2  ozs.  to  every  20  Ibs.  of  paint.  This  hardens  t:  ? 
priming  better  than  patent  dryer,  and  works  better  under  the  sai;  - 
paper.  When  the  first  coating  is  hard  and  dry,  rub  down  with  y<>  t 
sand-paper  and  be  sure  to  make  perfectly  level  work  among  t.o 
irregularities,  deficiencies  and  ridges  on  the  surface  of  yonr  work. 

Next  dust  your  worK  carefully,  and  with  your  putty  knife  go  ovc? 
the  whole  surface  and  putty  up  every  "revice,  split,  crack  or  knot- 
hole with  the  hard  drying  putty  Thereafter  mentioned.  Be  very  care- 
ful not  to  overlook  the  slightest  flaw,  but  bring  every  spot  to  a  trua 
and  perfect  level.  Now  dust  off  the  work  again,  preparatory  to 
second  coating.  Thin  your  color  with  turpentine,  if  too  stout  or 
thick,  but  do  not  use  thin  colors,  for  it  neither  covers  well,  nor  rubs 
<lo«^a  well.  For  dark  colors,  use  a  dark  lead  color  for  the  oil  coats, 
wut,  for  preparing  for  such  a  color  as  light  green,  let  tne  color  be 
light  lead  color,  if  for  a  yellow,  begin  with,  white,  or  slightly  tinted 
•with  chrome  yellow. 

Be  careful  with  your  second  coat,  to  lay  it  fair,  regular,  and  equal, 
•over  each  and  every  part  of  the  work,  and  when  it  is  thoroughly  drys 
rub  down  with  a  finer  quality  of  sand-paper  than  the  last,  beir^ 
careful  to  make  the  surface  perfectly  smooth  and  even.  Now  com- 
tnence  to  give  the  third  coat  (after  dusting  off),  putting  on  the  paint, 
not  lavishly,  but  rub  it  out  well. 

The  next  step,  when  the  last  is  hard  and  dry,  i?  to  apply  the  filling 
up  coats.  For  a  good  composition  see  receipt  for  "  Rough  Stujf"  for 
carriage  work.  Another  good  filling  consists  of  dry  French  yellow, 
a  small  quantity  of  white  lead,  the  same  amount  of  whiting,  a  little 
red  lead,  about  one-sixteenth  of  litharge,  and  of  drying  Japan  enough 
to  nearly  mix  it,  put  in  a  very  little  drying  oil,  and  turpentine  to  thlu 
to  a  suitable  thickness  to  make  it  spread  like  a  stiff  coat  of  paint. 
Thin  so  that  it  can  be  applied  easily,  and  flow  on  full  and  free. 
Apply  this  composition,  giving  the  body,  shafts,  wheels,  springs,  &c.>  a 
«o«d  eoat  levelling  off  any  hollows,  &c. ,  existing  in  the  parts,  and  whe* 


378      CABINETMAKERS,    PAINTERS*,    AC.,    RECEIPTS.. 

this  coat  becomes  perfectly  hard  give  it  another.  The  next  step,  af te* 
this  last  coat  dries  hard,  is  to  rub  it  down  "with  lump  pumice-stone,, 
first  rubbing  the  pumice  flat  upon  a  stone  before  commencing  to  use 
it  In  rubbing  down  with  lump  pumice  use  plenty  of  water,  freely- 
supplied  from  the  sponge  in  your  left  hand  ;  be  very  cautious  to 
avoid  cutting  through,  and  feel  the  parts  frequently  as  the  work 
progresses,  to  ascertain  when  all  is  sufficiently  smooth  and  hard,  then 
with  your  sponge  wash  off  the  work  nicely,  and  with  your  wash 
leather  wrung  out,  dry  it  off  clean  and  smooth. 

The  next  step  is  to  paint  the  carriage.  See  to  it  that  your  colors. 
are  freshly  ground,  your  paint  mill,  pots,  tins,  brushes,  &c.,  per- 
fectly clean.  Apply  your  color  the  proper  thickness,  expeditiously 
and  neatly,  so  that  the  work  will  present  a  good  clean  appearance. 
The  following  directions  "will  be  found  useful  in  mixing  the  desig- 
nated colors.  Dark  Crreen,  Olive  Shade.  Take  deep  chrome  yellow 
and  powdered  drop  black,  mix  in  a  pot  with  the  drying  Japan,  and  a 
little  turpentine,  grind  all  together,  test  to  be  sure  that  the  color  is 
right,  if  wished  lighter,  add  more  chrome  yellow,  if  darker,  more 
drop  black,  grade  the  color  to  the  proper  thickness  and  apply  at 
once.  Two  coats  will  be  required.  Ultramarine  blue.  For  your 
ground  color,  grind  good  Prussian  blue  in  oil,  and  add  to  white  lead 
as  much  of  the  blue  as  will  make  it  sufficiently  dark  to  form  a 
ground  for  the  ultramarine  blue,  two  coats  of  this  will  be  required. 
When  hard  and  dry,  grind  some  of  tho  best  ultramarine  blue  on  the 
ptone  with  a  quantity  of  varnish,  add  enough  of  this  to  your  body 
flowing  varnish  to  impart  the  right  color.  Two  good  coats  of  thia 
beautiful  color  will  be  necessary;  use  sugar  of  lead  as  a  dryer. 
Before  giving  the  second  coat  rub  down  with  ground  pumice  and 
water,  using  a  cloth  ;  the  next  coat  will  flow  all  the  better  for  thia 
treatment.  After  a  few  days  rub  down  again  with  ground  pumice 
nnd  water,  wash,  and  dry  with  your  chamois  skin,  when  the  work 
will  be  all  ready  for  picking  put  and  striping.  Claret  or  Lake. 
Vermilion  and  rose  pink,  in  oil,  same  as  the  last,  for  first  coat. 
When  hardened  dry,  give  another  light  coat,  previously  rubbing 
down  with  ground  pumice  and  water,  as  directed  for  blue.  For  a 
rich  h'ght  claret  be  sparing  of  your  rose  pink  in  the  ground  color;  for 
dark  claret,  use  more  rose  pink.  For  darker  shades  us*  more  rose 
pink  in  the  ground  color,  then  use  the  best  crimson  lake,  same  way 
as  for  the  light  claret  two  good  coats  will  do.  For  a  purple  shade  of 
claret  use  vermilion,  rose  pink  a  spice  of  ultramarine  blue,  for  a 
ground  color.  Then  add  the  proper  quantity  of  ground  purple  lake 
to  body  flowing  varnish  and  apply  two  coats.  Japan  Brown. 
Grind  drop  black  in  Japan  using  enough  vermilion  to  be  visible. 
Chrome  Greens.  Grind  your  greens  in  Japan,  or  use  greens  com- 
posed of  chrome  yellow  and  Prussian  blue.  Carmine  Color  on  Fire 
Engines,  &c.  Cheap  method.  For  a  ground,  use  the  best  English 
vermilion,  then  add  pure  carmine,  ground  in  a  little  drying  oil,  to 
your  body  flowing  varnish,  and  apply  two  coats  carefully.  Thia 
method  extends  the  precious  color  go  that  an  ounce  will  suffice  for  a 
carriage  or  machine.  Oxford  Brown.  Use  a  little  chrome  yellow, 
India  red,  be^t  ochre,  white  lead,  burned  umber,  just  white  enough 
to  be  seer>  *  yellow  is  the  leading  color ;  red  to  warm  it,  and  umber 
to  impart  tW)  brown  shade*  Rich  Purple.  Vermilion  and  Prussia* 


CABINETMAKERS,  PAINTERS*,  AC.,  RECEIPTS. 

bine,  with  a  little  white,  a  very  cheap,  nice  color. 
yejlow,  red,  a  little  black,  a  little  tierra  de  sienna,  or  burned  umber 
may  be  added  to  obtain  the  right  shade.  Drab  Color.  White  and 
raw  umber  form  a  cool  drab  which  may  be  varied  with  chrome,  or 
red,  as  may  be  desired.  Plum  Brou-n.  Drop  black  and  vermilion 
makes  a  very  good  color  at  a  cheap  rate. 

STRIPING  OR  "PICKING  OUT,"   FOR  CARRIAGE  WORK. — Great 

care  is  required  in  this  part  of  the  work  to  carry  a  steady  hand  sa 

that  the  lines  may  be  drawn  equidistant,  clean  and  neat.    For  fine- 

:  lines,  grind  the  color  in  drying  oil,  as  it  makes  the  best  work.    Japan- 

•  color  will  do  for  broad  or  coarse  lines,  on  bine  ground.    If  a  kirg^ 
,  carriage,  with  heavy  wheels,  draw  lines  with  Frankfort-black,  Japan 

mixed  color  from  three  quarter  inch  to  one  inch  broad,  on  all  parts  of 
the  carriage,  wheels,  springs,  spokes,  hubs,  &c.,  then  draw  fine  lines- 
of  light  orange  or  light  primrose  color  about  three-eighths  or  a  quarter 
inch  from  the  broad  black  line,  vrith  one  fine  line  around  the  edges  of 
the  black  nuts  and  bolt  heads.  On  superior  work,  pure  white,  gold, 
or  deep  orange  lines  may  be  drawn  down  the  middle  of  the  black: 
lines,  producing  a  very  fine  effect ;  on  greens,  pick  out  with  black,  if  a. 
light  green,  black  lines  will  be  sufficient,  if  desired  better,  run  up  the 
centre  of  the  black  lines  with  white,  not  too  fine.  On  dark  green, 
pick  out  with  black,  running  very  fine  lines  on  each  side  of  the  black 
three-eighths  of  an  inch  off  the  black.  This  also  sets  off  a  very  bright 
green  to  good  advantage.  On  Clarets,  pick  out  with  black,  with  ver- 
milion or  rich  orange  fine  side  lines,  or  light  orange  side  lines  with: 
vermilion  line  run  up  the  centre  of  the  black  ;  or  light  gold  line  up- 
the  centre  of  one  large  black  line.  On  Oxford  Broicn,  pick  out  with 
black,  fine  line  with  vermilion  or  medium  tint  of  chrome  yellow  with 
slight  tint  of  red  in  it ;  or  part  the  black  line  with  white  down  the.- 
centre.  On  Fawn  Colors,  pick  out  with  broad  black,  fine  line  with- 
white  on  each  edge,  or  brown  drab  shade.  On  Japan  or  Plum, 
Browns,  vermilion  line  has  the  best  appearance.  On  Olives  or  Qua- 
kers' Greens,  pick  out  with  black,  with  white  for  fine  lines,  or  orange 
or  light  green.  On  Drabs,  pick  out  with  black,  fine  line  with  vermil- 
ion, or  high  colored  orange,  or  white  centre  line  for  extra  finish.  On 
Purple,  pick  out  with  black,  fine  line  with  a  bright  tint  of  orange  or 
.,  vermilion. 

VARNISHING  OF  COACHES  AND  CARRIAGES.— In  this,  as  well  as  in- 
the  painting  department,  absolute  cleanliness  is  indispensable,  as  . 
regards  brushes,  pots,  freedom  from  dust,  &c.    When  your  work- 
ia  ready,  if  it  is  the  under  carriage,  apply  a  good  full  coat  of  carriage 
varnish,  and  when  through  with  this  part  of  the  process,  go  over  it 
again,  this  time  using  body  varnish.    After  it  is  hard  and  dry  proceed 
to  ' '  flat ' '  the  work  by  lightly  removing  the  gloss  with  ground  pumice-, 
water,  and  a  woollen  cloth,  being  careful  not  to  cut  into  the  lines  or 
ground  ;  then  clean  away  all  the  pumice,  and  dry  off  nicely  with  the 
chamois  leather  slightly  wet.    If  you  have  cut  through  iniany  part. 

•  repair  with  Japan  color  previous  to  second  coating.     Let  your  second 
'  coat  be  very  full  and  well  laid  on,  but  be  careful  that  it  does  not  run. 

A  very  superior  gloss  will  be  obtained  on  the  wheels,  if  after  the 
application  of  a  good  coat  you  spin  them  until  the  varnish  is  nearly 
net. 
II  the  second  coat  is  not  satisfactory,  repeat  the  flattening  process 


280     tIABINETMAKERS,  PAINTERS*,   AC.,   RECEIPTS. 

•with  yonr  pumice,  cloth  and  -water,  clean  off  as  before  and  varnish 
again. 

In  more  costly  polished  work,  commence  with  the  very  finest 
ground  pumice  or  Tripoli,  rub  until  you  bring  the  work  to  a  very 
smooth  state,  then  wash  off  very  clean  and  nice,  dry  and  dugt  well. 
Use  every  precaution  against  dust,  by  sweeping  and  sprinkling  your 
floor  in  every  stage  of  polishing  ana  varnishing.  The  next  step  h- 
v  polishing  is  to  use  a  fine  cloth  for  a  rubber,  rotten-stone,  sifted  fine 
through  muslin  and  mixed  with  olive  oil ;  rub  with  this  until  tho 
gloss  is  restored,  occasionally  examining  the  progress  of  the  work. 
This  step  being  finished,  wipe  off  with  a  perfectly  clean  cotton  cloth, 
"with  a  piece  of  the  finest  flax  full  of  fine  wheat  flour  or  putty  powder 
go  over  the  work,  rubbing  well  to  polish  it  still  farther,  and  remove 
every  particle  of  the  oil  and  rotten-stone  previously  used.  Finish  off 
by  rubbing  the  work  briskly  with  an  old  silk  handkerchief,  which 
•will  induce  a  beautiful  fine  gloss.  In  every  instance  when  a  polish 
;and  varnish  finish  is  required,  do  not  omit  to  lay  on  an  extra  coat  of 
Tarnish,  as  it  will  greatly  enhance  the  appearance  of  the  work. 

GILDING  AND  ORNAMENTING  CARRIAGES. — English  gold  size  is  the 
best  for  this  purpose.  If  you  cannot  get  it  ready  prepared,  make  a 
substitute  by  using  English  varnish  and  Japan  in  equal  parts.  If 
the  gilding  is  for  striping,  you  should  mix  a  little  chrome  yellow 
with  it,  to  be  able  to  see  the  lines  the  better,  but  for  lettering  no 
coloring  is  required.  Rub  your  job  down  smoothly,  take  a  piece  of 
muslin  and  tie  up  in  it  a  little  whitening  to  form  a  "  pounce  bag  ;" 
with  this  dust  over  every  part  of  the  work  where  the  gold  leaf  is  to 
be  put,  to  prevent  the  leaf  sticking  to  the  surface  not  covered  by 
the  size,  or  wash  the  job  over  with  starch  water,  or  rub  it  over  with 
the  raw  surface  of  a  potato  cut  in  halves  ;  the  juice  of  the  potato 
,soon  dries,  and  leaves  a  thin  film  to  which  the  gold  will  not  adhere. 
Either  of  the  above  methods  will  do,  and  the  coating  will  wash  off 
when  the  gilding  is  dry.  The  surface  prepared,  take  the  size  and 
put  on  the  stripes,  figures,  or  ornaments,  and  allow  it  to  dry  just 
enough  to  enable  you  to  pass  your  finger  over  it  without  sticking, 
but  if  it  is  "tacky"  when  you  place  your  finger  upon  it,  it  is 
ready  for  the  gold  leaf,  \*hich  is  to  be  applied  in  the  way  directed 
lor  gilding  letters  on  wood.  The  gold  letters  may  be  shaded  with 
ultramarine,  carmine,  asphaltum,  lake,  Paris  green,  verdigris,  &c.,  to 
suit  the  taste. 

BRONZING.— Gold  bronze  is  used  on  carriage  parts  for  striping  and 
ornamenting,  using  the  same  size  as  that  used  for  gold  leaf.  For 
taking  up  and  applying  the  bronze,  take  a  piece  of  plush  or  velvet 
and  make  a-  "  pounce  bag,"  bv  tying  up  a  wad  of  cotton,  rubbing  the 
,.  bronze  gently  over  the  size.  To  vary  the  appearance,  a  mixture  ot 
copper,  gold,  and  silver  bronze  may  be  applied.  For  fancy  work  in 
bronze,  cut  out  any  desired  pattern  on  thin  sheet  brass,  pasteboard, 
or  paper,  and  apply  it  to  any  nearly  dry  varnished  surface  ;  rub  the 
bronze  on  through  the  apertures  in  the  pattern. 

GOOD  COLORS  FOR  BUSINESS  WAGONS.— No.  1.  Body.— Chroma 
green  ;  frame  or  ribs  black  striped  with  white  or  cream  color. 
Kunning  qear. — Cream  color  striped  with  red,  blue  or  dark  green,  o* 
black,  and  red  fine  line.  No.  2.  Body. — Yellow;  frame  black,  striped 
vWlth  blue  or  white.  Running  (rear,— Light  vermilion,  striped  wtth 


CABINETMAKERS,   PAINTERS*,   &C.,   RECEIPTS.     281 

Hack  and  -white.  No.  3.  Body.— Carmine  glase  over  Indian  red. 
Running  year.— Vermilion.  No.  4.  -Body.— Deep  vermilion.  RUT* 
ning  gear. — Light  vermilion. 

MIXTURE  TO  REMOVE  OLD  PAINT. — Dissolve  i  lb.  potash  in  3  pts, 
water  over  the  fire,  then  add  yellow  ochre  or  some  common  dry  paint 
until  it  is  as  thick  as  rough  stuff ;  spread  this  over  your  old  paint, 
f  and  after  a  little  it  will  come  off  quite  easily,  then  wash  the  wood 
with  soap  and  water  to  remove  all  the  potash,  dry  off  and  sand-paper, 
then  give  a  coat  of  clean  raw  oil.  Another  method  is  to  heat  a  neavy 
piece  of  iron  and  apply  to  the  paint,  which  will  cause  it  to  become 
loose  and  soft;  so  that  it  may  be  scraped  off  with  a  knife.  Still  another 
method  is  to  direct  the  flame  of  a  spirit  lamp  (which  may  be  con- 
structed for  the  purpose)  on  the  old  paint,  scraping  it  off  as  it  softens. 

To  BLEACH  OIL. — Pour  as  much  linseed  oil  into  a  shallow  earthen 
ressel  as  will  stand  one  inch  deep,  then  pour  in  6  inches  of  water, 
cover  with  a  fine  cloth,  and  let  the  whole  stand  in  the  sun  for  a  few 
weeks  until  the  liquid  becomes  thick,  when  it  should  be  poured  into 
a  phial  and  submitted  to  a  gentle  heat ;  after  which  the  clear  is  to  be 
poured  off  and  strained  through  a  flannel  cloth. 

To  COPY  AN  ORNAMENT.— Place  the  paper  or  other  article  'contain- 
Ing  the  ornament  against  a  pane  of  glass  ;  then  laying  a  sheet  of  thin 
paper  over  it,  you  can  copy  it  exactly  with  a  lead  pencil. 

ORNAMENTS,  in  the  shape  of  decalcomine  or  other  gilded  pictures.' 
may  be  easily  transferred  to  carriages  or  coaches  by  folio  whig  thti 
directions  given  in  transf erring  pictures.  See  farther  on. 

VERMILION. — To  prevent  vermilion  from  fading,  add  to  tne  dry 
color,  before  mixing,  £  part  of  flour  of  sulphur.  Light  English  ver- 
milion is  used  for  striping,  ornamenting  or  lettering;  the  deep  vermil- 
ion having  less  body,  will  not  cover  good.  English  vermilion  gives 
the  best  color  on  carriage  work  when  mixed  with  rubbing  varnish 
and  oil.  American  vermilion  should  not  be  ground,  as  the  process 
would  change  it  to  an  orange  color  ;  while  green,  Indian  red,  chrome 
yellow,  and  all  heavy  body  colors  are  all  the  better  for  being  ground 
as  fine  as  possible.  Raw  oil  is  preferable  to  boiled,  as  it  is  more 
volatile,  and  penetrates  and  fills  the  pores  of  the  wood  better. 

PRIMING  FOR  CARRIAGE  WORK.— First  coat  of  lead.  Mix  white 
lead  with  raw  oil,  2  parts,  Japan,  1  part,  to  make  it  proper  for  a  thick 
coat,  adding  a  very  little  turpentine  to  make  it  work  easily.  For 
carriage  parts  add  a  little  Indian  black,  but  not  for  bodies.— Second 
coat  of  lead.  Mix  white  lead  with  1  part  raw  oil  and  2  parts*  Japan, 
and  a  little  turpentine,  as  before,  adding  lampblack  for  carriage  parts, 
but  none  for  the  body. — Third  and  fourth  coat.  Mix  white  lead  into  » 
thick  paste  with  turpentine,  add  a  little  oil,  Japan  and  rubbing  varnish 
jtto  bind  the  paint  well ;  add,  for  the  carriage  parts,  a  little  lampblack 
and  a  little  red  lead. 

HARD  DRYING  PUTTY. — For  cam'cta?  work.  Mix  dry  white  lead 

I  with  Japan  and  rubbing  varnish  equal  part.-,  to  the  proper  coosistency^ 

beating  it  with  a  small  mallet  to  bruise  the  lumps.    Keep  it,  when 

not  in  use,  in  water,  to  prevent  it  drying. 

ROUGH  STUFF.— For  carnage  work.  Take  3  parts  of  English 
{ground  state),  2  parts  dry  white  lead,  1  part  white  lead  in  :>;!. 
with  Japan,  2  parts,  rubbing  varnish,  1  part  Mix  and  cmsb 
by  running  all  through  the  mill  together. 


f82      CABINETMAKERS,    PAINTERS',    &C.,    RECEIPTS. 


LEAD  FOB  C.VUKIAGE  WORK.—  Mix  dry  white  lead  with  f 
parts  ~apau,  1  part  rubbing  varnish,  aud  thin  with  spirits  of  turpen*> 
line,  hiding  a  little  lampblack  to  make  a  clean  lead  color,  and  run  all 
throu^u  the  mill. 

COA^H  PAINTING.—  Th  e  panels  of  such  work  are  generally  painted 
in  colo«,  while  the  pillars,  top  strip,  quarters,  deck,  &c.,  are  always 
""jlack  ;  amber  colors,  lakes,  greens,  aud  blues  are  some  of  the  best 
colors  used  on  this  work.  To  prepare  the  body  for  any  of  thesa- 
colors,  J,  ground  color  is  used  in  the  place  of  lampblack  on  black 
work.  The  following  are  a  few  approved  grounds.  Lake.  —  Indian 
red  and  vermilion  mixed  to  a  dark  brown,  but  some  prefer  a  black 
grouitd  for  lake.  Ultramarine.  —  M'x  a  medium  blue  with  white  lead 
and  rrussiau  blue.  Vermilion.  —  A  light  pink  color  is  generally  used 
as  t>  ground  for  vermilion.  Green.  —  Green  and  all  heavy-bodied 
colors  will  cover  well  on  the  lead  colors  without  any  ground  color. 
Victoria  lake  and  black  Japan  makes  a  fine  color  for  carriages. 

jpREPAR^o  OIL  FOB  CARRIAGES,  £c.  —  To  1  gal.  linseed  oil  add  2 
lus.  gum  shellac  ;  litharge,  ^  Ib.  ;  red  lead.  £  Ib.  ;  umber,  1  oz.  Boil  f 
slowly  as  usual  until  the  gums  are  dissolved;  grind  your  paints  in  tins 
(any  color),  and  reduce  with  turpentine. 

PORCELAIN  FINISH,  VERY  FIXE  FOR  PARLORS.—  To  prepare  the 
•wood  for  the  finish,  if  it  be  pine,  give  one  or  two  coats  of  transparent 
vwuish,  which  prevents  the  pitch  from  oosing  out,  causing  the  finish 
to  turn  yellow;  next,  give  the  room  at  least  four  coats  of  pure  zinc, 
which  may  be  ground  in  only  sufficient  oil  to  enable  it  to  grind  prop- 
erly ;  then  mix  to  a  proper  consistence  with  turpentine  or  naphtha. 
Give  each  time  to  dry.  When  it  is  dry  and  hard,  sand-paper  it  to  a 
perfectly  smooth  surface,  when  it  is  ready  to  receive  the  finish,  which 
consists  of  two  coats  of  French  zinc  ground  in,  and  thinned  with 
Deinar  varnish,  until  it  works  properly  under  the  brush. 

JAPAN  DRIER  BEST  QUALITY.  —  Take  linseed  oil,  1  gal.  ;  put  Into 
it  gum  shellac,  |  Ib.  ;  litharge  and  burned  Turkey  umber,  eacli  ^  Ib.  ; 
red  lead,  ^  Ib.  ;  sugar  of  lead,  9  oz.  Boil  in  the  oil  till  all  are  dissolv- 
ed, which  will  require  about  4  hours;  remove  from  the  fire,  and  stir  is 
spirits  of  turpentine,  1  gal.,  and  it  is  done.  2.  Linseed  oil,  5  gals.,' 
p.dd  red  lead  and  litharge,  each  Si  Ibs.  ;  raw  umber,  1£  Ibs.  ;  sugar  cC 
lead  and  sulphate  of  zinc,  each,  \  Ib.:  pulverize  all  the  articles  to- 
gether, and  boil  in  the  oil  till  dissolved;  when  a  little  cool,  thin  with. 
turpentine,  6  gals.  3.  Linseed  oil,  4  gals,  red  lead  and  umber,  of  each. 
8  ozs.  ;  sulphate  of  zinc,  4  ozs.  ;  sugar  of  lead,  4  ozs.  Boil  until  it  will 
ecorch  a  feather,  when  it  is  ready  for  use.  4.  Nut  or  linseed  oil,  1 
gnL  ;  litharge,  12  oz.  ;  sugar  of  lead  and  white  vitriol,  of  each  1  oz.  ; 
simmer  and  skim  until  a  pellicle  forms;  cool,  and,  when  settled,  de- 
cant the  clear.  5.  Oil  1  gal.  ;  litharge,  12  to  16  oz.  ;  as  last.  C\  014 
iiut  or  linseed  oil,  1  pint  ;  litharge,  3  oz.  Mix  ;  agitate  occasionally  for 
10  days;  then  decant  the  clear.  7.  Nut  oil  and  water,  of  each  2  Ibs.  : 
white  vitriol,  2  oz.  ;  boil  to  dryness.  8.  Mix  oil  with  powdered  snow 
or  ice,  and  keep  it  for  2  months  without  thawing. 

To  REDUCE  OIL  PAIXT  WITH  WATER  —  Take  8  Ibs.  of  pure  un- 
slaked lime,  add  12  qts.  water,  stir  it  and  let  it  settle,  turn  it  off  gently 
iud  bottle  it;  keep  it  corked  till  used.  This  will  mix  with  oil,  and  i» 
yroDortion  of  half  will  render  paint  more  durable. 

OIL  PAINT.—  To  REDUCE  WITH  WATKR.—  Gum  shellac,  1  Ib.  ;  Mfr 


•CABINETMAKERS,  PAINTERS',  &c.,  RECEIPTS.    28$ 

ecda,  \  lb.;  water,  3  parts:  boil  all  together  in  a  kettle,  stirring  till 
dissolved.  If  it  does  not  all  dissolve,  add  a,  little  more  sal-soda ;  when 
Cool,  bottle  foi  use;  mix  up  2  quarts  of  oil  paint  as  usual,  any  color 
Desired,  using  no  turpentine ;  put  1  piut  of  the  gum  shellac  mixture 
frith  the  oil  paint  when  if  becomes  thick ;  it  can  then  be  reduced  with 
Water  to  a  proper  thickness  to  lay  on  with  a  brush. 

ANOTHE&  METHOD.— Soft  water,  1  gal. ;  dissolve  it  in  pearlash,  5 
or. ;  bring  to  a  boil,  and  slowly  add  shellac,  1  lb. ;  "when  cold,  it  is 
'ready  to  be  added  to  oil  paint  in  equal  proportions. 

FLEXIBLE  PAINT  FOK  CA:NVAS. — Yellow  soap,  2^  Ibs.;  boiling 
water,  1^  gals. ;  dissolve;  grind  the  solution  while  hot  with  good  oH 
paint,  l\  c\vt. 

PAINTERS'  CREAM. — Pale  nut  oil,  6  oz. ;  mastic,  1  oz. ;  dissolve; 
add  of  sugar  of  lead,  i  oz.,  previously  ground  in  the  least  possible 
quantity  oi  oil;  then  add  of  water  q.  s.  gradually,  until  it  acquires  the 
consistency  of  cream,  working  it  well  all  the  time.  Used  to  cover  the 
unfinished  work  of  painters.  It  will  wash  off  with  water. 

SMALT. — Roast  cobalt  ore  to  drive  off  the  arsenic  ;  make  the  resi- 
duum into  a  paste  with  oil  of  vitriol,  ?.nd  heat  it  to  redness  for  an 
hour  ;  powder,  dissolve  in  water,  and  precipitate  the  oxide  of  iron  by 
carbonate  of  potash,  gradually  added  until  a  rose-colored  powder 
begins  to  fall ;  then  decant  the  clear,  and  precipitate  by  a  solution  of 
silicate  of  potash,  prepared  by  fusing  together  for  5  hours  a  mixture 
of  10  parts  of  potash,  15  parts  of  finely-ground  flints,  and  1  part  char- 
coal. The  precipitate,  when  dry,  may  be  fused  and  powdered  very 
fine.  It  is  much  the  cheapest  way  to  buy  smalts  ready  made. 

FACTITIOUS  LINSEED  OIL. — Fish  or  vegetable  oil,  100  gallons  ; 
acetate  of  lead,  7  Ibs.  ;  litharge,  7  Ibs. ;  dissolved  in  vinegar,  2  galls. 
Well  mixed  with  heat,  then  add  boiled  oil,  7  gallons  ;  turpentine,  J 
gallon.  Again  well  mix. 

VARNISHES. — Common  Oil  Varnish. — Resin,  4  Ibs.  ;  beeswax, 
|  lb.  ;  boiled  oU,  1  gallon  ;  mix  with  heat :  then  add  spirits  of  turpem- 
tine,  2  quarts.  Chinese  Varnish. — Mastic,  2  oz.  ;  sandarac,  2  oz.; 
rectified  spirits,  1  pt.  :  close  the  matrass  with  bladder,  with  a  pin- 
liole  for  the  escape  of  vapor  ;  heat  to  boiling  in  a  sand  or  water  bath, 
«nd  when  dissolved,  etrain  through  linen.  Metallic  Varnish  For 
Coach  Bodies.— Asphaltun,  66  Ibs.  ;  melt,  then  add  litharge,  9  rbs., 
red  lead,  7  Ibs.  Boil,  then  add  boiled  oil,  12  gals. ;  yellow  resin,  12  Ibs. 
Again  boil  until,  hi  cooling,  the  mixture  may  be  rolled  into  pills  ;  then 
tod  spts.  of  turpentine,  30  gals,  j  lampblack,  7  Ibs.  Mix  well. 
Ifa&tic  Varnish. — Mastic,  1  lb.  ;  white  wax,  1  oz.  ;  spirits  turpen* 
iine,  1  gallon  ;  reduce  the  gums  small ;  then  digest  it  with  heat  in  » 
cloee  vessel  till  dissolved.  Turpentine  Varnish.—  Resin,  1  lb.  :  boiled 
oil,  1  lb.  ;  melt ;  then  add  turpentine,  2  Ibs.  Mix  well.  Pale  Var- 
nish.—Pale  African  copal,  1  part ;  fuse.  Then  add  hot  pale  oil,  2 
parts.  Boil  the  mixture  till  it  is  stringy  ;  then  cool  a  little,  and  add 
Spirits  of  turpentine,  3  parts.  Lacquer  Varnish. — A  good  lacquer  is> 
made  by  coloring  lac  varnish  with  turmeric  and  annattp.  Add  as  t 
much  of  these  two  coloring  substances  to  the  varnish  as  will  give  the 
proper  color;  then  squeeze  the  varnish,  through  a  cotton  clotk  when  it 
forms  lacquer.  Gold  Varnish. — Digest  shellac,  sixteen  parts,  gnm 
tandarac,  mastic,  of  each  three  parts  ;  crocus,  one  part ;  gum  gan'.- 
fcoge,  two  parts ;  all  bruised,  with  alcohol,  one  hundred  and  lorty 


£84  CABINETMAKERS,  PAINTERS*,  AC.,  RECEIPTS. 

four  parts.  Or,  digest  seedlac,  sandarac,  mastic,  of  each  eight 
parts  ;  gamboge,  two  parts  ;  dragon's  blood,  one  part  :  white  turpen- 
tine, six  parts  ;  turmeric,  four  parts ;  bruised  with  alcohol,  ona 
hundred  and  twenty  parts.  Deep  Gold-Colored  Lacquer. — Seed  lac. 
3  oz.  ;  turmeric,  1  oz.  ;  dragon's  blood,  one-fourth  ounce  :  alcohol,  1 
pt.  ;  digest  for  a  week,  frequently  shaking  :  decant,  and  niter.  La*",./ 
quers  are  used  upon  polished  metals  and  wood  to  impart  the  appear*  , 
ance  of  gold,  if  yellow  is  required,  use  turmeric,  aloes,  saffron  or 
gamboge  ;  for  red,  use  annatto,  or  dragon's  blood,  to  color.  Turmeric,  \ 
gamboge,  and  dragon's  blood  generally  afford  a  sufficient  range  of 
colors.  Gold  Lacquer. — Put  into  a  clean  4  gal.  tin  1  Ib.  of  ground 
turmeric,  l£  oz.  of  gamboge,  3^  Ibs.  powdered  gum  sandarac,  J 
pound  of  shellac,  and  2  gals,  of  spirits  of  wine.  When  shaken,  dis- 
eolved,  and  strained,  add  1  pint  of  turpentine  varnish,  well  mixed. 
Varnish  For  Tools. — Take  tallow,  2  oz.  ;  resin,  1  oz  .  ;  and  melt  to- 
gether. Strain  while  hot,  to  get  rid  of  specks  which  are  in  the  resin  ; 
apply  a  slight  coat  on  your  tools  with  a  brush,  and  it  will  keep  off 
rust  for  any  length  of  time.  Gold  Varnish. — Turmeric,  1  dram  ; 
gamboge,  1  dram  ;  turpentine,  2  pints  ;  shellac,  5  oz.  ;  dragon's  blood, 
8  drams  ;  thin  mastic  varnish,  8  oz.  ;  digest  with  occasional  agitation 
for  14  days  ;  then  set  aside  to  fine,  and  pour  off  the  clear.  Beautiful 
Pale  Amber  Varnish.— Amber,  pale  and  transparent,  6  Ibs.  ;  fuse  ; 
add  hot  clarified  linseed  oil,  2  gals.  ;  boil  till  it  strings  strongly,  cool  a 
little,  and  add  oil  of  turpentine,  4  gals.  This  soon  becomes  very  hard 
and  is  the  most  durable  of  oil-varnishes.  When  wanted  to  dry 
quicker,  drying  oil  may  be  substituted  for  linseed,  or  "driers"  may  ba 
added  during  the  cooling.  Black  Coach  Varnish.— Amber,  1  Ib.  ; 
fuse ;  add  hot  drying  oil,  i  pt.  ;  powdered  black  resin  and  Naples 
asphaltum,  of  each  3  oz.  When  properly  incorporated  and  consid- 
erably cooled,  add  oil  of  turpentine,  1  pt.  Body  Varnish. — Finest 
African  cop.il,  8  Ibs.  ;  fuse  carefully ;  add  clarified  oil,  2  gals.  ;  boil 
gently  for  4^  nours,  or  until  quite  stringy  ;  cool  a  little,  and  thin  with 
oil  of  turpentine,  3^  gals.  Dries  sloivly.  Carriage  Varnish. — San- 
•darac,  19  oz.  ;  pale  shellac,  9^  oz. ;  very  pale  transparent  resin,  12i 
oz.  ;  turpentine,  18  oz.  ;  85  per  cent,  alcohol.  5  pts.  :  dissolve.  Used 
for  the  internal  parts  of  carriage,  &c.  Dries  in  ten  minutes.  Cabinet- 
makers' Varnish. — Very  pale  shellac,  5  Ibs.  ;  mastic,  7  oz.  ;  alcohol, 
90  per  cent.  5  or  6  pts. ;  dissolve  in  the  cold  with  frequent  stirring. 
Used  for  French  polishing,  &c.  Japanners'  Copal  Varnish. — Paid 
African  copal,  7  Ibs. ;  fuse  ;  add  clarified  linseed  oil,  ^  gal. ;  boil  five 
minu  es,  remove  it  into  the  open  air,  add  boiling  oil  of  turpentine,  2 
gals, ;  mix  well,  strain  it  into  the  cistern,  and  cover  it  up  immediately. 
Used  to  varnish  furniture,  and  by  japanners,  coach-makers,  &c.  Copal 
Varnish. — Pale  hard  copal,  8  Ibs.  ;  add  hot  and  pale  drying  oil,  2  gals. : 
boil  till  it  strings  strongly,  cool  a  little,  and  thin  with  hot  rectified  oil 
of  turpentine,  3  gals.  ;  and  strain  immediately  into  the  store  can, 
Very  fine.  Gold  Varnish  of  Watin,  for  Gilded  Articles.— Gum  lac  uj 
grains,  gamboge,  dragon's  blood,  and  annatto,  of  each  12^  oz. ;  saffron, 
«i£  oz.  Each  resin  must  be  dissolved  separately  in  5  pts.  of  90  per 
cent,  alcohol,  and  2  separate  tinctures  must  be  made  with  the  dragon's 
blood  and  annatto  in  a  like  quantity  of  spirits  ;  and  a  proper  propor- 
tion of  each  mixed  together  to  produce  the  required  shade.  Trans- 
parent Varnish  /or  Ploughs,  &c.— Beet  alcohol*  1  £aL  j  gum 


CABINETMAKERS,    PAINTERS*,    &C.,    RECEIPTS. 

darnc,  2  Ibs.:  gum  mastic,  ^  Ib.  ;  place  all  in  a  tin  can  which  admit* 
Df  being  corEed  ;  cork  tight,  shake  it  frequently,  occasionally  placing 
the  can  in  hot  water.  When  dissolved,  it  is  ready  for  use.  Fine 
Black  Varnish  for  Coaches. — Melt  in  an  iron  pot,  amber,  32  oz.  ; 
resin,  6  oz.  ;  asphaltum,6  pz.  ;  drying  linseed  oil,  1  pt.  ;  vhen  partly 
•ooled,  add  oL  of  turpentine,  warmed.  1  pint.  Mordant  Varnish.—* 
.dissolve  1  oz.  mastic,  1  oz.  sandarac,  4  oz.  gum  gamboge,  and  £  oz. 
turpentine  in  6  oz.  spirits  turpentine.  One  of  the  simplest  mordants  is- 
that  procured  by  dissolving  a  little  honey  in  thick  glue.  It  has  th& 
effect  of  greatly  heightening  the  color  of  the  gold,  and  the  leaf  sticks 
extremely  well.  Changing  Varnish. — To  imitate  Gold  or  Silver,  &c. 
Put  4  oz.  best  gum  gamboge  into  32  oz.  spirits  of  turpentine  ;  4  oz. 
dragon's  blood  into  32  oz.  spirits  of  turpentine  ;  and  1  oz.  of  annatto 
into  8  oz.  spirits  of  turpentine.  Make  the  3  mixtures  in  different 
vessels.  Keep  them  in  a  warm  place,  exposed  to  the  sun  as  much  as 
possible,  for  about  2  weeks,  when  they  vrill  be  fit  for  use.  Add  to- 
gether such  quantities  of  each  liquor  as  the  nature  of  the  color  you  are 
desirous  of  obtaining  will  point  out.  Transparent  Varnish,  for 
Wood. — Best  alcohol,  1  gal. ;  nice  gum  shellac,  2^  Ibs.  Place  the  jug 
or  bottle  in  a  situation  to  keep  it  just  a  little  warm,  and  it  will  dis- 
solve quicker  than  if  hot,  or  left  cold.  Patent  Varnish  for  Wood  or 
Canvas. — Take  spirits  of  turpentine.  1  gal  ;  asphaltum,  2i  Ibs.  ;  put 
them  into  an  iron  kettle  which  will  fit  upon  a  store,  and  dissolve  the? 
gum  by  heat.  When  dissolved  and  a  little  cool  add  copal  varnish,  1 
pt. ;  and  boiled  linseed  oil,  1  pt  ;  when  cold,  it  is  ready  for  use. 
Perhaps  a  little  lampblack  would  make  it  a  more  perfect  black. 

MOSAIC  GOLD  POWDER  FOB  BROXZING,  &c.— Melt  1  Ib.  tin  in  & 
crucible,  add^lb.  of  purified  quicksilver  to  it:  when  this  is  cold,  it 
is  reduced  to  powder,  and  ground,  with  \  Ib.  sal-ammoniac  and  7  oz. 
flour  of  sulphur,  till  the  whole  is  thoroughly  mixed.  They  are  then, 
calcined  in  a  matrass  ;  and  the  sublimation  of  the  other  ingredients 
leaves  the  tin  converted  into  the  mosaic  gold  powder  which  is  found 
at  the  bottom  of  the  glass.  Remove  any  black  or  discolored  particles. 
The  sal-ammoniac  must  be  very  white  and  clear,  and  the  mercury  of 
the  utmost  purity.  When  a  deeper  red  is  required,  grind  a  very  small 
quantity  of  red  lead  with  the  above  materials.  True  Gold  Powder. — 
Put  some  gold  leaf,  with  a  little  honey,  or  thick  gum  water  made- 
with  gum  arabic,  into  an  earthen  mortar,  and  pound  the  mixture  till 
the  gold  is  reduced  to  very  small  particles ;  then  wash  out  the  honey 
or  gum  repeatedly  with  warm  water,  and  the  gold  in  powder  will  bo 
left  behind.  When  dry,  it  is  fit  for  use.  Dutch  Gold  Powder  ia 
made  from  Dutch  gold  leaf,  which  is  sold  hi  books  at  a  yery  low 
price.  Treat  in  the  manner  described  above  for  true  gold  powder. 
When  this  inferior  powder  is  used,  cover  the  gilding  with  a  coat  of 
clear  varnish,  otherwise  it  will  soon  lose  its  bright  appearance.  Cope 
per  Powder  is  prepared  by  dissolving  filings  or  slips  of  copper  witk 
nitrous  acid  in  a  receiver.  When  the  acid  is  saturated,  the  slips  are  to 
be  removed ;  or,  if  filings  be  employed,  the  solution  is  to  be  poured 
off  from  what  remains  undissolved.  Small  bars  are  then  put  in,  which 
wiH  precipitate  the  copper  powder  from  the  saturated  acid;  and, 
the  liquid  being  poured  from  the  powder,  this  is  to  bo  washed  clean 
off  the  crystals  by  repeated  waters. 
.BaoNZB  POWDEB  of  a  pals  gold  color  is  produced  from  an  alloy  o£ 


286       CABINETMAKERS,    PAINTERS,    «£C.,    RECEIPTS. 

13£  parts  of  copper  and  2f  parts  zinc,  of  a  crimson  metallic  lustre  from 
copper,  of  a  paler  color,  copper,  and  a  \erylittle  zinc,  green  bronz« 
•with  a  proportion  of  verdigris,  of  a  fine  orange  color,  by  14£  parts  COD- 
per  and  1|  parts  zinc  ;  another  orange  color,  13|  parts  copper  and  %± 
zinc   The  alloy  is  laminated  into  very  fine  leaves  with  carelul  anneal- 
ing, and  these  are  levigated  into  impalpable  powders,  alone  witr  ai 
film  of  fine  oil,  to  prevent  oxidizemeut,  and  to  favor  the  levieation*    I 
GENERAL  DIRECTIONS  FOR  BRONZING. —The  choice  of  the  above] 
powders  is  of  course  determined  by  the  degree  of  brilliancy  you  wish 
to  obtain.     The  powder  is  mixed  with  strong  gum  water  or  isinglass 
and  laid  on  with  a  brush  or  pencil  ;  and,  not  so  dry  as  to  have  still 
certain  clamminess;  a  piece  of  soft  leather  wrapped  round  the  finger 
is  dipped  into  the  powder,  and  rubbed  over  the  work.  When  the  work 
has  been  all  covered  with  the  bronze,  it  must  be  left  to  dry,  and  and 
loose  powder  then  cleared  away  by  a  hair-pencil. 

BRONZING  IRON.— The  subject  should  be  heated  to  a  greater  de« 
gree  than  the  hand  can  bear,  and  German  gold,  mixed  with  a  small 
quantity  of  spirit  of  wine  varnish,  spread  over  it  with  a  pencil;  should 
the  iron  be  already  polished,  you  must  heat  it  well,  and  moisten  it 
with  a  linen  rag  dipped  in  vinegar. 

GILDER'S  PARCHMENT  SIZE. — The  best  is  made  from  cuttings  of 
fine  parchment.  Wash  them  clean,  cover  them  with  water,  and  al- 
low them  to  simmer  for  about  2  hours  over  a  slow  fire :  when  brought 
to  the  proper  strength  or  tenacity,  wrhich  may  be  tested  by  the  trial  of 
a  portion  between  the  thumb  and  finger;  if  it  proves  adhesive  pour 
it  into  a  clean  vessel  for  use.  When  solidified,  it  resembles  a  jelly; 
if  very  stiff,  it  will  require  dilution  with  water.  Some  gilders  use  a 
lactometer  and  a  deep  glass  to  determine  the  proper  strength  of  size. 
When  the  float  indicates  a  little  higher  than  1,  for  burnish  size,  and 
near  2,  for  matt  gold  size,  excellent  work  will  result.  In  the  United 
States,  some  gilders  substitute  a  white  glue  for  parchment  cuttings 
in  the  making  of  size.  For  OIL  GOLD  SIZE,  consult  that  item. 

MATT  GOLD  SIZE  is  usually  purchased  from  dealers  ready  made; 
it  is  prepared  for  use  by  intermixture,  (in  a  clean  vessel)  over  a  slow- 
fire,  with  parchment  size,  to  the  density  of  a  thickish  cream,  and  used 
while  warm. 

BURNISH  GOLD  SIZE;  is  often  bought  ready  made  from  the  deaU 
er.  Good  results  may  be  obtained  by  using  red  chalk,  black  lead, 
and  deer  suet,  of  each  2  ozs.,  finely  ground  to  a  stiff  paste,  with  2  Iba, 
of  pipe  clav,  and  for  use  prepared  like  matt  size. 

THICK  WHITE  for  application  to  the  parts  intended  to  be  burnish* 
cd,  previous  to  putting  on  the  burnish  size,  is  a  composition  of  parch- 
ment  size  and  whitening,  about  the  density  of  cream. 

GILDER'S  ORMOLU. — Red  Sanders  wood  2  drs.,  turmeric  1  dr., 
garnet  shellac  1  oz.,  spirits  of  wine  ^  pt. :  mix  all  together  thoroughly 
and  strain.  This  is  added  to  medium  strength  parchment  size  in  or* 
der  to  impart  a  more  beautiful  appearance  to  the  matt  and  oil  gilding. 
CLAY  FOR  GILDER'S  USE  is  usually  purchased  from  the  dealers 
and  is  prepared  similar  to  burnish  size. 

THE  STOPPING  COMPOSITION  used  for  filling  holes  and  deficiencies 
in  the  work  is  a  compound  of  size  and  whitening,  brought  to  the 
density  of  putty. 

To  WHITEN  MOULDINGS. — On  gilded  work  to  be  exposed  to  the 
weather,  paint  is  used  as  a  foundation,  and  the  gilding  is  done  in  oii 


CABINETMAKERS,  PAINTERS.  AC.,  RECEIPTS.   287 

U  burnished  gilding  is  unfit  to  withstand  exposure.  This  last  named 
description  of  work  must  have  a  good  base  of  whitening  applied  to  the 
moulding  previous  to  gilding.  First  apply  a  very  iiot  thin  priming 
coat  of  fine  whitening  and  parchment  size;  after  this  is  dry,  fill  the 
holes,  blemishes,  and  irregularities  with  the  stopping  composition; 
then  apply  a  good  coat  of  thick  white,  dry,  and  apply  another.  After 
applying  several  coats  of  the  thick  wyhite,  which  should  be  in  all  about 
-l-16th  of  an  inch  in  thickness,  pumice-stone  should  be  applied  to 
smooth  off  all  irregularities  and  the  surplus  whiting.  Make  thorough 
work  to  ensure  a  fine  smooth  surface  on  the  moulding,  paying  great 
attention  to  the  different  hollows,  beads,  &c. 

COMPOSITION  FOB  ORNAMENTS. — Best  glue,  9  Ibs.  6  ozs. ;  water 
5  pts. ;  rosin  (white)  4  Ibs. ;  raw  linseed  oil  4  pts.  Boil  the  glue  in  the 
water  until  dissolved ;  dissolve  the  rosin  in  the  oU,  add  the  whole  to 
the  glue  mixture.  Boil  the  whole  slowly  for  25  minutes  longer,  and 
pour  the  mixture  into  a  large  vessel  among  finely  sifted  whiting,  and 
'mix  up  to  the  consistency  of  thin  putty.  Set  away  in  a  damp  place, 
»nd  cover  with  a  wet  cloth  ready  for  use.  The  ornaments  are  made 
by  selecting  a  portion  of  the  mixture,  steaming  it  to  a  soft  plastic  con- 
dition (for  the  mixture  becomes  very  hard  when  cold),  and  pressing 
with  the  hands  into  a  boxwood  mould,  previously  well  lubricated  or 
smeared  with  oil  and  turpentine.  The  composition  being  fitted  into 
the  mould,  a  board  thoroughly  wet,  is  place  :  against  the  mixture  out- 
side the  mould,  and  the  whole  is  submitted  to  pressure  in  an  irou 
•screw  press,  which  drives  the  mixture  into  the  minutest  parts  of  the 
mould.  This  done,  the  pressure  is  relaxed,  and  the  mould  taken  from 
the  press  and  the  ornament  withdrawn  from  it.  The  ornaments  may  be 
-attached  to  the  frame  with  glue  or  white  lead ;  and  when  they  com- 
pose the  corners  on  frames,  require  to  have  the  vacant  space  between 
•backed  or  filled  up  with  composition  softened  in  boiling  water. 

GILDING  IN  OIL. — The  ornaments  being  properly  adjusted  and  al- 
lowed full  time  to  harden  on  the  frame,  the  first  "step  taken  by  the- 
gilder  is  to  wash  and  cleanse  them,  together  with  the  frame,  from  the 
adherent  oil  and  dust.  This  done,  when  dry,  apply  a  uniform  coat  of 
thin  white  to  the  frame,  and,  after  drying,  fill  all  the  holes  and  defect- 
ive parts  with  the  stopping  described  above.  When  this  becomes 
hard,  go  over  every  part  of  the  work  and  bring  it  to  the  utmost 
smoothness  with  fine  glass  paper.  This  part  of  the  work  must  not  be 
.slighted  if  a  good  job  is  wanted,  for  it  cannot  be  dispensed  with.  Now 
dust  off  the  work  and  apply  the  clay  prepared  as  described  above;  al- 
low it  to  dry  and  rub  smooth  with  fine  glass  paper  once  more.  A  coat 
of  clear  cole  is  now  applied,  consisting  of  parchment  size  diluted  to  a 
thinnish  consistency  with  water.  It  is  usual  to  apply  2  coats  of  this 
;..fiize  in  a  warm  condition.  It  effectually  prevents  the  absorption  of 
'<  the  succeeding  coat  of  oil  size.  The  gilder  prepares  the  oil  size  (boiled 
linseed  oil  and  ochre  well  ground  together)  by  bringing  it  to  a  creamy  : 
consistency,  and  purifies  it  by  straining  through  a  clean  rag  held  un-  ' 
der  pressure,  squeezing  out  the  size.  This  preparation  is  spread  very 
•evenly  over  the  prepared  surface,  and  allowed  to  stand  until  it  be- 
comes slightly  sticky  or  tacky,  when  the  knife,  cushion  and  gold  leaf 
are  brought  into  requisition,  and  the  leaf  applied  with  the  tip  to  the 
«ntire  surface  covered  with  the  size.  This  process  requires  careful 
management  ;  the  gilder  blows  the  gold  leaf  out  on  the  cushion  with 
ihfe  breath,  divides  and  subdivides  it  with  bis  knife  to  cover  the  differ  I 


288      CABINETMAKERS,    PAINTERS,    &Co,    RECEIPTI. 

ent  wants  of  various  parts  jf  the  work.  The  leaf  is  dabbed 
with  a  dabber  of  cotton  *voo'.  or  other  soft  material,  and  finished 
a  badger.  See  Gilding  Lehfrs  on  Wood.  The  frame  being  now  cov» 
ered  with  the  leaf,  is  brushed  off  to  clear  it  from  the  small  gold  parti- 
cles still  adhering,  and-  is  finally  finished  by  applying  the  finish,  si7,e 
evenly  with  a  hog's-hair  brush  over  the  work.  The  finish  consists  of 
a  somewhat  weak,  clear  size,  which  may  be  tempered  with  a  little  or* 
2nolu  if  it  is  desired  to 'impart  a  finer  color  to  the  gold. 

WATER  AND  OIL,  GILDING  ON  LARGE,  BROAD  FRAMES,  &c. — Re*-* 
move  all  dust  and  dirt  from  the  frame  and  ornaments,  by  thorough;' 
washing  and  brushing  with  plenty  of  clear  water,  being  careful  not  to 
damage  the  ornaments  while  doing  so,  dry,  and  apply  a  coat  of  thin 
white,  fill  all  holes  and  defects  by  stopping,  and  treat  the  parts  in* 
tended  to  be  burnished  with  three  or  four  coats  of  thick  white,  smooth- 
ing down  the  last  coat  when  nearly  dry,  by  passing  the  fingers  over  ik 
When  dry,  go  over  it  with  glass  paper,  making  a  complete  smooth  job;, 
next  apply  a  coat  of  clay,  and  smooth  down  with  elass  paper  once> 
more.  Next,  apply  an  even  coat  of  size,  and  when  dry,  apply  another. 
The  frame  is  next  "  put  in  oil "  as  above  described,  and  subsequently, 
the  parts  intended  to  be  burnished,  which  have  received  the  coats  of 
thick  white,  must  be  thoroughly  cleaned  from  oil  by  careful  rubbing 
with  a  wet  piece  of  cotton  applied  by  the  finger,  turning  the  rag  at 
short  intervals  so  as  to  present  a  clean  surface  to  the  work.  Guard 
against  touching  any  other  parts  of  the  frame  with  the  wret  cloth,  a» 
the  mistake  will  have  to  be  corrected  with  the  oil  brush.  To  make 
sure  that  no  trouble  will  result  from  grease,  it  is  necessary  before  lay- 
ing the  gold,  to  apply  clay  to  all  parts  intended  to  be  burnished,  in 
order  to  prevent  any  of  the  gold  leaf  from  sticking,  as  it  would  have 
to  be  removed  with  glass  paper  previous  to  applying  other  prepara- 
tions. The  frame  is  then  gilded  as  previously  described,  the  leal 
pressed  into  the  cavities  of  the  ornaments,  &c.,  the  defects  corrected, 
the  work  brushed  off,  and  size  finished  as  above.  The  parts  to  be> 
burnished  or  water  gilded,  previously  noted  as  being  coated  with  clay, 
must  now  be  treated  to  three  or  four  coats  of  mat  gold  size,  laid  on 
evenly  with  a  camel' s-hair  brush.  When  dry,  polish  with  fine  glass- 
paper,  brush  dowr,,  and  pass  over  it  afterwards  with  a  damp  sponge. 
Now  apply  2  even  coats  of  burnish  gold  size,  and  apply  the  leaf  as 
Boon  as  the  last  coat  becomes  dry.  This  is  applied  in  a  manner  en- 
tirely different  from  that  previously  described.  The  frame  being  ele- 
vated at  a  proper  angle  to  allow  the  surplus  water  to  drain  off,  and 
the  gold  leaf,  cushion,  knife,  tip,  camel' s-hair  pencils,  glass  of  clean, 
water,  &c.,  being  ready,  proceed  to  gild  the  bead  which  passes  around 
the  frame  between  those  parts  which  have  previously  been  oil-gilt,  by 
dipping  a  proper  sized  camel's-hair  pencil  into  the  glass  of  water,  wipe 
it  on  the  edge,  commence  at  the  left  hand  extremity  of  the  bead,  wet- 
ting it  for  a  space  of  4  or  5  inches  or  more  down,  saturating  it 
thoroughly  with  the  water,  and  apply  the  gold  leaf  (previously  cut  to 
the  proper  size  and  held  in  readiness  on  the  tip)  very  neatly  and 
quickly  to  the  spot  while  it  is  covered  with  water.  Go  over  the  bead, 
ornaments,  and  all  parts  intended  to  be  burnished  in  this  way,  being 
extremely  careful  to  allow  no  water  to  come  in  contact  with  the  gilded 
part  of  the  frame.  When  done,  examine  closely  for  faults,  and  repair 
all  defects  discovered,  dry,  and  proceed  to  burnish  by  applying  the 
surved  part  of  the  burnisher  to  the  work,  passing  it  hither  and 


CABINETMAKERS,   PAINTERS,    AC.,  RECEIPTS.      28J 

thither  over  the  gold  with  the  right  hand,  assisting  the  pressure  and 
steadying  the  movement  by  the  thumb  of  the  left.    This  results  in 
bringing  out  a  splendid  burnish.     Go  over  the  work  with  particular 
care,  bring  out  the  full  lustre  of  the  gold,  cover  deficiences,  finish,  size 
the  frame  once  more,  carefully  avoiding  the  burnished  parts  ;  finally, 
tinge  the  edge  of  the  frame  with  ochre.    In  burnish  gilding,  on-1, 
xarge  frames,  the  conspicious  parts  of  the  frame,  such  as  the  beada^  ' 
ornaments,  &c.,  should  be  selected  for  operation. 

BRUSH  POLISH. — Shellac  4  ozs.,  white  rosin  4  ozs.,  dissolve  in  $ 
pts.  spirits  of  wine  and  apply  while  warm,  with  a  brush: 

CABINET  MAKER'S  VARNISH. — Gum  shellac  3  ozs.,  gum  mastic 

1  oz.,  gum  sandarac,  3  ozs.,  spirits  of  wine,  40  ozs.     Dissolve  the  last 

2  in  the  spirits,  then  dissolve  the  shellac  and  pour  off  the  clear  for 
use. 

FRENCH  POLISH  REVIVER. — Linseed  oil  1  pint,  vinegar  4  ozs., 
spts.  camphor  2  ozs.,  spts.  hartshorn  ^  oz.,  butter  of  antimony,  1  oz. 
Another. — Dissolve  8  ozs.  shellac  and  ^  an  oz.  of  oxalic  acid  in  2  Ibs.. 
naphtha,  then  add  3  ozs.  linseed  oil. 

EBONIZED  BLACK  FOR  EBONIZING  MOULDING  FRAMES,  &c.— 
Strong  vinegar,  1  gal.,  ext.  of  logwood,  2  Ibs.,  green  copperas,  £  lb., 
China  blue,  £  lb.,  nut-gall,  2  ozs.  Simmer  over  a  slow  fire  until  all  i» 
dissolved  ;  set  off  and  cool.  Add  to  the  above  £  pt.  iron  rust  obtained 
by  steeping  iron  filings  in  strong  vinegar.  An  unequalled  jet  black. 

SATINWOOD  STAIN  FOR  THE  INSIDE  OF  DRAWERS. — Alcohol  2 
pts.,  powdered  gamboge,  3  ozs.,  ground  turmeric,  6  ozs.  Steep  to- 
obtain  full  strength,  and  strain  through  muslin.  Apply  2  coats  with. 
ft  fine  sponge,  sandpaper  when  dry  and  varnish  or  French  polish. 

WALNUT  STAIN  ON  PINE  OR  WHITE  WOOD. — Take  2  gals,  of  very 
chin  sized  shellac;  add  burnt  sienna,  2  Ibs.,  burnt  umber,  2  Ibs.,  lamp- 
black, ^  lb. ;  shake  all  together  and  mix  well  hi  a  stone  jug.  Apply 
1  coat  with  a  brush,  dry ;  sandpaper  smooth,  and  apply  a  coat  of  com* 
inon  varnish  or  shellac.  A  fine  imitation  of  walnut 

CHEAP  BLACK  STAIN  ON  PINE  OR  WHITE  WOOD.—  Water,  2  gals. ,, 
black  copperas,  1  lb.,  logwood  chips,  1  lb.,  ext.  logwood,  1  lb.,  indigo 
blue,  1  lb.,  lamp-black,  2  ozs.  ;  simmer  over  a  slow  fire,  cool  off, 
strain,  and  add  1  oz.  nut-gall.  A  splendid  black  stain  for  cheap 
work. 

To  GILD  A  WOODEN  FLOWER  STAND. — Rub  the  wood  smooth,, 
pnrne  with  glue  size,  then  put  on  2  coats  of  oil  paint  and  one  of  flat, 
ting.  Smooth  over,  when  dry,  with  wash-leather.  Put  on  gold  size, 
and  when  it  is  sticky  to  the  touch,  it  is  ready  for  the  leaf,  which  put 
on  carefully  and  dab  down  with  cotton- wool.  A  transpar^it  glazing 
can  be  used  to  deaden  the  gold  in  places. 

OLD  OAK  IMITATION  ON  WHITE  DEAL.— Burnt  umber,  1  part, 
brown  ochre,  1  part,  mix  thoroughly  with  a  very  thin  glue  size  and 
apply.  A  good  oak  stain  is  made  by  adding  1  lb.  each  of  potash  and; 
pearlash  to  1  gal.  water,  adding  more  water  if  a  lighter  stain  is  re- 
quired. 

ROSEWOOD  IMITATION  ON  WHITE  DEAL.— Apply  Venetian  red 
and  a  nule  lamp-black  in  solution,  with  thin  glue  size.  A  good  ma- 
hoyany  stain  is  Venetian  red,  1  lb.,  yellow  lead,  2  Ibs.  ;  mix  with, 
thin  glue  sue.  Wf  inut  stain  on  deal. — Burnt  umber  and  yellow 
pr-Vurft  >  ?*  .^ize.  The  aoove  may  be  applied  while  warm  tfftli  I 


290      CABINETMAKERS,    PAINTERS,   &C.,    RECEIPTS. 

•oft  rag  or  by  dipping  the  wood  into  a  vat  containing  the  solution,  af 
is  done  with  chairs,  etc.,  in  many  manufactories.  . 

MAHOGANY  IMITATION  ON  BEECH.— Pulverized  dragon's  blood,  3  \ 
ozg.,  rectified  spts.  of  wine,  1  qt. 

FILLING  FOB  FRENCH  POLISHED  WORK. — A  creamy  paste  com- 
posed of  water  and  plaster  of  Paris,  applied  with  a  coarse  rag  to  the 
i grain  of  the  wood  forms  a  good  filling.  Apply  vigorously  to  the  wood; 
lo  fill  the  pores  thoroughly,  and  wipe  off  the  surplus.  Finely  sifted 
whitening,  mixed  with  painter's  drying  oil,  is  another  good  filling 
composition. 

•SPLENDID  CRIMSON  SPIRIT  STAIN.  —  Brazil-wood,  loz.,  cochi- 
.neal,  1  oz.,  dragon's-blood,  1  oz.,  saffron,  2ozs. ;  steep  to  obtain  full 
strength,  in  2  qts.  alcohol  and  strain. 

BEST  MOUNTING  MATERIAL. — Good  Bermuda  arrow  root,  1 f  oas; 
sheet  gelatine,  80  grains :  mix  the  arrow  root  to  a  creamy  consistence 
^vith  a  spoon,  in  1  oz.  of  water;  then  add  14  ozs.  of  water  and  the 
4'^latine  broken  into  fragments.  Boil  for  4  or  5  minutes,  set  it  aside 
until  partially  cool,  then  add  1  oz.  of  methylated  spirit,  and  G  dropa 
of  carbolic  acid,  the  former  quite  slowly.  This  article  has  no  superi- 
or and  will  keep  for  years. 

To  CLEAN  ENGRAVINGS.— Place  the  engraving  on  a  smooth  board 
vith  a  sheet  of  clean  paper  between,  damp  the  picture  on  both  sides 
*with  a  sponge  and  clean  water;  then  soak  it  well  with  the  following 
solution  applied  with  a  clean  sponge :  Water,  1  pt,  chloride  of  lime, 
4  ozs. ;  oxalic  acid,  1  oz.  This  imparts  a  fine  white  appearance  to  dis- 
colored prints,  but  it  must  not  be  applied  to  water  colors  in  any  case, 
48  it  will  certainly  destroy  them. 

To  REVIVE  THE  COLORS  OF  OLD  PAINTINGS. — Mix  linseed  oil,  i 
«zs.,  with  methylated  chloroform,  1  oz.;  and  apply  a  little  overtha 
painting,  previously  washing  it  with  clean  water  applied  with  a  little 
cotton  wool;  wipe  off  the  composition  with  a  soft  silk  handkerchief 
during  the  next  day.  The  mixture  possesses  the  valuable  property  of 
restoring  the  faded  colors  of  paintings.  The  vapor  of  alcohol  has  a  , 
like  effect. 

To  PRESERVE  x  SCALING  OR  CRACKED  PAINTING.— -Clean  the 
painting  very  carefully  with  pure  soft  water,  and  pour  over,  or  gently 
apply,  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  methylated  chloroform  and  linseed  - 
oil.  Allow  it  to  remain  a  day  or  two;  carefully  wipe  off  the  excess  of 
oil,  and  apply  more  of  the  fresh  mixture,  wiping  it  off  as  before.  Re* 
peat  the  process  until  the  colors  become  fixed,  and  the  painting  be- 
comes flexible,  when  it  may  be  cleaned  and  varnished. 

VARNISH  FOR  PAINTINGS.— No  better  varnish  for  paintings  can  b» 
had  than  that  made  from  good,  ripe,  clean,  gum  mastic  and  rectified 
turpentine,  fully  matured  by  an  exposure  of  several  months  in  a  wide 
mouthed  glass  bottle.  Cover  the  bottle  so  as  to  admit  air,  but  no 
dust,  and  set  it  in  the  light,  but  out  of  the  sun. 

To  PRESERVE  PAINTINGS  INDEFINITELY. — Varnish  the  painting1 
on  both  sides,  and  hermetically  seal  with  well  fitting  sheets  of  polished 
glass  on  the  front,  and  apply  a  good  coat  of  air  proof  material  to  the 
back.  According  to  Wagner,  the  real  cause  of  the  ultimate  destruc-  ' 
tion  of  pictures  as  well  as  of  paint,  is  the  gradual,  but  continuous, 
yet  slow,  oxidation  of  the  linoxine,  resulting  in  the  crumbling  to 
powder  of  pulverulent  matters — pigments  used  a*  Colors.  It  may  not  - 


CABINETMAKERS,    PAINTERS,    AC.,    RECEIPTS.       291 

t  fee  out  of  place  to  state  that  one  of  the  best  solvents  of  linoxine  (dried 
paint)  is  a  mixture  of  alcohol  and  chloroform,  which  may  be  ad- 
vantageously used  to  remove  stains  of  paint,  and  also  of  wagon  and 
carriage  grease  from  silks  and  woollen  tissues. 

To  REMOVE  OLD  BLACK  VARNISH  FROM  PAINTINGS.— Various 
articles  as  soda,  naptha,  spirits  of  wine,  oil  of  tartar,  &c.,  will  effect 
this  if  carefully  handled  by  an  experienced  person,  or  the  following 
mixture  may  be  applied  to  the  painting  with  a  dabber  of  cotton  wool: 
Wood  spirits,  4  ozs. ;  linseed  oil  }  pt.  spirits  of  salts,  2  ozs.  Go  over 
the  painting,  imparting  a  spiral  movement  to  the  rubbing  wad,  keep- 
ing the  picture  level  and  the  rubber  clean.  Watch  the  progress  ot  tha 
work,  taking  care  not  to  go  too  far,  and  finish  by  wiping  with  a  clean 
rag  wet  with  spirits  of  turpentine. 

To  WHITEN  PLASTER  CASTS,  &c.— If  the  uncalcmed  plaster  is  im- 
mersed for  15  minutes  in  water  containing  8  or  10  per  cent,  of  sul- 
phuric acid  previous  to  burning  it,  it  will  after  being  calcined,  set 
more  slowly,  and  make  splendid  casts,  which  will  be  perfectly  white. 
Semi-transparent  casts  of  fancy  articles  can  be  made  of  unbaked 
gvpsum,  2  parts,  bleached  bees- wax,  1  part;  paraffine,  1  part.  It  is 
very  tough  and  becomes  plastic  at  120°.  Plaster  casts  will  bear  a  nail 
driven  in  them  without  fracture  if  they  are  immersed  in  a  hot  solution 
of  glue  long  enough  to  becom3  saturated.  To  mend  Plaster  Models, 
use  sandarac  varnish,  saturating  the  broken  surfaces  well,  then  pres- 
sing them  together,  then  drying.  As  an  application  to  the  tfWMW 
Plaster  Moulds  use  glycerine,  or  a  mixture  of  kird  and  oil. 

?o  POLISH  PIANOS,  FURNITURE,  FRENCH  POLISH,  &c. — The  fol- 
lowing method  of  polishing  pianos  is  in  use  in  all  first  class  factories. 
The  same  process  will  answer  for  any  other  piece  of  furniture,  by 
merely  substituting  for  the  scraping,  where  scraping  is  not  practica- 
ble, a  filling,  properly  colored :  First,  give  the  work  three  coats  of 
icraping  or  No.  2  furniture  varnish,  allowing  each  coat  to  become  per- 
fectly hard  before  applying  the  next  ;  then  scrape  off  the  varnish  with 
a  steel  scraper,  properly  sharpened  on  an  oilstone,  and  in  scraping  be 
careful  not  to  cut  into  the  wood,  but  merely  remove  the  varnish  from 
the  surface,  leaving  the  pores  filled.  Smooth  with  No.  1  sandpaper, 
and  the  work  will  be  ready  for  the  polishing  varnish,  four  coats  of 
•which  must  be  put  on,  allowing  each  coat  to  harden.  To  determine 
the  proper  time  required  for  the  hardening.  I  would  say  that  one  coat 
will  not  be  ready  for  the  next  until  it  is  so  hard  that  yo\i  cannot  make 
an  impression  on  it  with  your  thumb  nail.  The  four  coats  having  been 
put  on,  and  the  work  having  stood  a  few  days— and  the  longer  the  bet* 
ter — rub  down  with  fine-ground  pumice-stone  and  water,  applied  with 
a  woolen  rag.  The  work  must  be  rubbed  until  all  lumps  and  markp 
of  the  brush  are  removed  ;  wash  off  with  a  sponge  and  dry  with  a 
.chamois-skin  :  let  the  work  stand  out  in  the  open  air  for  a  day  or  two, 
taking  it  into  the  shop  at  night.  The  work  should  now  receive  two 
coats  more  of  polishing  varnish  and  a  second  rubbing,  after  which  it 
is  ready  for  polishing. 

Furniture  may  be  polished  after  the  first  rubbing,  and  in  that  case 
the  polishing  is  performed  with  lump  rotten-stone  and  water  applied 
•  with  \  woollen  rag.  Put  plenty  of  rotten-stone  on  your  work,  with 
water  enough  to  make  it  work  easy.  Rub  until  all  marks  and 
•cratches  are  removed.  Rub  the  rotten-stone  off  with  your  bare  hand 
keeping  the  work  wet  What  cannot  be  removed  with  the  hand  should 


$92       CABINETMAKERS,    PAINTERS*,    &C.,    RECEIPTS. 

be  washed  off  with  a  sponge.  After  drying  with  a  chamois-skin,  brmf. 
up  the  polish  with  the  palm  of  your  'hand,  moving  it  lightly  and 
quickly  with  a  circular  motion,  over  the  work.  Clean  up  the  work 
with  a  piece  of  soft  cotton,  dipped  into  sweet  oil,  and  lightly  touch  all 
the  white  spots  and  marks  of  the  rotten-stone.  Remove  the  oil  with 
wheat  flour,  applied  with  soft  cotton,  and  finally  dust  off  with  a  soft 
lag  or  silk  handkerchiei. 

The  following  method  is  known  as  the  Shellac  or  French  Polish, 
In  preparing  for  this  process,  add  to  one  pint  of  Shellac  varnish  tw<j 
tablespoouf uls  of  boiled  oil ;  the  two  to  be  thoroughly  mixed.  If  you 
want  the  work  dark,  add  a  little  burnt  umber  ;  or  you  can  give  the 
work  any  desired  shade  by  mixing  with  the  shellac  the  proper  pig- 
ment in  the  dry  state.  Apply  the  shellac  thus  prepared  with  a  small 
bunch  of  rags  held  between  your  ringers.  In  applying  it  be  particular 
in  getting  it  on  smooth  and  even,  leaving  no  thick  places  or  blotches. 
Repeat  the  process  continually  until  the  grain  is  filled  and  the  work 
has  received  sufficient  body.  Let  it  stand  a  few  hours  to  harden,  and 
then  rub  your  work  lightly  with  pumice-stone  and  oil,  applied  with  a 
rag.  A  very  little  rubbing  is  required,  and  this  is  to  be  followed  by 
the  cleaning  of  the  work  with  rags  as  dry  as  possible.  With  a  piece  * 
of  muslin  wet  with  alcohol,  go  over  the  work  two  or  three  times,  for 
the  purpose  of  killing  the  oil.  Have  ready  £  Ib.  of  pure  gum  shellac 
dissolved  in  one  pint  of  95  per  cent,  alcohol.  With  this  saturate  a  pad 
made  of  soft  cotton,  covered  with  white  muslin,  and  with  the  pad  thus 
formed  go  over  your  work  two  or  three  times.  To  become  proficient 
in  this  work,  practice  and  close  attention  are  required. 

WALNUT  STAIN  FOR  WOOD. — Water,  1  gal. ;  Vandyke  brown,  10j 
ozs.;  bichromate  of  potash,  1  oz. ;  washing  soda,  6  ozs.;  boil  10> 
minutes,  immerse  the  article,  or  apply  with  a  brush  as  desired. 

GOLD  BRONZE  FOU  FURNITURE.— Mix  copal  varnish  with  gold- 
colored  bronze  powder.  This  is  made  from  bisulphnte  of  tin. 

To  EBONIZE  WOOD. — Mix  lampblack  with  good  French  polish  and 
apply  in  the  usual  way.  The  lampblack  may  be  collected  on  a  tin  held. 
%vera  kerosene  oil  lamp,  or  lighted  candle. 

REVIVER  FOR  GILT  FRAMES. — White  of  eggs,  2  ozs. ;  chloride  of  pot* 
»sh  or  soda,  1  oz.;  mix  well;  blow  off  the  dust  from  the  frames;  then 
go  over  them  with  a  soft  brush  dipped  in  the  mixture,  and  they  will 
be  equal  to  new. 

BAD  SMELL  FROM  ANIMAL  SIZE. — To  remove  bad  smell  pass  it 
through  powdered  charcoal.  To  preserve  it,  dissolve  one  ounce  of 
sulphate  of  zinc,  generally  known  as  white  copperas,  in  hot  water,  an<f 
Add  to  everv  £  cwt.  It  will  keep  any  length  \t  time.  Melt  your  size, 
and  thoroughly  mix  it 

POLISHING  BRASS  AND  STONE.—  Plate-giass  may  be  polished  by 
Jibbing  with  emery  and  water,  the  emery  being  of  a  greater  degree  of 
Ineness  as  the  work  progresses,  until  at  last  by  employing  an  impal- 
pable variety  prepared  by  suspending  emery  in  water  for  an  hour  or 
more.  Of  course  no  scratches  must  exist  in" the  work  when  the  polish- 
ing operation  begins ;  such  must  have  been  removed  by  means  of  a 
•Coarser  emery  flour.  Stones,  such  as  Brighton  pebbles,  &c.,  are  often 
cut  and  polished  on  a  rapidly  revolving  leaden  disc,  the  surface  of 
which  is  loaded  with  diamond  dust,  emery,  or  tripoli,  according  to  tht 
stone  under  operation. 

toLUBLE  GLASS.— I.  Silica,  1  part,  carbonate  o*  soda,  2  parts;  fust 
together.  2.  Carbonate  of  soda  (dry)  54  parts;  dry  carbonate  of 


CABINETMAKERS,   PAINTERS*,    &C.,    RECEIPTS.       293 


70  parts  ;  silica,  192  parts  ;  soluble  in  boiling  water,  yielding 
a  fine,  transparent  semi-elastic  varnish.  3.  Carbonate  of  potassa 
(dry),  10  parts  ;  powdered  quartz  (or  sand  free  from  iron  or  alumina), 
15  parts  ;  charcoal,  1  pail  ;  all  fused  together.  Soluble  in  5  or  6 
times  its  weight  of  boiling  water.  The  filtered  solution  evaporated  to 
dryness,  yields  a  transparent  glass,  permanent  in  the  air. 

GLASS  STAINING.  —  The  following  colors  after  having  been  prepared,  \ 
and  rubbed  upon  a  plate  of  ground-glass,  with  the  spirits  of  turpen- 
tine or  lavender  thickened  in  the  air,  are  applied  with  a  hair-pencil. 
Before  using  them,  however,  it  is  necessary  to  try  them  on  small 
pieces  of  glass,  and  expose  them  to  the  fire,  to  ascertain  if  the  desired 
tone  of  color  is  produced.  The  artist  must  be  guided  by  these  proof- 
pieces  in  using  his  colors.  The  glass  proper  for  receiving  these  pig- 
ments must  be  colorless,  uniform,  and  difficult  of  fusion.  A  design 
must  be  drawn  on  paper,  and  placed  beneath  the  plate  of  glass.  The 
upper  side  of  the  glass,  being  sponged  over  with  gum-water,  affords, 
when  dry,  a  surface  proper  for  receiving  the  colors  without  the  risk 
•of  running  irregularly,  as  they  would  otherwise  do  on  the  slippery- 
glass.  The  artist  draws  on  the  plate  (usually  in  black),  with  a  fine 
pencil,  all  the  traces  which  mark  the  great  outlines  or  shades  of  the 
figures.  Afterwards,  when  it  is  dry,  the  vitrifying  colors  are  laid  on 
l>y  means  of  larger  hair-pencils  ;  their  selection  being  regulated  by 
the  burnt  specimen-tints  above  mentioned.  The  following  are  all 
last  colors,  which  do  not  run,  except  the  yellow,  which  must  therefore 
"be  laid  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  glass.  The  preparations  being  all 
laid  on,  the  glass  is  ready  for  being  fired  in  a  muffle,  in  order  to  fix 
and  bring  out  the  proper  colors.  The  muffle  must  be  made  of  very 
refractory  fire-clay,  flat  at  its  bottom,  and  only  five  or  gix  inches  high, 
•with  a  strong  arched  roof,  and  close  on  all  sides,  to  exclude  smoke 
and  flame.  On  the  bottom,  a  smooth  bed  of  sifted  lime,  freed  from 
•water,  about  half  an  inch  thick,  must  be  prepared  for  receiving  the 
glass.  Sometimes,  several  plates  of  glass  are  laid  over  each  other, 
with  a  layer  of  lime  powder  between  each.  The  fire  is  now  lighted, 
and  very  gradually  raised,  lest  the  glass  should  be  broken  ;  then  keep 
it  at  a  full  heat  for  three  or  f  oui  hours,  more  or  less,  according  to  the 
indications  of  the  trial  slips  ;  the  yellow  coloring  being  principally 
watched,  it  furnishing  the  best  criterion  of  the  state  of  the  others. 
When  all  is  right,  let  the  fire  die  out,  so  as  to  anneal  the  glass. 

STAINED-  GLASS  PIGMENTS.  —  No.  1.  Flesh-color.  —  Red  lead,  1  oz.  : 
red  enamel  (Venetian  glass  enamel,  from  alum  and  copperas  calcinea 
together)  :  grind  them  to  a  fine  powder,  and  work  this  up  with  al- 
cohol upon  a  hard  stone.  When  slightly  baked,  this  produces  a  fine 
flesh-color.  No.  2.  Slack  color.  —  Tak-e  14£  oz.  of  smithy  scales  of 
iron  ;  mix  them  with  2  oz.  of  white  glass  :  antimony,  1  oz.  manganese, 
jt  oz.  ;  pound  and  grind  these  ingredients  together  with  strong  vinegar.  , 
No.  3.  Brown  color.  —  White  glass  or  enamel,  1  oz.  ;  good  manganese. 
%  oz.  ;  grind  together.  No.  4.  Red,  Rose  and  Brown  colors  are 
made  from  peroxide  of  iron,  prepared  by  nitric  acid.  The  flux  oon-  ' 
gists  of  borax,  sand,  and  minium,  in  small  quantities.  Red  color  may 
likewise  be  obtained  from  1  oz.  of  red  chalk,  pounded,  mixed  with  2 
oz.  white,  hard  enamel,  and  a  little  peroxide  of  copper.  A  red  may 
also  be  composed  of  rust  of  iron,  glass  of  antimony,  yellow  gla=H  of 
lead,  such  as  is  used  by  potters,  or  litharge,  each  in  equal  quantities, 


$94     CABINETMAKERS,    TAINTEHS",    &C.,   RECEIPTS. 

to  which  a  little  sulphuret  of  silver  is  added.  This  composition, 
ground,  produces  a  very  fine  red  color  on  glass.  No.  5.  Green. — 2  oz.. 
Of  brass,  calcined  into  an  oxide  ;  2  oz.  of  minium,  and  8  oz.  of  white 
«and  ;  reduce  them  to  a  fine  powder,  which  is  to  be  enclosed  in  a 
well-luted  crucible,  and  heated  strongly  in  an  air  furnace  for  an  hour. 
"VVhen  the  mixture  is  cold,  grind  it  in  a  brass  mortar.  Green  may, 
however,  be  advantageously  produced,  by  a  yellow  on  one  side  and  * 
blue  on  the  other.  Oxide  of  chrome  has  also  been  employed  ;  tc 
stain  glass  green.  No.  6.  A  fine  yellow  stain. — Take  fine  silver,  lam~ 
iuated  thin,  dissolve  in  nitric  acid,  dilute  with  abundance  of  water, 
and  precipitate  with  solution  of  sea-salt ;  mix  this  chloride  of  silver 
in  a  dry  powder,  with  three  times  its  weight  of  pipe-clay  well  burnt 
and  pounded.  The  back  of  the  glass  pane  is  to  be  painted  with 
this  powder  ;  for,  when  painted  on  the  face,  it  is  apt  to  run  into 
ihe  other  colors.  A  pale  yellow  can  be  made  by  mixing  sulphuret  of 
silver  with  glass  of  antimony  and  yellow  ochre,  previously  calcined, 
to  a  red  brown  tint.  Work  all  these  powders  together,  and  paint  on 
the  back  of  the  glass.  Or  silver  laminm,  melted  with  sulphur  and 
glass  of  antimony,  thrown  into  cold  water  and  afterwards  ground  to 
powder,  affords  a  yellow.  A  pale  yelloio  may  be  made  with  the 
powder  resulting  from  brass,  sulphur,  and  glass  of  antimony,  calcined: 
together  in  a  crucible  till  they  cease  to  smoke,  and  then  mixed  with 
a  little  burnt  ochre.  The  ./me  yelloio  of  M.  Meraud  is  prepared  from, 
chloride  of  silver,  oxide  of  zinc,  and  rust  of  iron.  This  mixture, 
gimply  ground,  is  applied  on  the  glass.  Orange  color. — Take  1  part 
of  silver  powder,  as  precipitated  from  the  nitrate  of  that  metal,  by 
plates  of  copper,  and  washed  ;  mix:  with  1  part  of  red  ochre,  and  1  of '. 
yellow,  by  careful  trituration  ;  grind  into  a  thin  pap,  with  oil  of  tur- 
pentine or  lavender  :  apply  this  with  a  brush,  and  burn  in. 

To  SILVER  LOOKING  GLASSES. — A  sheet  of  tin-foil  corresponding  to-, 
the  size  of  the  plate  of  glass  is  evenly  spread  on  a  perfectly  smooth. 
and  solid  marble  table,  and  every  wrinkle  on  its  surface  is  carefully 
rubbed  down  with  a  brush  :  a  portion  of  mercury  is  then  poured  on, 
and  rubbed  over  the  foil  with  a  clean  piece  of  soft  woollen  stuff,  after 
which,  two  rules  are  applied  to  the  edges,  and  mercury  poured  on  to 
the  depth  of  a  crown  piece  ;  when  any  oxide  on  the  surface  is  care- 
fully removed,  and  the  sheet  of  glass,  perfectly  clean  and  dry,  is  slid 
along  over  the  surface  of  the  liquid  metal,  so  that  no  air,  dirt,  or 
oxide  can  possibly  either  remain  or  get  between  them.  AVhen  th* 
glass  has  arrived  at  its  proper  position,  gentle  pressure  is  applied^ 
and  the  table  sloped  a  little  to  carry  off  the  waste  mercury  :  after 
which  it  is  covered  with  flannel,  aud  loaded  with  heavy  weights  ;  ia 
twenty-four  hours  it  is  removed  to  another  table,  and  further  slanted,, 
and  this  position  is  progressively  increased  during  a  month,  till  it 
"becomes  perpendicular. 

PORCELAIN  COLORS. — The  following  are  some  of  the  colors  used 
in  the  celebrated  porcelain  manufactory  of  Sevres,  and  the  propor- 
tions in  which  they  are  compounded.  Though  intended  for  porcelain 
painting,  nearly  all  are  applicable  to  painting  on  glass.  Flux  No.  1 
ininum  or  red  lead,  3  parts  ;  white  sand,  washed,  1  part.  This  mixture 
is)  melted,  by  whirii  it  is  converted  into  a  greenish-colored  glass. 
Flux  No.  2.  Gray  flux.— Of  No.  1, 8  parts  ;  fused  borax  in  powder,  1 
part.  This  mixture  is  melted.  Flux  No.  3.  For  carmine*  and  green. 


CABINETMAKERS/ PAINTERS'.  &c.,  RECEIPTS. 

— Melt  together  fused  borax,  5  parts  ,  calcined  flirts,  3  parts  ;  pure- 
minum,  1  part.  No.  1.  Indigo  blue. — Oxide  of  cobalt,  1  part  ;  flux 
No.  3,  2  parts.  Deep  azure  blue.— Oxide  of  cobalt,  1  part;  oxide  of 
zinc,  2  parts  ;  flux  No.  3,  5  parts.  No.  2.  Emerald  Green.— Oxide  of 
copper,  1  part  ;  antiinonic  acid,  10  parts  ;  flax  No,  1,  30  parts.  Pul- 
verize together,  and  melt.  No.  3.  Gross  green. — Green  oxide  oft 
chromium,  1  part  ;  flux  No.  3,  3  parts.  Triturate  and  melt.  No.  4. 
Yellow. — Antiinonic  acid,  1  part  ;  subsulphate  of  the  peroxide  of  iron, 
8  parts  ;  oxide  of  zinc,  4  parts  ;  flax  No.  1,  36  parts.  Rub  up  together 
and  melt.  If  this  color  is  too  deep  the  salt  of  iron  is  diminished.  No.  , 
5.  Fixed  yellow  for  touches. — No.  4,  1  part  ;  white  enamel  of  com* 
meroe,  2  parts.  Melt  and  pour  out ;  if  not  sufficiently  nxed,  a  little 
sand  may  be  added.  No.  6.  Deep  Nankin  yellow. — Subsulphate  of 
iron,  1  part  ;  oxide  of  zinc,  2  parts  ;  flux  No.  2,  8  parts.  Triturate 
without  melting.  No.  7.  Deep  red. — Subsulphate  of  iron,  calcined  in 
a  muffle  until  it  becomes  of  a  beautiful  capucine  red,  1  part  ;  flux  No.  \> 
2,  3  parts.  Mix  without  melting.  No.  8.  Liver  brown.—  Oxide  of 
iron  made  of  a  red  brown,  and  mixed  with  three  times  its  weight  of 
flux  No.  2.  A  tenth  of  sienna  earth  is  added  to  it,  if  it  is  not  deep> 
enough.  No.  9.  White.— The  white  enamel  of  commerce,  in  cakes. 
No.  10.  Deep  black.— Oxide  of  cobalt,  2  parts  ;  copper,  2  parts  ;  oxide 
of  manganese,  Ipart  ;  flux  No.  1,  6  parts  ;  fused  borax,  Jpart.  Melt, 
and  add  oxide  of  manganese,  1  part  ;  oxide  of  copper,  2  parts.  Trit- 
urate without  melting.  The  Application. — Follow  the  general  direc- 
tions given  in  another  part  of  this  work,  in  relation  to  staining  glass. 

How  TO  WHITE  ON  GLASS  IN  THE  SUN. — Dissolve  chalk  in  aqua- 
fortis to  the  consistency  of  milk,  and  add  to  that  a  strong  dissolution .. 
of  silver.  Keep  this  in  a  glass  decanter  well  stopped.  Then  cut  out 
from  a  paper  the  letters  you  will  have  appear,  and  paste  the  paper  on. 
the  decanter  or  jar,  which  yon  are  to  place  in  the  sun  in  such  a  man- 
ner that  its  rays  may  pass  through  the  spaces  cut  out  of  the  paper,  and . 
fall  on  the  surface  of  the  liquor.  The  part  of  the  glass  through  which 
the  rays  pass  will  turn  black,  whilst  that  under  the  paper  will  remain  > 
white.  Do  not  shake  the  bottle  during  the  operation.  Used  in  let* 
tering  jars. 

To  STAIN  OR  COLOR  GLASS. — For  amethyst,  oxide  of  manganese 
is  used  ;  blue,  oxide  of  cobalt ;  for  broivn,  oxide-  of  iron  ;  for  green>. 
black  oxide  of  copper  ;  for  purple,  oxide  of  gold  ;  for  ruby  red,  sub-, 
oxide  of  copper  ;  for  white,  oxide  of  tin  ;  for  yellow,  oxide  of  silver, 
&c.    These  substances  pure  and  well  powdered,  are  either  added  to 
the  melted  contents  of  the  glass-pot,  or  are  applied  to  the  surface  as 
in  glass  staining.    Fine  Blue.    To  10  Ibs.  of  flint  glass,  previously 
melted  and  cast  into  water,  add  zaffer,  6  drs. ;  calcined  copper,  £  oz. ; , 
prepared  by  putting  sheet  copper  into  a  crucible,  and  exposing  it  to 
the  action  of  a  fire  not  strong  enough  to  melt  the  copper,  and  you  will 
have  the  copper  in  scales,  which  you  pound. — Bright  Purple.  Use  10 
Ibs.  flint  glass  as  before  ;  zaffer  5  drs. ;  precipitate  ot  calcium.  1  dr. 
Gold  Yellow.     Flint  glass  28  Ibs.,  of  the  tartar  which  is  found  in. 
urine,  £  lb.,  purify  by  putting  in  a  crucible  on  the  fire  until  it  ceases 
to  smoke,  and  add  manganese,  2  ozs. 

BOTTLE  GLASS.— No.  1.  Dark  Green.— Fused  glauber-salts,  ll\t>s.; 
eoaper  salts,  12  Ibs.  ;  waste  soap-ashes,  £  bush.  ;  silicious  sand,  {* 
«wt  ;  glass-skimmings,  22  Ibs.  ;  broken  green  glass,  Icwtto  14  cwt ;. 


296     CABINETMAKERS,    PAINTERS*,    AC.,    RECEIPTS^ 

basalt,  25  Ibs.  to  J  cwt.    No.  2.    Pale  Green.— Pale  sand,  100  Iba.  \ 
kelp,  35  Ibs.  ;   lixiviated   wood-ashes,  !£  cwt.  ;  fresh  do.,  40  Ibs. ; 


Glass.— No.l.  Refilled  potashes,  CO  Ibs.  ;  sand,  120  Ibs.  ;  chalk,  24 
Ibs.  ;  nitre  and  white  arsenic,  of  each,  2  Ibs.  ;  oxide  of  manganese,  1 
to  2  oz.  No.  2.  Pure  white  sand,  120  parts  ;  refined  ashes,  70  parts  ; 
saltpetre,  10  parts  ;  white  arsenic,  £part  ;  oxide  of  manganese,  £  part. 
Ho.  3.  Sand,  120  parts  ;  red-lead,  50  parts  ;  purified  pearlash,  40 
parts  ;  nitre,  20  parts ;  manganese,  £  part.  Flask  Glass  (of  St. 
Etienne}. — Pure  silieious  sand,  Gl  parts  ;  potash,  3£  parts  ;  lime,  21 
parts  ;  heavy  spar,  2  parts  ;  oxide  of  manganese,  q.  s.  Best  German 
Crystal  Glass.— Take  120  Ibs.  of  calcined  flints  or  white  sand  ;  best 
pearlash,  70  Ibs.  ;  saltpetre,  10  Ibs.  ;  arsenic,  \  Ib. ;  and  5  oz  magnesia. 
No.  2.  (Cheaper.}—  Sand  or  flint,  120  Ibs.  ;  pearlash,  46 Ibs.  ;  nitre,  7 
Ibs.  ;  arsenic,  6  Ibs.  ;  magnesia,  5  oz.  This  will  require  a  long 
continuance  in  the  furnace,  as  do  all  others  when  much  of  the  arsenic 
is  used.  Plate  Glass. — No.  1.  Pure  sand,  40  parts  ;  dry  carbonate  of 
soda,  26i  parts  :  lime,  4  parts  ;  nitre,  1 J  parts  ;  broken  plate  glass,  25 
parts.  No.  2.  lire's. — Quartz-sand,  100  parts  ;  calcined  sulphate  of 
Boda,  24  parts  ;  lime,  20  parts  ;  cullet  of  soda-glass,  12  parts.  No. 
3.  Vienna.— Sand,  100  parts  ;  calcined  sulphate  of  soda,  50  parts ; 
lime,  20  parts  ;  charcoal,  2|  parts.  No.  4.  French.— White  quartz 
eand  and  cullet,  of  each  300  parts  ;  dry  carbonate  of  soda,  100  parts  ; 
slaked  lime,  43  parts.  Crown  Glass.— No.  1.  Sand,  300  Ibs.  ;  soda- 
ash.200  Ibs.  ;  lime  30  to  35  Ibs.  ;  200  to  300  Ibs.  of  broken  glass.  No. 
2.  (.Bohemian.)— Pure  silicious yand,  63  parts  ;  potash,  22  parts  ;  lime, 
12  parts  ;  oxide  of  manganese,  1  part.  No.  3.  (Prof.  Schweiggers.  )-— 
Pure  sand,  100  Ibs.  ;  dry  sulphate  of  soda,  50  parts  ;  dry  quicklime  in 
powder,  17  to  20  parts  ;  charcoal,  4:  parts.  Product,  white  and  good. 
Best  Window-Glass.— No.  1.  Take  of  white  sand,  60  Ibs.  ;  puri- 
fied pearlashes,  30  Ibs.  ;  of  saltpetre,  15  Ibs.  ;  of  borax,  lib.  ;  of  arsenic, 
^  Ib.  This  will  be  very  clear  and  colorless  if  the  ingredients  be  good, 
and  not  be  very  dear.  No.  2.  ( Cheaper. )— White  sand,  GO  Ibs.  ;  un- 
purified  pearl-ashes,  25  Ibs.  ;  of  common  salt,  10  Ibs.  ;  nitre,  5  Ibs.  ; 
arsenic,  2  Ibs.  ;  magnesia,  1^  oz.  No.  3.  Common  green  window* 
glass. — White  sand,  GO  Ibs.  ;  unpurified  pearlashes,  30  Ibs.  ;  common 
salt,  10  Ibs.  ;  arsenic,  2  Ibs.  ;  magnesia,  2  oz.  Lookinq-Glass  Plate. 
— No.  1.  Cleansed  white  sand,  60  Ibs.  :  pearlashes,  purified,  25  Ibs.  ; 
saltpetre,  15  Ibs.  ;  borax,  7  Ibs.  This  composition  should  be  contin- 
ued long  in  the  fire,  which  should  be  sometimes  strong  and  after- 
wards more  moderate,  that  the  glass  may  be  entirely  free  from  bub- 
bles before  it  be  worked.  No.  2.  White  sand,  GO  Ibs.  ;  pearlashes,  20  Ibs. ; 
common  salt,  10  Ibs.  ;  nitre,  7  Ibs.  :  borax,  1  Ib.  This  glass  will  run 
-with,  as  little  heat  as  the  former ';  but  it  will  be  more  brittle,  and 
lefract  the  rays  of  light  in  a  greater  degree.  No.  3.  Washed  white 
Band,  60  Ibs.  ;  purified  pearlashes,  25  Ibs.  ;  nitre,  15  Ibs.  ;  borax,  7 
Iba.  If  properly  managed,  this  glass  will  be  colorless.  Window 
Glass.— No.  1.  Dried  sulphate  of  soda,  11  Ibs.  ;  soaper  salts,  10  Ibs.  ; 
lixiviated  soap  waste,  £  bush.  ;  sand,  50  to  GO  Ibs.  ;  glass-pot  skim- 
miuga,  22  Ibs.  ;  broken  pale  green  glass,  Icwt.  No.  2.  (Paler.) — White 
•and,  00  Ibs,  ;  pearl-ashes,  80  Ibu.  ;  common  salt  10  Ibs,  ;  arsenic,  10 


CABINETMAKERS,  PAINTERS,'  AC.,  BECEIPTS.     25- 

Ibs.:  oxide  of  manganese,  2  to  4  oz.  No.  3.  (Very  Pale. }— White 
Hand,  60  IDS.  ;  good  pot  ashes,  25  Ibs.  ;  common  salt  10  Ibs.  ;  nitre,  f 
Ibs.  ;  arsenic,  2  Ibs.  :  manganese,  2  to  4  oz.  as  required  ;  broken  paL 
•window  glass,  14  Ibs. 

COLORED  POTTERS'  GLAZINGS. —  White ;  prepare  an  intimate  mix-*f 
ture  of  4  parts  of  massicot,  2  of  tin  ashes,  3  fragments  of  crystal  glaMUt 
and  £  part  of  sea  salt  The  mixture  is  suffered  to  melt  in  earthen*' 
ware  vessels,  when  the  liquid  flux  may  be  used.  Yellow  ;  take  equal 
parts  of  massicot,  red  lead  and  sulphuret  of  antimony,  calcine  th« 
mixture,  and  reduce  it  again  to  powder,  add  then  2  parts  of  pure 
And,  and  1£  parts  of  salt ;  melt  the  whole.  Green ;  2  parts  of  sandr 
$  parts  massicot,  1  part  of  salt  and  copper  scales,  according  to  the 
shade  to  be  produced  :  melt  and  use.  Violet ;  1  part  massicot,  3 
parts  sand,  1  of  smalt,  J  part  of  black  oxide  of  manganese  ;  melt. 
JBlue ;  white  sand  and  massicot,  equal  parts  ;  blue  smalt,  &  part ; 
melt.  Black ;  black  oxide  of  manganese,  2  parts  ;  smalt  $  'part ; 
burned  quartz,  1  part ;  massicot,  1£  parts ;  melt.  Brown ;  green 
bottle  glass,  1  part ;  manganese,  1  part ;  lead,  2  parts,  melt. 

MORTAR,  PLASTER,  &c. — 22  KINDS. — 1.  Stone  Mortar. — Cement, 
6 parts;  lime,  3  parts;  sand,  31  parts.  2.  Mortar. — Lime,  1  part;  sharp, 
clean  sand,  2J  parts.  An  excess  of  water  in  slaking  the  lime  swells 
the  mortar,  which  remains  light  and  porous,  or  shrinks  in  drying:  an 
excess  of  sand  destroys  the  cohesive  properties  of  the  mass.  3. 
Brown  Mortar. — Lime,  1  part;  sand,  2  parts,  and  a  small  quant'ty  of 
hair.  4.  Brick  Mortar. — Cement,  3  parts;  lime,  3  parts;  saud,  27 
parts.  Lime  and  sand,  and  cement  and  gand,  lessen  about  $,  in 
volume  when  mixed  together.  5.  Turkish  Mortar.— Powdered  brick 
and  tiles,  1  part;  fine  sifted  lime,  2  parts;  mix  to  a  proper  consistency 
•with  water,  and  lay  on  layers  of  5  or  6  inches  thick  between  the 
courses  of  brick  or  stone.  Very  useful  on  massive  or  very  solid 
buildings.  6.  Interior  Plastering— Coarse  Stuff. — Common  lime 
mortar  as  made  for  brick  masonry,  with  a  small  quantity  of  hair  ;  or 
by  volumes,  lime  paste  (30  Ibs.  lime,)  1  part;  sar.d,  2  to  2|  parts;  hair, 
$  part.  When  full  time  for  hardening  cannot  be  allowed,  substitute 
from  15  to  20  per  cent,  of  the  lime  by  an  equal  portion  or  hydraulic 
cement.  For  the  second  or  brown  coat  the  proportion  of  hair  may  be 
slightly  diminished.  7.  Fine  Stuff.— (Lime  putty) :  Lump  lime  slaked 
to  a  paste  with  a  moderate  volume  of  water,  and  afterwards  diluted  to 
the  consistency  of  cream,  and  then  harden  by  evaporation  to  the  re- 
quired consistency  for  working.  In  this  state  it  is  used  as  a  slipped 
coat,  and  when  mixed  with  sand  or  plaster  of  Paris,  it  is  used  for  the 
finishing  coat.  8.  Gauge  Stuff' or  Hard  Finish  is  composed  of  3  or  £  '•- 
volumes  of  fine  stuff  and  1  volume  of  plaster  of  Paris,  in  proportion* 
regulated  by  the  degree  of  rapidity  required  in  hardening  for  cornices, 
&c.,  the  proportions  are  equal  volumes  of  each,  fine  stuff  and  plaster. 
8.  Stucco  is  composed  of  from  3  to  4  volumes  of  white  sand  to  1 
irv/lume  of  fine  stuff  or  lime  putty.  10.  Scratch  Coat.— The  first  of  3 
eoats  when  laid  upon  laths,  and  is  from  \  to  §  of  an  inch  in  thickness. 
31.  One,  Coat  Work.— Plastering  in  1  coat  without  finish,  either  on, 
masonry  or  laths  that  is  rendered  or  laid.  Work  on  well. 
12.  Two  Coat  Work.— Plastering  in  2  coats  is  done  either  in  a  laying 
m>at  and  set  or  in  a  screed  coat  and  set.  The  Screed  Coat  is  also  termed 
•  Floated  Coat,  Laying  the  first  coat  iu  two  coat  work  la  resetted  to 


298  CABINETMAKERS,  PAINTERS',  &C.,  RECEIPT* 

fa  common  work  instead  of  screeding,  when  tho  finished  surface  fo 
not  required  to  be  exact  to  a  straight  edge.  It  is  laid  in  a  coat  of 
about  |  inch  in  thickness.  The  laying  coat,  except  for  very  common 
work,  should  be  hand  floated,  as  the  tenacity  and  firmnes*  of  the 
work  is  much  increased  thereby.  Screeds  are  strips  of  mortar,  26  to 
28  inches  hi  width,  and  of  the  reqiiired  thickness  of  the  first  coat,  ap- 
plied to  the  angles  of  a  room  or  edge  of  a  wall  and  parallclly,  at  in- 
tervals of  3  to  5  feet  over  the  surface  to  be  covered.  "When  these 
have  become  sufficiently  hard  to  withstand  the  pressure  of  a  straight 
edge,  the  interspaces  between  the  screerls  should  be  filled  out  flush 
.with  them,  so  as  to  produce  a  continuous  and  straight,  even  surface. 
Slipped  Coat  is  the  smoothing  off  of  a  brown  coat  with  a  small 
quantity  of  lime  putty,  mixed  with  three  per  cent  of  white  sand  so  aa 
to  make  a  comparatively  even  surface.  This  finish  answers  when  tha 
surface  is  to  be  finished'  in  distemper  or  paper.  Hard  Finish .  Fino 
Ftuff  applied  with  a  trowel  to  the  depth  of  about  ^  of  an  inch.  13.. 
Cement  for  External  Use. — Ashes,  2  parts;  clay,  3  parts;  sand,  1 
part;  mix  with  a  little  oil.  Very  durable.  14.  Compositions  for 
Streets  and  Roads. — Bitumen,  16.875  parts;  asnlialtum.  2. 25 parts;  oil 
of  resin,  6.25;  sand,  1.35  parts.  Thickness  from  l|  to  If  inches. 
Asphaltum,  55  Ibs.,  and  gravel  28.7  Ibs.  will  cover  an  area  of  10.75 
square  feet.  15.  Asphalt  Composition. — Mineral  pitch,  1  part;  bitu- 
men, 11  parts;  powdered  stone  or  wood  ashes,  7  parts.  16.  Asphalt 
Mastic  is  composed  of  nearly  pure  carbonate  of  lime  and  about  9  or 
10  per  cent,  of  bitumen.  When  in  a  state  of  powder  it  is  mixed  with. 
about  7  per  cent,  of  bitumen  or  mineral  pitch.  The  powdered  asphalt 
is  mixed  with  the  bitumen  in  a  melted  state  along  with  clean  gravel, 
and  consistency  is  given  to  pour  it  into  moulds.  The  asphalt  is  duo- 
tile,  and  has  elasticity  to  enable  it,  with  the  small  stones  sifted  upon 
it,  to  resist  ordinary  wear.  Sun  and  rain  do  not  affect  it,  wear  and 
tear  do  not  seein  to  injure  it.  The  pedestrian  in  many  cities  in  tho 
TInited  States  and  Canada,  can  readily  detect  its  presence  on  the  side- 

"-     it  is  also 


on. 

the  ac- 
cidental fall  of  a  stack  of  chimneys,  with  the  only  effect  of  bruising 
the  mastic,  readily  repaired.  17.  Asphalt  for  Trap's.— Take  2  parts 
very  dry  lime  rubbish,  and  1  part  coal  ashes,  also  very  dry,  all  sifted 
fine.  In  a  dry  place,  on  a  dry  day,  mix  them,  and  leave  a  hole  in 
the  middle  of  the  heap,  as  bricklayers  do  when  making  mortar.  Into, 
this  pour  boiling  hot  coal  tar;  mix,  and  when  as  stiff  as  mortar,  put  it 
three  inches  thick  where  the  walk  is  to  be;  the  ground  should  be  dry 
and  beaten  smooth ;  sprinkle  over  it  coarse  sand.  "When  cold,  pasa 
a  light  roller  over  it;  in  a  few  days  the  walk  will  be  solid  and  water- 
proof. 18.  Mastic  Cement  for  Covering  the  Fronts  of  Houses.— Fifty 
.  oarts,  by  measure,  of  clean  dry  sand,  50  of  limestone  (not  burned) 
reduced  to  grains  like  sand,  or  marble  dust,  and  10  parts  of  red  lead, 
mixed  with  as  much  boiled  linseed  oil  as  will  make  it  slightly  moist. 
The  bricks  to  receive  it,  should  be  covered  with  three  coats  of  boiled 
oil,  laid  on  with  a  brush,  and  suffered  to  dry  before  the  mastic  is  put 
on.  It  is  laid  on  with  a  trowel  like  plaster,  but  it  is  not  so  moist.  It 
t>ecomes  hard  as  stone  in  a  few  months.  Care  must  be  exercised  not 
to  use  too  much  oiL  19.  Cement  for  Tile-Roofs,— -Equal  parts  of  wbit» 


CABINETMAKERS,    PAINTERS',    &C.,    RECEIPTS. 

Ing  and  dry  sand,  and  25  per  cent,  of  litharge,  made  into  the  consist- 
ency of  putty  with  linseed  oil.  It  is  not  liable  to  crack  when  cold,  nor 
mere,  like  coal-tar  and  asphalt,  with  the  heat  of  the  sun.  20.  Cement 
for  Outside  of  Brick  Walls.—  Cement  for  the  outside  of  brick  walls> 
to  imitate  stone,  is  made  of  clean  sand,  90  parts;  litharge,  5  parts; 
plaster  of  Paris,  5  parts;  moistened  with  boiled  linseed  oil.  The?, 
bricks  should  receive  two  or  three  coats  of  oil  before  the  cement  is 

-  applied.    21.  Water  Lime  at  Fifty  Cents  per  Barrel.  —  Fine  clean  sand, 
100  Ibs.  ;  quick-lime  in  powder,  28  Ibs.  ;  bone  ashes,  14  Ibs.  ;  for  use, 
teat  up  with  water,  and  use  as  quick  as  possible.    22.  Cement  for 

'  Seams  in  Roofs.  —  Take  equal  quantities  of  white  lead  and  white  sand, 
and  as  much  oil  as  will  make  it  into  the  consistence  of  putty.    It  will 

-  in  a  few  weeks  become  as  hard  as  stone. 

SILVER  POLISH  KALSOMINE.  —  Take  7  Ibs.  of  Paris  white  and  J  Ib. 
of  light  colored  glue.  Set  the  glue  in  a  tin  vessel  containing  3  pts.  of 
water,  let  it  stand  over  night  to  soak,  then  put  it  in  a  kettle  of 
x  "boiling  water  over  the  fire,  stirring  till  it  is  well  dissolved  and  quite 
thin.  Then,  after  putting  the  Paris  white  into  a  large  water  pail, 
pour  on  hot  water  and  stir  it  till  appears  like  thick  milk.  Now  mingle 
the  glue  liquid  with  the  whiting,  stir  it  thoroughly  and  apply  with  a 
whitewash  brush,  or  a  large  paint  brush. 

MEASUREMENT  OP  STONE  OB  BR>-!K  WORK. 

1.  Perch,   Masons'   or  Quarrymens'   Measure, 

;      16*  feet  long      ) 

16  inches  wide  >     «=     1  22  cubic  feet.   To  be  >  \vwured  in  wall, 
12       "       high) 

2475  cubic  feet     To  to  measured  to 


( 

«=     1 
( 

-     J 
)  ( 


12       "      high 

1  cubic  yard  =  3  feet  X  3  feet  X  3  feet  =  27  cubic  f  ee\  /The  cubic- 
yard  has  become  the  standard  for  all  contract  work  of  "ate  years. 
Stone  walls  less  than  16  inches  thick  count  as  if  16  inches  thick  to 
masons;  over  16  inches  thick,  each  additional  inch  is  counted. 

JIUMBEB  Of   BBICK  REQUIRED  IN  WALL  PER  SQUARE.  1XK>T   FjLCE  OB 
WALL. 

Thickness  of  wall.  Thickness  o*.  wall. 

4  inches  7&  24  inch**         46 

8      "  15  28      "  52$ 

12      "  22$  32      "  60 

16      "  30  36      "  67$ 

30     "  37*  42      "  V 

Cubic  yard  =  600  bricks  in  wall. 

P«irch  (22  cubic  feet)  =  BOO  bricks  in  wall. 


3a  pave  1  sq.  yard  on  flat  requires  48  bricks. 

•*     1  <?     "       edge       "       68      " 
W.ASH  FOR  BARNS   AND  HOUSES.— Water  lime,    1 
slaked  lime,  1  peck;  yellow  ochre  in  powder,  4  Ibs.: 


SOO  CABINETMAKERS,  PAINTERS*,  «tC.,  RECEIPTS. 


limber,  4  Ibs.  To  be  dissolved  in  hot  water,  and  applied  with  9 
brush. 

DURABLE  OUTSIDE  PAINT.-— Take  2  parts  (in  bulk)  of  water  limeu 
eronnd  fine;  Ipart  (in  bulk)  of  white  lead,  in  oil.  Mix  them 
thoroughly,  by  adding  best  boiled  linseed  oil,  enough  to  prepare  it  to 
pass  through  a  paint-mill;  after  which,  temper  with  oil  till  it  can  be 
applied  with  a  common  paint  brush.  Make  any  color  to  suit.  It  will 
Just  3  times  as  long  as  lead  paint.  IT  is  SUPERIOR. 

FARMERS'  PAINT.— Farmers  will  find  the  following  profitable  for 
house  or  fence  paint :  skim  milk,  two  quarts;  fresh  slaked  lime  8 
ez. ;  linseed  oil,  6  oz. ;  white  Burgundy  pitch,  2  oz. ;  Spanish  white, 
3  Ibs.  The  lime  is  to  be  slaked  in  water,  exposed  to  the  air,  and  then 
mixed  with  about  one-fourth  of  the  milk;  the  oil  in  which  the  pitch  is 
dissolved  to  be  added  a  little  at  a  time,  then  the  rest  of  the  milk,  and 
afterwards  the  Spanish  white.  This  is  sufficient  for  twenty-seven 
yards,  2  coats.  This  is  for  white  paint.  If  desirable,  any  other  color 
may  be  produced;  thus,  if  a  cream  color  is  desired,  in  place  of  part  of 
the  Spanish  white  use  the  other  alone. 

ESTIMATE    OF    MATERIALS  AND    LABOR    FOR    100    SQUARE    YARDS  Of 
LATH  AND  PLASTER. 


Materials 
and  Labor. 

Three  coats 
hard  finish. 

Two   Coats 
Slipped. 

Materials 
and  Labor. 

Three  coats 
hard  finish. 

Two    coats 

Slipped. 

Lime.    .    . 
Lump  Lime 
Plaster    of 
Paris  .    . 

Laths.    .    . 
Hair  .    .    . 
Sand  .    .    . 

4  Casks. 

%       " 

Utt 

4  bushs. 
6  loads. 

sya  casks. 

2000 
3  bush*. 
6  loads. 

White  Sand 
Nails.    .    . 
Masons  .    . 
Laborer     . 
Cartage  .    . 

2%  bushs. 
132lbs. 
4    days. 

1       " 

13   Iba. 
Si/aday*. 

%   " 

PAINTING  IN  MILK.— Skimmed  milk,  £  gallon ;  newly  slaked 
lime,  6  oz. ;  and  4  oz.  of  poppy,  linseed,  or  nut  oil;  and  3  Ibs.  Spanish 
white.  Put  the  lime  into  an  earthen  vessel  or  clean  bucket;  and 
having  poured  on  it  a  sufficient  quantity  of  milk  to  make  it  about 
the  thickness  of  cream,  add  the  oil  in  small  quantities  a  little 
at  a  time,  stirring  the  mixture  well  Then  put  in  the  rest  of 
the  milk,  afterwards  the  Spanish  white  finely  powdered,  or 
any  other  desired  color.  For  out-door  work  add  2  oz.  each  more  of 
oil  and  slaked  lime,  and  2  oz.  of  Burgundy  pitch  dissolved  in  the  oil 
by  a  gentle  heat. 

PREMIUM  PAINT  WITHOUT  OIL  OR  LEAD.— Slake  stone-lime  with 
boiling  water  in  a  tub  or  barrel  to  keep  in  the  steam;  then  pass  6 
quarts  through  a  fine  sieve.  Now  to  this  quantity  add  1  quart  of 
•parse  salt,  and  a  gallon  of  water;  boil  the  mixture,  and  skim  it  clear. 
To  every  five  gallons  of  this  skimmed  mixture,  add  1  Ib.  alum;  £  lb< 
•opperas;  and  by  slow  degrees  |  Ib.  potash,  an^  4  quarts  sifted  ashes 
Dr  fine  sand;  add  any  coloring  desired,  A  more  durable  paint  wag 
ptver  made. 

PAINT  FOR  GARDEN  STANDS,  BLINDS,  ETC.— Ta*«  mineral 


CABINETMAKERS,   PAINTERS',   AC.,   RECEIPTS.      301 

green,  and  white  lead  ground  in  turpentine,  mix  up  the  quantity  yon 
Wish  with  a  small  quantity  of  turpentine  varnish.  This  serves  for  tht 
first  coat.  For  the  second,  put  as  much  varnish  in  your  mixture  as 
will  produce  a  good  gloss.  If  you  desire  a  brighter  green,  add  a  little 
Prussian  blue,  which  will  much  improve  the  color. 

MILK  PAINT,  FOB  BARNS,  ANY  COLOR.—  Mix  water  lime  with  skier 
milk,  to  a  proper  consistence  to  apply  with  a  brush,  and  it  is  ready  to 
use.  It  will  adhere  well  to  wood,  whether  smooth  or  rough,  to  brick,, 
mortar,  >r  stone,  where  oil  has  not  been  used  (in  which  case  it  cleaves 
to  some  extent),  and  forms  a  very  hard  substance,  as  durable  as  the 
Inst  oil  paint.  It  is  too  cheap  to  estimate,  and  any  one  can  pufc 
si  OP  who  can  use  a  brush.  Any  color  may  be  given  to  it,  by 
using  colors  of  the  tinge  desired.  If  a  red  is  preferred,  mix 
Venetian  red  with  milk,  not  using  any  lime.  It  looks  well  for  fifteen 
years. 

PAINT.— To  MAKE  WITHOUT  LEAD  OR  OIL.— Whiting,  5  Ibs.; 
skimmed  milk,  2  qts. ;  fresh  slaked  lime,  2  oz.  Put  the  lime  into  a 
stoneware  vessel,  pour  upon  it  a  sufficient  quantity  of  the  milk  to- 
make  a  mixture  resembling  cream:  the  balance  of  the  milk  is  then  to 
be  added;  and  lastly,  the  whiting  is  to  be  crumbled  upon  the  surface 
of  the  fluid,  in  which  it  gradually  sinks.  At  this  period  it  must  ba 
well  stirred  in  or  ground,  as  you  would  other  paint,  and  it  is  fit  for 
use. 

PARIS  GREEN.— Take  unslaked  lime  of  the  best  quality,  slako  it 
with  hot  water;  then  take  the  finest  part  of  the  powder,  and  add 
alum  water  as  strong  as  it  can  be  mado,  sufficient  to  form  a  thick 
paste,  then  color  it  with  bichromate  of  potash  and  sulphate  of  copper 
until  ihe  color  suits  your  fancy,  and  dry  it  for  use.  N.B. — The  sul- 
phate of  copper  gives  a  blue  tinge;  the  bichromate  of  potash,  a  yd* 
low.  Observe  this,  and  you  will  get  it  right. 

BEAUTIFUL  GREEN  PAINT  FOR  WALLS.— Take  4  Ibs.  Roman. 
Vitriol,  and  pour  on  it  a  teakettleful  of  boiling  water.  When  dis- 
Bolv&d,  add  2  Ibs.  pearlash,  and  stir  the  mixture  well  with  a  stick  uar 
til  the  effervescence  ceases;  then  add  £  Ib.  pulverized  yellow  arsenic, 
and  etir  the  whole  together.  Lay  it  on  with  a  paint  brush ;  and  if  the 
wall  has  not  been  painted  before,  2  or  even  3  coats  will  be  requisite. 
If  a  pea-green  is  required,  put  hi  less,  if  an  apple-green,  more,  of  th» 
yellow  arsenic.  This  paint  does  not  cost  the  quarter  of  oil  paint^ 
and  looks  better. 

BLUE  COLOR  FOR  CEILINGS,  &c.— Boil  slowly  for  3  hours  1  Ib. 
!>lue  vitriol  and  £  Ib.  of  the  best  whiting  in  about  3  qts.  water:  utir  it 
frequently  while  boiling,  and  also  on  taking  it  off  the  fire.  When  it 
las  stocd  till  quite  cold",  pour  off  the  blue  liquid,  then  mix  the  cakfr 
of  color  with  good  size,  and  use  it  with  a  plasterer's  brush  in  the 
.same  manner  as  whitewash,  either  for  walls  or  ceilings. 

To  HARDEN  WHITEWASH. — To  £  pail  of  common  whitewash  addjj 
jj  pint  of  flour.  Pour  on  boiling  water  in  quantity  to  thicken  it,- 
Then  add  6  gals,  of  the  lime  water,  and  stir  well. 

WHITEWASH  THAT  WILL  NOT  RUB  OFF.— Mix  up  half  a  pailful  ofr 
fime  and  water,  ready  to  put  on  the  wall;  then  take  J  pt.  flour,  mix  it 
up  with  water;  then  pour  on  it  boiling  water,  a  sufficient  quantity  to- 
ttuckenit;  then  pour  it  while  hot  into  the  whitewash,  stir  aUw«B' 
together,  and  it  is  ready  for  use. 


802 


CALCULATIONS,    AC.,   FOR   BUILDERS. 


SLATING.— The  pitch  of  a  slated  roof  should  be  about  1  in  height  to  4 
in  length;  the  usual  lap  is  about  3  ins.,  but  it  is  sometimes  4.  Each  slate 
Should  be  fastened  by  2  nails,  either  of  copper  or  zinc .  A  square  of  slate 
IB  100  superficial  feet,  allowances  being  made  for  the  trouble  of  cutting 
the  slates  at  the  hips,  eaves,  round  chimneys,  etc.  The  sides  and  bottom 
«dges  of  the  slates  should  be  trimmed,  and  the  nail  holes  punched  as  near 
the  head  as  possible;  they  should  be  sorted  in  sizes,  when  they  are  not 
all  of  one  size,  and  the  smallest  size  placed  near  the  ridge.  The  thick- 
ness of  slates  varies  from  3-16  to  5-16  of  an  inch,  and  their  weight  from 
2.6  to  4-53  Ibs.  per  square  foot.  The  following  table  of  sizes,  etc.,  of  roof- 
Ing  slates  is  very  useful: 


Description  . 

Size. 

AVrage 
guage 
in 
inches. 

No.  of 
squares 
1200  will 
cover. 

Weight 
per  1200 
in  tons. 

No.  re-  No.     of 
quired  1  nails  re-> 
to  cover  quired 
one      to     on% 
square,   square. 

Length  jBre'th. 

ft.  in. 

ft.  in. 

Doubles  

1    1 

0    6 

5V2 

2 

3/4 

480 

480 

Ladies  

1    4 

0    8 

7 

4y3 

IV* 

280 

28C 

Countesses  .  . 

1    8 

0  10 

9 

7 

2 

176 

352 

Duchesses  .  . 

2    0 

1    0 

10% 

10 

3 

127 

254 

Imperials  — 

2    6 

2    0 

Bags    and 

3    0 

2    0 

a  ton  will  cover  2V4  to  2%  squares. 

Q  u  e  e  n  s 

Westmore- 

lands,     of 

various 

sizes. 

The  next  table  exhibits  the  comparative  weight  of  various  roof  cover- 
ings. 


Weight. 

Least 
Slope. 

Plain  tiles,  per  square  of  100  sup'l  feet  — 
Pantiles  

8  to  18  cwt. 
9y4  cwt 

26V3  to  30° 

7  to  9  cwt 

2514  to  go® 

Lead,  7  Ibs  per  sup'l  feet  ....  .... 

6%  cwt 

4Cr 

3  cwt. 

4° 

Copper,  or  zinc,  16  ozs.  per  sup'l  feet  
Timber  framing  for  slated  or  tiled  roofs  .  .  . 
Boarding,  %  in  thick  

1  cwt. 
560  to  C72  Ibs. 
2%  cwt 

40 

255 

Boarding,  i  ^  in.  thick  

6  cwt 

25* 

Additional  load  for  pressure  of  wind.  ..... 
Gothic  roefs,  steepest  angle  

35  cwt. 

60°'  

CEMENT  FOR  MARBLE  AND  ALABASTER.— Mix  12  parts  of  Port- 
land  cement,  6  parts  slacked  lime,  6  parts  of  fine  sand,  and  1  part  of 
infusorial  earth,  and  make  up  into  a  thick  paste  with  silicate  of  soda. 
The  object  to  be  cemented  does  not  require  to  be  heated.  It  sets  in  24 
hours,  and  the  fracture  can  not  readily  be  found. 

SUPERIOR  BLASTING  COMPOUND. — The  English  mining  engineer, 
Mr.  W.  B.  Brain,  has  found  that  one  of  the  most  available  blasting 
compounds  consists  of  equal  parts  of  potash  chlorate,  potash  nitrate, 
charcoal,  and  dry  oak  saw-dust;  3  parts  of  this  mixture  is  made  to 
about  2  parts  nitroglycerine  of  1.6  specific  gravity. 

To  THAW  FROZEN  SINK  PIPES,  &c. — Place  the  end  of  a  piece  of 
lead  Dbe  against  the  ice  to  be jliawed*  and  then  through  a  funnel  L* 


CALCULATIONS,    &C.,   FOR   BUILDERS. 


803 


the  other  end  pour  boiling  water.  Keep  the  pipe  constantly  against 
the  ice  and  it  will  soon  disappear.  Or  stiffen  rubber  tubing  with  fine 
wire  and  introduce  it  into  the  pipe  as  far  as  possible,  and  direct  a  jet 
of  steam  from  a  small  boiler  over  a  portable  charcoal  furnace,  as  is 
done  by  plumbers  in  many  cases. 

EXTINGUISHING  FIRES. — A  s  riution  of  pearlash  in  water,  thrown 
upon  a  fire,  extinguishes  it  instantly ;  the  proportion  is  4  ozs.,  dis-., 
solved  in  hot  water,  and  then  poured  into  a  bucket  of  cold  water.  lu^ 
extinguishing  kerosene  tires,  use  no  water,  but  smother  the  flames 
with  blankets  or  rugs. 

In  clapboard  ing,  1  bundle  laid  3%  ins.  to  the  weather  will  coyer  26 
square  feet.  To  be  laid  with  5-peuny  nails. 

COMPARATIVE  WEIGHT  OP  DIFFERENT  WOODS  IN  GREEK  AND 
SEASONED  STATES  IN  POUNDS  AND  OUNCES  PER  CUBIC  FOOT.— Ash, 
green,  58.3;  do.,  seasoned,  50.  Beech, green,  GO;  do.,  seasoned,  50.  Amer- 
ican pine,  green,  44.12;  do.,  seasoned,  30.11.  Cedar,  green,  32;  do.,  sea- 
soned, 28.4.  English  oak,  green,  71.10;  do.  seasoned,  43,8.  Riga  Fir, 
.green,  4,8.12;  do.,  seasoned,  35.8. 

SHRINKAGE  IN  DIMENSIONS  OF  TIMBER  BY  SEASONING. 


Woods. 

Ins. 

Woods. 

Ins. 

lea/  +-rv  lai'. 

14  to  IS1/* 

gi/  to  8% 

Elm  .  .        

11  to  10% 

12  to  11% 

Oak  English 

I9  to  H5/a   F9V 

"Yellow  Diiia  .  .  , 

18  to  17V. 

Pitch  pine  .. 

10x10  to  l)3/.  by 

PERCENTAGE  OF  WATER  IN  DIFFERENT  WOODS. 

Alder 41.6  Larch. 48.6  Red  pine 45.2 

Ash 28.7 1 Mountain  ash 28.3  White  oak 36.2 

Birch 30.8iOak 34.7  White  pine 37.1 

White  poplar 50-6 


.44.5  Pine 39.7 

Horse  chestnut 38.2jRed  beech 39.7 


Willow. 


26.0 


In  shingling,  1  bundle  of  16-inch  shingles  will  cover  30  square  ft.;  1 
fcundle  of  18-inch  shingles  will  lay  33  square  ft.,  when  laid  5%  ins.  to  th« 
weather;  6  Ibs.  4-penny  nails  will  lay  1000  split  pine  shingles. 

PLASTERER'S  MEMORANDA.— 130  yards  of  lath,  lay  and  set,  require  i 
toad  of  laths,  10,000  nails.  2%  cwt.  of  lime,  I1/*  double  load  of  sand,  and  1 
oushels  of  hair;  plaster,  laborers  and  boy,  6  days  each. 

Render  and  Set.— 100  yards  requires  i\/2  cwt.  of  lime,  1  double  load  of 
tlind.  and  4  bushels  of  hair;  plasterer,  laborer  and  boy,  3  days  each. 

Setting 375  yards  require  iy2  cwt.  of  lime  and  5  bushels  of  hair. 

In  lathing,  1  bundle  of  laths  and  384  nails  will  cover  5  yards.  In  ren* 
-during,  ~i$7%  yards  require  1%  cwt.  of  lime.  2  double  loads  of  sand  aiid  5 
bushels  of  hair,  floating  requires  more  labor,  but  only  half  as  much 
material  as  rendering 

1000  bricks,  closely  stacked,  occupy  56  cubic  feet ;  1000  old  bricks, 
cleaned  and  loosely  stacked,  occupy  72  cubic  ft. 

1  rod  of  brickwork  requires  126  gals,  water  to  slack  the  lime  and  mix 
the  mortar.  Bricks  absorb  1-15  of  their  weight  in  water.  No.  of  bricks  in 
cubic  yard,  384.  A  bricklayer's  hod  will  hold  20  bricks,  or  %  cubic  ft.  of  , 
mortar,  or  %  bushel,  nearly. 

SAFE  LOAD  IN  STRUCTURES,  INCLUDING  WEIGHT  OF  STRUCTURE. 

In  cast-iron  columns 14  breaking  weight* 

Wrought-iron  structures 1/4       " 

In  cast-iron  girders  for  tanks i/4        "  " 

Jn  cast-iron  for  bridges  and  tanks 1-6      "  •• 

In  timber 1-10    " 

S*me  and  bricks %       u  * 


CABINETMAKERS,   PAINTERS',   AC.,  RECEIPTS,       301 

WHITEWASH.— The  best  method  of  making  a  whitewash  for  out- 
aide  exposure  is  to  slake  £  bushel  of  lime  in  a  barrel,  add  1  Ib.  01 
Common  salt,  £  Ib.  of  the  sulphate  of  zinc,  and  a  gallon  of  sweet  milk. 
Any  desired  color  may  be  imparted  to  whitewash  by  adding  coloring 
matter  to  suit.  See  Compound  Colors. 

TKRRA  COTTA  MANUFACTURE.— In  the  terra  cotta  manufacture  of 
the  north  of  England  and  Scotland,  the  purest  lumps  of  fire  clay  are 
selected  by  their  color  and  texUure,  and  used  alone  without  any  other 
clay,  while  the  firms  near  London  prepare  more  carefully  a  mixture 
of  clays,  which  produce  a  body  of  better  textura  One  of  the  chief 
difficulties  met  in  manufacturing  terra  cotta  figures  and  ornamental 
works  is  the  contraction  the  clay  gjffers  after  it  lias  left  tl>°,  mould  ;  | 
first,  in  drying,  afterwards  in  firing  ;  By  mixing  the  clays,  a  further 
advantage  is  gained  in  the  diminished  shrinkage,  as  f.re  clay  terra 
cotfa  'that  is,  unmixed)  shrinks  in  lineal  dimensions  about  12  per  cent, 
from  the  time  it  leaves  the  mould  until  it  leaves  the  kiln  ;  the  mixed 
clay  terra  cotta  shrinks  6  per  cent,  or  less,  ard  red  clays  shrink  3  per 
cent.  To  enhance  the  durability  oi:  the  body  of  terra  cotta,  a  partial 
vitrification  of  the  mass  is  aimed  at  by  adding  clays  and  substances 
which  contain  a  small  amount  of  alkalies  which  act  as  a  flux  to  fuse 
the  body  harder  ;  also  vitrifying  ingredients,  pure  white  river  sand, 


the  color  lighter.  In  the  manufacture  the  mixture  of  clays  is  ground 
under  an  edge  runner  to  the  consistency  of  flour.  The  mills  have 
either  revolving  or  stationary  pans  ;  the  former  do  the  most  work. 
In  order  to  mix  and  incorporate  the  different  clays,  a  subsequent  care- 
ful pugging  is  required,  for  hot  water  is  sometimes  used.  The  mix- 
ture when  brought  to  the  proper  homogeneous  consistency,  is  placed  ia 
a  plaster  mould,  dried  near  the  kilns  or  otherwise,  an  baked  hi  a  kilm 
for  five  or  seven  days,  luring  which  time  it  is  slowly  brought  to  a  white 
heat,  and  is  gradually  cooled  down  again.  I  order  to  avoid  twisting 
and  warping  during  th3  firing,  it  is  necessary,  besides  complete  mix- 
ing of  clays,  that  the  mould  be  shaped  so  as  to  give  a  uniform  thick- 
ness of  material  throughout,  and  if  the  temperature  of  the  kirns  be 
well  graded,  the  homogeneous  body  will  not  warp.  To  cheapen  terra 
cotta  building  blocks,  they  are  made  hollow,  and  filled,  during  the  con- 
etruction,  with  concrete  or  cement  Although  hi  the  kilns  the  pro- 
ductions are  separated  from  the  wares,  it  is  found  that  the  use  of  sul- 
phurous fuel  darkens  and  tarnishes  the  surface,  and  it  is  to  be  avoid- 
ed. This  material  admits  of  being  used  with  the  greatest  facility  in 
the  formation  of  th«  most  elaborate  architectural  ornaments  and  other 
beautiful  designs  which  can  be  multiplied  to  any  required  extent  at  a 
very  cheap  rate.  A  piece  of  four  inch  column  tested  at  the  1851  Exhibi- 
tion required  a  pressure  of  40J  tons  per  square  foot  to  crush  it,  or  aa 
much  as  good  granite  and  two  or  three  times  us  much  as  most  build- 
ing stone. 

EXCELLENT  CHEAP  ROOFING,— Have  your  roof  stiff,  rafters  made 
of  stuff  li  by  8  inches,  well  supported  and  6  feet  apart,  with  ribs  1 
Inch  by  2  inches,  set  edgeways,  well  nailed  to  the  rafters,  about  18 
inches  apart.  The  boards  may  be  thin  but  must  be  well  seasoned,  and 
nailed  close  together-  this  done,  lay  down  and  cover  the  roof  \rith  thin 
.20 


•f06     CABINETMAKERS,   PAINTERS',   AC.,   RECEIPTS, 

«>ft,  spongy  straw  paper  used  in  making  paper-boxes,  which  comes  !* 
lolla  and  comes  very  low.  Lay  in  courses  up  and  down  the  roof,  and 
lap  over,  nailing  down  with  common  No.  6  tacks,  with  leather  undef 
the  heads  like  carpet  tacks.  Then  spread  6n  several  coatings  of  the 
following  composition,  previously  boiled,  stirred,  and  mixed  together: 
cood  clean  tar,  8  gals.  ;  Roman  cement,  2  gals,  (or  in  its  place  very- 
fine,  clean  sand  may  be  used)  ;  resin,  5  Ibs.  ;  tallow,  3  Ibs.  ;  apply,' 
iot :  and  let  a  hand  follow,  and  sift  on  sharp  grit  sano^  pressing  itin-|^ 
to  the  tar  composition.  If  wished  ire-proof,  go  over  the  above  with  • 
«fae  following  preparation  ;  slake  stone  lime  under  cover  with  hot 
water  till  it  falls  into  a  fine  powder,  sift  and  mix  6  qts.  of  this  with 
1  qt.  salt ;  add  2  gals,  water,  boil  and  skim.  To  5  gals,  of  this  add  1 
Ib  of  alum,  and  1|  Ib.  of  copperas,  slowly  while  boiling,  l^lbs.  potash 
-and  4  qts.  of  clean,  sharp  sand,  and  any  color  desired.  Apply  a  thick 
<joat  with  a  brush,  and  you  have  a  roof  which  no  fire  can  injure  from 
the  outside. 

How  TO  BUILD  GRAVID  HOUSES.— This  is  the  best  building  ma- 
terial in  the  world.  It  is  four  times-  cheaper  than  wood,  six  times 
cheaper  than  stone,  and  superior  to  either.  Proportions  for  mixing  : 
to  eight  barrows  of  slaked  lime,  well  deluged  with  water,  add  15 
tarrows  of  sand  ;  mix  these  to  a  creamy  consistency,  then  add  CO 
barrows  of  coarse  gravel,  which  must  be  worked  well  and  completely  ; 
you  can  then  throw  stones  into  this  mixture,  of  any  shape  or  size,  up 
to  ten  niches  hi  diameter.  Form  moulds  for  the  walls  of  the  house 
by  fixing  boards  horizontally  against  upright  standards,  which  must 
-be  immovably  braced  so  that  they  will  not  yield  to  the  immense  pres- 
sure outwards  as  the  material  settles  ;  get  the  standards  in  pairs 
around  the  building  where  the  walls  are  to  stand,  from  six  to  eight 
feet  apart,  and  so  wide  that  the  inner  space  shall  form  the  thickness 
•of  the  wall.  Into  the  moulds  thus  formed  throw  in  the  concrete 
material  as  fast  as  you  choose,  and  the  more  promiscuously  the 
better.  In  a  short  time  the  gravel  will  get  as  hard  as  the  solid  rock. 

VARNISH  FOB  PLASTER  CASTS.— White  soap  and  white  wax,  each  £ 
oz. ,  water  2  pts. ,  boil  together  in  a  clean  vessel  for  a  short  time,  Thia 
svamish  is  to  be  applied  when  cold  with  a  soft  brush. 

THE  BRONZING  OF  PLASTER  CASTS  is  effected  by  giving  them  a 
•coat  of  oil  or  size  varnish,  and  when  this  is  nearly  dry,  applying  with 
•a  dabber  of  cotton  or  a  camel-hair  pencil  any  of  the  metallic  bronze 
;powders  ;  or  the  powder  may  be  placed  in  a  little  bag  of  muslin?  and 
^dusted  over  the  surface,  and  afterwards  finished  with  a  wad  of  linen. 
The  surface  must  be  afterwards  varnished. 

SUBSTITUTE  FOR  PLASTER  OF  PARIS.— Best  whiting,  2  Ibs. ; 
•glue,  1  Ib.  ;  linseed  oil,  1  Ib.  Heat  all  together,  and  stir  thoroughly. 
Let  the  compound  cool,  and  then  lay  it  on  a  stone  covered  with 
powdered  whiting,  and  heat  it  well  till  it  becomes  of  a  tough  and 
firm  consistence  ;  then  put  it  by  for  use,  covering  with  wet  cloths  to 
.keep  it  fresh.  When  wanted  for  use,  it  must  be  cut  in  pieces  adapted* 
to  the  size  of  the  mould,  into  which  it  is  forced  by  a  screw  press. 
The  ornament  may  be  fixed  to  the  wall,  picture-frame,  &c.,  with  glue 
.or  white  lead.  It  becomes  in  time  as  hard  as  stone  itself. 

MODELLING  CLAY. — Knead  dry  clay  with  glycerine  instead  cl 
water,  and  a  mass  is  obtained  which  remains  moist  and  plastic  for  a 
-considerable  time,  being  a  great  convenience  to  the  modeller. 


WATCHMAKERS,   JEWELLERS',   &C.,X  RECEIPTS.    307 


CEMENT.  —  Drift  sand,  94  parts  ;  unslaked  lime,  12  Ibs.  't 
Ibs.  of  the  poorest  cheese  grated  ;  mix  well  ;  add  hot  (not  boil- 
ing) water  to  reduce  to  a  proper  consistence  for  plastering.  Work 
well  and  quick  with  a  thin  smooth  coat. 

To  POLISH  PLASTER  OF  PARIS  WORK.—  The  addition  of  lor  2  pet 
cent,  of  many  salts,  such  as  alum,  sulphate  of  potash,  or  boraxy 
confers  upon  gypsum  the  property  of  setting  slowly  in  a  mass  capabl*  ' 
of  receiving  a  very  high  polish. 

To  MAKE  PLASTER  OF  PARIS  AS  HARD  AS  MARBLE.—  The  plaster 
is  put  in  a  drum,  turning  horizontally  on  its  axis,  and  steam  admitted 
:froin  a  steam  boiler  :  by  this  means  the  plaster  is  made  to  absorb  in. 
a  short  space  of  time  the  desired  quantity  of  moisture,  which  can  bo 
regulated  with  great  precision.  The  plaster  thus  prepared  is  filled 
into  suitable  moulds  ;  and  the  whole  submitted  to  the  action  of  ar\ 
lydraulic  press  :  when  taken  out  of  the  moulds,  the  articles  ara 
Teady  for  use,  and  will  be  found  as  hard  as  marble,  and  will  take  a 
polish  like  it. 

To  TAKE  A  PLASTER  OF  PARIS  CAST  FROM  A  PERSON'S  FACE.  — 
The  person  must  lie  on  his  back,  and  his  hair  be  tied  behind  ;  into  eacti 
nostril  put  a  conical  piece  of  paper,  open  at  each  end.  to  allow  of 
breathing.  The  face  is  to  be  lightly  oiled  over,  and  the  plaster,  being 
properly  prepared,  is  to  be  poured  over  the  face,  taking  particular 
care  that  the  eyes  are  shut,  till  it  is  a  quarter  of  an  inch  thick.  In  *, 
iew  minutes  the  plaster  may  be  removed.  In  this  a  mould  is  to  If 
formed,  from  which  a  second  cast  is  to  be  taken,  that  will  funuv 
casts  exactly  like  the  original. 


\WATCHMAKERS,  JEWELLERS  AND  GILDER& 
V  RECEIPTS,  TABLES,  &c. 

OK  \^ATCH  CLEANING.— The  greatest  care  is  necessary  in  taking 
the  watch  down,  and  separating  its  parts.  First,  remove  the  hand* 
carefully,  so  as  not  to  bend  the  slight  pivots  on  which  they  work,  next 
Temove  the  movement  from  the  case,  and  take  off  the  dial  and  diui 
wheels:  next,  let  down  the  main  spring  by  placing  your  bench  key 
upon  the  arbor,  or  winding  post,  and  turning  as  though  you 


308   WATCHMAKERS,   JEWELLERS*,   &C.,   RECEIPTS. 

going  to  wind  the  watch  until  the  click  rests  lightly  upon  the  ratchets 
then  with  your  screw-driver  press  the  point  of  the  click  away  from 
the  teeth  and  ease  down  the  springs;  next,  draw  the  screws,  or  pins, 
f-nd  remove  the  bridges  of  the  train  or  the  upper  plate,  as  th» 
ease  may  be,  next,  remove  the  balance  with  the  greatest  care  to  avoid 
injuring  the  hair  spring.  The  stud  or  small  post  into  which  thr  hair 
spring  is  fastened  may  be  removed  from  the  bridge  or  plate  of  most 
oodern  watches  without  unkeying  the  spring,  by  slipping  a  thin  in- 
strument, like  the  edge  of  a  blade  knife,  under  the  corner  of  it  and 
prying  upward,  this  will  save  much  trouble,  as  you  will  not  have  the 
lair-spring  to  adjust  when  you  reset  the  balance.  If  the  watch  upon 
which  you  propose  to  work  "has  an  upper  plate,  as  an  American  or  an 
^English  lever  for  instance,  loosen  the  lever  before  you  have  entirely 
/ei>arated  the  plates,  otherwise  it  will  hang  and  probably  be  broken. 
The  watch  being  now  taken  apart,  brush  the  dust  away  from  its  dif- 
ferent parts,  and  subject  them  to  a  careful  examination  with  your 
?7e-glass.  Assure  yourself  the  teeth  of  the  wheels  and  leaves  of  the 
I  Inions  are  all  perfect  and  smooth;  that  the  pivots  are  all  straight, 
round,  and  highly  polished ;  that  the  holes  through  which  they  are  to 
Avork  are  not  too  large,  and  have  not  become  oval  in  shape;  that  every 
jewel  is  smooth  and  perfectly  sound ;  and  that  none  of  them  are  loose 
1:1  their  settings.  See  also  that  the  escapement  is  not  too  deep  or  too 
t'.iallow ;  that  the  lever  or  cylinder  is  perfect;  that  all  the  wheels  have> 
sufficient  play  to  avoid  friction,  but  not  enough  to  derange  their 
coming  together  properly;  that  none  of  them  work  against  the  pilla?- 
tlate;  that  the  balance  turns  horizontally  and  does  not  rub:  that  the 
I. air-spring  is  not  bent  or  wrongly  set  so  that  the  coils  rub  on  each  other 
en  the  plate,  or  on  the  balance;  in  short,  that  everything  about  th» 
v.hole  movement  is  just  as  reason  would  teach  you  it  should  be.  If 
;  otherwise,  proceed  to  repair  in  accordance  with  a  carefully 


weighed  judgment  and  the  processes  given  in  this  chapter,  after  which, 
clean;  if  not,  the  watch  only  needs  to  be  cleaned,  and, 


may  go  on  with  your  work  at  once. 

To  CLEAN. — The  best  process  is  to  simply  blow  your  breath  upon 
the  plate  or  bridge  to  be  cleaned,  and  then  to  use  your  brush  with  a. 
little  prepared  chalk.  The  wheels  and  bridges  should  be  held  between. 
the  thumb  and  finger  in  a  piece  of  soft  paper  while  undergoing  the  pro- 
cess; otherwise  the  oil  from  the  skin  will  prevent  tlieir  becoming 
c'ean.  The  pinions  may  be  cleaned  by  sinking  them  several  timea 
into  a  piece  of  pith,  and  the  holes  by  turning  a  nicely  shaped  piece  of 
pivot  wood  into  them,  first  dry,  and  afterwards  oiled  a  very  little  with 
jratch  oil.  When  the  holes  pass  through  jewels,  you  must  work 
gently  to  avoid  breaking  them. 

THK  "CHEMICAL  PKOCESS."— Some  watchmakers  employ  what 
they  call  the  <:  Chemical  Process  "  to  clean  and  remove  discoloration 
Jiom  watch  movements.  It  is  as  follows  : — 

Remove  the  screws  and  other  steel  parts  ;  then  dampen  with  a 
wlution  of  oxalic  acid  and  water.  Let  it  remain  a  few  minutes,  after 
*  Inch  immerse  in  a  solution  made  of  one-fourth  pound  cyanuret  pot- 
assa  to  one  gallon  rainwater.  Let  remain  about  five  minutes,  and 
tlienrinso  well  with  clean  water,  after  which  you  may  dry  in  sawdust, 
01  *\lh  a  brush  and  prepared  chalk,  as  suits  your  convenience.  This 
e>cs  the  work  an  excellent  appearance. 


WATCHMAKERS,  JEWELLERS,   &a,  RECEIPTS.      30t 


To  yKEPABE  CHALK  FOB  CLEANING.  —  Pulverize  your  chalk  thor- 
oughly, and  then  mix  it  with  clear  rain  water  in  the  proportion  to 
two  pounds  to  the  gallon.  Stir  well,  and  then  let  stand  about  two 
minutes.  In  this  time  the  gritty  matter  will  have  settled  to  the  bot- 
tom. Pour  the  water  into  another  vessel  slowly  so  as  not  to  gtir  ur> 
.the  settlings.  Let  stand  until  entirely  settled,  and  then  pour  off  as 
before.  The  settlings  in  the  second  vessel  will  be  your  prepare  J 
chalk,  ready  for  use  as  soon  as  dried.  Spanish  whiting,  treated  ir. 
the  same  way,  makes  a  very  good  cleaning  or  polishing  powder. 
Some  operatives  add  a  little  jeweller's  rouge,  and  we  think  it  an  im- 
provement ;  it  gives  the  powder  a  nice  color  at  least,  and  therefor" 
adds  to  its  importance  in  the  eyes  of  the  uninitiated.  In  cases  where 
a  sharper  polishing  powder  is  required,  it  may  be  prepared  in  the 
«ame  way  from  rotten-stone. 

PIVOT  WOOD.—  Watchmakers  usually  buy  this  article  of  watch- 
tnaterial  dealers.  A  small  shrub  known  as  Indian  arrow-wood,  to  be 
met  with  in  the  northern  and  western  states,  makes  an  excellent 
pivot  wood.  It  must  be  cut  when  the  sap  is  down,  and  split  into  quar- 
ters so  as  to  throw  the  pith  outside  of  the  rod. 

PITH  FOB  CLEANING.  —  The  stalk  of  the  common  mullen  afford  j 
the  best  pith  for  cleaning  pinions.  Whiter,  when  the  stalk  is  dry,  u 
the  time  to  gather  it.  Some  use  «ork  instead  of  pith,  but  it  is 
inferior 

To  PIVOT.  —  When  you  find  a  pivot  broken,  you  will  hardly  be  at  a 
loss  to  understand  that  the  easiest  mode  of  repairing  the  damage  is  to 
drill  into  the  end  of  the  pinion  or  staff,  as  the  case  may  be,  ard  nayiug 
inserted  a  new  pivot,  turn  it  down  to  the  proper  proportions.  This  is 
by  ne  means  a  difficult  thing  when  the  piece  to  be  drilled  is  not  too 
hard,  or  when  the  temper  may  be  slightly  drawn  without  injury  to 
the  other  parts  of  the  article. 

TO   TELL   WHEN   THE  L.EVEB  IS   OF   PBOPEB  LENGTH.—  YOU  may 

readily  learn  whether  or  not  a  lever  is  of  proper  length,  by  measur- 
ing from  the  guard  point  to  the  pallet  staff,  and  then  comparing  with 
the  rollei  or  ruby-pin  table  ;  the  diameter  of  the  table  should  always 
be  iust  half  the  length  measured  on  the  lever.  The  rule  will  work 
both  ways,  and  may  be  useful  in  cases  where  a  new  ruby-pin  table 
has  to  be  supplied. 

To  CHANOE  DEPTH  OF  LEVEB  ESCAPEMENT.—  If  you  are  opera- 
ting on  a  fit  o  watch,  the  best  plan  is  to  put  a  new  staff  into  the  lever, 
tutting  its  pivots  a  little  to  one  side,  just  as  far  as  you  desire  to 
change  the  escapement.  Common  watches  will  not,  of  course,  justify 
no  much  trouble.  The  usual  process  in  their  case  is  to  knock  out  the 
•taff  ,  and  with  a  small  file  cut  the  hole  oblong  in  a  direction  opposite 
to  that  hi  which  you  desire  to  move  your  pallets  :  then  replace  tiia 
tttaff,  wedge  it  to  the  required  position,  and  secure  by  soft  solderlu^. 
/  In  instances  where  the  staff  is  put  in  with  a  screw,  you  will  have  to 
^toroceed  differently.  Take  out  the  staff,  pry  the  pallets  from  thp 
,|ever,  file  the  phi  holes  to  slant  in  the  direction  you  would  move  tLa 
(JiaUets,  without  changing  their  size  on  the  other  side  of  the  lever. 
tJonnect  the  pieces  as  they  were  before,  and,  with  the  lever  resting  oil 
Home  solid  substance,  you  may  strike  lightly  with  your  hammet 
until  th«  bending  of  the  pins  wil)  allow  the  pallets  to  pass  into  jposi- 


810    WATCHMAKERS,   JEWELLERS*,   &C.,   RECEIPTS.' 

COMPENSATION  BALANCE  OF  CHRONOMETERS.— The  balance  is  a 
small  piece  of  steel  covered  with  a  hoop  of  brass.  The  rim,  consisting 
of  the  two  metals,  is  divided  at  the  two  extremities,  the  one  diamet- 
rical arm  of  the  balance,  so  that  the  increase  of  temperature  which 
weakens  the  balance  springs  contract,  in  a  proportionate  degree, 
the  diameter  of  the  balance,  leaving  the  spring  less  resistance  to- 
overcome.  This  occurs  from  the  brass  expanding  much  more  by 
heat  than  steel,  and  it  \herefore  curls  the  semicircular  arcs  inwards, 
an  action  that  will  be  immediately  understood,  if  we  conceive  th& 
compound  bar  of  steel  to  be  straight,  as  the  heat  would  render  th» 
brass  side  longer  and  convex,  and  in  the  balance  it  renders  it  more 
curved.  In  the  compensation  balance,  the  two  metals  are  united  as 
follows :  the  disk  of  steel  when  turned  and  pierced  with  a  central  hola 
is  fixed  by  a  little  screw-bolt  and  nut  at  the  bottom  of  a  small  cru- 
cible, with  a  central  elevation  smaller  than  the  disk ;  the  brass  is 
now  melted  and  the  whole  allowed  to  cool.  The  crucible  is  broken, 
the  excess  of  brass  is  turned  off  in  the  lathe,  the  arms  ara  made 
with  the  file  as  usual,  the  rim  is  tapped  to  receive  the  compensation 
screws  or  weights,  and,  lastly,  the  hoop  is  divided  in  two  places  at 
the  opposite  ends  of  its  diametrical  arm.  The  balance  springs  of 
marine  chronometers,  which  are  in  the  form  of  a  screw,  are  wound, 
into  the  square  thread  of  a  screw  of  the  appropriate  diameter  and 
coarseness  ;  the  two  euda  of  the  spring  are  retained  by  side  screws,, 
and  the  whole  is  carefully  enveloped  in  platinum  foil,  and  lightly- 
bound  with  wire.  The  mass  is  next  heated  in  a  piece  of  gun  barrel 
closed  at  one  end,  and  plunged  into  oil,  which  hardens  the  spring 
almost  without  discoloring  it,  owing  to  the  exclusion  of  the  air  by 
the  close  platinum  covering,  which  is  now  removed,  and  the  spring  i» 
let  down  to  the  blue  before  removal  from  the  screwed  block.  The. 
balance  or  hair  spring  of  common  watches  are  frequently  left  soft, 
those  of  the  best  watches  are  hardened  in  the  coil  upon  a  plain 
cylinder  and  are  then  curled  into  the  spiral  form  between  the  edge- 
of  a  blunt  knife  and  the  thumb,  the  same  as  in  curling  up  a  narrow 
ribbon  or  paper,  or  the  filaments  of  an  ostrich  feather.  The  soft 
springs  are  worth  60  cents  each,  those  hardened  and  tempered  $1.2$ 
each.  This  raises  the  value  of  the  steel ;  originally  less  than  4 
cents,  to  $2000  and  $8000  respectively.  It  takes  3200  balance  spring* 
to  weigh  an  ounce. 

WATCH  SPRING  MANUFACTURE. —  Watch  springs  are  hammered 
cut  of  round  steel  wire,  of  suitable  diameter  until  they  fill  the  gauger 
for  width,  which  at  the  same  time  insures  equality  of  thickness. 
7.'he  holes  are  punched  hi  their  extremities,  and  they  are  trimmed 
on  the  edge  with  a  smooth  file.  The  springs  are  then  tied  up  with 
tinding  wire,  hi  a  loose  open  coil  and  heated  over  a  charcoal  fir« 
upon  a  perforated  revolving  plate.  They  are  hardened  hi  oil  and 
blazed  off.  The  spring  is  now  distended  in  a  long  metal  frame,  simi- 
lar to  that  used  for  a  saw  blade,  and  ground  and  polished  with 
emery  and  oil  between  lead  blocks.  By  this  time  its  elasticity  appears  i; 
qiute  lost,  and  it  may  be  bent  in  any  direction  ;  its  elasticity  is,  how- 
ever, entirely  restored  by  a  subsequent  hammering  on  a  very  bright 
anvil  which  puts  the  "  nature  into  the  spring."  The  coloring  is  don« 
«ver  a  flat  plate  of  iron,  or  hood,  under  which  a  small  spirit  lamp 
Is  kept  burning  ;  the  spring  u  coaliuually  drawn  backward  aoe 


•WATCHMAKERS,    JEWELLERS*,    AC.,    RECEIPTS.    311 

forward,  about  two  or  three  inches  at  a  time,  until  it  assumes  th» 
orange  or  deep  blue  tint  throughout,  according  to  the  taste  of  the* 
purchaser,  By  many  the  coloring  is  considered  to  be  a  matter  of 
ornament  and  not  essential.  The  last  process  is  to  coil  the  spring 
into  the  spiral  form,  that  it  may  enter  the  barrel  in  which 'it  is  to  be 
contained.  This  is  done  by  a  tool  with  a  small  axis  and  winch; 
handles,  and  does  not  require  heat. 

TO  TELL  WHEN     LEVER     PALLETS     ARE    OP     PROPER  SlZE.— Thg 

,e!ear  space  between  the  pallets  should  correspond  with  the  outsider 
measure,  on  the  points  of  three  teeth  of  the  scape  whesl.  The  usual 
mode  of  measuring  for  new  pallets  is  to  set  the  wheel  as  close  as  pos 
eible  to  free  its  self  when  in.  motion.  You  can  arrange  it  in  your  dep- 
thing  tool,  after  which  the  measurement  between  the  pivot  holes  ol 
the  two  pieces,  on,  the  pillar  plate,  will  show  you  exactly  what  ia  re- 
quired. 

TO  LENGTHEN  LEVERS  OP  ANCHOR-ESCAPEMENT  WATCHES  WITH* 

OUT  HAMMERING  OR  SOLDERING. — Cut  square  across  with  a  screw- 
head  file,  a  little  back  from  the  point  above  the  fork,  and,  when  yoa 
have  thus  cut  into  it  to  a  sufficient  depth,  bend  forward  the  desired 
distance  the  piece  thus  partially  detached.  In  the  event  of  the  piece 
snapping  off  while  bending — which,  however,  rarely  happens — fil« 
down  the  point  level  with  the  fork,  and  insert  a  pin  English  lever 
style. 

TO  TEMPER  CASE  AND  OTHER  SPRINGS  OP  "WATCHES. — Draw  the 

temper  from  the  spring,  and  fit  it  properly  in  its  place  in  the  watch  ; 
then  take  it  out  and  temper  it  hard  in  rain-water  (the  addition  of  a. 
little  table-salt  to  the  water  will  be  an  improvement)  ;  after  which 
place  it  in  a  small  sheet-iron  ladle  or  cup,  and  barely  cover  it  with  lin- 
seed-oil ;  then  hold  the  ladle  over  a  lighted  lamp  until  the  oil  ignites, 
let  it  burn  until  the  oil  is  nearly,  not  quite  consumed  ;  then  re-cover- 
with  oil  and  burn  down  as  before  ;  and  so  a  third  time;  at  the  end  of 
which,  plunge  it  again  into  water.  Main  and  hair  springs  may,  im 
like  manner,  be  tempered  by  the  same  process ;  first  draw  me  temper, 
and  properly  coil  and  clamp  to  keep  it  in  position,  and  then,  proceeo, 
the  same  as  with  case-springs. 

To  MAKE  RED  WATCH  HANDS. — 1  oz,  canning  1  oz.  muriate  erf. 
eilver,  J  oz.  of  tinner's  Japan  ;  mix  together  iu  an  earthen  vessel,  ami 
hold  over  a  spirit-lamp  until  formed  into  &  paste.  Apply  this  to- 
the  watch  hand,  and  then  lay  it  on  a  copper  plate,  face  side  up, 
and  heat  the  plate  sufficiently  to  produce  the  color  desired. 

To  DRILL  INTO  HARD  STEEL. — Make  your  drill  oval  in  form,  fn- 

etead  of  the  usual  pointed  shape,  and  temper  as  hard  as  it  will  bear 

without  breaking;  then  roughen  the  surface  where  you  desire  to  drill 

.  with  a  little  diluted  muriatic  acid,  and,  instead  of  oil,  use  turpdntina 

or  kerosene,  in  which  a  little  gum  camphor  has  been  dissolved  with 

'  your  drill.    In  operating,  keep  the  pressure  on  your  drill  firm  and 

r  steady  ;  and  if  the  bottom  of  the  hole  should  chance  to  become  bur-1* 

'  nished  that  the  drill  will  not  act,  ac  sometimes  happens,  again  roughen 

}with  diluted  acid  as  before;  then  clean  out  the  hole  carefully,  and 

proceed  again. 

To  PUT  TEETH  nf  WATCH  OB  CLOCK.  WHEELS  WITHOUT  DOVB* 
TAILING  OR  SOLDERING.— -Drill  a  hole  somewhat  wider  than  th* 
tooth,  square  through  the  plate,  a  little  below  the  base  of  the  tooth  y 


WATCHMAKERS,  JEWELLERS*,   AC.,   RECEIPTS. 

cut  from  the  edge  of  the  wheel  square  down  to  the  hole  already  drill 
ed  ;  then  flatten  a  piece  of  wire  so  as  to  fit  snugly  into  the  cut  of  tin 
eaw,  and  with  a  light  hammer  fc>-m  a  head  on  it  like  the  head  of  a 
*in.  When  thus  prepared,  press  \he  wire  or  pin  into  possession  in 
the  wheel,  the  head  filling  the  hole  drilled  through  the  plate,  and  the 
projecting  out  so  as  to  form  the  tooth  ;  then  with  a  sharp-pointed 
graver  cut  a  small  groove  each  side  of  the  pin  from  the  edge  of  tha 
wheel  down  to  the  hole,  and  with  a  blow  of  your  hammer  spread  the  « 
lace  of  the  pin  so  as  to  fill  the  grooves  just  cut.  Repeat  the  same  op- . 
eration  on  the  other  side  of  the  wheel,  and  finish  off  in  the  usual 
•way.  The  tooth  will  be  found  perfectly  riveted  in  on  every  side,  and 
&s  strong  as  the  original  one,  while  in  appearance  it  will  be  equal  to 
the  best  dovetailing. 

To  CASE-HARDEN  IRON. — If  you  desire  to  harden  to  any  consider- 
able depth,  put  the  article  into  a  crucible  with  cyanide  of  potash, 
cover  over  and  heat  altogether,  then  plunge  into  water.  Thisproces* 
will  harden  perfectly  to  the  depth  of  one  or  two  inches. 

To  TIGHTEN  A  CANNON  PlNION    ON    THE  CENTRE  ARBOR  WHEN 

TOO  LOOSE. — Grasp  the  arbor  lightly  with  a  pair  of  cutting  nippers, 
and,  by  a  single  turn  of  the  nippers  around  the  arbor,  cut  or  raise  a 
small  thread  thereon. 

To  FROST  WATCH  MOVEMENTS. — Sink  that  part  of  tho  article  to  be 
frosted  for  a  short  time  in  a  compound  of  nitric  acid,  muriatic  acid, 
and  table  salt,  one  ounce  of  each.  On  removing  from  the  acid,  place 
it  in  a  shallow  vessel  containing  enough  sour  beer  to  merely  cover  it, 
then  with  a  fine  scratch  brush  scour  thoroughly,  letting  it  remain 
under  the  beer  during  the  operation.  Next  wash  off,  first  in  pure 
•water  and  then  in  alcohol.  Gild  or  silver  in  accordance  with  any 
recn>e  in  the  plating  department. 

liULK  FOR  DETERMINING  THE  CORRECT  DlAMETER  OF  A  PlNIOlC 
BY  MEASURING  TEETH  OF  THE  WHEEL  THAT  MATCHES  INTO  IT. — 

The  term  FULL,  as  used  below,  indicates  full  measure  from  outside  to 
outside  of  the  teeth  named,  and  the  term  CENTRE,  the  measure  from 
centre  of  one  tooth  to  centre  of  the  other  tooth  named,  inclusive. 

For  diameter  of  a  pinion  of  15  leaves  measure,  with  calipers,  a 
ishade  less  than  6  teeth  of  the  wheel,  full. 

For  diameter  of  a  pinion  of  14  leaves  measure,  with  calipers,  a  shade 
less  than  6  teeth  of  the  wheel,  centre. 

For  diameter  of  a  pinion  of  12  leaves  measure,  with  calipers.  B  teeth 
of  the  wheel,  centre. 

For  diameter  of  a  pinion  of  10  leaves  measure,  with  calipers,  4  teeth 
of  the  wheel,  full. 

For  diameter  of  a  pinion  of  9  leaves  measure,  with  calipers,  a  little 
less  than  4  teeth  of  the  wheel,  full. 

For  diameter  of  a  pinion  of  8  leaves  measure,  with  calipers,  a  little 
less  than  4  teeth  of  the  wheel,  centre. 

For  diameter  of  a  pinion  of  7  leaves  measure,  with  calipers,  a  little , 
less  than  3  teeth  of  the  wheel,  full.  k 

For  diameter  of  a  pinion  of  6  leaves  measure,  with  calipers,  3  teeth 
of  the  wheel,  centre. 

For  diameter  of  a  pinion  of  5  leaves  measure,  with  calipers,  3  teeth 
of  the  wheel,  centre. 

Aa  A  general  rule,  pinions  *feat  lead,  as  in  the  hour  wheel,  should 


WATCHMAKERS,   JEWELLERS',    &C.,   RECEIPTS.     818 

be  somewhat  larger  than  those  that  drive,  and  pinions  of  clock* 
ehonld  generally  be  somewhat  larger  proportionally  than  those  of ' 
watches. 

For  diameter  of  a  pinion  of  4  leaves  measure,  with  calipers,  on* 
half  of  one  space  over  2  teeth  of  the  wheel,  full. 

To  POLISH  WHEELS  PERFECTLY  WITHOUT  INJURY. — Take  a  flat 
burnishing  file,  warm  it  over  a  spirit  lamp,  and  coat  it  lightly  with 
beeswax.  When  cold,  wipe  off  as  much  of  the  wax  as  can  be  readily 
removed,  and  with  your  file  thus  prepared,  polish  the  wheel,  resting 
the  wheel  while  polishing  on  a  piece  of  cork.  The  finish  produced 
•will  be  quite  equal  to  the  finest  buff  polish,  while  there  will  be  no 
clogging,  and  the  edges  of  the  arms  and  teeth  will  remain  perfectly 
equare. 

SANDOZ'  METHOD  OP  PRODUCING  ISOCHRONISM:  IN  FLAT  AND 
BREGUET  SPRINGS. — Isochronism,  from  the  Greek,  meaning  equal 
time,  is  the  property  possessed  by  the  pendulum  and  the  hair  spring 
to  accomplish  their  arcs  of  vibration  of  different  amplitudes  in  the 
•ame  space  of  time.  In  a  pendulum,  the  only  condition  required  is 
that  its  length  be  such  as  to  make  the  centre  of  gravity  move  accord- 
ing to  the  cycloid  curve;  but  in  the  hair  spring  the  means  change 
with  the  forms  effected  by  the  spring.  In  the  spherical  or  conical 
springs,  the  extreme  curves  constructed  after  the  mathematical  rules 
discovered  by  Prof.  Phillipps,  of  the  Polytechnic  School  of  Paris, 
will  produce  an  Isochronism  very  nearly  perfect.  In  the  flat  spring, 
these  curves  cannot  exist,  therefore  other  means  must  be  resorted  to. 
I  shall  give  now  the  results  of  several  years  of  experiment  and  study, 
which  can  be  embodied  in  the  two  following  theorems  : 

1.  In  the  flat  spring,  every  coil  has  theoretically  a  point  where  the 
vibrations  are  Isochronal.  2.  That  point  of  Isochronism  is  determined 
toy  the  relative  position  of  the  two  points  connecting  the  hair  spring 
with  the  collet  and  stiid,  called  Points  d' attache. 

These  two  propositions  form  the  base  of  Isochronism  in  the  flat 
spring;  therefore  the  idea  generally  accredited  among  watchmakers 
that  the  Isochronal  properties  of  a  flat  spring  depend  on  its  length  is 
incorrect,  since  the  10th  as  well  as  the  20th  coil  of  the  spring  is  able 
to  produce  the  Isochronism,  the  only  limit  being  such  sizes  of  springs 
that  would  prevent  the  perfect  freedom  of  its  action. 

Freedom  of  action  being  necessary  for  the  Isochronal  properties  of 
the  spring  to  develop  themselves,  the  spring  must  be  bent  to  the 
centre,  according  to  Fig.  II. — the  first  coil  being  too  near  or  the  curva 
too  flat,  so  that  even  a  minute  part  of  the  spring  could  touch  the 
collet,  would  hinder  the  Isochronism.  Next,  the  spring  must  be 
pinned  perfectly  tight  in  the  collet  and  stud,  and  move  freely  between 
the  regulator  pins. 

These  conditions  fulfilled,  the  watch  is  run  3,  6  or  12  hours  with  just 
strength  enough  to  keep  it  going;  the  result  is  compared  with  a  regu- 
lator and  set  down.  Next,  the  watch  is  fully  wound  up,  and  alter 
a  space  of  time  equal  to  the  first  trial,  the  result  is  again  set  down. 
Most  generally  the  watch  will  run  slower  in  the  short  vibrations  than 
In  the  wide  ones,  and  consequently  lose  time  in  the  pocket  in  the  last 
twelve  hours  of  its  running.  Having  set  down  as  a  principle  that  every 
coil  has  an  Isochronal  point,  we  have  now  to  determine  that  point,  re-  '* 
membering  that  aa  a  general  rule,  every  increase  of  length  of  tfcj 


214    WATCHMAKERS,  JEWELLERS*,   AC.,  RECEIPTS. 

tpnng  over  that  point,  will  cause  the  watch  to  gain  in  the  short  vibra* 
tionS)  and  every  decrease  back  of  that  point  will  cause  it  to  gain  in  the 
wide  vibrations.  This  rule  is  correct  only  for  certain  limits,  as  I  am 
going  to  explain.  Supposing  that  a  hair  spring  of  15  coils  is  per- 
fectly Isochronal  with  the  two  points  d"  attache  just  opposite  each 
other,  as  shown  hi  Fig.  III.,  the  14th  and  the  16th  coil,  as  \vell  as  tha.* 
15th,  will  produce  the  Isochronisrn  very  nearly  at  the  saine  point, 
Supposing  that  we  increase  gradually  the  length  of  that  hair  spring 
of  15  coils,  pinned  up  so  that  the  two  points  d  attache  are  primitively 
opposite  each  other  —  so  that  its  length  will  now  be  15^  coils  —  the  two 
points  d'  attache  are  now  in  the  position  shown  in  Fig.  TV.,  or  what  is 
called  pinned  to  the  half  coil.  The  result  will  be  that  tjL  <j  hair  spring 
-will  cause  the  watch  to  gain  in  the  short  vibrations  as  much  as  it  is  in 
its  power  to  do. 

But  if  we  go  further  than  the  half  coil,  we  now  enter  ..^e  ground 
that  belongs  to  the  16th  coil,  and  every  increase  of  length  in  that  half 
coil  will  cause  the  hair  spring  to  lose  in  the  short  vibrations,  in  the 
game  proportion  that  it  has  been  gaining  in  increasing  the  length  of  the- 
first  half.  That  change  will  continue  until  we  reach  the  same  point 
on  the  16th  coil  that  \ve  started  from  on  the  15th.,  the  two  pins  op- 
posite each  other;  at  chat  point  we  shall  have  again  the  Isochronism. 
The  same  operation  is  applicable  to  tho  14th  coil,  with  the  same  re- 


Now  it  is  immaterial  whether  we  take  that  half  coil  to  the  centre,  or 
to  the  outside  of  the  spring,  because  both  of  these  operations  will  pro- 
duce the  same  results,  viz.,  the  change  of  the  relative  places  of  tha. 
points  d'  attache  of  the  spring.  Therefore  the  artist  has  his  choice, 
and  is  guided  by  the  size  of  the  spring  and  the  weight  of  the  balance;, 
for  taking  half  a  coil  to  the  centre  of  the  spring  will  not  much  affect 
the  rate  of  the  watch,  but  taken  outside,  the  difference  will  be  great. 
On  the  other  hand,  a  very  short  cut  to  the  centre  will  greatly  affect 
the  Isochronism,  and  at  the  outside,  a  full  half  -coil  will  generally 
produce  from  15  to  25/;  difference  hi  24  hours.  If  then  the  watch. 
maker  would  produce  the  greatest  possible  changes  of  Isochronism  hi 
a  watch,  the  change  of  position  of  the  two  points  d'  attache  of  the- 
spring  of  one  coil  around,  will  give  him  the  two  highest  degrees  of 
gaining  and  losing  in  the  short  vibrations. 

It  foSows  from  the  following  pages,  that  if  a  watch  loses  in  the  last 
running  (short  vibrations),  the  first  thing  to  do  is  to  increase  tha 
length  of  the  hair  spring  from  the  outside;  if  the  result  is  better,  but 
not  yet  good,  give  still  more  length;  if  the  result  is  worse,  it  showi.  ' 
that  you  are  too  far  on  the  coil.    Take  back  the  whole  length  that, 
you  had  given  in  the  first  operation,  and  draw  more;  length,  so  as  to 
affect  the  spring  the  other  way;  or  if  your  spring  is  already  email  or 
your  balance  pretty  heavy,  cut  to  the  centre  so  as  to  come  around  to 
ihe  required  positions. 

Some  springs  cannot  produce  the  Isochronism  ;  this  comes  from  a 
defect  in  making  the  spring,  or  a  want  of  homogeniety  in  the  metal  ; 
the  only  remedy  is  a  new  spring. 

In  the  Breguet  Spring,  the  Isochronism  i»  produced  in  the  gam* 
manner  as  the  flat  gpringings,  but  great  care  must  be  taken  in  making; 
the  curve,  foe  if  it  is  not  made  in  conformity  tatha  principle  of  Phil— 
,  ipps.  the  Isochronism  will  be  disturbed. 


WATCHMAKERS,   JEWELLERS,'  &C.,   RECEIPTS.    313 

For  instance,  in  Fig.  V.,  the  spring  being  pinned  in  A,  and  the 
<ratch  losing  1"  in  the  last  12  hours  (short  vib.),  I  first  increase  the  > 
length  of  the  hair  spring  to  the  point  B  ;  but  as  I  am  already  on  th*  '} 
eround  belonging  to  the  losing  action,  the  result  will  be  an  increased 
/oss  of  time  in  the  last  running.    I  then  go  back  to  the  point  A,  and 
^moreover  pin  the  spring  to  C,  and  then  I  shall  approximate  Isochron-  i 
ism.    However,  in  most  cases  the  increase  of  length  will  make  th< 
watch  gain  in  its  last  running. 


Timing  and  Adjusting. 


«g.  IV. 


ADJUSTMENTS  TO  POSITIONS.— This  adjustment  is  known  to 
few  -watchmakers,  and  they  make  it  a  regular  business.     It  requires 
9i  the  operator  considerable  manual  skill  and  reflective  powers*.  ' 


THE  8INGEB  BUILDING— NEW  YORK. 

The  tallest  building  in  the  world.  Height  from  sidewalk  to  top  of  tower,  612 
feet.  Contains  49  stories,  or  floors.  Floor  space  in  main  building,  20,000  square 
feet  per  floor.  Floor  space,  entire  building,  9)4  acres.  Length  of  steam  and 
water  piping,  18  miles.  Weight  of  steel  in  entire  building,  10,578  tons.  Time 
to  build,  18  months.  It  would  have  taken  1  man  2,360  years  to  build  it. 


WATCHMAKERS,  JEWELLERS*,   AC.,  RECEIPTS.    31T 

treat  principle  is  to  equalize  the  frictions,  so  that  the  pivots  will  offiaf 
to  the  action  of  the  spring  the  same  resistance  in  the  four  position* 
generally  required,  viz.,  dial  up,  XII  up,  cock  up  and  III  up.  After 
iving  inspected  and  corrected  the  train  so  that  the  motive  t> 


motive  power  i» 

transmitted  uniformly  to  the  balance,  the  pivois  and  jewels  of  th» 
lever  should  be  polished  and  shortened  so  as  to  have  very  little  fric- 
tion; next,  the  lever  should  be  poised  as  nearly  perfect  as  possible, 
and  the  slot  also  in  the  fork  where  the  ruby  pin  acts  should  ba 
polished.  The  balance  jewels  ought  to  be  made  short  enough  ta 
tave  the  holes  square,  rounded  inside,  and  perfectly  polished,  tho 
balance  pivots  well  burnished  and  their  ends  half  rounded,  and  tha 
balance  poised  very  carefully.  The  English  method  of  throwing  the 
balance  out  of  poise  to  obtain  the  same  rate  in  different  positions  is 
not  accepted  generally,  and  is  considered  a  bad  practice  by  the  most 
eminent  watchmakers.  The  hair  spring  is  put  in  its  position  without 
the  balance,  and  bent  so  that  the  collet  and  the  cock  jewel  will  have 
the  same  centres.  The  watch  being  now  in  good  running  order,  is 
put  under  trial  for  12  or  24  hours,  aiid  the  rato  in  each  position  care- 
Jully  noted.  If  there  is  any  difference  in  the  running  with  the  cock 
up,  or  dial  up,  making  the  ends  of  the  pivots  even  and  equally  well 
polished  will  remove  the  discrepancy.  If  the  watch  loses  with  XII 
up,  which  is  generally  the  case,  and  the  friction  outhe  balance  jewels 
being  reduced  as  much  as  possible,  the  remedy  is  to  increase  the 
friction  when  the  watch  is  either  dial  or  cock  up.  This  is  done  by 
throwing  the  hair  spring  a  little  out  of  the  centre  of  the  cock  jewel, 
thereby  adding  to  the  friction  on  the  pivot  end,  a  lateral  pressure, 
against  the  balance  jewels.  If  the  watch  is  well  regulated  with  XII 
up,  and  loses  with  III  up,  throw  the  spring  a  little  towards  the  figure 
III ;  this  operation  lifts  up  the  balance  when  the  watch  is  in  losing 
position  and  diminishes  the  friction  of  the  pivots  in  that  particular 
case.  Making  the  ends  of  the  pivots  perfectly  flat  has  a  tendency  to 
make  the  watch  gain  with  dial  or  cock  up.  The  sound  of  the  watch 
must  be  clear  in  all  positions,  else  it  indicates  a  friction,  as  for  instance 
rough  jewels  or  pivots,  safety  pin  rubbing  against  the  roller,  etc. 

How  TO  REGULATE  A  WATCH  ry  a  FEW  MINUTES,  AND  A  PRACTI- 
CAL METHOD  TO  PUT  A  NEW  HAIR  SPRING,  OF  THE  RIGHT  SIZE  AND 
PERFECTLY  REGULATED  IN  A  WATCH  WITHOUT  RUNNING  IT.— First, 
ascertain  how  many  vibrations  the  watch  beats  in  one  minute,  by 
-ounting  every  other  vibration  and  comparing  that  time  with  a  well- 
•gulated  watch  or  regulator.  In  general,  Swiss  watches  beat  18,000 
Jl  one  hour,  viz.,  300  in  one  minute;  American  watches,  either  18,000t 
Cither  16,200,  or  270  per  miuute;  and  the  English  levers,  14,400,  or 
240  per  minute.  If  there  is  any  doubt,  it  is  better  to  count  up  leaves 
and  teeth,  and  ascertain  the  right  number-  but  these  cases  are  scared 
where  watches  will  beat  odd  numbers. 

Having  found  out  the  right  number,  examine  tne  ualance  carefully 
for  one  or  two  minutes,  counting  every  vibration  going  from  right  to 
left,  and  in  the  mean  time  examining  the  regulator  or  clock,  to  see- 
When  one  minute  is  up.  If  the  watch  is  well  regulated,  the  number 
'of  vibrations  must  be  exactly  half  of  the  regular  first  number,  viz., 
150,  135,  or  120,  as  only  every  other  vibration  has  been  recorded  to 
facilitate  the  observation.  If  not  so,  move  the  regulator,  right  cw 
\fitt»  uatu  a  perfect  coincidence  comes. 


318    WATCHMAKERS,  JEWELLERS',   AC.,    RECEIPT* 

To  pick  up  a  new  hair  spring,  after  having  recorded  the  right  ntK^- 
ber  01  beats— either  by  the  old  hair  spring  or  by  the  numbers  of  th» 
train — lay  first  the  spring  with  its  centre  well  hi  the  centre  of  the  cock 
jewel,  and  having  ascertained  where  the  coil  will  enter  between  the* 
pins  of  the  regulator,  note  the  place.  Stick  to  the  pivot  of  the  balance! 
a,  small  round  piece  of  beeswax;  then  stick  it  to  the  centre  of  the'- 
spring,  so  as  to  establish  a  temporary  but  firm  connection  of  the  two 
pieces,  and  having  pinched  with  the  tweezers  the  hair  spring  to  the 
place  indicated  by  the  regulator  pins,  cause  it  to  vibrate  gently;  then 
jcount  up  the  vibrations  for  one  minute,  and  when  you  have  got  a 
spring- that  will  produce  nearly  the  required  number  of  beats,  pin  it 
to  the  collet,  aud  cause  it  again  to  vibrate,  moving  the  tweezers  for- 
ward and  backward,  until  the  right  number  of  beats  is  produced; 
•with  another  pair  of  tweezers,  pinch  the  hair  spring  about  one-eighth 
of  an  inch  back  of  the  regulating  point,  so  as  to  counterbalance.  119 
gain  produced  by  the  regulator  pins,  and  bend  slightly  the  wire, 
which  is  the  place  where  the  hair  spring  must  be  pinned  to  the  stud. 
Having  then  trued  up  the  spring,  proceed  to  put  the  regulator  to  the> 
right  place,  by  using  the  way  indicated  hi  the  beginning  of  this  article, 
and  the  work  is  done.  Success  is  certain,  when  the  operation  has 
teen  carefully  performed.  The  balance  must  be  made  to  vibrate  on 
eome  hard  and  well  polished  substance,  so  as  to  keep  up  the  vibra- 
tion to  about  the  standard  of  regular  running.  A  little  practice  will 
aoon  enable  the  watchmaker  to  change  a  hair  spring  very  quick, 
and  without  any  trouble  whatever. 

OF  COMPENSATION. — A  most  accurate  way  of  counterbalancing 
effects  produced  on  the  running  of  watches  by  different  temperatures, 
fe  the  expansion  balance,  formed  of  two  concentric  rings,  one  in- 
terior, oi  steel,  and  one  exterior,  of  brass,  joined  together  by  hard 
soldering  or  smelting.  The  general  proportion  of  these  two  metals  is 
one  part  of  steel,  two  of  brass.  The  stronger  dilation  of  brass,  causes 
the  rim  of  the  balance  to  head  inwardly  when  the  heat,  increasing, 
diminishes  the  strength  of  the  hair  spring;  the  greater  contraction 
bends  the  rim  outwardly  when  cold  conies  to  increase  the  rigidity  of 
the  spring's  coils.  Pushing  forward  or  backward  the  screws  of  the> 
rim  will  affect  the  compensating  powers  of  the  balance,  by  causing 
their  weight  to  be  more  active  as  they  come  nearer  the  end  of  the  cut 
arm.  The  thinner  and  higher  the  run,  the  greater  the  action.  A  few 
trials  will  bring  the  balance  to  compensate  the  effect  of  temperature 
Jrom  30°  to  100°  Fahrenheit.  For  extreme  temperatures  another 
compensation,  called  auxiliary,  is  used,  but  only  in  ship  chronome- 
ters. A  soft  spring  will  be  less  affected  by  changes  of  temperature 
than  a  hardened  one ;  this  affords  a  way  to  compensate  certain  bal- 
ances, where  otherwise  new  ones  would  have  to  be  used.  A  precau- 
tion to  observe  in  compensating  is  to  make  the  screws  go  freely  on  the 
balance,  and  not  screw  them  too  tight,  else  the  action  of  the  rim  not 
being  free,  a  good  compensation  could  not  be  attained,  until  the  com- 
fcined  actions  of  dilation  and  contraction  of  the  rim  have  freed  the 
screws. 

For  watchmakers  who  would  want  to  compensate  a  watch  without , 
having  an  expansion  "balance,  I  give  the  following  process,  which  I 
have  successfully  used  :  After  having  cut  off  the  greater  part  of  the 
regulator's  arm,  another  arm  is  to  be  fitted  with  a  screw  on  the  rim 


WATCHMAKERS,   JEWELLERS*,    AC.,    RECEIPTS. 

*rf  the  regulator,  so  as  to  revolve  freely  around  that  screw  as  an  axis. 
The  pins  are  put  in  the  same  position  as  on  the  old  arm.  A  ring,  of 
two  parts  of  brass  and  one  of  steel,  is  then  fastened  to  one  end  on 
that  movable  arm,  and  the  other  end  is  screwed  at  any  convenient 
place,  either  on  the  regulator  itself,  or  on  tke  cock.  See  Fig.  1.  By 
placing  the  whole  ring  on  the  regulator,  the  latter  may  be  moved  as 
In  any  other  watch,  the  ring  opening  or  shutting  itself  under  tlia 
changes  of  temperature,  will  push  backward  and  forward  the  regu* 
lator  pins,  and  so  effect  the  compensation  which  is  to  be  regulated  by 
varying  either  the  proportion  oi  brass  and  steel,  or  the  size  of  tha 


Lx>  try  the  running  of  the  watches,  a  common  refrigerator  is  used 
to  produce  the  low  temperature,  and  then  an  apparatus,  self-regula- 
ting, will  produce  the  high  temperature.  It  is  commonly  a  squara 
toox  of  tin  or  copper,  hermetically  closed,  under  which  is  a  gas  burner. 
.A  compensating  arm  of  the  form  of  a  U,  made  of  brasa  and  steel,  is 
fastened  inside  the  box,  and  is  connected  by  a  string  with  a  lever  at- 
tached to  the  key  of  the  burner,  and  acts  so  that  at  the  high  temper- 
ature, say  100°  Fah.,  the  gas  is  nearly  shut  off,  the  compensating 
arm  gradually  releasing  itself  and  consequently  letting  put  more  gas 
Trhen  the  heat  diminishes  inside  the  box.  Use  steel  pins  to  secure 
spring  to  collet  and  stud. 

To  MAKE  POLISHING  BROACHES. — These  are  usually  made  of  ivory, 
and  used  with  diamond  dust,  loose,  instead  of  having  been  driven  in. 
You  oil  the  broach  lightly,  dip  it  into  the  finest  diamond  dust-,  and 
proceed  to  work  it  into  the  jewel  the  same  as  you  do  the  brass 
broach.  Unfortunately,  too  many  watchmakers  fail  to  attach  suffi- 
cient importance  to  the  polishing  broach.  The  sluggish  motion  of 
watches  now-a-days  is  more  often  attributable  to  rough  jewels  than 
to  any  other  cause. 

To  POLISH  STEEL.— Take  crocus  of  oxide  of  tin  and  graduate  it  hi 
in  the  same  way  as  in  preparing  diamond  dust,  and  apply  it  to  the 
steel  by  means  of  a  piece  of  soft  iron  or  bell  metal,  made  proper  form, 
and  prepared  with  flour  of  emery,  same  as  for  pivot  burnishers;  use 
the  coarsest  of  the  crocus  first,  and  finish  off  with  the  finest.  To  iron 
or  soft  steel  a  better  finish  may  be  given  by  burnishing  than  can  bo 
imparted  by  the  use  of  polishing  powder  of  any  kind  whatever.  TJie 
German  Method  of  Polishing  Steel  is  performed  by  the  use  of  crocus 
on  a  buff  wheel.  Nothing  can  exceed  the  surpassing  beauty  imparted 
to  steel  or  even  cast  iron  by  this  process. 

CROCUS  POWDER  FOR  POLISHING.— Chloride  of  sodium  and  sul- 
phate of  iron  are  well  mixed  in  a  mortar.  The  mixture  is  then  put 
into  a  shallow  crucible  and  exposed  to  a  red  heat ;  vapor  escapes 
and  the  mass  fuses.  When  no  more  vapor  escapes,  remove  the 
crucible  and  let  it  cool.  The  color  of  the  oxide  of  iron  produced, 
if  the  fire  has  been  properly  regulated,  is  a  fine  violet ;  if  the  beat 
lias  been  too  high  it  becomes  black.  The  mass  when  cold  is  to  be 
powdered  and  washed,  to  separate  the  sulphate  of  soda.  The 
powder  of  crocus  is  then  to  be  submitted  to  a  process  of  careful 
elutriation,  and  the  finer  particles  reserved  for  the  more  delicate 
-  work.  An  excellent  powder  for  applying  to  razor  strops  is  made 
by  igniting  together  in  a  crucible,  equal  parts  of  well  dried  green1 
vitrol  and  common  salt.  The  heat  must  be  slowly  raised  and  well: 


820    WATCHMAKERS,   JEWELLERS',    &C.,   RECEIPTS. 

tegulated,  otherwise  the  materials  "will  "boil  over  in  a  pasty  state, 
and  be  lost.  When  well  made,  on*,  of  contact  with  air,  it  has  th* 
brilliant  aspect  of  black  lead.  It  rbquires  to  be  ground  and  elutri- 
ated, after  which  it  affords,  on  drying,  an  impalpable  powder,  that 
may  be  either  applied  on  a  strop  of  smooth  buff  leather,  or  mixed  t 
up  with  hog's  lard  or  tallow  into  a  stiff  cerate.  « 

To  REMOVE  RUST  FROM  IKON  OR  STEEL,  &c. — For  cleaning  pur«y 
poses,  &c.,  kerosene  oil  or  benzine  are  probably  the  best  things' 
known.  When  articles  have  become  pitted  by  rust,  however,  these 
can  of  course,  only  be  removed  by  mechanical  means,  such  as  scour- 
ing with  fine  powder,  or  flour  of  emery  and  oil,  or  with  very  fine, 
emery  paper.  To  prevent  steel  from  rusting,  rub  it  with  a  mixture  of 
lime  and  oil,  or  with  mercurial  ointment,  either  of  which  will  be- 
found  valuable. 

To  MAKE  BURNISHERS. — Proceed  the  same  as  in  making  pivot  files^ 
•with  the  exception  that  you  are  to  use  fine  flour  of  emery  on  a  slip  of 
oiled  brass  or  copper,  instead  of  the  emery  paper.  Burnishers  which 
have  become  too  smooth  may  be  improved  vastly  with  the  fiour  of 
emery  as  above  -without  drawing  the  temper. 

To  PREPARE  A  BURNISHER  FOR  POLISHING. — Melt  a  little  bees- 
wax on  the  face  of  your  burnisher.  Its  effect  then  on  brass  or  other 
finer  metals,  will  be  equal  to  the  best  buff.  A  small  burnisher  pre- 
pared ill  this  way  is  the  very  thing  with  which  to  polish  up  watch 
•wheels.  Rest  them  on  a  piece  of  pith  while  polishing. 

RULES  FOR  DETERMINING  THE  CORRECT  LENGTH  OF  THE  LEVER, 
BTZE  OF  RUBY-PIN  TABLE,  SIZE  OF  THE  PALLETS,  AND  DEPTH  OF 
ESCAPEMENT  OF  LEVER  WATCHES. — A  lever,  from  the  guard  point  to 
the  pallet  staff,  should  correspond  in  length  with  twice  the  diameter 
of  the  ruby-pin  table,  taid  when  a  table  is  accidentally  lost,  the  cor- 
rect size  thereof  may  be  known  by  measuring  half  the  length  of  the 
lever  between  the  points  above  named.  For  correct  size  of  pallet,  the' 
clear  space  between  the  pallets  should  correspond  with  the  outside 
measure  on  the  points  of  three  teeth  of  the  escapement  -wheel.  Th* 
cnly  rule  that  can  be  given,  without  the  use  of  diagrams,  for  correct 
depth  of  the  escapements,  is  to  set  it  as  close  as  it  will  bear,  and  still 
free  itself  perfectly  when  in  motion.  This  may  be  done  by  first 
placing  the  escapement  in  your  depthing  tool,  and  then  setting  it  to 
the  correct  depth.  Then  by  measuring  the  distance  between  the. 
pivots  of  the  lever  staff  and  escapement  wheel,  as  now  set,  and  the. 
corresponding  pivot  holes  in  the  watch,  you  determine  correctly  how 
much  the  depth  of  the  escapement  requires  to  be  altered. 

To  PREVENT  WATCHES  LOSING  TIME  FROM  ACTION  OF  PENDULUM 
SPRING.— Pin  the  pendulum  spring  into  the  stud,  so  that  that  part, 
the  part  of  the  eye  immediately  emerging  from  the  collet,  and  the 
centre  of  the  collet,  are  in  a  line;  then  you  will  have  the  spring  pin- 
ned in,  in  equal  terms,  as  it  is  called  by  those  who  are  versed  in  the 
higher  branches  of  springing.  Bring  the  watch  to  time  by  adding  to 
or  taking  from  the  balance,  and  poise  it;  try  the  watch  with  the  12 
up  for  2  hours,  then  with  the  6  up  for  2  hours,  then  lying  down  for 
the  same  time;  the  trials  here  described  will  be  sufficient  if  the 
•watch  has  seconds;  keep  the  curb  pin  close  so  as  to  allow  the  spring 
only  a  little  play;  the  vibration  of  the  balance  should  be  If  turn  or 
1|  lying- 


WATCHMAKERS,    JEWELLERS',    AC.,   RECEIPTS.     321 
LIST  OF  TRAINS  OF  WATCHES. 

TG    THE    NUMB1R    OF    TiSETH    IN    THE    WHEELS,    LEAVES    IV  THK 
PIMIONS     BEATS   IN    A   MINCTK,    AND   TIME  THK   FOURTH 
WUEKL    REVOLVK8    IN. 

Trains,  for  Seven  Teeth  i  \  the  Escapement  Wheel* 


No.  of 
Teeth 
fa  the 
Centre 

Wheel. 

Teeth  in 
3d  Wheel. 

Leaves 
in  3d 
Wheel 
Pinion. 

Teeth  in 
4th  Wheel 

Leaves 
in  4th 
Wheel 
Pinion. 

Teeth 
in  the 
Escape- 
nient 
Wheel. 

Leaves 
in  the 
Escape- 
ment 
Wheel 
Pinion. 

No.  of  Boats  in 
one  minute. 

SoTal 

-S.:COndB 
the  4th 
Whe*. 
revol- 
ve* in. 

72 

66 

6 

68 

6 

6 

298— 

2V 

66 

64 

6 

64 

6 

6 

292+ 

31 

66 

64 

6 

63 

6 

6 

28T+ 

31 

66 

63 

6 

63 

6 

6 

283- 

31 

66 

€3 

6 

62 

6 

6 

278+ 

31 

66 

<-,3 

6 

61 

6 

6 

274- 

at 

66 

ci 

6 

60 

6 

6 

269+ 

31 

Trains,  for  Nine  Teeth  lu  the  Escapement  \Vheel 


€6 
63 

C6 
C3 

66 
68 
66 
6? 

06 
03 


299+ 


294 
291+ 


283+ 

280+ 

278+ 

275 

273 


3$ 
34 
33 
31 


Trains,  for  Eleven  Teeth  In  t!i«  Escapement  Wheel.. 


6U 

00 

G 

i'J 

6 

11 

G 

i/j>  — 

&> 

CO 

61 

6 

64 

6 

11 

6 

297 

40 

GO 

w 

6 

52 

6 

11 

6 

23^— 

3& 

61 

62 

6 

62 

6 

11 

6 

294- 

8» 

66 

66 

6 

53 

6 

11 

6 

292+ 

40 

60 

64 

6 

63 

6 

11 

6 

291+ 

40 

62 

54 

6 

61 

6 

11 

6 

290— 

3» 

68 

64 

6 

M 

6 

11 

6 

287+ 

41 

68 

55 

6 

53 

6 

11 

6 

287 

41 

69 

51 

6 

53 

6 

n 

6 

286+ 

41 

60 

51 

6 

62 

6 

n 

6 

286 

40 

60 

65 

6 

61 

6 

11 

6 

283— 

89 

61 

65 

6 

60 

6 

11 

6 

285- 

39 

63 

65 

6 

48 

6 

11 

6 

282+ 

8» 

69 

54 

6 

62 

6 

n 

6 

281  + 

41 

60 

54 

6 

61 

G 

11 

6 

281+ 

40 

61 

61 

6 

50 

6 

11 

6 

280- 

£» 

66 

51 

6 

51 

6 

11 

6 

277+ 

43 

60 

60 

6 

48 

6 

11 

6 

293+ 

36 

62 

54 

6 

52 

6 

11 

6 

295+ 

89 

€3 

64 

6 

60 

6 

11 

6 

289- 

33 

63 

48 

6 

56 

6 

n 

6 

287+ 

43 

70 

70 

7 

65 

7 

11 

7 

29*  f 

35 

TO 

70 

7 

48 

7 

11 

6 

293-^ 

36 

^ 

ro 

7 

43 

6 

it 

6 

29?+ 

36 

21 


WATCHMAKERS,   JEWELLERS*,   AC.,  RECEIPT! 


No.  of 
Teeth 
Inth.- 
Outre 
'Wheel. 

T««c,h  in 
3d  Wheel. 

Leares 
in  od 
Wheel 
Pinion. 

Teeth  in 

4th  Wheel 

Leaves 
in  4th 
Wheel 
Pinion. 

Teeth 
iu  the 
Escape- 
ment 
Wheel. 

L«aves 
in  the 
Escape- 
ment 
Wheel 
Pinion. 

i 

No.  ot'  Beats  in 
one  Mlnucc. 

•  •<•* 

*i~j.  or 
OewtfJU* 
the  4,ij 
Wheel 
revol- 
ve* in. 

60 

70 

6 

48 

1 

11 

6 

293  -t- 

36 

63 

60 

6 

66 

7 

11 

6 

287+ 

40 

.63 

63 

6 

60 

f 

31 

6 

289— 

38 

•80 

80 

8 

64 

8 

11 

8 

293+ 

36 

'80 

80 

8 

66 

g 

11 

7 

293  + 

36 

j  80 

80 

8 

48 

8 

11 

6 

293+ 

SC 

1  80 

70 

8 

66 

7 

11 

7 

293  + 

36 

80 

70 

8 

48 

7 

11 

6 

293+ 

36 

80 

60 

8 

48 

C 

11 

6 

293+ 

33 

70 

80 

7 

66 

8 

11 

7 

£93+ 

33 

70 

80 

7 

48 

8 

11 

6 

293+ 

33 

€0 

80 

6 

48 

8 

11 

6 

293+ 

33 

84 

72 

8 

60 

8 

11 

6 

289— 

33 

84 

63 

8 

50 

7 

11 

6 

289— 

33 

84 

54 

8 

60 

6 

11 

6 

289— 

S3 

63 

72 

6 

50 

8 

11 

6 

289— 

33 

63 

G3 

6 

50 

7 

11 

6 

289- 

33 

S4 

64 

8 

56 

8 

11 

6 

287+ 

40 

81 

56 

8 

56 

7 

11 

6 

i!S7+ 

40 

€4 

43 

8 

53 

6 

11 

6 

287+ 

40 

•63 

64 

6 

53 

8 

11 

6 

237+ 

40 

63 

66 

6 

58 

7 

11 

0 

287+ 

43 

Trains,  for  Thirteen   Tcotli  In  tlie  Escapement  V/heel. 


£4 

53 

(j 

oj 

6 

13 

6 

45 

66 

53 

6 

50 

6 

13 

6 

298— 

44 

69 

61 

6 

49 

6 

13 

6 

293- 

43 

•60 

61 

6 

48 

6 

13 

6 

294+ 

42 

64 

53 

6 

51 

6 

13 

6 

293- 

45 

66 

63 

6 

49 

6 

13 

6 

292— 

44 

66 

64 

6 

48 

6 

33 

6 

291+ 

44 

-67 

63 

6 

43 

6 

13 

6 

291— 

43 

64 

62 

6 

61 

6 

13 

6 

2874- 

46 

1 

43 
61 

6 
6 

60 
60 

6 
6 

13 
13 

6 
6 

2S7+ 
236+ 

45 
45 

62 

6 

60 

6 

13 

6 

282— 

46 

66 

61 

6 

49 

6 

13 

6 

281— 

45 

67 

51 

6 

48 

6 

13 

6 

280— 

44 

62 

52 

6 

61 

6 

13 

6 

277— 

48 

63 

52 

6 

50 

6 

13 

6 

270+ 

46 

i 

62 
61 

6 
6 

62 
61 

6 
6 

13 
13 

6 

6 

293— 

287 

46 

4-3 

50 

6 

61 

6 

13 

6 

286+ 

4* 

•&fi 

52 

6 

48 

6 

13 

6 

280+ 

44 

66 

52 

6 

60 

6 

13 

6 

292+ 

44 

CO 

48 

6 

48 

6 

13 

6 

277+ 

45 

CO 

60 

6 

48 

6 

13 

6 

289- 

43 

64 

6 

60 

8 

13 

6 

292+ 

53 

CO 

68 

7 

56 

7 

13 

6 

287+ 

61 

CO 

60 

3 

54 

6 

13 

6 

300 

44 

32 

56 

7 

66 

7 

13 

6 

296+ 

47 

63 

52 

j 

61 

6 

13 

6 

285 

60 

•3 

60 

7 

60 

7 

13 

6 

290 

60 

64 

60 

7 

eo    r 

13 

6 

285 

60 

70 

8 

68   (   8 

13 

C 

280 

60 

74 

68 

8 

68   ,'  8 

13 

6 

2864- 

60 

WATCHMAKERS,   JEWELLERS*,    AC.,   RECEIPTS.     823 
Train*,  for  Fifteen  Teeth  in  the  Escapement  Wheel. 


Ho.  of 

Teeth 
In  the 
Centre 
Wheel. 

Teeth  In 
3d  Wheel. 

Lenres 
in  3d 
Wheel 
Pinion. 

Teeth  In 
4th  Wheel 

Leave* 
in  4th 
Wheel 
Pinion. 

Teeth 
in  the 
Escape- 
ment 
Wheel. 

Leaver 
in  the 
Escape- 
ment 
Wheel 
Pinion. 

Xo.  of  Beat*  in 
on«  Minute. 

A\0.  O/ 

^ecomU 
tha  4th 
Wheel 
rorol- 
rea  in. 

64 

50 

6 

48 

6 

15 

6 

286 

48 

58 

48 

6 

40 

6 

15 

6 

290 

50 

48 

45 

6 

59 

6 

15 

6 

291— 

60 

48 

45 

6 

58 

6 

15 

6 

300 

62 

48 

45 

6 

67 

6 

15 

6 

288 

62 

48 

45 

6 

66 

6 

15 

6 

288 

50 

66 

48 

6 

46 

6 

15 

6 

289— 

50 

63 

66 

7 

66 

7 

15 

7 

288 

50 

€0 

56 

8 

68 

7 

15 

6 

288 

50 

62 

60 

8 

60 

8 

15 

6 

288 

50 

72 

64 

8 

60 

8 

15 

6 

288 

50 

72 

64 

8 

66 

8 

15 

7 

288 

50 

72 

64 

8 

64 

8 

15 

8 

288 

50 

62 

60 

6 

43 

6 

15 

6 

28S 

50 

64 

48 

6 

43 

6 

15 

6 

283 

50 

72 

64 

8 

48 

8 

16 

6 

283 

50 

80 

8 

64 

10 

15 

8 

283 

50 

72 

80 

8 

56 

10 

15 

7 

288 

50 

72 

80 

8 

48 

10 

15 

6 

288 

50 

€3 

80 

7 

64 

10 

15 

8 

288 

60 

63            80 

66 

10 

15 

7 

288 

50 

63            80 

7 

48 

10 

15 

6 

288 

60 

Trains,  for  Seventeen  Teeth  In  the  Escapement  Wheel. 


64      1      80 

8 

43 

U 

17 

6 

299+ 

53 

£4            48 

C 

44 

6 

17 

6 

299+ 

50 

£1 

48 

6 

45 

6 

17 

6 

295+ 

63 

£4 

48 

6 

43 

6 

17 

6 

292+ 

50 

48 

48 

6 

ii 

6 

17 

6 

290+ 

63 

61 

48 

6 

16 

6 

17 

6 

289 

63 

64 

43 

6 

42 

6 

17 

6 

286- 

53 

48 

48 

6 

47 

6 

17 

6 

284+ 

53 

61 

48 

6 

44 

6 

17 

6 

283— 

53 

48 

48 

6 

43 

6 

17 

6 

278 

53 

48 

48 

6 

45 

6 

17 

6 

272 

68 

€4 

64 

8 

64 

8 

17 

8 

290+ 

50 

72 

64 

5 

66 

8 

17 

8 

286- 

50 

64 

64 

8 

60 

8 

17 

8 

289- 

53 

5'3 

56 

7 

66 

7 

17 

7 

290+ 

53 

63 

56 

7 

49 

7 

17 

7 

286— 

50 

64 

66 

8 

43 

7 

17 

6 

290+ 

53 

io 

80 

10 

64 

10 

17 

8 

290+ 

53 

80 

64 

10 

C4 

8 

17 

8 

290+ 

63 

80 

64 

10 

65 

8     :     17 

290+ 

K 

80 

64 

10 

43 

8 

17 

6 

290+ 

53 

8> 

56 

10 

63 

7 

17 

7 

290+ 

53 

80 

66 

1) 

43 

7 

17 

6 

290+ 

53 

64 

80 

8 

64 

10 

17 

8 

290+ 

53 

64 

30 

8 

66 

10 

17 

7 

290+ 

53 

To  REMOVE  SOFT  SOLDER  FROM  GOLD. — Place  the  work  in  spirits 
of  salts,  or  remove  as  much  as  possible  with  the  scraper,  using  a 
gentle  heat  to  enable  you  to  get  off  the  spider  more  easily.  Very 
useful  to  be  known  where  hard  soldering  is  required,  either  i* 
bright  or  colored  work. 


324    WATCHMAKERS.    JEWELLERS',    &C.,    RECEIPTS 


Trains,  for  Third  Wheel  and  Patent  Second* 


Ko.ef 

Teeth 
In  the 
Centra 

•whs** 

Teeth  In 
3d  Wheel 

Leares 
in  3d 
Wheel 
Pinion. 

Teeth  in 
4th  Wheel 

Learea 
in  4th 
Wheel 
Pinion. 

Teeth 
in  tha 

Escape- 
ment 
Wheel. 

Lwavci 
mtho 
Escape- 
ment 
Wheel 
Pinu  n. 

No.  of  Beats  in 

Xo.  of 
Second 
he  4tfe 
Wheel 
r  evol- 
ve s  in^. 

60 

72 

6 

60 

13 

6 

800 

6) 

60 

60 

6 

60 

U 

6 

3oO 

60 

60 

48 

6 

60 

8 

6 

8  0 

CO 

48 

CO 

6 

60 

8 

G 

800 

CO 

€0 

72 

6 

54 

12 

6 

270 

CO 

CO 

60 

6 

64 

10 

6 

270 

60 

43 

60 

6 

54 

8 

6 

270 

60 

60 

72 

6 

48 

12 

6 

240 

60 

60 

60 

6 

48 

10 

6 

240 

CO 

48 

6) 

6 

48 

8 

6 

240 

60 

Trains,  for  Fourth  Wheel  Seconds,  with  Eleven  Teetb 
la  Ihe  I_  scapement  Wheel. 


48 

ij 

6 

-(  | 

6 

11 

* 

2JO-f 

OJ 

48 

45 

6 

i4 

6 

11 

6 

271+ 

60 

48 

45 

G 

76 

6 

11 

6 

279- 

60 

48 

45 

6 

73 

6 

11 

6 

2S6 

60- 

60 

49 

7 

74 

11 

6 

271+ 

GO- 

60 

49 

7 

76 

11 

6 

279- 

GO 

60 

49 

7 

78 

11 

6 

280 

60 

45 

55 

6 

74 

11 

6 

271+ 

60 

45 

56 

6 

70 

11 

6 

279— 

60 

45 

66 

6 

73 

11 

6 

238 

60 

64 

60 

8 

74 

8 

11 

C 

271+ 

60 

64 

60 

8 

76 

8 

11 

6 

279— 

60' 

64 

60 

8 

78 

8 

11 

6 

236 

60 

60 

66 

8 

74 

7 

11 

6 

271+ 

60 

60 

66 

8 

70 

7 

11 

6 

279- 

60 

60 

56 

8 

78 

7 

11 

6 

286 

6) 

60 

48 

8 

74 

6 

11 

6 

271+ 

60- 

48 

48 

8 

73 

6 

11 

6 

286 

60 

48 

60 

6 

74 

8 

11 

c 

271+ 

60 

48 

60 

6 

78 

8 

11 

6 

286 

60 

66 

60 

7 

74 

8 

11 

6 

271-L 

60 

Trains,  for  Fourth  Wheel  Seconds,  with  Thirteen  Teeth 
iu  the  ttetapoiiieut  Wheel. 


64 

60 

3 

66 

8 

13 

6 

286 

OJ 

64 

60 

8 

67 

8 

1> 

6 

290+ 

60 

64 

60 

8 

68 

8 

13 

6 

295— 

6^ 

54 

60 

8 

69 

8 

13 

6 

299 

60 

60 

49 

7 

77 

7 

13 

7 

286 

60 

60 

49 

7 

66 

7 

12 

6 

286 

60 

60 

49 

7 

67 

7 

13 

6 

293+ 

60 

48 

45 

6 

66 

6 

13 

6 

286 

60 

48 

45 

6 

67 

6 

13 

6 

290+ 

til) 

48 

45 

e 

68 

6 

13 

6 

264-. 

60 

48 

45 

i 

69 

6 

13 

6 

299 

60 

60 

£6 

I 

66 

7 

13 

6 

286 

60 

80 

60 

10 

66 

8 

13 

6 

286 

60 

64 

75 

8  1 

66 

10 

13 

6 

286 

60' 

48 

60 

6 

66 

8 

13 

6 

286 

GO- 

48 

75 

6 

66 

10 

13 

6 

286 

GO 

45 

66 

6 

66 

13 

6 

286 

60 

* 

75 

7_^X  68 

10 

13 

6 

295— 

63 

WATCHMAKERS,  JEWELLERS',    AC.,    RECEIPTS.     325 

Trains,  for  Fourth  Wheel  Seconds,  \\ith  Fifteen  Teeth 
In  Escapement  Wheel. 


Ko.  of 
Teeth 
in  the 
Centre 
Wheel. 

Teeth  In 

^i\Vhe«L 

Leares 
in  3d 

Wheel 
Pinion. 

Te«th  In 
4th  Wheel 

Leaves 
in  4th 
Wheel 
Pinion. 

Teeth 
in  the 

Escape- 
ment 
WhecL 

Leaves 
lathe 

Escape- 
ment 
Wheel 
Pinion. 

No.  of  B«»ts  to 

OBJ  Mi*ut«. 

-N'O.  Of 

econd. 
hs  4tk 
Wheel 
rerol- 
vesin. 

64 

60 

8 

70 

8 

15 

1 

300 

60 

64 

60 

8 

60 

8 

15 

6 

800 

60 

64 

45 

8 

60 

6 

15 

6 

300 

60 

€0 

66 

8 

180 

7 

15 

6 

300 

60 

48 

60 

6 

60 

8 

15 

6 

300 

60 

eo 

70 

7 

70 

7 

15 

7 

300 

60 

€0 

49 

7 

60 

7 

15 

6 

300 

60 

48 

49 

6 

60 

6 

15 

6 

300 

60 

80 

45 

10 

70 

8 

15 

7 

300 

60 

75 

60 

10 

60 

8 

15 

6 

300 

60 

«4 

64 

8 

70 

10 

15 

7 

8.0 

60 

«4 

75 

3 

60 

10 

15 

0 

300 

60 

66 

75 

7 

70 

10 

15 

7 

30 

60 

-56 

75 

7 

60 

10 

15 

6 

300 

60 

«4 

75 

8 

fit 

8 

15 

6 

270 

60 

«0 

60 

8 

54 

7 

15 

6 

270 

CO 

€4 

56 

8 

54 

6 

15 

6 

270 

60 

48 

45 

6 

61 

8 

15 

6 

270 

60 

60 

60 

7 

63 

7 

15 

7 

270 

60 

€0 

49 

54 

15 

6 

270 

60 

43 

49 

6 

64 

6 

15 

6 

270 

60 

64 

45 

8 

48 

8 

15 

6 

240 

60 

60 

60 

8 

48 

j 

15 

6 

240 

60 

48 

50 

6 

48 

8 

16 

C 

240 

60 

64 

60 

8 

48 

6 

15 

6 

240 

60 

•60 

45 

7 

56 

15 

7 

240 

69 

fO 

49 

7 

48 

7 

15 

6 

240 

60 

48 

45 

6 

43 

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15 

6 

240 

60 

60 

S*J 

8 

48 

7 

15 

6 

240 

60 

Trains,    for    Fourth   Wheel    Seconds,    with    Seventeei 
Teeth  In  Escapement  \Vheel. 


G4 

W 

8 

,  I 

8 

1 

0 

•±~j 

bJ 

64 

60 

8 

60 

8 

6 

283-h 

50 

60 

58 

8 

51 

7 

6 

289 

60 

80 

60 

10 

50 

8 

6 

283J- 

60 

75 

64 

10 

50 

8 

6 

283  -h 

60 

75 

66 

10 

68 

7 

8 

289 

60 

75 

68 

10 

68 

8 

8 

289 

60 

80 

75 

10 

63 

10 

] 

8 

289 

60 

Train  of  the  American  Watch  Company's  Watch. 


04 


|     15 


150 


.— By  tisa^f  the  foregoing  get  of  Trains,  and  the  rule  for  sizes  of 
pinions,  on  page  312,  all  difficulty  of  calculating  id  obviated;  and  at  one 
view,  in  case  of  th»?  accidental  loss  of  a  wheel  :md  pinion,  may  be  known 
tho  correct  sizo  ami  count  of  the  piniou,  and  number  of  teeth  in  th* 


326     WATCHMAKERS,   JEWELLERS*,    AC.,   RECEIPTS. 

To  Pur  WATCHES  IN  BEAT. — If  a  cylinder  escapement,  or  a  dd» 
taehed  lever,  put  the  balance  into  a  position,  then  turn  the  regulator 
se  that  it  will  point  directly  to  the  pivot-hole  of  the  pallet  staff,  if  a 
lever,  or  of  the  scape- wheel,  if  a  cylinder.  Then  lift  out  the  balance 
•with  its  bridge  or  clock,  turn  it  over  and  set  the  ruby-pin  directly  in 
line  with  the  regulator,  or  the  square  cut  of  the  cylinder  at  right 
angles  with  it.  Your  watch  will  then  be  in  perfect  beat.  In  case  of 
an  American  or  an  English  lever,  when  the  regulator  is  placed  upon 
the  plate,  you  "«\  ill  have  to  proceed  differently.  Fix  the  balance  into 
its  place,  cut  off  the  connection  of  the  train,  if  the  mainspring  i  i  not 
entirely  down,  by  Clipping  a  fine  broach  into  one  of  the  wheels,  look 
between  the  plates  and  ascertain  how  the  fever  stands.  If  the  end 
farthest  from  the  balance  is  equi-distant  between  the  two  brass  pins, 
it  is  all  right ;  if  not,  change  the  hair-spring  till  it  becomes  so.  If 
dealing  with  a  duplex  watch,  you  must  see  that  the  roller  notch, 
•when  the  balance  is  a«  rest,  is  exactly  between  the  locking  tooth  and 
the  line  of  centre;  that  is,  a  line  drawn  from  the  centre  of  the  roller 
to  the  centre  of  the  scape-wheel.  The  balance  must  start  from  its 
rest  and  move  through  a&  arc  of  about  ten  degrees  before  bringing  the 
locking  tooth  into  action. 

To  FROST  WATCH  PLATES.— Watch  plates  are  frosted  by  means 
of  fine  brass  wire  scratch  brushes  fixed  in  a  lathe,  and  made  to  re- 
volve at  great  speed,  the  end  of  the  wire  brushes  striking  the  plate 
producing  a  beautiful  frosted  appearance. 

To  RESTORE  WATCH  DIALS.— If  the  dial  be  painted,  clean  the 
figure  off  with  spirits  of  wine,  or  anything  else  that  will  render  the 
dial  perfectly  clean ;  then  heat  it  to  a  bright  red,  and  plunge  it  into  a 
etrong  solution  of  cyanide  of  potassium,  then  wash  in  soap  and  water, 
and  dry  in  box  dust.  Repeat  if  not  a  good  color.  India  ink,  ground 
•with  gum  water,  will  do  for  the  figures. 

To  WHITEN  SILVER  WATCH  DIALS. — Flatten  a  piece  of  charcoal 
T>y  rubbing  it  on  a  flat  stone:  on  this  place  the  dial  face  upwards,  ap- 
ply a  gentle  heat  carefully  with  the  blow-pipe,  allowing  the  flame  to 
play  all  over  the  surface  of  the  dial  without  touching  it,  so  as  to 
thoroughly  heat  without  warping  the  dial.  Then  pickle  and  rinse, 
using  acid  enough  to  make  the  water  very  tart,  and  immersing  but 
for  a  few  seconds.  Silver  dials  may  also  be  annealed  by  heating 
them  red  hot  on  a  flat  piece  of  copper  over  a  clear  fire. 

To  MAKE  A  WATCH  KEEP  GOOD  TIME  WHEN  THE  CYLINDER. 
EDGES  ARE  WORN  OFF,  BY  ALTERING  THE  ESCAPEMENT  WITHOUT 
PUTTING  A  NEW  CYLINDER  IN. — Look  at  the  cylinder,  and  see  if 
ihere  is  room,  either  above  or  below  the  old  wears,  to  shift  the  action 
of  the  wheel.  If  the  wheel  holes  are  brass,  making  one  a  little: 
deeper,  and  putting  a  shallower  one  on  the  other  side,  will  perhaps 
"be  sufficient.  This  must  be  done  according  as  you  want  your  wheel 
1  \ip  or  down.  If  the  holes  are  stone,  shift  your  wheel  on  the  pinion 
ty  a  new  collet,  or  turning  away  more  of  the  old  one,  as  the  case 
may  require.  If  you  raise  your  wheel  see  that  it  works  free  of  plato 
and  top  of  cylinder,  and  that  the  web  of  wheel  clears  the  top  of  pas- 
sage. This  last  fault  may  be  altered  by  polishing  the  passage  a  little 
wider,  if  the  rub  be  slight.  If  shifted  downwards,  see  to  freedom  at 
bottom  of  cylinder,  &c, 

Poisoia  WATCH  BALANCE. — -This  may  be  done  with  sufficient  arw 


WATCHMAKERS,  JEWELLERS',  AC.,  RECEIPTS,  32? 

curacy  by  scraping  one  arm  of  the  callipers  with  a  file  wh<in  tJ*i 
balance  is  set  in  motion.  This  will  cause  the  heaviest  part  to  settle- 
downwards  with  certainty,  observing  always  that  the  pivcis  are  nJoely 
rounded  and  formed  at  the  ends.  In  some  cases  it  becomes  necessary 
to  put  a  balance  out  of  poise,  hi  order  to  make  the  watch  go  equally 
in  various  positions.  The  rule  for  this  is :  to  make  the  watch  gain,, 
the  balance  should  be  heaviest  on  the  lower  side  when  hanging  up: 
to  make  it  lose,  the  reverse. 

To  PREVENT  A  CHAIN  RUNNING  OFF  THE  FUSEE.— In  the  first 
place,  you  must  look  and  ascertain  the  cause  of  the  difficulty.  If  it 
results  from  the  chain  being  too  large,  the  only  remedy  is  a  new 
chain.  If  it  is  not  too  large,  and  yet  runs  off  without  any  apparent 
cause,  change  it  end  for  end — that  will  generally  make  it  go  all  right. 
In  cases  where  the  channel  in  the  fusee  has  been  damaged  and  is 
rough,  you  will  be  under  the  necessity  of  dressing  it  over  with  a  file 
the  proper  size  and  shape.  Sometimes  you  find  the  chain  naturally 
inclined  to  work  away  from  the  body  of  the  fusee.  The  best  way  to- 
remedy  a  difficulty  of  this  kind  is  to  file  off  a  very  little  from  the' 
outer  lower  edge  of  the  chain  the  entire  length;  this,  aa  you  can  see,, 
will  incline  it  to  work  on  instead  of  off.  Some  workmen,  when  they- 
have  a  bad  case  and  a  common  watch,  change  the  standing  of  the  fusee* 

•  so  as  to  cause  the  winding  end  of  its  arbor  to  incline  a  little  from  the 
barrel.    This,  of  course,  cannot  do  otherwise  than  make  the  chain  run 
to  its  place. 

|       To  WEAKEN  THE  HAIR-SPRING.— This  is  often  effected  by  grinding 
the  spring  down.    You  remove  the  spring  from  the  collet,  and  place 

•  it  upon  a  piece  of  pivot  wood  cut  to  fit  the  centre  coil.    A  piece  of 
j   eoft  steel  wire,  flattened  so  as  to  pass  freely  between  the  coils,  and 
j  armed  with  a  little  pulverized  oil-stone  and  oil,  will  serve  as  your 
f   grinder,  and  with  it  you  may  soon  reduce  the  strength  of  the  spring. 

lour  operations  will,  of  course,  be  confined  to  the  centre  coil,  for  no- 
other  part  of  the  spring  will  rest  sufficiently  against  the  wood  to  en- 
!  able  you  to  grind  it,  but  this  will  generally  suffice.  The  effect  will 
f  be  more  rapid  than  one  would  suppose,  therefore  it  will  stand  you  IIL 
I  hand  to  be  careful,  or  you  may  get  the  spring  too  weak  before  you. 
!  suspect  it. 

To  TIGHTEN  A  RUBY  PIN. — Set  the  ruby  phi  inasphaltum  varnish. 
^  It  will  become  hard  in  a  few  minutes,  and  be  much  firmer  and  better 
{  than  gum  shellac,  as  generally  used. 

j  To  TEMPER  BRASS,  OR  TO  DRAW  ITS  TEMPER. — Brass  is  rendered 
\  hard  by  hammering  or  rolling;  therefore,  when  you  make  a  thing  at 
'  "brass  necessary  to  be  in  temper,  you  must  prepare  the  material  b«» 
I  lore  shaping  the  article.  Temper  may  be  drawn  from  brass  by  heat-  < 
V  ing  it  to  a  cherry  red,  and  then  simply  plunging  it  into  water,  th« 

•  came  as  though  you  were  going  to  temper  steel. 

To  TEMPER   GRAVERS. — Gravers,  and  other  instruments  larger 
i '  than  drills,  may  be  tempered  in  quicksilver  as  above;  or  you  may  use 
'  lead  instead  of  quicksilver.    Cut  down  into  the  lead,  say  half  an. 
inch;  then,  having  heated  your  instrument  to  a  light  cherry  red, 
j  press  it  firmly  into  the  cut.    The  lead  will  melt  around  it,  and  an  ex- 
cellent temper  will  be  imparted. 

To  TEMPER  DRILLS.— Select  none  but  the  finest  and  best  steel  for 
jour  drills.  In  making  them,  never  heat  higher  than  a  cherry  red,. 


$28    "WATCHMAKERS,    JEWELLERS*,    &C.,    RECEIPTS. 

and  always  hammer  till  nearly  cold.  Do  all  your  hammering  in  one 
tray,  for  if,  after  you  have  flattened  your  piece  out,  you  attempt  to 
liammer  it  back  to  a  square  or  a  round,  you  spoil  it.  When  your  drill . 
is  in  proper  shape,  heat  it  to  a  cherry  red,  and  thrust  it  into  a  piece 
•of  resin  or  into  quicksilver.  Some  use  a  solution  of  cyauuret  potassa, 
and  rain-water  for  tempering  their  drills,  but  the  resin  or  quicksilver 
Trill  work  best. 

OTHER  METHODS  TO  TEMPER  SPRINGS.— Having  fitted  the  spring ' 
into  the  case  according  to  your  liking,  temper  it  hard  by  heating  and 
plunging  into  water.  Next  polish  the  small  end  so  that  you  may  be 
able  to  see  when  the  color  changes;  lay  it  on  a  piece  of  copper  or 
brass  plate,  and  hold  it  over  your  lamp,  with  the  blaze  directly  under 
the  largest  part  of  the  spring.  Watch  the  polished  part  of  the  steel 
closely,  and  when  you  see  it  turn  blue,  remove  the  plate  from  the 
lamp,  letting  all  cool  gradually  together.  When  cool  enough  to 
liandle,  polish  the  end  of  the  sp  ing  again,  place  it  on  the  plate,  and 
liold  it  over  the  lamp  as  before.  The  third  bluing  of  the  polished  end 
Trill  leave  the  spring  in  proper  tt  nper.  Any  steel  article  to  which 
you  desire  to  give  a  spring  temper  may  be  treated  in  the  same  way. 
Another  process,  said  to  be  good,  is  to  temper  the  spring  as  in  the 
iirst  instance;  then  put  it  into  a  small  iron  ladle,  cover  it  with  linseed 
oil,  and  hold  over  a  lamp  till  the  oil  takes  fire.  Remove  the  ladle, 
l>ut  let  the  oil  continue  to  burn  until  nearly  all  consumed,  then  blow 
out,  re-cover  with  oil,  and  hold  over  the  lamp  as  before.  The  third 
burning  out  of  the  oil  will  leave  the  spring  in  the  right  temper. 

To  TEMPER  CLICKS,  RATCHETS,  &c. — Clicks,  ratchets,  or  other 
*teel  articles  requiring  a  similar  degree  of  hardness,  should  be  tem- 
|>cred  in  mercurial  ointment.  The  process  consists  in  simply  heating 
to  a  cherry  red  and  plunging  into  the  ointment.  No  other  mode  will 
combine  toughness  and  hardness  to  such  an  extent. 

To  DRAW  THE  TEMPER  FROM  DELICATE  STEEL  PIECES  WITH- 
OUT SPRINGING  THEM. — Place  the  articles  from  which  you  desire  to 
draw  the  temper  into  a  common  iron  clock  key.  Fill  around  it  with 
l>rass  or  iron  filings,  and  then  plug  up  the  open  end  with  a  steel,  iron, 
•or  brass  plug,  made  to  fit  closely.  Take  the  handle  of  the  key  with 
your  pliers  and  hold  its  pipe  into  the  blaze  of  a  lamp  till  near  hot, 
then  let  it  cool  gradually.  When  sufficiently  cold  to  handle,  remove 
the  plug,  and  you  will  find  the  article  with  its  temper  fully  drawn, 
but  in  all  other  respects  just  as  it  was  before. 

You  will  understand  the  reason  for  having  the  article  thus  plugged 
p.p  while  passing  it  through  the  heating  and  cooling  process,  when 
You  know  that  springing  always  results  from  the  action  of  changeable 
.  currents  of  atmosphere.  The  temper  may  be  drawn  from  cylinders, 
'•staffs,  pinions,  or  any  other  delicate  pieces,  by  this  mode  with  perfect 
safety 

To  TEMPER  STAFFS,  CYLINDERS,  OR  PINIONS,  WITHOUT  SPRINGING 
THEM. — Prepare  the  articles  as  in  the  preceding  process,  using  a  steel 
plug.  Having  heated  the  key-pipe  to  a  cherry  red,  plunge  it  into 
water;  then  polish  the  end  of  your  steel  plug,  place  the  key  upon  a 
plate  of  brass  or  copper,  and  hold  it  over  your  lamp  with  the  biaze , 
immediately  under  the  pipe  till  the  polished  part  becomes  blue,  Let' 
cool  gradually,  then  polish  again.  Blue  and  cool  a  second  time,  au4 
tho  work  will  be  done. 


WATCHMAKERS,   JEWELLERS,    &C.,    RECEIPTS.    329 

To  DRAW  THE  TEMPER  FROM  PART  OP  A  SMALL  STEEL  ABTICLB. — 
'Hold  the  part  from  which  you  wish  to  draw  the  temper  with  a  pair  of 
tweezers,  and  with  your  blow-pipe  direct  the  flame  upon  them — not 
the  article— till  sufficient  heat  is  communicated  to  the  article  to  pro- 
duce the  desired  effect. 

To  BLUE  SCREWS  EVENLY. — Take  an  old  watch  barrel  and  drill  aa  • 
inany  holes  into  the  head  of  it  as  you  desire  to  blue  screws  at  a  time. 
Fill  it  about  one-fourth  full  of  brass  or  iron  fillings,  put  in  the  head 
and  then  fit  a  wire,  long  enough  to  bend  over  for  a  handle,  into  tbr 
arbor  holes — head  of  the  barrel  upwards.     Brighten  the  heads  of  you 
screws,  set  them  point  downwards,  into  the  holes  already  drilled,  anc 
expose  the  bottom  of  the  barrel  to  yonr  lamp  till  the  screws  assum* 
the  color  you  wish. 

To  REMOVE  BLUING  FROM  STEEL. — Immerse  in  a  pickle  composed 
of  equal  parts  muriatic  acid  and  elixir  vitriol.  Rinse  iu  pure  water, 
and  dry  in  tissue  paper. 

To  MAKE  DIAMOND  BROACHES. — Make  you  broaches  of  brass  the 
size  and  shape  you  desire ;  then,  having  oiled  them  slightly,  roll  their 
points  into  fine  diamond  dust  till  entirely  covered.  Hold  them  then 
on  the  face  of  your  anvil,  and  tap  with  a  light  hammer  till  the  grains 
disappear  in  the  brass.  Great  caution  will  be  necessary  in  this 
operation.  Do  not  tap  heavy  enough  to  flatten  the  broach.  Very- 
light  blows  are  all  that  will  be  required;  the  grains  will  be  driven  in 
much  sooner  than  one  would  imagine.  Some  roll  the  broach  between 
two  small  pieces  of  steel  to  imbed  the  diamond  dust.  It  is  a  very 
good  way,  but  somewhat  more  wasteful  of  the  dust.  Broaches  made 
on  this  plan  are  used  for  dressing  out  jewels. 

JEWELLING. — In  using  the  broaches,  press  but  lightly  into  the  jewel 
bole,  and  turn  the  broach  rapidly  with  your  fingers.  For  polishing, 
use  a  bone  or  ivory  point,  lightly  coated  with  the  finest  diamond  dnst 
and  oil,  and  while  using  it  with  the  one  hand,  accompany  the  motion 
vrith  a  slight  oscillating  motion  of  the  other  hand,  in  which  the  jewel 
is  held.  This  will  insure  a  more  even  polish  to  the  hole,  with  less 
liability  to  press  the  jewel  out  of  its  place  in  the  plate,  than  if  held 
firm  and  steady. 

To  MAKE  DIAMOND  FILES.— Shape  your  file  of  brass,  and  charge 
-with  diamond  dust,  as  in  case  of  the  mill.  Grade  the  dust  in  accord- 
ance with  the  coarse  or  fine  character  of  the  file  desired. 

To  MAKE  PIVOT  FILES.— Dress  up  a  piece  of  wood  file-fashion, 
about  an  inch  broad,  and  glue  a  piece  of  fine  emery  paper  upon  it. 
Shape  your  file  then,  as  you  wish  it,  of  the  best  cast  steel,  and  before 
tempering  pass  your  emery  paper  heavily  across  it  several  times, 
diagonally.  Temper  by  heating  to  a  cherry  red,  and  plunging  into 
linseed  oil.  Old  worn  pivot  files  may  be  dressed  over  and  made  new 
by  this  process.  At  first  thought,  one  would  be  led  to  regard  them 
too  slightly  cut  to  work  well,  but  not  so.  They  dress  a  pivot  more 
rapidly  than  any  ^ther  file. 

To  MAKE  A  DIAMOND  MILL.  — Make  a  brass  chuck  or  wheel,  suit- 
able for  use  on  a  foot-laihe,  with  a  flat  even  surface  or  face  of  about 
li  or  2  inches  in  diameter;  then  place  a  number  of  the  coarsest  pieces 
of  your  diamond  dust  on  different  parts  of  its  face,  and  with  smooth 
laced  steel  hammer  drive  the  pieces  of  dust  all  evenly  into  the  brass  to 
Dearly  or  quite  level  with  the  surface.  Your  mill,  thus  prepared,  i* 


830    WATCHMAKERS,   JEWELLERS*,   &C.,   RECEIPTS. 

ftow  used  for  making  pallet  jewels  or  for  grinding  stone  and  glass  oi 
any  kind.  For  polishing,  use  a  bone  or  boxwood  chuck  or  wheel,  of  sim- 
ilar form  to  your  mill,  and  coat  it  lightly  with  the  finest  grade  ol 
your  diamond-dust  uid  oil;  with  this  a  beautiful  polish  may  be  given- 
to  the  hardest  stone. 

To  MAKE  DIAMOND  DUST. — Place  a  few  small  pieces  of  common 
or  cheap  diamond  on  a  block  of  hard  polished  steel,  hi  a  suitable  ves- 
sel, and  cover  it  with  water  to  prevent  it  flying  or  scattering,  then 
place  a  flat  steel  punch  on  each  piece  separately,  and  strike  the  punch 
with  a  mallet  or  hammer,  with  sufficient  force  to  crush  the  diamond. 
When  reduced  sufficiently  fine  in  this  way,  the  dust  may  be  collected, 
and  dried  for  use  ;  after  drying,  it  may  be  graduated  for  different 
purposes,  by  mixing  it  with  a  little  watch  oil ;  when  agitated,  the  fin- 
est particles  will  float  near  the  surface,  while  the  coarsest  pieces  will 
sink  at  once  to  the  bottom  ;  and  thus  by  decanting  the  oil  in  which, 
the  dust  floats,  as  many  grades  of  fineness  as  desired  may  be  obtain- 


vent  waste,  the  better  way  is  to  leave  it  in  the  oil  and  use  directly 
therefrom  as  required,  or  the  oil  may  be  washed  out  of  the  dust  with 
alcohol. 

To  PRESERVE  PINIONS  OB  BEARINGS  FROM  CORROSION  AND  RUST, 
— In  case  of  the  lower  centre  bearing  under  the  cannon  pinion  cor- 
roding or  rusting,  when  you  clean  the  watch,  be  particular  to  take  the* 
central  wheel  off.  Clean  it  thoroughly ;  if  the  pivot  is  scratched,  pol- 
ish it,  then  make  a  little  hollow  in  the  top  hole  ;  put  good  fresh  oil 
on  it,  and  the  pivot  will  not  corrode  or  rust  for  two  or  three  years. 
As  to  the  other  pivots  in  the  watch,  they  should  all  be  thoroughly 
cleaned,  and  old  oil  cleaned  out ;  then  if  no  dust  gets  in,  and  no  acci- 
dent happens  the  watch,  it  will  run  for  years. 

To  CLEAN  A  CLOCK. — Take  the  movement  of  the  clock  "  to  pieces." 
Brush  the  wheels  and  pinions  thoroughly  with  a  stiff  coarse  brush  ;, 
also  the  plates  which  the  trams  work.  Clean  the  pivots  well  by  turn- 
ing hi  a  piece  of  cotton  cloth  held  tightly  between  your  thumb  and 
finger.  The  pivot  holes  in  the  plates  are  generally  cleansed  by  turn- 
ing a  piece  of  wood  into  them,  but  I  have  always  found  a  strip  of 
cloth  or  a  soft  cord  drawn  tightly  through  them  to  act  the  best.  If  you 
use  two  cords,  the  first  one  slightly  oiled,  and  the  next  dry,  to  clean  tho 
oil  out,  all  the  better.  Do  not  use  salt  or  acid  to  clean  your  clock- 
it  can  do  no  good,  but  may  do  a  great  deal  of  harm.  Boiling  th« 
movement  in  water,  as  is  the  practice  of  some,  is  also  foolishness. 

To  BUSH.— The  hole  through  which  the  great  arbors,  or  winding 
axles,  work,  are  the  only  ones  that  usually  require  bushing.  When 
they  nave  become  too  much  worn,  the  great  wheel  on  the  axle  before 
named  strikes  too  deeply  into  the  pinions  above  it  and  stops  the  clock. 
To  remedy  this,  bushing  is  necessary,  of  course.  The  most  common 
way  of  doing  it  is  to  drive  a  steel  point  or  punch  into  the  plate  just 
.  .above  the  axle  hole,  thus  forcing  the  brass  downwards  until  the  holo 
is  reduced  to  its  original  size.  Another  mode  is  to  solder  a  piece  of 
brass  upon  the  plate  in  such  a  position  as  to  hold  the  axle  down  to  its 
propei  place.  If  you  simply  wish  your  clock  to  run,  and  have  no  am- 
feition  to  produce  a  bush  that  will  look  workmanlike,  about  as  - ood  » 


WATCHMAKERS,   JEWELLERS',    «tC.,   RECEIPTS.    381 

iray  as  any  is  to  fit  a  piece  of  hard  wood  between  the  post  which 
comes  through  the  top  of  the  plate  and  axle.  Make  it  long  enough 
to  hold  the  axle  to  its  proper  place,  so  that  the  axle  will  run  on  the 
end  of  the  grain.  Cut  notches  where  the  pivots  come  through,  ana 
secure  by  wrapping  around  it  and  the  plate  a  piece  of  small  wire  or  a 
thread. 

To  REMEDY  WORN  PINION. — Turn  the  leaves  or  rollers,  so  tha 
worn  places  upon  them  will  be  towards  the  arbor  or  shaft,  and  fasten 
them  in  that  position.  If  they  are  "rolling  pinions"  and  you  cannot 
secure  them  otherwise,  you  had  better  do  it  with  a  little  soft  solder. 

To  OIL  PROPERLY.— Oil  only,  and  very  lightly,  the  pallets  of  tha 
verge,  the  steel  pin  upon  which  the  verge  works,  and  the  point  where 
the  loop  of  the  verge  wire  works  over  the  pendulum  wire.  Use  nouo 
but  the  best  watch  oil.  Though  you  might  be  working  constantly  at 
the  clock-repairing  business,  a  bottle  costing  you  but  twenty-five 
cents  would  last  you  two  years  at  least.  You  can  buy  it  at  any  watch- 
furnishing  establishment. 

To  MAKE  THE  CLOCK  STRIKE  CORRECTLY. — If  not  very  cautious 
in  putting  up  your  clock  you  will  get  some  of  the  striking-train  wheels 
in  wrong,  and  thus  produce  a  derangement  in  the  striking.  If  this 
should  happen,  pry  the  plates  apart  on  the  striking  side,  slip  the 
pivots  of  the  upper  wheels  out,  and  having  disconnected  them  from 
the  train,  turn  them  part  around  and  put  them  back.  If  still  not 
right,  repeat  the  experiment.  A  few  efforts  at  most  will  get  them  to 
working  properly.  The  sound  in  cuckoo  clocks  is  caused  by  a  wire 
acting  on  a  small  bellows-  which  is  connected  with  two  small  pipe* 
like  organ  pipes. 

A  DEFECT  TO  LOOK  AFTER. — Always  examine  the  pendulum  wire 
at  the  point  where  the  loop  of  the  verge  wire  works  over  it.  You  will 
generally  find  a  small  notch,  or  at  least  a  rough  place  worn  there. 
Dress  it  out  perfectly  smooth,  or  your  clock  will  not  be  likely  to  work 
•well.  Small  as  this  defect  may  seem,  it  stops  a  large  number  of 
clocks. 

FIGURES  ON  GOLD  AND  SILVER  DIALS.— Hold  a  small  piece  of 
copper  over  a  gas  flame  for  a  few  minutes  till  it  is  coated  with  soot ; 
cloar  this  off  on  to  a  piece  of  finely  ground  glass,  add  fat  oil  and  a 
small  quantity  of  oil  of  spike  lavender,  and  grind  up  ;  paint  with  a 
gmall-camel  hair  pencil. 

To  DETERMINE  THE  EXACT  FOCAL  DISTANCE  OF  SPECTACLE; 
GLASSES.— Place  the  end  of  a  measure  of  thirty  or  forty  inches  in 
length  against  a  smooth  wall,  or  other  suitable  ground,  in  plain  view 
of  some  well-defined  object  a  few  rods  distant,  as  for  instance  a 
building  or  window  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  street.  Then  place 
the  edge  of  your  lens  on  the  measure,  and  move  it  backwards  or 
forwards  until  a  spectrum  is  formed,  or,  in  other  words,  until  a  clear 
and  distinct  outline  of  the  distant  object  is  produced  on  the  ground 
against  which  your  measure  rests.  This  point  will  represent  suffi- 
ciently near,  for  all  practical  purposes,  the  exact  focal  distance  of  the 
lens,  and  will  correspond  in  inches  with  the  number  on  all  properly 
marked  convex  spectacles.  For  mending  fine  steel  spectacle  frames, 
use  the  best  gold  solder  in  preference  to  silver  or  brass  solder. 

VALUABLE  RECEIPTS  FOR  GOLDSMITHS. — Standard  gold  ia  com* 
pounded  of  440  grains  of  fine  gold,  and  40  grains  (Troy  weight,)  to 


532    WATCHMAKERS,   JEWELLERS',   AC.,  RECEIPTS. 


the  oz.  alloy  ;  therefore,  when  you  judge  how  much  gold  ft  piece  of 
•work  will  take,  compound  it  to  the  standard  weight  by  the  following 
directions  :  Assay  Weight. — The  weight  of  gold  is  a  pound,  which  is 
divided  into  12  ozs.  each  oz.  into  24  carats,  each  carat  into  4  grains, 
and,  lastly,  each  gram  into  4  quarters  ;  then  you  see  the  assay  quarter- 
.jrain,  is  in  reality  !£  grain  Troy. 

ON  MELTING  AND  REFINING. — In  melting  Brass  Gold,  urge  th« 
fire  to  a  great  heat,  and  stir  the  metal  with  the  long  stem  of  a 
tobacco  pipe  to  prevent  honey-combing.  If  Steel  or  Iron  filing* 
ge»i  into  gold  while  melting,  throw  in  a  piece  of  sandiver  the  size 
of  a  common  nut ;  it  will  attract  the  iron  or  steel  from  the  gold 
into  the  flux,  or,  sublimate  of  mercury  will  destroy  the  iron  or 
steel.  To  cause  Gold  to  roll  well,  melt  with  a  good  heat,  add  a 
teaspoonful  of  sal  ammoniac  and  charcoal,  equal  quantities,  both 
pulverized,  stir  up  well,  put  on  the  cover  for  2  minutes,  and  pour. 

To  REFINE  SWEEPINGS  CONTAINING  GOLD  OB  SILVER.— To  8 
ozs.  of  the  dirt,  which  has  been  washed  and  burnt,  add  salt,  4  ozs. : 
pearlash  4  ozs.  ;  red  tartar  1  oz.  ;  saltpetre  £  oz.,  mix  thoroughly  in 
a  mortar,  melt  hi  a  crucible,  and  dissolve  out  the  previous  metals  i* 
a  button. 

QUANTITY  OP  STANDARD  GOLD  TO  COMPOUND  AN  OZ.  OF  ANY  OP 
THE  FOLLOWING  ALLOYS  CALCULATED  TO  THE  £  OF  A  GRAIN, 
AS  FOLLOWS  : 


Carat, 

Dwts. 

Grs. 

Qrs. 

Dwts. 

Gra. 

Qra. 

1 

0 

21 

9 

19 

2 

2 

2 

1 

19 

T 

18 

4 

4 

3 

2 

17 

5 

17 

6 

6 

4 

3 

15 

3 

. 

16 

8 

8 

e 

4 

13 

1 

@ 

15 

10 

10 

« 

5 

10 

10 

g 

14 

13 

1 

7 

6 

8 

8 

g 

13 

15 

3 

8 

7 

6 

6 

•^ 

12 

17 

5 

9 

8 

4 

4 

11 

19 

T 

10 

9 

2 

2 

g 

10 

21 

9 

11 

10 

0 

0 

W 

10 

0 

0 

12 

10 

21 

9 

O 

9 

2 

2 

13 

11 

19 

7 

H 

8 

4 

4 

14 

12 

17 

5 

bH 

7 

6 

6 

15 
16 

13 
14 

15 
13 

3 
1 

§ 

6 
5 

8 
10 

8 
10 

17 

15 

10 

10 

a 

4 

13 

1 

18 

16 

8 

8 

•< 

3 

15 

3 

19 

17 

6 

6 

2 

17 

5 

20 

18 

4 

4 

1 

19 

7 

21 

19 

2 

2 

0 

21 

9 

22      22 

0 

0 

To  FUSE  GOLD  DUST. — Use  such  a  crucible  as  is  generally 
used  for  melting  brass  ;  heat  very  hot ;  then  add  your  gold  dus't 
mixed  with  powdered  borax  ; — after  some  time  a  scum  or  slag  will 
arise  on  the  top,  which  may  be  thickened  by  the  addition  of  a 
little  lime  or  bone  ash.  If  the  dust  contains  any  of  the  more 
oxidizeable  metals,  add  a  little  nitre,  skim  off  the  slag  or  scum  very 
carefully  ;  when  melted,  grasp  the  crucible  with  strong  iron  toags ; 


WATCHMAKERS,    JEWELLERS',    &C.,    RECEIPTS.    333 

ftnd  pour  off  immediately  into  cast  iron  moulds,  slightly  greased. 
The  slag  and  crucibles  may  be  afterwards  pulverized,  and  the 
auriferous  matter  recovered  from  the  mass  through  cupellation  by, 
means  of  lead. 

GOLD  ALLOYS. — The  "New  Standard"  for  watch  cases,  &c.,  is  18 
carats  of  fine  gold  and  6  of  alloy.  No  gold  of  inferior  quality  can 
receive  the  "Hall  mark;"  and  gold  of  lower  quality  is  generally 
described  by  its  commercial  value.  The  alloy  may  be  entirely 
silver,  which  will  give  a  green  color,  or  entirely  copper  for  a  red 
color,  but  the  copper  and  silver  are  more  usually  mixed  in  one 
alloy  according  to  the  taste  of  the  jeweller.  It  will  be  understood 
that  these  are  all  made  with  fine  gold,  fine  silver,  and  fine  copper, 
direct  from  the  refiner.  Gold  of  22  carats  fine  being  so  little  used, 
is  intentionally  omitted.  1.  Gold  of  18  carats,  of  yelloio  tint.  Gold 
15  dwt,  silver,  2  dwt,  18  grs.,  copper  2  dwt.,  6  grs.  2.  Gold  of  18 
•orate,  red  tint.  Gold  15  dwt.,  silver,  1  dwt.  18  grs.,  copper,  3  dwt 
6  grs.  3.  Spring  rjold  of  16  carats.  Gold  1  oz.  16  dwt.,  silver,  6  dwt., 
copper,  12  dwt.  This  \vhen  drawn  or  rolled  very  hard  makes  springs 
little  inferior  to  steel ;  4  Jeicellers'  Fine  Gold,  yellow  tint,  16  carat* 
nearly.  Gold,  1  oz.  silver,  7  dwt.,  copper,  5  dwt.  5.  Gold  of  red 
tint  16  carats.  Gold,  1  oz.  silver,  2  dwt.,  copper,  8  dwt. 

STERLING  GOLD  ALLOY,  78s.  PER  oz.— 1.  Fine  gold,  18  dwts.,  12 
grs.,  fine  silver,  Idwt.,  fine  copper,  12  grs.  2. — iJnj  colored  Gold 
Alloys.  17  Carat.  Fine  gold,  15  dwts.,  fine  silver,  Idwt.  10  grs.,  fine 
copper,  4dwts.  17  grs.— 3.  Another,  18  Carat.  Fine  gold,  1  oz.,  fine 
silver,  4  dwts.  10  grs.,  fine  copper,  2  dwts.  5  grs.— 4.  Another,  18 
Carat.  Fine  gold,  15  dwts.,  fine  silver,  2  dwts.  4  grs.,  fine  copper,  2 
dwts.  19  grs.— 5.  Another,  18  Carat.  Fine  gold,  18  dwts.,  fine  silver, 
2  dwts.  18  grs.,  fine  copper,  3  dwts.  18  grs. — 6.  Another,  19  Carat. 
Fine  gold,  loz.,  fine  silver,  2  dwts.  6  grs.,  fine  copper,  3  dwts.  12 
grs. — 7.  Another,  20  Carat.  Fine  gold,  loz.,  fine  silver,  2  dwts.,  fine 
copper,  2  dwts.  4  grs.— 8.  Another,  22  Carat.  Fine  gold,  18  dwts.,  fine 
silver,  12  grs.,  fine  copper,  1  dwt.  3  grs. — 9.  Gold  folder  for  the  fore- 
going Alloys.  Take  of  the  alloyed  gold  you  are  using,  Idwt.,  fine 
silver,  6  grs. — 10.  Alloy  for  Dry  Colored  Mings.  Fine  gold,  1  oz., 
fine  silver,  4  dwts.  6  grs.,  fine  copper,  4  dwts.  6  grs. — 11.  Solder  for 
ditto.  Scrap  gold,  2  ozs.,  fine  silver,  3  dwts.,  fine  copper,  3  dwts. — 12. 
Dry  Colored  Scrap  reduced  to  36s.  Gold.  Colored  scrap,  1  oz.,  9 
dwts.  12  grs.,  fine  silver,  2  dwts.,  fine  copper,  17  dwts.  12  grs.,  spelter, 
4  dwts. 

DRY  COLORING  FOB  THE  FOREGOING. — Polish  your  work  well  and 
for  every  2  ozs.,  take  saltpetre,  8  ozs.,  alum,  4  ozs.,  salt,  4  ozs.,  melt 
all  together  in  a  black  lead  pot,  stirring  with  a  thin  iron  bar  when 
dissolving.  Use  the  fire  on  a  forge  and  urge  it  well  with  the  bellows,, 
as  you  can  not  make  it  too  hot.  Your  polished  work  being  well 
cleaned  with  soda,  soap,  and  hot  water,  is  dried  in  box  sawdust,  is 
afterwards  covered,  with  a  thin  layer  of  borax  ;  annealed  and  boiled 
out,  and  again  dried  in  box  sawdust,  and  finally  hung  on  platinum 
or  silver  wire.  When  the  "  color  "  in  the  pot  assumes  a  brown  yellow 
flame,  the  work  is  dipped  in  for  two  or  three  seconds,  and  quenched 
•with  hot  water  diluted  with  muriatic  acid,  which  removes  any  "  color'* 
that  may  adhere  to  the  work.  This  ought  to  produce  the  desired 
color,  but  if  it  does  not,  repeat  the  process,  previously  drying  tht 


334    WATCHMAKERS,   JEWELLERS*,    &CV,   RECEIPTS*. 

work  before  re-immersion  in  the  "color."  The  color-pot  must  be 
emptied  immediately  upon  the  forge,  so  that  it  may  be  ready  for 
future  use. 

WET  COLORED  ALLOTS.—!.  Fine  gold,  1  oz.,  fine  silver,  3  dwts.  12 
jrs.,  fine  copper,  9  dwts.  2.  Fine  gold,  1  oz.,  fine  silver,  4  dwts.  12grs.; 
fine  copper,  10  dwts.  3.  Fine  gold,  1  oz.,  fine  silver,  4  dwts.  12  grs., 
fine  copper,  10  dwts.  12  grs.  4.  Fine  Gold,  1  oz.,  fine  silver,  4  dwts., 
fine  copper,  9  dwts.  12  grs.  5  Green  Gold  for  Fancy  Work.  Fine 
gold,  1  oz.,  fine  silver,  6  dwts.  16  grs.  6.  Another  Green  Gold 
Fine  gold,  10  dwts.,  fine  silver,  2  dwts.  2  grs.  7.  Red  Gold,  for 
fancy  work.  Fine  gold,  5  dwts.,  fine  copper,  2  dwts.  12  grs. 
S.  Another  Red  Gold.  Fine  gold,  5  dwts.,  fine  copper,  1  dwt. 
€  grs.  9.  Gold  solders  for  the  forer/oinrj  Alloys.  Take  of  the  alloyed 
gold  you  are  using,  1  dwt,  fine  silver,  6  grs.,  or,  5  grs.  silver  and  1  gr. 
copper  may  be  used.  10.  Solder  for  Repairing.  Gold  alloyed,  1  dwt., 
fine  silver,  5  grs.,  pin  brass,  1  gr.  11.  Wet  Colored  Solder.  Wet 
colored  scrap,  3  ozs.,  fine  silver,  10  dwts.,  fine  copper,  5  dwts.  12. 
Gold,  15  carat ,  cost  56s.  or  $14  per  oz.  Fine  gold,  1  oz.  18  dwts.>  fine 
silver,  12  dwts.  12  grs.,  fine  copper,  10  dwts.  13.  Fine  gold,  1  oz.,  fine 
silver,  8  dwts.  fine  copper,  4  dwts.  14.  Fine  gold,  1  oz.,  fine  silver,  8 
dwts.,  fine  copper,  4  dwts.  15.  Fine  gold,  loz.,  fine  silver,  6  dwts., 
fine  copper,  8  dwts.  10.  Gold  solder  for  the  last.  Gold  scrap,  1  oz., 
fine  silver,  5  dwts.  17.  Gold  good  color.  Fine  gold,  1  oz.,  fine  silver, 
Cdwts.,  fine  copper,  4  dwts.  18.  Gold  costGQs.  or  $15,  good  color. 
Fine  gold,  1  dwt.,  fine  silver,  6  dwts.,  fine  copper,  4  dwts.  19.  Wet 
colored  solder.  Scrap  gold,  4  ozs.,  fine  silver,  13  dwts.,  fine  copper,  6 
dwts.  16  grs.  20.  To  reduce  22  carat  into  Wet  colored  Gold.  Gold 
coins  4  ozs.  8  dwts.,  fine  silver,  13  dwts.,  fine  copper,  1  oz.  13  dwts.  21. 
To  reduce  22  carat  to  ordinary  wet  colored  Gold  with  scrap.  Coins  1 
oz.,  fine  gold,  3  ozs.,  fine  silver,  17  dwts.  12  grs.,  fine  copper,  2  ozs.  1 
dwt.  12  grains.,  scrap,  3  ozs.  1  dwt.  22.  Another  icay  with  scrap. 
Corns,  3  ozs.  1  dwt.  6  grs.,  fine  gold,  2  ozs.,  fine  silver,  1  oz.  1  dwt., 
fine  copper,  2  ozs.  11  dwts.,  scrap,  1  oz.  G  dwts.  18  grs.  23.  Another 
way  with  scrap.  Coins,  2  ozs.,  fine  gold,  3  ozs.  3  dwts.  8  grs.,  fine 
silver,  1  oz.  1  dwt.  4  grs.,  fine  copper,  2  ozs.  10  dwts.  12  grs.,  scrap,  1 
oz.  5  dwts.  24.  To  reduce  22  carat  to  ordinary  wet  colored  Gold  with- 
out scrap.  Coins,  1  oz.,  fine  gold,  8  ozs.,  fine  silver,  2  ozs.,  fine  cop- 
per, 4  ozs.  14  dwts.  25.  Another  loay  without  scrap.  Coins,  1  oz.T 
fine  gold,  2  ozs.,  fine  silver,  13  dwts.,  fine  copper,  1  oz.  11  dwts.  26. 
Anotfier  ivay  icithout  scrap.  Coins,  2  ozs.,  fine  gold,  6  ozs.,  fine  silver, 
1  oz.  14  dwts. ,  fine  copper,  4  ozs.  2  dwts. 

To  WET-CO  LOB  THE  FOREGOING  ALLOTS.—  For  5  ozs.  of  work  take 
saltpetre,  1G  ozs.,  alum,  8  ozs.,  salt,  8  ozs.,  all  pulverized  and  muriatic 
acid  2  ozs.,  dissolve  the  ingredients  gradually  in  a  black  lead  pot. 
When  it  boils  up,  add  the  acid,  and  stir  the  whole  with  a  wooden 
spoon.  Having  annealed  your  work  and  made  it  perfectly  clean,  tio 
in  small  parcels  with  platinum  or  fine  silver  wire,  and  when  the  color 
"boils  up  immerse  it  therein  for  four  minutes,  moving  it  about  to  en- 
sure a  perfect  contact  with  all  parts  of  the  surface.  Then  take  it  out 
and  rinse  it  well  in  boiling  water,  then  immerse  in  the  color  again  for 
for  1  ^  minutes  and  rinse  well  once  more  in  fresh  hot  water.  Now 
add  2  ozs.  of  fresh  hot  water  to  the  color  hi  the  pot,  which  will  cause 
it  to  sink.  When  it  rises  put  in  your  work  for  1  minute,  rinsing  in 


WATCHMAKERS,  JEWELLERS',  &c.,  RECEIPTS.  335 

fi-wh  hot  water  again,  when  it  will  begin  to  brighten.  Now  imrnerw 
your  \vork  for  half  a  minute  longer,  and  rinse  for  the  last  time  in 
:clean  hot  water,  when  it  will  appear  of  a  most  beautiful  color. 

ALLOYS,  CONTINUED.  1.  Pale  gold  for  coloring  Enamelling,  or 
tapping — Fine  gold,  1  oz. ,  fine  silver,  9  dwts,  fine  copper,  2  dwts.  12 
<grs.  2.  Another  ditto— Fine  gold  1  oz.,  fine  silver  9  dwts.,  fine  cop- 
per 3  dwts.  12  grs.  3.  Arother  ditto — Fine  gold  1  oz.,  fine  silver  10 
dwts.,  fine  copper  3  dwts.  12  grs.  4.  Enamelling  Gold  No.  1 — Fine 


gold  1  oz.,  fine  silver  1  dwt.  12  grs.,  fine  copper  2  dwts.  12  grs.  5. 
•enamelling  Gold  from  Sterling — Sterling  1  oz.,  fine  silver  8  grs.,  fine 
copper  2  dwts.  G.  Enamelling  Gold  Solder — Gold  alloyed,  1  dwt, 
fine  silver  4  grs.  7.  Anoth^j  ditto,  cost  43s.  stg.,  or  $10.75  peroz. — 
Tine  gold  12 dwts.,  fine  silver  7  dwts.  3  grs.,  fine  copper  6  dwts.  8. 
Enamelling  Gold  No.  2.  cost  50s  stg.  per  oz. — Fhiegold  1  oz.,  fine  sil- 
ver 9  dwts.  12  grs.,  fine  copper  7  dwts.  12  grs.  9.  Enamelling  Gold 
JVo.  3. — Fine  gold  1  oz.,  fine  silver  14  dwts.,  fine  copper  8  dwts.  10. 
Enamelling  Gold  No.  4. — Fine  gold  2  ozs.  5  dwts.,  fine  silver  1  oz.  6 
dwts.,  fine  copper  1  oz.,  pin  brass  5  dwts.  11.  Enamelling  Gold  No.  5. 
—Fine  gold  1  oz.,  fine  silver  12  dwts.,  fine  copper  6  dwts.  12.  En- 
amelling Gold  No.  G.  for  transparent  enamelling — Fine  gold  1  oz.,  fine 
silver  14  dwts.,  fine  copper  6  dwts.  13.  Gold  solder  for  enamelled 
work — Fine  gold  1  oz.,  line  silver  1  oz.,  fine  copper  10  dwts.,  silver 
solder  8  dwts.  8  grs.  14.  Pale  Gold  alloys  for  polishing,  &c.,  No  I. 
'—Fine  gold  1  oz.,  fine  silver  8  dwts.,  fine  copper  3  dwts.  12  grs.  15. 
Another,  No.  2. — Fine  gold  1  oz.,  fine  silver  1  dwt.  20  grs.,  fine  cop- 

nr  1  dwt.  4  grs.      16.  Pale  18  Carat  Gold— Fine  gold  1  oz.,  fine  silver 
wts.,  fine  copper  2  dwts.  ]^  grs.     17.  Another  Pale  18  Carat  Gold 
— Fine  gold  1  oz.  12  grs.,  fine  silver  3  dwts.  8  grs.,  fine  copper  3  dwts. 

8  grs.      18.  Pale  Gold  Solder— Gold,  alloyed  1  dwt.  6  grs.,  fine  silver 
1  dwt.    19.  Alloy  for  best  Pens — Fine  gold  1  oz.,  fine  silver  5  dwts., 
fine  copper  7  dwts.  18  grs.,  spelter  1  dwt  G  grs.    20.  Solder  for  ditto 
'-Fine  gold  12  dwts.,  fine  silver  7  dwts.  3  grs.,  fine  copper  6  dwts. 
21.  Medium  quality  pens — Fine  gold  1  oz.,  composition  1  oz.,  13  dwts. 
£2.  Composition  for  the  last — Fine  silver  1  oz.  17  dwts.,  fine  copper  5 
ozs.  15  dwts.,  spelter  18  dwts.  20  grs.    23.  Solder  for  ditto— Fine  gold 
1  oz.,  fine  silver  2  ozs.,  pin  brass  1  oz.    24.  Gold  for  common  pens— 
Fine  gold  1  oz. ,  fine  silver  2  ozs. ,  fine  copper  1  oz.    25.  Solder  for  ditto . 
Fine  gold  1  oz.,  fine  silver  2  ozs.,  pinbrassl  oz.    26.  Alloys  of  Gold 
wiihlJmss,  No.  1. — Fine  gold  1  oz.,  fine  silver 5  dwts.  6  grs.,  fine  cop- 
per 3  dwts.  12  grs.,  phi  brass  18  dwts.    27.  AnotJier  ditto.  No.  2.-* 
Fine  gold  1  oz.,  fine  silver  4  dwts.,  fine  copper  4  dwts.,  pin  brass  Iff 
dwts.    28.  Another  ditto.  No.  3.  —Fine  gold  1  oz. ,  fine  silver  5  dwta. 
12  grs.,  fine  copner  3  dwts.   12  grs.,  phi  brass  19  dwts.  6  grs.    29. 
Another  alloy. — Fine  gold  1  oz.,  fine  silver  3  dwts.  21  grs.,  fine  copper 

9  dwts.  3  grs.,  composition  5  dwts.  G  grs.    30.  Another  ditto — Fine 
gold  15  dwts.  9  grs.,  fine  silver  5  dwts.  19  grs.,  fine  copper  3  dwts.  21 
£rs.,  composition  15  dwts.     31.  Composition  for  the  last  two  alloys — 
Finest  copper  1  oz.,  spelter  5  dwts.    32.  Solder  for  foregoing  alloy s— 
Gold  alloyed,  1  dwt.,  fine  silver  12  grs.    33.  Imitation  Gold,  costs  87c. 
per  oz. — Fine  silver  2  oz.  5  dwts.,  fine  copper  3  oz.,  composition  1  oz.. 
keeps  its  color  very  well.    34.  Composition  for  ditto — Fine  copper  li 
azs.,  spelter  2 ozs.    35.  "  California"  Gold—Yine  gold  5  ozs.  12  dwta. 
composition  7  ozs.  17  dwta    36.  Composition  for  "  California  "— Fine 


336    WATCHMAKERS,   JEWELLERS'     &C.,   RECEIPTS. 


silver,  7  ozs.  17  dwts.  fine  copper  33  ozs.  12  dwts.,  spelter  5  ozs.  12  dwts, 
37.  Medium  Gold— Fine  gold  1  oz.,  fine  silver  12  dwts.,  fine  copper  13 
dwts.  38.  Bright  Gold — Fine  gold  1  oz.,  fine  silver  7  dwts.,  compo- 
sition marked  No.  34,  1  dwt  6  grs.  39.  Common  Gold  No.  1.— Fine 
gold  1  oz.,  fine  silver  8  dwts.,  composition  No.  34. 1  oz.  12  dwts.  41. 
Common  Gold,  No.  2. — Fine^old  5  dwts.,  fine  silver 3 dwts. 6  grs.,  fine 
copper  6  *  wts.  12  grs.  42.  Gold  for  Pins — Fine  gold  1  oz.,  fine  silvez 
'6  dwts. ,  fine  copper  1  oz. ,  spelter  5  dwts.  43.  Dry  Colored  Scrap  reduced 
>  to  35s.  or  $8.75  Gold— Colored  scrap  1  oz.  9  dwts.  12  grs.,  fine  silver  2 
dwts.,  fine  copper  17  dwts.  12  grs.,  spelter  4  dwts.  44.  Alloy  for  Gold 
Chains. — Fine  gold  11  dwts.  6  grs.,  fine  silver  2  dwts.  5  grs. ,  fine  cop* 
•per  6  dwts.  13  grs.  45.  Another  ditto — Fine  gold  1  oz.,  fine  silver  2 
jwts.,  fine  copper  8  dwts.  46.  Gold  worth  45  stg.  or  $11.25.— Fine  gold, 
1  oz.,  composition  (see  No.  22)  1  oz.  47.  Solder  for  ditto.— Fine  gold  1 
oz.,  fine  silver  15  dwts.,  fine  copper  15  dwts.  48.  12  Carat  Gold, — Fine 
gold  1  oz.,  fine  silver  10  dwts.,  fine  copper  9  dwts.  6  grs.  49.  Com- 
mon Gold  from  "  California" — "California,"  (see  No.  35)  8  ozs.  fine 
silver  13  ozs.  16  dwts.,  fine  copper  6  ozs.  16  dwts.  50.  29s  or  $7.25 
Go  Id.—  Fine  gold  1  oz.  13  dwts.  6  grs.,  fine  silver  1  oz.  12  dwts.  12 
grs.,  fine  copper  1  oz.  16  dwts.  6  grs.,  spelter  4  dwts.  Stands  nitric 
acid  very  well. 

ORDINARY  BRIGHT  GOLD  WIRE,  TABLE  SHOWING  THE  PROPORTION* 
OF  ALLOY  FROM  1  OZ.   UP  TO  21  OZ. 


Fine  Gold. 

Fine  Silver. 

Fine  Copper. 

Total. 

Oz.  Dwts.  Grs. 
0         5       21 
0       11        18 
0       17       15 
1        15         6 
2       12       21 
8       10       12 
483 
8         4       18 
638 

Oz.  Dwts.  Grs. 
066 
0       14        12 
1         1        18 
2         3        12 
356 
470 
5         8        18 
6       10       12 
7       12         6 

Oz.  Dwts.  Grs. 
0         6       21 
0       13       18 
1         0        15 
216 
2         1       21 
4         2       12 
533 
6         3       18 
249 

Oz.  Dwts.  Gra. 
100 
200 
300 
6  0  O 
900 
12  0  0 
15  0  0 
18  0  0 
21  0  0 

To  RECOVER  THE  GOLD  LOST  IN  COLORING. — Dissolve  a  handful 
^f  sulphate  of  iron  in  boiling  water,  then  add  this  to  your  "color" 
water,  it  precipitates  the  small  particles  of  gold.  Now  draw  off  the 
•water,  being  very  careful  not  to  disturb  the  auriferous  sediment  at 
the  bottom.  You  will  now  proceed  to  wash  the  sediment  from  all 
trace  of  acid  with  plenty  of  boiling  water  ;  it  will  require  3  or  4  sep- 
arate washings,  with  sufficient  time  between  each  to  allow  the  water  to 
cool  and  the  sediment  to  settle,  before  pouring  the  water  off.  Then 
dry  in  an  iron  vessel  by  the  fire  and  finally  fuse  in  a  covered  skittla 
pot  with  a  flux  as  directed  on  page  202. 

ALLOYS  FOR  GOLD. — 1.  Red  gold. — Copper,  66.67  parts  ;  gold,  33.. 
23  parts. 


WATCHMAKERS,   JEWELLERS*,   AC.,   RECEIPTS.     33? 

Silver,  5.89  parts  ;  gold,  88.23  parts  ;  iron,  5.89  parts.  6.  Dentists'  gold. 
—Silver,  8.34  parts  ;  platinum,  66.67  parts  ;  gold,  24.29  parts.  7. 
English  gold  coin. — Copper,  8. 34  parts  ;  gold,  91.66  parts.  8.  American- 
gold  coin.— Ooppei,  10  parts  ;  gold,  90  parts.  French  gold  coin  sam«» 
as  American.  10.  Alloys  for  Silver  Coin  and  Plate. — Englitsi* 
standard. — Copper,  7.50  parts ;  silver,  92.50  parts.  11.  American  ditto. 
— Copper,  10  parts  ;  silver  90  parts.  French,  the  same. 

GILDING  METAL  for  common  jewelry  is  made  by  mixing  4  parts 
'copper  with  one  of  calarnine  brass.  Sometimes  1  Ib.  copper,  with  &. 
oz.  of  brass.  Dentists'  Plate. — No.  1  Gold,  20  dwts.  ;  silver,  1  dwt. ; 
copper,  2  dwts.  2.  Gold,  21,  silver,  2,  copper.  Gold  for  Springs. 
— Gold,  18  dwts.  12  grs. ;  silver,  6  dwts. ;  copper,  5  dwts. 

JEWELLERS' SOLDERING  FLUID. — Muriatic  acid,  £pt;  grain  zinc, 
1J  oz.  Dissolve,  and  add  a  little  common  solder  and  sai-ainmoniacL 

JEWELLERS'  GOLD  COMPOSITIONS.— Common  Gold. — Silver,  Xpart; 
Spanish  copper,  16  parts,  gold,  2  parts;  mix.  Ring  Gold. — Spanish 
copper,  6  parts;  silver,  3  parts;  gold,  5  parts;  mix.  Manfieim  Gold. — 
copper,  3  parts;  zinc,  1  part.  Molt,  and  stir  well.  Mosaic  Gold.— 
copper  and  zinc,  equal  parts;  melt  at  the  lowest  temperature  that  will 
fuse  the  former,  then  mix  by  stirring,  and  add  5  per  cent,  more  zinc. 
farker's  Mosaic  Gold. — Copper,  100  parts ;  zinc,  54  parts.  For  common 
Jewelry — Copper,  3  parts;  1  of  old  brass,  and  4  oz.  of  tin  to  every  lb» 
j>f  copper,  factitious  Gold. — Copper,  16  parts;  platinum,  7  parts;, 
zinc,  1  part;  fused  together.  This  alloy  resembles  gold  of  16  carats, 
fine,  or  §,  and  will  resist  the  action  of  nitric  acid,  unless  very  concen- 
trated and  boiling.  Harmstadt's  True  Imitation  of  Gold. — is  stated 
not  only  to  resemble  gold  in  color,  but  also  in  specific  gravity  and. 
ductility.  Platinum,  16  parts;  copper,  7  parts;  zinc,  1  part;  put  it  in  a. 
crucible,  cover  with  charcoal  powder,  and  melt  into  a  mass.  Do.  of 
Silver. — Copper,  J  oz. ;  brass,  2  oz. ;  pure  silver,  3  oz. ;  bismuth,  2  oz. ; 
saltpetre,  2  oz. ;  common  salt,  1  oz.;  arsenic,  1  oz. ;  potash,  1  oz. ;  melt 
in  a  crucible  with  powdered  charcoal.  This  compound,  used  toy  a 
German  chemist  for  unlawful  purposes,  was  so  perfect  that  he  was. 
never  discovered. 

ARTIFICIAL  GOLD. — This  is  a  new  metallic  alloy  which  is  now  very . 
extensively  used  iu  France  as  a  substitute  for  gold.  Pure  copper,  100  _[ 
parts;  zinc,  or,  preferably,  tin,  17  parts;  magnesia,  6  parts;  sal-| 
ammoniac,  3-6  parts;  quick-time,  |  part;  tartar  of  commerce,  9  parts; 
are  mixed  as  follows  :  The  copper  is  first  melted,  and  the  magnesia, 
sal-ammoniac,  lime  and  tartar  are  then  added  separately,  aud  by 
degrees,  in  the  form  of  powder;  the  whole  is  now  briskly  stirred  for 
about  i  an  hour,  so  as  to  mix  thoroughly;  and  when  the  zinc  is  added 
in  small  grains  by  throwing  it  on  the  surface,  and  stirring  till  it  is 
entirely  fused ;  the  crucible  is  then  covered,  and  the  fusion  maintain^, 
for  about  35  minutes.  The  surface  is  then  skimmed,  and  the  alloy  is 
ready  for  casting.  It  has  a  fine  grain,  is  malleable,  and  takes  a  splen- 
did polish.  It  dose  not  corrode  readily,  and  for  many  purposes,  is  an 
excellent  substitut  for  gold.  When  tarnished,  its  brilliancy  can  bo 
restored  by  a  little  acidulated  water.  If  tin  be  employed  instead  of 
tine,  the  alloy  will  be  more  brilliant.  It  is  very  much  used  hi  France, 
and  must  ultimately  attain  equal  popularity  here. 

NEW  FRENCH  PATENT  ALLOY  FOR  SILVER.— Messieurs  De  Ruoi« 
;&  Fontenay  have  invented  the  following  alloy,  which  may  be  used 


338     WATCHMAKERS,   JEWELLERS',    <LC.,   RECEIPTS 

for  almost  all  purposes  in  which  silver  is  usually  applied.  Silver,  20 
parts ;  purifiea  nickel,  28  parts ;  copper,  52  parts,  Melt  the  copper  and. 
nickel  in  the  granular  state,  then  introduce  the  silver.  The  flux  to  be 
employed  is  charcoal  and  borax,  both  in  the  state  of  powder;  and  the 
ingots  obtained  are  to  be  rendered  malleable  by  annealing  for  a  con- 
siderable time  in  powdered  charcoal. 

GOLD. — To  find  the  number  of  carats  of  gold  in  an  object,  first  weigh 
the  gold  and  mix  with  seven  times  its  weight  in  silver.  This  alloy  is ' 
beaten  into  thin  leaves,  and  nitric  acid  is  added  ;  this  dissolves  the 
silver  and  copper.  The  remainder  (gold)  is  then  fused  and  weighed  ; 
by  comparing  the  first  and  last  weights  the  number  of  carats  of  pure 
gold  is  found.  This  operation  is  always  repeated  several  times, 
and  if  any  difference  occurs  in  the  result,  all  is  done  over  again. 

JEWELLEBS'  ALLOTS. — SOLDER,  &c.  Eighteen-carat  gold  for  rings — 
Gold  coin,  19^  gr. ;  pure  copper,  3  grs. ;  pure  silver,  1J  gr.  Cheap  gold, 
twelve  carat. — Gold  com,  25  gr.  ;  pure  copper,  13^  gr.  ;  pure  silver, 
TJgrs.  Very  cheap  four-carat  gold. — Copper,  IS  parts;  gold,  4  parts  ; 
silver,  2  parts.  Imitations  of  gold. — 1  Platina,  4  dwt.  ;  pure  copper, 
2J  dwt.  ;  sheet-zinc,  1  dwt  ;  block-tin,  If  dwt.  ;  pure  lead,  1£  dwt. 
If  this  should  be  found  too  hard  or  brittle  for  practical  use,  re-melting 
the  composition  with  a  little  sal-ammoniac  will  generally  render  it 
malleable  as  desired.  2.  Platina,  2  parts  ;  silver,  1  part ;  copper,  3 
parts.  These  compositions,  when  properly  prepared,  so  nearly  resem- 
ble pure  gold  it  is  very  difficult  to  distinguish  them  therefrom.  A 
little  powdered  charcoal,  mixed  with  metals  while  melting,  will  be 
found  of  service.  Best  oreide  of  gold. — Pure  copper,  4  oz.  ;  sheet 
zinc,  If  oz.;  magnesia,  g  oz. ;  sal-ammoniac,  $  oz.  ;  quick-lime,  9-32 
oz. ;  cream  tartar,  £  oz.  First  melt  the  copper  at  as  low  a  temperature 
as  it  will  melt  ;  then  add  the  zinc,  and  afterwards  the  other  articles 
in  powder,  in  the  order  named.  Use  a  charcoal  fire  to  melt  these 
metals.  Bushing  Alloy  for  Pivot-holes,  &c. — Gold  com,  3  dwts. ;  sU- 
Ter,  1  dwt.  20  grs. ;  copper,  3  dwts.  20  grs. ;  palladium,  1  dwt.  The 
best  composition  known  for  the  purpose  named.  Chid  Solder  for 
Foutteen  to  Sixteen-carat  Work. — Gold  coin,  1  dwt.  ;  pure  silver,  9 
£rs. ;  pure  copper,  6  grs. ;  brass,  3  grs.  Darker  solder. — Gold  coin,  1 
dwt ;  pure  copper,  8  grs. ;  pure  silver,  5  grs. ;  brass,  2  grs. ;  melt  to- 
gether in  charcoal  fire.  Solder  for  Gold. — Gold,  6  dwts.  ;  silver,  1 
<lwt. ;  copper,  2  dwts.  Soft  Gold  Solder.— Gold,  4  parts  ;  silver,  1 
part ;  copper  1  part.  Solders  for  Silver. — (For  the  use  of  jewellers. ) — 
Tine  silver,  19  dwts.  ;  copper,  1  dwt.  ;  sheet  brass,  10  dwts.  White 
Solder  for  Silver.— Silver,  1  oz. ;  tin,  1  oz.  Silver  Solder,  forPlated 
3feta2.—  Fine  silver.  1  oz.  ;  brass  10  dwts.  Solders.— For  Gold. — 
1.  Silver,  7  parts;  copper,  1  part,  with  borax.  2.  Gold,  2  parts;  silver, 
1  part ;  copper,  1  part.  3.  Gold,  3  parts  ;  silver,  3  parts  ;  copper,  1 
part;  zinc  \  part.  For  Silver. — Silver,  2  parts;  brass,  1  part,  with  bo- 
rax ;  or,  silver,  4  parts  ;  brass,  3  parts;  zinc,  1-18  part,  with  borax. 
Gold  Solders.— 1.  Copper,  24.24  parts  ;  silver,  27.57  parts  ;  gold,  48. 
19  parts.  2.  Enamel  Solder. — Copper,  25  parts;  silver,  7.07  parts;  gold, 
€7.93 parts.  3.  Copper,  26.55  parts;  zinc,  6.25  parts;  silver,  31. 25 parts; 
Sold,  36  parts.  4.  Enamel  Solder.— Silver,  19.57  parts  ;  gold,  80.43 
parts.  Solder.— For  22  carat  gold.— Gold  of  22  carats,  1  dwt ;  silver, 
2gr. ;  copper,  1  gr.  For  18  carat  gold.— Gold  of  18  carats,  1  dwt ;  sil- 
v«r.  2  gr. ;  copper,  1  gr.  For  cheaper  gold. — Gold,  1  dwt ;  silver,  10 


WATCHMAKERS,   JEWELLERS*,    &C.,    RECEIPTS. 

k/\Tvr\Ai»     Q  m*          ffliofiv\6f+    ef-j'77  —TTi-na    rrrklrl      1     /Tmrf      •    ailtrm*      1 


339 


.gr. ;  copper,  8  gr.     Cheaper  still. — Fine  gold,  1  dwt  ;  silver,  1  dwt.  ( 
copper,  1  dwt. 

SILVER  SOLDERS. — 1.  (hard.)  Copper,  30  parts  ;  zinc,  12.85  parts  ; 
silver,  57. 15  parts.  2.  Copper,  23.33  parts  ;  zinc,  10.00  parts  ;  silver, 
€6.67  parts.  4.  Copper,  26.66  parts;  zinc,  10.00  parts;  silver,  63JU 
parts.  5.  (soft.)  Copper  14.75  parts;  zinc 8.50  parts :  silver,  77.05 

rrts.    6.  Copper,  22.34  parts  ;  zinc,  10.48  parts  ;  silver,  67.18  parts. 
Tin,  63.00 iparts  ;  lead.  37  parts. 

COLORED  GOLD. — 1.  Full  red  gold. — Gold,  5  dwts. ;  copper,  5  dwt*. 
2.  Red  gold. — Gold,  5  dwts.  :  silver,  1  dwt.  ;  copper,  4  dwts.  3, 
Green  Gold.— Gold,  2  dwt.  ;  silver,  21  gr.  4.  Gray  gold.—  Gold,  3 
dwts.  15  gr  ;  silver,  1  dwt.  9  gr.  5.  Blue  gold.— Gold,  5  dwt. ;  steel 
filings,  5  dwt.  6.  Antique  gold,  greenish-yellow  color. — Gold,  18  dwts. 
9  gr. ;  silver,  21  gr.  ;  copper  18  gr.  These  all  require  to  be  submitted 
to  the  process  of  wet  coloring.  7.  Fictitious  gold,  very  bright. — Cop- 
per, 16  parts  ;  platina,  7  parts  ;  zinc,  1  part  ;  fused  together. 

ENGLISH  STANDARD  FOR  SILVER. — Pure  silver,  11  ozs.  2  dwts.  ; 
•copper,  22  dwts.  :  melt.  Silver  Imitation,— Copper,  1  Ib. ;  tin,  |  oz. , 
melt.  This  composition  will  roll  and  ring  very  near  to  silver. 

FRENCH  GOLD  PLATE. — 1.  Gold,  92  parts  ;  copper,  8  parts.  2. 
•Gold,  84  parts;  copper,  16  parts.  3.  Gold,  75  parts;  copper,  25  parts. 
Jewellers'  Metal. — Copper,  30 parts ;  tin,  7 parts;  brass,  10  parts;  mix. 

ALLOY  FOR  WATCH  PINION  SOCKETS.— Gold,  31  parts;  silver,  19 
parts;  copper  39  parts ;  palladium,  1  par',. 

COLORING  OF  JEWELRY. — 1.  To  Scigntenthc  Color  of  Yellow  gold. 
— Saltpetre,  6  ozs  ;  green  copperas,  2  ozs.  ;  white  vitriol  and  alum,  of 
each  1  oz.  If  wanted  redder,  a  mall  quantity  of  blue  vitriol  must 
be  added,  2.  For  Green  Gold. — Saltpetre,  1  oz.  10  dwts. ;  sal-ammo- 
niac, 1  oz.  4  dwts.  ;  Roman  vitriol,  1  oz.  4  dwts.  ;  verdigris,  18  dwts. 
-3.  To  Clean  Gilt  Jewdry. — Boiling  water  in  a  clean  flask,  |  pt. ; 
cyanide  of  potassium,  1  oz.  ;  shake  the  flask  to  dissolve  the  potas- 
sium. Add,  when  cold,  liquor  ammonia,  £  oz.  ;  rectified  alcohol,  1 
•oz.  Used  by  brushing  over  gilded  articles.  4.  Coloring  Jeweln/. — 
Boil  the  articles  in  a  dilute  solution  of  terchloride  of  gold,  to  which 
gome  bicarbonate  of  soda  has  been  added.  5.  Coloring  of  Gilding.— 
Defective  colored  gilding  may  also  be  improved  by  the  help  of  the 
f  ollowing  mixture  :  nitrate  of  potash,  3  oza.  :  alum  1^  ozs.  ;  sulphata 
of  zinc,  1^  ozs.  ;  common  salt,  1^  ozs.  These  ingredients  are  to  be  put 
into  a  small  quantity  of  water  to  form  a  sort  of  paste  which  is  put 
upon  the  articles  to  be  colored  ;  they  are  then  placed  upon  an  iron 
plate  over  a  clear  fire,  BO  that  they  will  attain  nearly  to  a  black  heat, 
ivhen  they  are  suddenly  plunged  into  cold  water  •  this  gives  them  a 
beautiful  high  color.  Different  hues  may  be  had  by  a  variation  in 
the  mixture.  6.  For  Red  Gold.— To  4  ozs.  melted  yellow  wax,  add,  in 
fine  powder,  l^ozs.  of  red  ochre,  ;  Hozs.  verdigris,  calcined  till  it  yields 
no  fumes  ;  and  £oz.  of  CiJcined  borax.  Mix  them  well  together. 
?  Dissolve  either  of  above  mixtures  in  water,  as  the  color  is  wanted,  and 
use  as  required.  7.  Fine  color  for  Heavy  Gilt  Work.— Alum,  3  ozs. ; 
saltpetre,  6  ozs. ;  sulphate  of  zinc,  3  ozs. ;  common  salt,  3  ozs.  Mix  all 
into  a  thiok  paste,  dip  the  articles  into  it,  and  heat  them  until  nearly 
black  on  a  piece  of  sheet  iron  over  a  clear  coke  or  charcoal  fire,  then 
plunge  them  into  cold  wattr.  8.  Fine  Color  For  Light  Plated  work.— 
Sulphate  of  copper,  2  dwts. :  beat  verdigris,  £  dwts.  12  grs. ;  sal-ammo. 


840    WATCHMAKERS,    JEWELLERS',    AC.,    RECEIPTS. 

niac,  4  dwts, ;  saltpetre,  4  dwts. ;  acetic  acid,  1  oz. ;  pulverize  the  solid 
articles,  add  the  acetic  acid  gradually,  stirring  all  the  time.  Dip 
your  articles  into  this  mixture  and  heat  them  to  a  black  color  on  a 
sheet  of  copper.  When  cold,  place  them  in  a  middling  strong  sul- 
phuric acid  pickle,  which  dissolves  the  coloring  salts  and  induces  a. 
very  fine  gold  color.  9.  Etruscan  Gold  Coloring. —Alum,  I  oz.  ;  fine 
table-salt,  1  oz.  ;  saltpetre  (powdered),  2  oz. ;  hot  rain-water,  suffi- 
cient to  make  the  solution,  when  dissolved,  about  the  consistency  of 
thick  ale  ;  then  add  sufficient  muriatic  acid  to  produce  the  color  de- 
sired. The  degree  of  success  must  always  depend,  in  a  greater  or 
less  degree,  upon  the  skill  or  judgment  of  the  operator.  The  article* 
to  l)e  colored  should  be  from  fourteen  to  eighteen  carats  fine,  of  pure, 
gold  and  copper  only,  and  be  free  from  coatings  of  tin,  or  silver 
solder.  The  solution  is  best  used  warm,  and  when  freshly  made  the 
principle  on  which  it  acts  is  to  eat  out  the  copper  alloy  from  the  sur- 
face of  the  article,  leaving  thereon  pure,  frosted  gold  only.  After 
coloring,  wash  off,  first  in  rain-water,  then  in  alcohol,  and  dry  with- 
out rubbing,  in  fine  clean  sawdust.  Fine  Etruscaii  jewelry,  that 
has  been  defaced  or  tarnished  by  use,  may  be  perfectly  renewed  by 
the  game  process. 

FOB  SILVERSMITHS,  Sterling  Silver.— I.  Fine  silver  11  oz.  2 
dwts.,  fine  copper  18  dwts.  2.  Equal  to  Sterling — Fine  silver  1 
oz. ,  fine  copper  1  dwt.  12  grs.  3.  Another  dtto — Fine  silver  1  oz.,. 
fine  copper  5  dwts.  4.  Common  Silver  for  Chains — Fine  silver  & 
dwts.,  fine  copper  4  dwts.  6.  Solder  for  ditto — "  ine  silver  16  dwts.,. 
fine  copper  12  grs.,  pin  brass,  3  dwts.  12  grs.  6.  Alloy  for  Plating. 
—Fine  silver  1  oz.,  fine  copper  10  dwts.  7.  S'7ver  Solder — Fine- 
silver  1  oz.,  pin  brass,  10  dwts.,  pure  spelter,  2  dwts.  8.  Copper 
Solder  for  Plating — Fine  silver,  10  dwts.,  fine  copper  10  dwts. 
9.  Common  Silver  Solder — Fine  silver  10  ozs.,  pin  brass,  6  ozs.  12 
dwts.,  spelter,  12  dwts.  10.  Silver  Sojder  for  Enamelling,  Si  per  oz. 
—Fine  silver  14  dwts.,  fine  copper,  8  dwts.  11.  Ditto,  for  filling 
Signet  Rings. — Fine  silver,  10  ozs,  fine  copper,  1  oz.  16  dwts.,  fine 
pin  brass,  6  ozs.  12  dwts.,  spelter,  12  dwts.  12.  Silver  Solder  for 
Gold  Plating — Fine  silver,  1  oz.,  fine  copper,  5  dwts.,  pin  brass,  5 
dwts.  13.  Quick  Silver  Solder — Fine  silver,  1  oz.,  pin  brass,  1ft 
dwts.,  bar  tin,  2  dwts.  14.  Imitation  Silver  —  Fine  silver,  1  oz., 
nickel,  1  oz.  11  grs.,  fine  copper,  2  ozs.  9  grs.  15.  Another  ditto — 
Fine  silver,  3  ozs.,  nickel,  1  oz.  11  dwts.,  fine  copper,  2  ozs.  9grg.r 
spelter,  10  dwts.  16.  Fine  Silver  Solder  for  Iiligree  Work— Fine 
silver,  4  dwts.  6  grs.,  phi  brass,  1  dwt.  17.  Bismuth  Solder — Bismuth, 
3  oss.,  lead,  3  ozs.  18  dwts.,  tin,  5  ozs.  6  dwts. 

DEAD  WHITE  ON  SILVER  ARTICLES. — Heat  the  article  to  a  cherry- 
Ted,  or  a  dull  red  heat  and  allow  it  to  cool,  then  place  it  in  a  pickle  of 
5  i  arts  sulphuric  acid  to  100  parts  of  water,  and  allow  it  to  remain  for 
an  hour  or  two.  If  the  surface  is  not  right,  rinse  in  cold  water,  and 
repeat  the  heating  and  pickling  operation  as  before.  This  remove* 
the  copper  from  the  surface  of  the  article,  leaving  pure  silver  on  the 
Burface.  When  sufficiently  whitened,  remove  from  the  pickle,  well 
rinse  in  pure  hot  water  and  place  in  warm  box  sawdust. 

PICKLE,  FOR  FROSTING  AND  WHITENING  SILVER  GOODS.— Sul- 
phuric acid,  1  dr.  ;  water,  4  oz.  :  heat  the  pickle,  and  immerse  the 
silver  in  it  until  f rostf- 1  as  desired  ;  then  wash  off  clean,  and  dry  witfc 


"WATCHMAKERS,   JEWELLSBS',   JiC.,   RECEIPTS.     341 


*  Mft  linen  cloth,  or  in  fine  clean  sawdust  For  whitening  only,  a 
smaller  proportion  of  acid  may  be  used. 

To  FROST  POLISHED  SILVER.  —  Cyanide  of  potassium  1  oz.  ;  dis- 
solved in  £  pt  of  water.  Do  not  hold  the  silver  in  your  hands,  but 
Use  pliers  made  of  lance  wood  or  box  wood,  and  apply  the  mixtura 
with  a  brush  to  the  polished  surface. 

SILVERING  HOOKS  AND  EYES,  &c.  —  The  small  iron  articles  are 
euspended  in  dilute  sulphuric  acid  until  the  iron  shows  a  bright  clean 
surface.  After  rinsing  in  pure  water  they  are  placed  in  a  bath  of  a 
mixed  solution  of  sulphate  of  zinc,  sulphate  of  copper  and  cyanide 
of  potassium,  and  there  remain  until  they  receive  a  bright  coating  of 
trass.  Lastly,  they  are  transferred  to  a  bath  of  nitrate  of  silver, 
cyanide  of  potassium  and  sulphate  of  soda,  in  which  they  quickly 
xeceived  a  coating  of  silver. 

ORNAMENTAL  DESIGNS  ON  SILVER.  —  Select  a  smooth  part  of  the 
silver,  and  sketch  on  it  a  monogram  or  any  other  design  you  choose, 
with  a  sharp  lead  pencil,  then  place  the  article  in  a  gold  solution  with 
the  battery  in  good  working  order,  and  in  a  short  time  all  the  parts 
not  sketched  with  the  lead  pencil  will  be  covered  with  a  coat  of  gold. 
After  cleansing  the  article,  the  black  lead  is  easily  removed  by  the 
fingers,  and  the  silver  ornament  disclosed.  A  gold  ornament  may  bo 
produced  by  reversing  the  process. 

To  EXTRACT  SILVER  FROM  WASTE  PRODUCTS.—  Mix  your  refuse 
with  an  equal  quanti*—  of  wood  charcoal,  place  in  a  crucible  and  sub- 
mit to  a  bright  rea  Heat,  and  in  a  short  time  a  silver  button  will  be 
found  at  the  bottom.  Carbonate  of  soda  is  another  good  flux. 

To  SOLDEB  TORTOISE  SHELL.—  Bring  the  edges  of  the  pieces  of 
shell  to  fit  each  other,  observing  to  give  the  same  incliuatiou  of  grain 
to  each,  then  secure  them  in  a  piece  of  paper,  and  place  them  between 
hot  irons  or  pincers  ;  apply  pressure,  and  let  them  cool.  The  heat 
must  not  be  so  great  as  to  burn  the  shell,  therefore  try  it  first  on  a 
•white  piece  of  paper. 

ARTIFICIAL  PEARLS.—  Are  made  from  beads  of  opaline  glass  filled 
•with  gum,  the  polish  of  the  glass  being  reduced  by  the  vapor  if 
hydrofluoric  acid. 

REVIVER  FOR  OLD  JEWELRY.  —  Dissolve  sal-ammoniac  hi  nrine, 
and  put  the  jewelry  in  it  for  a  short  time  ;  then  take  it  out,  and 
rub  with  chamois  leather,  and  it  will  appear  equal  to  new. 

To  RECOVER  GOLD  FROM  GILT  METAL.  —  Take  a  solution  of  borax 
•water,  apply  to  the  gilt  surface,  and  sprinkle  over  it  some  finely 
powdered  sulphur  ;  make  the  article  red  hot,  and  quench  it  hi  water; 
then  scrape  on  the  gold,  and  recover  it  by  means  of  lead- 

POLISHING  POWDEB  FOR  GOLD  AND  SILVER.—  Rock  alum  burnt 
And  finely  powdere  I,  5  parts  ;  levigated  chalk,  1  part.  Mix  ;  apply 
•with  a  dry  brush. 

SILVER-PLATING  FLCTD.—  Dissolve  1  ounce  of  nitrate  of  silver,  in 
crystals,  in  12  ounces  of  soft  water  ;  then  dissolve  in  the  water  2  oz. 
cyanuret  of  potash  ;  shake  the  whole  together,  and  let  it  stand  till  it 
becomes  clear.  Have  ready  some  half-ounce  vials,  and  fill  half  full 
of  Paris  white,  or  fine  whiting  ;  and  then  fill  up  the  bottles  with  tha 
JUquor,  and  it  is  ready  for  use.  The  whiting  does  not  ine/*Visa 
the  coating  powder  ;  it  only  helps  to  clean  the  articles,  and  fav*  *.b* 
•ilver  fluid,  by  half  filling  the  bottles. 


342      WATCHMAKERS,  JEWELLERS,   AC.,  RECEIPTS. 

To  REDUCE  ENGLISH  SOVEREIGNS  TO  LOWER  FINENESS.— No.  1 
15  Carat  gold,  Coins,  2  ozs. ;  gold,  8  ozs. ;  silver,  2  ozs.  3  dwts. ;  copper. 
5  ozg.  3  dwts.  2.  Another  ditto.  Coins,  4  ozs. ;  gold,  6  ozs. ;  silver,  1 
ozs.  2  dwts. ;  copper,  5  ozs.  2  dwts.  3.  Another  ditto.  Coins,  2  ozs. ; 
gold,  6  ozs. ;  silver,  1  oz.  14  dwts. ;  copper,  4  ozs. ;  2  dwts.  4.  14  Carat 
gold.  Coins,  3  ozs. ;  gold,  5  ozs. ;  silver,  1  oz.  9  dwts.  12  grs. ;  copper,  11 
dwts.  12  grs.  5.  Another  ditto.  Coins.  1  oz. ;  gold,  2  ozs, ;  silver,  13 
dwts. ;  copper,  1  oz.  11  dwts.  6.  Another  ditto.  Coins,  1  oz. ;  gold,  & 
ozs. ;  silver  2  ozs. ;  copper,  4  ozs.  14  dwts.  ' 

STERLING  VALUE  OF  GOLD  OF  DIFFERENT  DEGREES  OF  FINENESS. 

Value  per.  Value  per. 

Carats  Fine.  oz.  Troy.  Carats  Fine.        oz.  Troy. 

£  £ 

24  4    4~lli  12  225* 

23  415  11  1  18  11 

22  British  Standard.        3  17  10i  10  1  15    4i 

21  3  14    4  9  1  11  10 

20  3  10    9  8  183 

19  373  7  149 

18  (Lowest  HaU  Mark).  3    3    8&  6  1    1    2fc 

17  302  5  0  17    8 

16  2  17    7£  4  0  14    2 

15  2  13    1  3  0  10    7i 

14  2    9    6i  2  071 

13  260  1  0    3    6& 

Note. — The  BRITISH  STANDARD  for  gold,  is  goid,  22-24  of  a  pound, 
equal  to  11  parts  pure  gold  and  1  of  alloy;  a  pound  is  estimated  to  be 
divided  into  24  equal  parts  or  carats,  hence  the  proportion  is  rated 
equal  to  22  carats.  The  Standard  of  Silver  is  222-240  of  a  pound, 
equivalent  to  37  parts  pure  silver  and  3  of  alloy.  A  Troy  ounce  of 
Standard  gold  is  coined  into  £3. 17.10.2f.,  and  an  ounce  of  Standard 
silver  into  5s.  6d.  A  Ib.  Troy  of  gold  yields  46  19-240  sovereigns.  A 
Ib.  Troy  of  silver  66  shillings.  £150,000  in  gold  weighs  over  a  ton. 
£75,000,000  weighs  500  tons. 

The  American  STANDARD  of  Gold  and  Silver  is  vKX)  parts  of  pure 
metal  and  100  of  alloy  in  1,000  parts  of  coin,  the  fineness  being  ex- 
pressive of  the  quantity  of  pure  metal  in  1000  parts.  The  value  of  1 
ounce  of  pure  gold  is  $20.67. 183£,  as  standard  gold  coin  it  is  worth 
S18.60.465.  The  value  of  1  ounce  of  pure  silver  is  $1.29.29.,  as  stand- 
ard silver  coin  it  is  worth  Si  16.36-36. 

To  MELT  GOLD.— Prepare  a  good  fire,  and  heat  the  ingot  in 
which  you  wish  to  cast  the  gold,  a  little  hotter  than  boiling  water: 
next  put  the  alloy  in  the  crucible,  add  a  SH...11  quantity  of  pulverized 
borax,  and  leave  on  the  fire  until  melted.  Cast  this  in  a  clean  ingot, 
and  after  breaking  the  bar  into  small  fragments,  return  to  the  pot 
and  remelt  the  gold,  not  adding  borax  this  time,  but  when  the  gold 
looks  clear  and  smooth  on  the  top,  add,  for  every  6  ozs.  gold,  a  piece 
of  saltpetre  about  the  size  of  a  pea.  and  in  about  a  minute  pour  the 
gold.  Keep  up  the  heat  after  adding  the  saltpetre,  and,  previous  to 
pouring  the  gold,  pour  a  few  drops  of  oil  into  the  iron  ingot.  If  the 
stock  was  clean  when  you  commenced,  the  gold  will  roll  well.  Much 
depends  on  the  first  rolling  of  the  stock ;  18  carat  should  be  subjected 
to  a  very  heavy  strain;  the  first  and  second  draughts,  which  imparts 
a  grain  to  the  stock ;  light  draughts  stretch  the  gold  on  the  surface, 
and  the  middle  portion  remaining  as  cast,  causes  the  gold  to  crack ; 
many  good  bars  having  been  condemned,  when  the  trouble  waa  i* 


WATCHMAKERS,   JEWELLERS,    AC.,  RECEIPTS,     343 

the  rolling.  After  the  18  carat  has  been  rolled  to  about  twice  ita 
original  length,  it  must  be  annealed,  then  rolled  to  the  size  you  re- 
quire. Proceed  with  melting  14  carat  as  above  described  for  18  carat, 
giving  it  as  heavy  strains  in  the  rolls,  but  not  rolling  so  much  before 
annealing  as  the  18  carat.  The  other  carats  of  cheaper  grade,  do 
not  require  the  use  of  saltpetre  to  toughen;  instead  of  which,  use  a 
little  salammoniac,  and  then  proceed  as  above.  When  you  anneal 
red  gold,  do  not  quench  it  when  red  hot,  but  allow  the  gold  to  blacken 
before  quenching,  otherwise  it  will  slit  or  seam.  Melt  new  alloys  in 
•very  case  twice;  treat  solder  the  same  way,  to  ensure  a  thorough 
admixture  of  the  copper  with  the  gold. 

To  REMOVE  TIN  FROM  THE  STOCK. — Just  previous  to  pouring 
the  gold,  throw  a  small  piece  of  corrosive  sublimate  in  the  pot,  stir 
well  with  a  long  piece  of  pointed  charcoal,  and  allow  the  pot  to  re- 
main on  the.  fire  about  half  a  minute  afterward.  This  will  take  tin 
from  the  alloy;  while  the  tin  is  in,  the  gold  will  not  roll  without 
cracking.  To  remove  emery  or  steel  filings  from  gold,  add  a  small 
piece  of  glass-gall,  while  melting ;  it  will  collect  them  hi  the  flux. 

MAKING  BRITTLE  GOLD  STRONG. — Gold  is  sometimes  so  brittle 
that  the  jeweller  cannot  well  work  it  ;  this  is  probably  due  to  phos- 
phorus, which,  being  no  metal,  is  of  course  not  detected  in  the  assay. 
The  remedy  is  to  pass  chlorine  gas  through  the  molten  gold,  by  which, 
treatment  most  of  the  gold  which  had  otherwise  to  be  set  aside  as; 
unfit  for  certain  kinds  of  work,  can  be  redeemed. 

To  MAKE  PLATED  STOCK. — Cast  the  bar  you  wish  to  plate  the 
breadth  you  require,  and  roll  to  the  thickness  of  the  8th  of  an  inch. 
If  you  plate  on  silver,  cast  the  silver  the  same  width  as  the  gold,  and 
roll  a  little  longer  than  the  gold.  Generally  the  lower,  cheaper 
grade  metal,  is  2  or  3  times  the  thickness  of  the  dearer,  therefore  use 
as  much  of  each  as  will  make  the  desired  proportions.  Polish  as 
nearly  flat  and  straight  as  possible,  then  file  one  face  of  silver  and 
one  face  of  gold,  until  they  are  bright.  Previous  to  this  you  hare 
rolled  a  piece  of  plate  solder  very  thin,  say,  36  in.  round  size  plate, 
and  cut  a  strip  a  little  wider  and  longer  than  your  gold.  Emery 
paper  can  be  used  to  clean  each  side  of  this  from  dirt  and  grease. 
Cover  the  surface  with  ground  borax  from  the  slate,  on  each  side;  da 
the  same  on  the  bright  faces  of  the  gold  and  silver;  place  the  solder 
between  them,  and  have  a  piece  of  iron  wire  about  f  of  an  inch  in 
thickness,  and  3  feet  long,  in  readiness,  place  this  lengthwise  on  th« 
gold,  and  squeeze  the  whole  tightly  together  in  a  vice,  and  bind  every 
I  inch  or  so  with  heavy  binding  wire  very  secure.  Next  make  a  good 
charcoal  fire  in  the  forge,  shaped  so  as  to  be  like  an  oven,  and  then 
solder;  when  the  solder  melts  on  each  side  the  whole  length,  all  is 
ready  to  roll  like  any  other  stock.  If  you  make  gold  plating  that  is 
18  carat,  or  16  carat,  or  14  carat,  and  12  carat,  you  must  use  a  gold 
solder  about  5  or  6  carats  less  than  the  inferior  gold.  If  gold  on  sil- 
ver or  composition,  use  copper  solder.  The  clippings  from  the  above, 
when  the  gold  is  on  silver,  may  be  placed  in  an  enamelled  vessel,  ana 
covered  with  nitric  acid,  2  parts;  water,  1  part.  The  silver  will  b» 
taken  in  solution,  which  must  be  saved  in  an  earthen  pot.  Precipi- 
tate the  silver  from  the  solution,  or  after  the  solution  has  been  di- 
luted, a  bar  of  copper  placed  in  it  will  collect  it;  this  sediment  must  be 
well  washed  and  dried,  then  melted .  The  gold  after  being  well 
dried,  can  be  melted  in  a  bar,  a  small  amount  of  copper  being  added* 
§o  that  it  will  be  of  the  same  quality  as  before. 


'.$44     WATCHMAKERS,   JEWELLERS',    AC.,   RECEIPTS. 

JEWELLERS'  ARMENIAN  CEMENT. — Isinglass  soaked  in  water  and 
"dissolved  in  spirit,  2  oz.  (thick)  ;  dissolve  in  this  10  grs.  of  very  pale 
gum  ammonia  (in  tears)  by  rubbing  them  together  ;  then  add  6  large 
tears  of  gum  mastic,  dissolved  in  the  least  possible  quantity  of  rec- 
tified spires.  When  carefully  made  this  cement  resists  moisture  and 
dries  colorless.  Keep  in  a  closely  stopped  phial. 

JEWELLERS'  CEMENT.— Put  in  a  bottle  2  ozs.  of  isinglass  and  1  oz.  of 
the  best  gum  arable,  cover  them  with  proof  spirits,  cork  loosely,  and 
place  the  bottle  in  a  vessel  of  water,  and  boil  it  till  a  thorough  solu- 
tion is  effected  ;  then  strain  it  for  use. 

GOLD  is  taken  from  the  surface  of  silver  by  spreading  over  it  a 
paste  made  of  powdered  sal-ammoniac,  with  aquafortis,  and  heating 
•it  till  the  matter  smokes,  and  is  nearly  dry  ;  when  the  gold  may  be 
.separated  by  rubbing  it  with  a  scratch  brush. 

To  SEPARATE  GOLD  AND  SILVER  FROM  LACE,  &c. — Cut  in  pieces 
the  gold  or  silver  lace,  tie  it  tightly,  and  boil  in  soap  ley  till  the  size 
appears  diminished  ;  take  the  cloth  out  of  the  liquid,  and  after  re- 
peated rinsings  of  cold  water,  beat  it  with  a  mallet  to  draw  out  the 
alkali.  Open  the  linen,  and  the  pure  metal  will  be  found  in  all  its 
fceauty. 

TARNISH  ON  ELECTRO-PLATE  Goods  may  be  removed  by  immers- 
ing the  article  from  one  to  ten  or  fifteen  minutes,  or  until  the  tarnish 
has  been  removed,  but  no  longer,  in  the  following  solution :  Rain 
water,  2  gals.  ;  cyauuret  potassa,  ^  Ib.  ;  dissolve  and  put  into  a  stone 
jug  or  jar  and  closely  cork.  After  immersion,  the  articles  must  be 
tfaken  out  and  thoroughly  rinsed  in  two  or  three  waters,  then  dried 
with  a  soft  linen  cloth,  or,  if  frosted  or  chased  work,  with  fine  clean 
«awdust.  Tarnished  jewelry  may  be  speedily  restored  by  this 
process  ;  but  make  sure  work  of  removing  the  alkali,  otherwise  it 
will  corrode  the  goods. 

A  BRIGHT  GOLD  TINGE  may  be  given  to  silver  by  steeping  it  for 
a  suitable  length  of  time  in  a  weak  solution  of  sulphuric  acid  and 
water  strongly  impregnated  with  iron-rust. 

To  REFINE  GOLD. — If  you  desire  to  refine  gold  from  the  baser 
metals,  swedge  or  roll  it  out  very  thin,  then  cut  into  narrow  strips 
and  curl  up  so  as  to  prevent  its  lying  flatly.  Drop  the  pieces  thus 
prepared  into  a  vessel  containing  good  nitric  acid,  in  the  proportion 
.of  acid,  2  ozs.,  and  pure  rain-water  ^  oz.  Suffer  to  remain  until  thor- 
.oughly  dissolved,  which  will  be  the  case  in  from  i  an  hour  to  1  hour. 
'Then  pour  off  the  liquid  carefully,  and  you  will  find  the  gold,  in  the 
jform  of  yellow  powder,  lying  at  the  bottom  of  the  vessel.  Wash 
this  with  pure  water  till  it  ceases  to  have  an  acid  taste,  after  which 
you  may  melt  and  cast  into  any  form  you  choose.  Gold  treated  ia 
this  way  may  be  relied  on  as  perfectly  pure. 

In  melting  gold  use  none  other  than  a  charcoal  fire,  and  during 
f-  the  process  sprinkle  saltpetre  and  potash  into  the  crucible  occasion- 
ally. Do  not  attempt  to  melt  with  stone  coal,  as  it  renders  the  metal 
brittle  and  otherwise  imperfect. 

To  REFINE  SILVER.— Dissolve  in  nitric  acid  as  in  the  case  of  the 
.  gold.  When  the  silver  has  entirely  disappeared,  add  to  the  2i  oz.  of 
solution  nearly  1  quart  of  pure  rain-water.  Sink,  then,  a  sheet  of 
'  clean  copper  into  it ;  the  silver  will  collect  rapidly  upon  the  copper,  and 
you  can  scrape  it  off  and  melt  into  bulk  at  pleasure. 


WATCHMAKERS,  JEWELLERS',  &c.,  RECEIPTS.  345 

In  the  event  of  your  refining  gold  in  accordance  with  the  foregoing 
formula,  and  the  impurity  was  silver,  the  only  steps  necessary  to  sav»  . 
the  latter  would  be  to  add  the  above  named  proportion  of  water  to  the ' 
solution  poured  from  the  gold,  and  then  to  proceed  with  your  copper 
plate  as  just  directed. 

To  REFINE  COPPER. — This  process  differs  from  the  one  employed  to 
,iefine  silver  in  no  respects  save  the  plate  to  lie  immersed;  you  use  an 
iron  instead  of  a  copper  plate  to  collect  the  metal. 

If  the  impurities  of  gold  refined  were  both  silver  and  copper,  you 
might,  after  saving  the  silver  as  above  directed,  sink  your  iron  plate 
into  the  solution  yet  remaining,  and  take  out  the  copper.  The  parts 
•of  alloyed  gold  may  be  separated  by  these  processes,  and  leave  each 
:in  a  perfectly  pure  state. 

COLD  SILVERING  OF  METALS. — Mix  1  part  of  chloride  of  silver 
with  3  parts  of  pearlash,  1^  parts  common  gait,  and  1  p;irt  whiting-, 
»nd  well  rub  the  mixture  on  the  surface  of  brass  or  copper  (previously 
well  cleaned),  by  means  of  a  piece  of  soft  leather,  or  a  cork  moistened 
•with  water  and  dipped  in  the  powder.  When  properly  silvered,  the 
metal  should  be  well  washed  in  hot  water,  slightly  alkalized;  then 
wiped  dry. 

To  HARD  SOLDER  GOLD,  SILVER,  COPPER,  BRASS,  IRON,  STEEL  OR 
PLATINA. — The  solders  to  be  used  for  gold,  silver,  copper  and  brass  are 
.given  in  the  preceding  part.  You  commence  operations  by  reducing 
your  solder  to  small  particles,  and  mixing  it  with  powdered  sal- 
.nmmoniac  and  powdered  borax  in  equal  part*,  moistened  to  make  it 
hold  together.  Having  fitted  up  the  joint  to  be  soldered,  you  secure 
the  article  upon  a  piece  of  soft  charcoal,  lay  your  soldering  mixture 
immediately  over  the  joint  and  then  with  your  blow-pipe  turn  the 
Uanie  of  your  lamp  upon  it  until  fusion  takes  place.  The  nob  is  then 
•done,  and  ready  to  be  cooled  and  dressed  up.  Iron  is  usually  soldered 
with  copper  or  brass  in  accordance  with  the  above  process.  The  best 
«older  for  steel  is  pure  gold  or  pure  silver,  though  gold  or  silver  solders 
are  often  used  successfully.  Platina  can  only  be  soldered  well  with 
gold ;  and  the  expense  of  it,  therefore,  contributes  to  the  hindrance  of  a 
.general  use  of  platiua  vessels,  even  for  chemical  purposes,  where  they 
are  of  so  much  importance. 

To  SOFT  SOLDER  ARTICLES.— Moisten  the  parts  to  be  united  with 
aoldering  fluid;  then,  having  joined  them  together,  lay  a  small  piece 
•of  solder  upon  the  joint  and" hold  over  your  lamp,  or  direct  the  blaze 
upon  it  with  your  blow-pipe  until  fusion  is  apparent.  Withdraw  them 
from  the  blaze  immediately,  as  too  much  heat  will  render  the  solder 
brittle  and  unsatisfactory.  When  the  parts  to  be  joined  can  be  made 
/to  spring  or  press  against  each  other,  it  is  best  to  place  a  thin  piece  of 
I  solder  between  them  before  exposing  to  the  lamp.  Where  two  smooth 
eurfaces  are  to  be  soldered  one  upon  the  other,  you  may  make  an  ex- 
cellent job  by  moistening  them  with  the  fluid,  and  then,  having  placed 
a.  sheet  of  tin  foil  between  them,  holding  them  pressed  firmly  together 
over  your  lamp  till  the  foil  melts.  If  the  surfaces  fit  nicely,  a  joint 
may  be  made  in  this  way  so  close  as  to  be  almost  imperceptible.  The 
bright  looking  lead  which  comes  as  a  lining  to  tea  boxes  works  better 
in  the  same  way  than  tin  foil. 

To  CLEANSE  GOLD  TARNISHED  IN  SOLDERING. — The  old  English 
made  was  to  expose  all  parts  of  the  article  to  a  uniform  heat,  allow  rt 


846    WATCHMAKERS,    JEWELLERS*,    &C-,   RECEIPTS. 

to  cool,  and  then  boil  until  bright  in  urine  and  sal-ammoniac.  It  ia 
now  usually  cleaned  "with  diluted  sulphuric  acid.  The  pickle  is  mad» 
in  about  the  proportion  of  one-eighth  of  an  ouuce  of  acid  to  one  ounce 
of  rain  water. 

To  CLEAN  SILVER  TARNISHED  IN  SOLDERING.— Some  expose  to 
a  uniform  heat,  as  in  the  case  of  gold,  and  then  boil  in  strong  alum, 
water.  Others  immerse  for  a  considerable  length  of  time  in  a  liquid 
made  of  ^  oz.  of  cyanuret  potassa  to  1  pint  rain  water,  and  then  brush 
off  with  prepared  chalk. 

NICKEL  PLATING. — The  following  is  the  substance  of  the  patent 
granted  to  Dr.  Isaac  Adams,  March  22,  1870.  The  process  is  highly 
successful.  "  This  improvement  consists  in  the  use  of  3  now  solutions 
from  which  to  deposit  nickel  by  the  electric  current.  1.  A  solution 
formed  of  the  double  sulphate  of  nickel  and  alumina,  or  the  sulphate* 
of  nickel  dissolved  in  a  solution  of  soda,  potash,  or  ammonia  alum, 
the  three  different  varieties  of  commercial  alu  m.  2.  A  sol  ution  formed 
of  the  double  sulphate  of  nickel  and  magnesia,  with  or  without  an 
excess  of  ammonia.  I  have  found  that  a  good  coating  of  nickel 
can  be  deposited  from  the  solution  before  mentioned,  provided  they 
are  prepared  and  used  in  such  a  manner  as  to  be  free  from  any  acid 
or  alkaline  reaction.  When  these  solutions  are  used,  great  care  must 
be  taken,  lest  by  the  use  of  too  high  battery  power,  or  from  the  in- 
troduction of  some  foreign  matters,  the  solution  becomes  acid  or- 
nlkaline.  I  prefer  to  use  these  solutions  at  a  temperature  above  100° 
Fah.,  but  do  net  limit  my  invention  to  the  use  of  these  solutions  at 
that  temperature.  I  therefore  claim,  1.  The  electro  deposition  of 
nickel  by  the  means  of  solution  of  the  double  sulphate  of  nickel  and 
alumina,  prepared  and  used  iu  such  a  manner  as  to  be  free  from  the 
presence  of  ammonia,  potash,  soda,  lime  or  nitric  acid  or  from  any 
other  acid,  or  from  any  acid  or  alkaline  reaction.  2.  The  electro 
deposition  of  nickel  by  means  of  a  solution  of  the  double  sulphate  of 
nickel  and  potash,  prepared  and  used  in  such  a  wanner  as  to  be  free 
from  the  presence  of  ammonia,  soda,  alumina,  lime  or  nitric  acid,  of 
from  any  acid  or  alkaline  reaction.  3.  The  electro  deposition  of  nick* 
el  by  means  of  a  solution  of  the  double  sulphate  of  nickel  and  mag« 
nesia,  prepared  and  used  in  such  a  manner  as  to  be  free  from  thV 
presence  of  potash,  soda,  alumina,  lime  or  nitric  acid,  or  from  any 
ncid  or  alkaline  reaction. " 

STALBA'S  NICKEL  PLATING  PROCESS.— Consists  in  plating  with, 
nickel,  by  the  action  of  zinc  upon  salts  of  nickel,  in  the  presence  of 
chloride  of  zinc  and  the  metal  to  be  plated.  By  this  process,  Stalba. 
states  that  he  has  succeeded  in  plating  objects  of  wrought  and  cast 
iron,  steel,  copper,  brass,  zinc,  and  lead.  It  is  only  necessary  that- 
the  size  of  the  objects  should  permit  them  to  be  covered  entirely  by 
the  plating  liquid,  and  that  their  surfaces  should  be  free  from  dirt. 
The  following  is  the  modus  operandi : — A  quantity  of  concentrated 
chloride  of  zinc  solution  is  placed  in  a  clean  metallic  vessel,  and  to 
this  is  added  an  equal  volume  of  water.  This  is  heated  to  boiling, 
and  hydrochloric  acid  is  added  drop  by  drop,  until  the  precipitate 
which  had  formed  on  adding  the  water  has  disappeared.  A  small 
quantity  of  zinc  powder  is  now  added,  which  produces  *  zinc  coating 
on  the  metal  as  far  as  the  liquid  extends.  Enough  of  the  nickel  salt 
{the  chloride  or  sulphate  answers  equally  well,  is  now  introduced  t»> 


WATCHMAKERS,    JEWELLERS,*  AC.,    RECEIPTS.    347 

color  the  liquid  distinctly  green  ;  the  objects  to  be  plated  nre  placed 
fa  it  together  with  some  zinc  clippings,  and  the  liquid  is  brought  to  / 
boiling.    The  nickel  is  precipitated  in  the  course  of  15  minutes,  and.  / 
the  objects  will  be  found  to  be  completely  coated.    The  coating  va- 
ries in  lustre  with  the  character  of  the  metallic  surface;  when  this  is 
polished,  the  platmg  is  likewise  lustrous  and  vice  versa.    Salt  of  co- 
balt affords  a  cobalt  plating,  which  is  steel  gray  in  color,  not  so  lus- 
trous as  the  nickel,  but  more  liable  to  tarnish. 

To  MAKE  SILVER  SOLUTION"  FOR  ELECTRO-PLATING.— Put  to- 
gether into  a  glass  vessel  1  oz.  good  silver,  made  thin  and  cut  into 
strips;  2  oz.  best  nitric  acid,  and  ^oz.  pure  rain  writer.  If  solution, 
does  not  begin  at  once,  add  a  little  more  water — continue  to  add  a» 
very  little  at  a  time  till  it  does.  In  the  event  it  starts  off  well,  but 
etops  before  the  silver  is  fully  dissolved,  you  may  generally  start  it 
up  again  all  right  by  adding  a  little  more  water.  When  solution  is- 
entirely  effected,  add  1  quart  of  warm  rain  water  and  a  large  table- 
spoonful  of  table  salt.  Shake  well  and  let  settle,  then  proceed  to 
pour  off  and  wash  through  other  waters  as  in  the  case  of  the  gold 
preparation.  When  no  longer  acid  to  the  taste,  put  in  an  ounce  and. 
an  eighth  cyanuret  potassa  and  a  quart  pure  rain  water:  after  stand- 
ing about  24  hours,  it  will  be  ready  for  use. 

To  MAKE  GOLD  SOLUTION  FOR  ELECTRO-PLATING. — Dissolve  five 
pennyweights  gold  coin,  5  grains  pure  copper,  and  4  grams  pura 
silver  in  3  ozs.  nitro-muriatic  acid;  which  is  simply  2  parts  muriatic 
acid  and  1  part  nitric  acid.  The  silver  will  not  be  taken  into  solution, 
as  are  the  other  2  metals,  bnt  will  gather  at  the  bottom  of  the  vessel. 
Add  1  oz.  pulverized  sulphate  of  iron,  |  oz.  pulverized  borax,  25 
grains  pure  table  salt,  and  1  quart  hot  rain  water.  Upon  this  thd 
gold  and  copper  will  be  thrown  to  the  bottom  of  the  vessel  with  the. 
silver.  Let  stand  till  fully  settled,  then  pour  off  the  liquid  carefully, 
and  refill  with  boiling  rain  water  as  before.  Continue  to  repeat  this 
operation  until  the  precipitate  is  thoroughly  washed  ;  or,  in  other 
words,  fill  up,  let  settle,  and  pour  off  so  long  as  the  accumulation  at 
the  bottom  of  the  vessel  is  acid  to  the  taste.  You  now-  have  about  an 
18  carat  chloride  of  gold.  Add  to  it  an  ounce  and  an  eighth  cyanuret 
potassa,  and  1  quart  rain  water — the  latter  heated  to  the  boiling 
point  Shake  up  well,  then  let  stand  about  24  hours,  and  it  vill  be 
ready  for  use.  Some  use  platina  as  an  alloy  instead  of  silver,  under 
the  impression  that  plating  done  with  it  is  harder.  I  have  used  both, 
but  never  could  see  much  difference.  Solution  for  a  darker  colored, 
plate  to  imitate  Guinea  gold  may  be  made  by  adding  to  the  above  1 
DZ.  dragon's  blood  and  5  grs.  iodide  or  iron.  If  you  desire  an  alloyed 
plate,  proceed  as  first  directed,  without  the  silver  or  copper,  and  with 
an  ounce  and  a  half  of  sulphuret  potassa  in  place  of  the  iron,  borax, 
and  salt. 

To  PLATE  WITH  A  BATTERY.— If  the  plate  is  to  be  gold,  use  the 
gold  solution  for  electro-plating ;  if  silver,  use  the  silver  solution.  Pre- 
pare the  article  to  be  plated  by  immersing  it  for  several  minutes  in  a 
;  strong  ley  made  of  potash  and  rain  water,  polishing  off  thoroughly  at 
the  end  of  the  time  with  a  soft  brush  and  prepared  cnalk.  Care  should 
be  taken  not  to  let  the  fingers  come  in  contact  with  the  article  while 
polishing,  as  that  has  a  tendency  to  prevent  the  plate  from  adhering; 
it  should  be  held  in  two  or  three  thicknesses  of  tissue  paper*  4t. 


348    WATCHMAKERS,   JEWELLERS',    AC.,    RECEIPTS. 

tach  the  article,  when  thoroughly  cleansed,  to  the  positive  pole  of 
your  battery,  then  affix  a  piece  of  gold  or  silver,  as  the  case  may  be, 
to  the  negative  pole,  and  immerse  both  into  the  solution  in  such  a 
"Way  as  not  to  hang  in  contact  with  each  other. 

After  the  article  has  been  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  battery 
•bout  ten  minutes,  take  it  out  and  wash  or  polish  over  with  a  thiclr 
mixture  of  water  and  prepared  chalk  or  jewellers'  rouge.    If,  in  the  J], 
operation,  you  find  places  where  the  plating  seems  inclined  to  peel  4 
off,  or  where  it  has  not  taken  well,  mix  a  little  of  the  plating  solution! 
with  prepared  chalk  or  rouge,  and  rub  the  defective  part  thoroughly  ? 
with  it.    This  will  be  likely  to  set  all  right. 

Govern  your  time  of  exposing  the  article  to  the  battery  by  the  de- 
sired thickness  of  the  plate.  Curing  the  time,  it  should  be  taken  out 
and  polished  up  as  just  directed  about  every  ten  minutes,  or  as  often  ' 
at  least  as  there  is  an  indication  of  a  growing  darkness  on  any  part  of 
its  surface.  When  done,  finish  with  the  burnisher  or  prepared  chalk 
and  chamois  skin,  as  best  suits  yonr  taste  and  convenience.  In  case 
the  article  to  be  plated  is  iron,  steel,  lead,  pewter,  or  block  tin,  yon 
must,  after  first  cleaning  with  the  ley  and  chalk,  prepare  it  by  ap- 
plying with  a  soft  brush — a  camels' -hair  pencil  is  best  suited — a 
solution  made  of  the  following  articles  in  the  proportion  named  : — 
Nitric  acid,  |  oz. ;  muriatic  acid,  £  oz. ;  sulphuric  acid,  l-9th  oz. ; 
muriate  of  potash,  l-7th  oz. ;  sulphate  of  iron,  ^  oz. ;  sulphuric  ether, 
l-6th  oz. ;  and  as  much  sheet  zinc  as  it  will  dissolve.  This  prepares* 
a  foundation,  without  which  the  plate  would  fail  to  take  well,  if  at 
all. 

To  MAKE  GOLD  AMALGAM. — Eight  parts  of  gold  and  one  of  mer- 
cury are  formed  into  an  amalgam  for  plating,  by  rendering  the  gold 
into  thin  plates,  making  it  red  hot  and  then  putting  it  into  the  mercurt 
while  the  latter 's  also  heated  to  ebullition.  The  gold  immediately 
nisappears  in  combination  with  the  mercury,  after  which  the  mixture 
may  be  turned  into  water  to  cool.  It  is  then  ready  for  use. 

To  PLATE  WITH  GOLD  AMALGAM. — Gold  amalgam  is  chiefly  used 
as  a  plating  for  silver,  copper  or  brass.  The  article  to  be  plated  is 
washed  over  with  diluted  nitric  acid  or  potash  lye  and  prepared  chalk, 
to  remove  any  tarnish  or  rust  that  might  prevent  the  amalgam  from 
adhering.  After  having  been  polished  perfectly  bright,  the  amal- 
•gam  is  applied  as  evenly  as  possible,  usually  with  a  fine  scratch 
brush.  It  is  then  set  upon  a  grate  over  a  charcoal  fire,  or  placed  into 
an  oven  and  heated  to  that  degree  at  which  mercury  exhales.  The 
*pld,  when  the  mercury  has  evaporated,  presents  a  dull  yellow  color. 
Cover  it  with  a  coating  of  pulverized  nitre  and  alum  in  equal  parts, 
mixed  to  a  paste  with  water,  and  heat  again  till  it  is  thoroughly 
melted,  then  plunge  into  water.  Burnish  up  with  a  steel  or  blood~ 
«tone  burnisher. 

To  MAKE  AND  APPLY  GOLD-PLATING  SOLUTION. — Dissolve  £  oz.)  j 
of  gold  amalgam  in  1  oz.  of  nitro-muriaticacid.    Add  2  oz.  of  alcohol, 
and  then,  having  brightened  the  article  in  the  usual  way,  apply  the 
solution  with  a  soft  brush.    Rinse  and  dry  in  sawdust,  or  with  tissue 
paper,  and  polish  up  with  chamois  skin. 

To  MAKE  AND  APPLY  GOLD-PLATING  POWDER.— Prepare  a 
chloride  of  gold  the  same  as  for  plating  with  a  battery.  Add  to  it, 
when  thoroughly  washed  out,  cyanuret  potassa  in  a  proportion  of  2 


WATCHMAKERS,    JEWELLERS',    AC.,    RECEIPTS. 

cz.  to  5  pennyweights  of  gold.  Pour  in  a  pint  of  clean  rain  water, 
shake  up  well  and  then  let  stand  till  the  chloride  is  dissolved.  Ada 
then  1  Ib.  of 


powder  into  a  paste  with  water,  rub  it  upon  the  surface  with  a  pieca 
>f  chamois  skin  or  cotton  flannel. 

An  old  mode  of  making  a  gold-plating  powder  was  to  dip  clean 
linen  rags  into  solution  prepared  as  in  the  second  article  pre- 
ceding this,  and  having  dried,  to  fire  and  burn  them  into  ashes. 
The  ashes  formed  the  powder,  and  were  to  be  applied  as  above. 

To  MAKE  AND  APPLY  SILVER-PLATING  SOLUTION. — Put  together 
in  a  glass  vessel  1  oz.  nitrate  of  silver,  2  ozs.  cyanuret  potassa,  4  ozs. 
and  10  ozs.  pure  rain  water.  Cleanse  the 
preceding  directions,  and  apply  with  a  soft 
iamois  skin  or  burnisher. 

To  MAKE  AND  APPLY  SILVER-PLATING  POWDER.— Dissolve  sil- 
ver in  nitric  acid  by  the  aid  of  heat;  put  some  pieces  of  copper  into 
the  solution  to  precipitate  the  silver;  wash  the  acid  out  in  the  usual, 
way;  then,  with  15  grains  of  it  mix  2  drams  of  tartar,  2  drains  of. 
table  salt,  and  £  dram  of  pulverized  alum.  Brighten  the  article  to 
be  plated  with  ley  and  prepared  chalk,  and  rub  on  the  mixture. 
When  it  has  assumed  a  white  appearance,  expose  to  heat  as  in  the 
case  of  plating  with  gold  amalgam,  then  polish  up  with  the  burnisher 
or  soft  leather. 

To  DESTROY  THE  EFFECTS  OF  ACID  ON  CLOTHES. — Dampen  as 
soon  as  possible,  after  exposure  to  the  acid,  with  spirits  ammonia.  It 
will  destroy  the  effect  immediately. 

To  WASH  SILVERWARE. — Never  use  a  particle  of  soap  on  your 
silverware,  as  it  dulls  the  lustre,  giving  the  article  more  the  appear- 
ance of  pewter  than  silver.  When  it  wants  cleaning,  rub  it  with  a 
piece  of  soft  leather  and  prepared  chalk,  the  latter  made  into  a  kind 
of  paste  with  pure  water,  for  the  reason  that  water  not  pure  might 
contain  gritty  particles. 

To  CLEANSE  BRUSHES.— The  best  method  of  cleansing  watch- 
makers' and  jewellers'  brushes  ig  to  wash  them  out  in  a  strong 
soda  water.  When  the  backs  are  wood,  you  must  favor  that 
part  as  much  as  possible  ;  for  being  glued,  the  water  may  injure 
them. 

To  CUT  GLASS  ROUND  OR  OVAL  WITHOUT  A  DIAMOND.— Scratch 
Ihe  glass  around  the  shape  you  desire  with  the  corner  of  a  file 
or  graver  ;  then,  having  bent  a  piece  of  wire  in  the  same  shape, 
heat  it  red  hot  and  lay  it  upon  the  scratch,  sink  the  glass  into  cold 
water  just  deep  enough  for  the  water  to  come  almo.<t  on  a  level 
with  its  upper  surface.  It  will  rarely  ever  fail  to  break  perfectly 
true. 

To  RE-BLACK  CLOCK  HANDS.— Use  asphaltum  varnish.     One  coat 

twill  make  old  rusty  hands  look  as  good  as  new,  and  it  dries  in  a  few 
minutes. 

To  GILD  STEEL.— Pour  gome  of  the  ethereal  solution  of  gold  into  a. 
wineglass,  and  dip  into  it  the  blade  of  a  new  penknife,  razor,  lancet, 
fee.  ;  withiraw  the  instrument  and  allow  the  ether  to  evaporate- 
The  blade  will  then  be  found  covered  with  &  beautiful  coat  of  gold- 


4550    WATCHMAKERS,    JEWELLERS*,    AC.,    RECEIPTS. 

The  blade  may  be  moistened  with  a  clean  rag,  or  a  small  piece  of 
very  dry  sponge  dipped  in  the  ether,  and  the  same  effects  will  bo 
produced. 

SILVERING  SHELLS. — Silver  leaf  and  gum  water,  a  sufficient  quan- 
tity; grind  to  a  proper  thickness,  and  coyer  the  inside  of  the  shells. 
For  a  GOLD  COLOR,  grind  up  gold-leaf  with  gum  water,  and  apply  to 
the-inside  of  the  shells. 

LIQUID  FOIL  FOR  SILVERING  GLASS  GLOBES,  &c. — Lead,  1  part; 
tin,  1  part;  bismuth,  1  part;  melt,  and,  just  before  it  sets,  add  mer- 
cury, 10  parts.  Pour  this  into  the  globe,  and  turn  it  rapidly 
round. 

SILVER-PLATERS'  STRIPPING  LIQUID.— Sulphuric  acid,  8  parts; 
nitre,  1  part.  Used  to  recover  silver  from  old  plated  ware. 

To  SILVER  CLOCK  FACES,  &c.— Old  silver  lace,  £  oz. ;  nitric  acid, 
1  oz.  Boil  them  over  a  gentle  fire  for  about  5  minutes  in  an  earthen 
pot  After  the  silver  is  dissolved,  take  the  mixture  off,  and  mix  it  in 
a  pint  of  clean  water,  then  pour  it  into  another  vessel  free  from  sedi- 
ment; then  add  a  tablespoonful  of  common  salt,  and  the  silver  will  be 
precipitated  in  the  form  of  a  white  powder  of  curd;  pour  off  the  acid, 
and  mix  the  curd  with  2  oz.  salt  of  tartar,  and  £  oz.  whiting,  all  to- 
gether, and  it  is  ready  for  use.  To  USE. — Clean  your  brass  or  copper 
plate  with  rotten-stone  and  a  piece  of  old  hat ;  rub  it  with  salt  and 
water  with  your  hand.  Then  take  a  little  of  the  composition  on  your 
finger,  and  rub  it  over  your  plate,  and  it  will  firmly  adhere  and  com- 
pletely silver  it.  Wash  it  well  with  water.  When  dry,  rub  it  with  a 
clean  rag,  and  varnish  with  this  VARNISH  FOR  CLOCK  FACES.  Spirits 
of  wine,  1  pt. ;  divide  in  three  parts,  mix  one  part  with  gum-mastic  in 
a  bottle  by  itself;  1  part  spirits  and  ^  oz.  sandarac  in  another  bottle; 
and  1  part  spirits  and  \  oz.  of  whitest  gum  benjamin,  in  another  bot- 
tle; nix  and  temper  to  your  mind.  If  too  thin,  some  mastic;  if  too 
soft,  some  sandarac  or  benjamin.  When  you  use  it,  warm  the 
silvered  plate  before  the  fire,  and,  with  a  flat  cam  els' -hair  pencil, 
stroke  it  over  till  no  white  streaks  appear,  and  this  will  preserve  the 
silvering  for  many  years. 

REFINING  GOLD  AND  SILVER— The  art  of  assaying  gold  and  sil- 
ver is  founded  upon  the  feeble  affinity  which  these  have  for  oxygen 
in  comparison  with  copper,  tin,  and  other  cheap  metals,  and  on  the 
tendency  which  the  latter  metals  have  to  oxidize  rapidly  in  contact 
•with  lead  at  a  high  temperature,  and  sink  with  it  into  any  porous, 
earthy  vessel  in  a  thin,  glassy,  vitrified  mass.  The  precious  metal 
liaving  previously  been  accurately  weighed  and  prepared,  the  first 
process  is  CUPELLATION.  The  muffle,  with  cupel  properly  arranged 
on  the  "  muffle  plate"  is  placed  in  the  furnace,  and  the  charcoal  ad- 
ded, and  lighted  at  the  top  by  means  of  a  few  ignited  pieces  thrown 
on  last  After  the  cupels  have  been  exposed  to  a  strong  white  heat 
for  about  half  an  hour,  and  have  become  white  hot,  the  lead  is  put 
into  them  by  means  of  tongs.  As  soon  as  this  becomes  bright  red 
and  "  circulating"  as  it  is  called,  the  specimen  for  assay,  wrapped 
in  a  small  piece  of  paper  or  lead-foil,  is  added  ;  the  fire  is  now  kept 
up  strongly  until  the  metal  enters  the  lead  and  "circulates"  well, 
when  the  heat,  slightly  diminished,  is  so  regulated  that  the  assay 
appears  convex  and  more  glowing  than  the  cupel  itself,  whilst  the 
r  undulation*"  circulate  in  all  directions,  and  the  middle  of  th« 


WATCHMAKERS,   JEWELLERS*,    AC.,    RECEIPTS.    351 

metal  appears  smooth,  with  a  margin  of  litharge,  which  is  freely  ab- 
eorbed  by  the  cupel.  When  the  metal  becomes  bright  and  shining, 
or,  in  technical  language,  begins  to  "lighten"  and  prismatic  hues, 
suddenly  flash  across  the  globules,  and  undulate  and  cross  each  other, 
followed  by  the  metal  becoming  very  brilliant  and  clear,  and  at 
length  bright  and  solid  (called  the  brightening),  the  separation  is  end- 
,«d,  and  the  process  complete.  The  cupels  are  then  drawn  to  the 
mouth  of  the  "  muffle,"  and  allowed  to  cool  slowly.  When  quite 
-cold,  the  resulting  "button,"  if  of  SILVER,  is  removed  by  the 
*' pliers"  or  "  tongs"  from  the  cupels,  and,  after  being  flattened  on 
a  small  anvil  of  polished  steel,  with  a  polished  steel  hammer,  to  de- 
tach adhering  oxide  of  lead,  and  cleaned  with  a  small,  hard  brush,  is 
very  accurately  weighed.  The  weight  is  that  otpure  silver,  and  the  dif- 
ference between  the  weight  before  cupellation  and  that  of  the  pure  metal 
represents  the  proportion  of  alloy  in  the  sample  examined.  In  the 
case  of  GOLD,  the  metal  has  next  to  undergo  the  operations  of  QUAR- 
rrATiON.  The  cupelled  sample  is  fused  with  3  times  its  weight  of 
pure  silver  (called  the  "  witness  "\  by  which  the  gold  is  reduced  to 
»ne-fourth  of  the  mass  less,  and  in  this  state  may  easily  be  removed 
l>y  PARTING.  The  alloy,  after  quartation,  is  hammered  or  rolled  out 
into  a  thin  strip  or  leaf,  curled  into  a  spiral  form,  and  boiled  for  a 
•quarter  of  an  hour  with  about  2£  to  3  ozs.  of  nitric  acid  (specific 
^gravity,  1.3)  ;  and  the  fluid  being  poured  off,  it  is  again  boiled  in  a 
similar  manner,  with  1^  to  2  ozs.  more  nitric  acid  (sp.  gr.,  1.2);  after 
•which  the  gold  is  carefully  collected,  washed  in  pure  water,  and  dried. 
When  the  operation  of  parting  is  skilfully  conducted,  the  acid  not  too 
strong,  the  metal  preserves  its  spiral  form ;  otherwise  it  falls  into 
Hakes  or  powder.  The  second  boiling  is  termed  the  "  reprise."  The 
loss  of  weight  by  parting  corresponds  to  the  quantity  of  SILVER  orig- 
inally hi  the  specimen. 

FOB  ALLOYS  CONTAINING  PLATINUM,  -which  usually  consist  of 
copper,  silver,  platinum,  and  gold,  the  method  of  assaying  is  as  fol- 
lows :  The  alloy  is  cupelled  in  the  usual  way,  the  loss  of  weight  ex- 
presses the  amount  of  copper,  and  the  "  button,"  made  into  a  riband 
and  treated  with  sulphuric  acid,  indicates  by  the  portion  dissolved 
that  also  of  the  silver  present.  By  submitting  the  residuum  to  quartaf 
tion,  the  platinum  becomes  soluble  in  nitric  acid.  The  loss  after  di- 
gestion in  this  menstruum  expresses  the  weight  of  that  metal,  and  the 
•weight  of  the  portion  now  remaining  is  that  of  pure  gold.  Gold  con- 
taining PALLADIUM  may  be  assayed  hi  the  same  manner.  ANNEAL- 
ING.—This  consists  hi  putting  the  pure  gold  into  a  small,  porous 
crucible,  or  cupel,  and  heating  it  to  redness  in  the  muffle.  WEIGHING- 
must  be  done  with  the  utmost  accuracy.  The  weight  hi  grains  Troy, 
doubled  or  quadrupled,  as  the  case  may  be,  gives  the  number  or 
^carats fine  of  the  alloy  examined,  without  calculation.  According  to 
'  the  OLD  FRENCH  METHOD  of  assaying  gold,  the  following  quantities 
were  taken  ;  For  the  assay  pound,  12  gr. ;  fine  silver,  30  grs. ;  lead, 
108  gr.  These  having  been  cupelled  together,  the  perfect,  button  is 
rolled  into  a  leaf  (1^  X  5  inches),  twisted  on  a  quill  and  submitted 
to  parting  with  2£  oz.  and  li  oz.  of  nitric  acid,  sp.  gr.,  1.16  (20° 
BauDae". )  The  remainder  of  the  process  is  similar  to  that  above  de- 
cribed.  Tne  usual  weight  of  silver  taken  for  the  assay  pound,  when 
tbe  fineness  is  reckoned  in  lOOOths,  is  20  grs.,  every  real  grato  of 


852    WATCHMAKERS,    JEWELLERS',    AC*   RECEIPTS, 
which  represents  50-1000ths  of  fineness,  and  so  on  of  smaller  divi- 


ENAMELLING  ON  GOLD  OR  COPPER.— The  basis  of  all  enamels  i» 
a  highly  transparent  and  fusible  glass,  called  FRIT,  FLUX,  or  PASTE, 
which  readily  receives  a  color  on  the  addition  of  the  metallic  oxides. 
Preparation. — Red  lead,  16  parts;  calcined  borax,  3  parts;  pounded 
flint  glass,  12  parts;  flints,  4  parts.  Fuse  in  a  Hessian  crucible  for  12 
hours,  then  pour  it  out  into  water,  and  reduce  it  to  powder  in  a  bis- 
cuit-ware mortar.  The  following  directions  will  serve  to  show  how 
the  coloring  preparations  are  made  :  Black  enamels  are  made  with: 
peroxide  of  manganese,  or  protoxide  of  iron,  to  which  more  depth  of 
color  is  given  with  a  little  cobalt.  Violet  enamel  of  a  very  fine  hue  is 
made  from  peroxide  of  manganese,  in  small  quantity,  with  saline  or 
alkaline  fluxes.  Red  enamel  is  made  from  the  protoxide  of  copper. 
Boil  a  solution  of  equal  parts  of  sugar  and  acetate  of  copper  in  four 
parts  of  water.  The  sugar  takes  possession  of  a  portion  of  the  cupre- 
ous oxide,  and  reduces  it  to  the  protoxide;  when  it  may  be  precipi- 
tated in  the  form  of  a  granular  powder  of  a  brilliant  red.  After  about 
two  hours  of  moderate  boiling,  the  liquid  is  set  aside  to  settle,  de- 
canted off  the  precipitate,  which  is  washed  and  dried.  By  this  pur* 
oxide  any  tint  may  be  obtained  from  red  to  orange  by  adding  a 
greater  or  smaller  quantity  of  peroxide  of  iron.  The  oxide  and 
purple  of  Cassius  are  likewise  employed  to  color  red  enamel.  This. 
composition  resists  a  strong  fire  very  well.  Green  enamel  can  b» 
produced  by  a  mixture  of  yellow  and  blue,  but  is  generally  obtained 
direct  from  the  oxide  of  copper,  or,  better  still,  with  the  oxide  of 
chrome,  which  last  will  resist  a  strong  heat.  Yellow. — Take  one  part 
of  white  oxide  of  antimony,  with  from  one  to  three  parts  of  white 
lead,  one  of  alum,  and  one  of  gal-ammoniac.  Each  of  these  sub- 
stances is  to  be  pulverized,  then  ah  are  to  be  exactly  mixed,  and  ex- 
posed to  a  heat  adequate  to  decompose  the  sal-ammoniac.  This  oper- 
ation is  judged  to  be  finished  when  the  yellow  color  is  well  brought 
out.  Bint.— This  color  is  obtained  from  the  oxide  of  cobalt,  or  some. 
of  its  combinations,  and  it  produces  it  with  such  intensity  that  only  a 
very  little  can  be  used  lest  the  shade  should  pass  into  black,  A 
white  enamel  may  be  prepared  with  a  calcine  formed  of  2  parts  of  tin 
and  1  of  lead,  calcined  together  :  of  this  combined  oxide,  1  part  is 
melted  with  two  parts  of  fine  crystal  and  a  very  little  manganese,  all 
previously  ground  together.  When  the  fusion  is  complete,  the  vitreous 
matter  is  to  be  poured  into  clear  water,  and  the  frit  is  then  dried  and 
melted  anew.  Repeat  the  pouring  into  water  three  or  four  times,  to 
insure  a  perfect  combination.  Screen  the  crucible  from  smoke  and 
flame.  The  smallest  portions  of  oxide  of  iron  or  copper  admitted  in- 
to this  enamel  will  destroy  its  value.  The  artist  prepares  his  enamel 
colors  by  pounding  them  in  an  agate  mortar,  with  an  agate  pestle, 
and  grinding  them  on  an  agate  slab,  with  oil  or  lavender  rendered' 
viscid  by  exposure  to  the  sun,  in  a  shallow  vessel,  loosely  covered 
with  gauze  or  glass.  He  should  have  alongside  of  him  a  stove,  in 
which  a  moderate  fire  is  kept  up,  for  drying  his  work  whenever  the 
£gures  are  finished.  It  is  then  passed  through  the  muffle. 

BLACK  ENAMEL  ON  GOLD  OR  SILVER. — Take  £  pennyweight  of 
eilver,  2£  pennyweights  of  copper,  3$  pennyweights  of  lead,  and  2J 
pennyweights  of  muriate  of  ammonia.  Melt  together,  and  pour  into  a 


•WATCHMAKERS,   JEWELLERS'    AC.,   RECEIPTS.    353 

crucible  with  twice  as  much  pulverized  sulphur;  the  crucible  is  then, 
to  be  immediately  covered  that  the  sulphur  may  not  take  fire,  andth* 
mixture  is  to  be  calcined  over  a  smelting  fire  until  the  superfluous 
sulphur  is  burned  away.    The  compound  is  then  to  be  coarsely 
pounded,  and,  with  a  solution  of  muriate  of  ammonia,  to  be  formed 
into  a  paste  which  is  to  be  placed  upon  the  article  it  is  designed  to 
enameL    The  article  must  then  be  held  over  a  spirit  lamp  till  the/ 
compound  upon  it  melts  and  flows.    After  this  it  may  be  smoothed/ 
and  polished  up  in  safety. 

SILVER-PLATING.— File  the  parts  which  are  to  receive  the  plate 
very  smooth ;  then  apply  over  the  surface  the  muriate  of  zinc,  which, 
is  made  by  dissolving  -zinc  in  muriatic  acid ;  now  hold  this  part  ovetf 
a  dish  containing  hot  soft  solder,  and  with  a  swab  apply  the  solder  to 
the  part  to  which  it  will  adhere,  brush  off  all  superfluous  solder,  so 
as  to  leave  the  surface  smooth;  you  will  now  take  No.  2  fair  silver 
plate,  of  the  right  size  to  cover  the  prepared  surface,  and  lav  the 
plate  upon  it,  and  rub  down  smooth  with  a  cloth  moistened  with  oil; 
then,  with  a  tinned  soldering  iron,  pass  slowly  over  all  the  surface  of 
the  plate,  which  melts  the  solder  underneath  it,  causing  the  plate  to 
adhere  as  firmly  as  the  solder  does  to  the  iron ;  then  polish  the  sur- 
face, and  finish  with  buckskin. 

PLATING  WITH  NICKEL  may  be  effected  by  placing  the  object  to  be 
plated,  either  of  iron,  steel,  copper,  bronze,  zinc  or  lead  in  a 
boiling  neutral  solution  of  zinc  chloride  containing  a  salt  of  nickel 
and  granulated  zinc.  If  the  zinc  solution  is  acid,  the  coating  of 
nickel  is  dull.  A  plating  of  cobalt  may  be  made  in  the  same 
manner. 

ELKINGTON'S  PATENT  GILDING.— Fine  gold,  5  oz.  (troy);  nitro- 
muriatic  acid,  52  oz.  (avoirdupois);  dissolve  by  heat,  and  continue  the 
heat  until  red  or  yellow  vapors  cease  to  be  evolved ;  decant  the  clear 
liquor  into  a  suitable  vessel;  add  distilled  water,  4  gals.;  pure  bi- 
carbonate of  potassa,  20  lb.;  and  boil  for  2  hours.  N.  B.— The  nitro- 
muriatic  acid  is  made  with  pure  nitric  acid  (sp.  gr.,  1.45)  21  oz. ;  pure. 
muriatic  acid  (sp.  gr.,  1.15),  17  oz. ;  and  distilled  water,  14  oz.  The 
articles,  after  being  perfectly  cleaned  from  scale  or  grease,  and 
receiving  a  proper  face,  are  to  be  SM  -ponded  on  wires,  dipped  into  the 
liquid  boiling  hot,  and  moved  about  therein,  when,  in  from  a  fe\r 
seconds  to  a  minute,  depending  on  the  newness  and  strength  of  the 
liquid,  the  requisite  coating  of  g^ld  will  be  deposited  on  them.  By  a 
little  practice  the  time  to  withdra\y  the  articles  is  readily  known ;  the 
duration  of  the  immersion  required  to  produce  any  given  effect 
gradually  increases  as  the  liquid  weakens  by.  use.  When  properly 
gilded,  the  articles  are  withdrawn  from  the  solution  of  gold,  washedj 
In  clean  water  and  dried ;  after  which  they  undergo  the  usual  opera- 
tion of  coloring,  &c. 

A  "deadffotd"  appearance  is  produced  by  the  application  to  th» 
articles  of  a  iceak  solution  of  nitrate  of  mercury  previously  to  the 
immersion  in  the  gilding  liquor,  or  the  deadening  may  be  given  by 
applying  a  solution  of  the  nitrate  to  the  newly  gilded  surface,  and 


then  expelling  the  mercury  by  heat 
SPOT  GILDING,  or  gilding  in 


spots,  producing  a  very  fine  appear- 

ance,  is  done  by  putting  a  thin  coat  of  oil  on  those  parts  of  the  metal 
where  you  do  not  wish  the  gilding  to  appear,,  the  gold  will  then  b« 


354         MACHINISTS,   ENGINEERS',   AC.,  RECEIPTS. 

deposited  in  those  spots  only  where  there  is  no  oil,  and  the  oil  ia  easily, 
xemoved  when  the  job  is  finished. 

WATCHMAKERS'  OIL. — Put  thin  sheet  lead  into  olive  oil  in  a  bottle, 
expose  it  to  the  sun  for  a  few  weeks,  and  pour  oil  the  clear. 

SOLUTION  FOR  DIPPING  STEEL  ARTICLES,  PREVIOUSLY  TO  ELEC- 
TRO-PLATING.— Nitrate  of  silver,  1  part;  nitrate  of  mercury,  1  part- 
!  nitric  acid  (sp.  gr. ,  1.384),  4  parts ;  water,  120  parts.  For  copper  articles. 
— Sulphuric  acid,  64  parts;  water,  64  parts;  nitric  acid,  32  parts; 
muriatic  acid,  1  part;  mix.  The  article,  free  from  grease,  is  dipped  in. 
the  pickle  for  a  second  or  two. 

ARRANGEMENT  OF  LAPIDARIES  CUTTING  PLATES. — 1.  Soft  Iron 
.{very  thin)  with  diamond  dust  in  oil.  2.  Pewter,  with  coarse  emery 
and  water.  3.  Pewter,  with  fine  emery  and  water.  4.  Wood  with, 
eand  and  water.  5.  Pewter  with  rotten-stone  and  water.  6.  Leather 
•with  putty  powder  slightly  wet. 

POLISHING  DIAMONDS.— The  plan  in  use  at  all  the  large  diamond 
cutters  is  simply  a  cast  iron  disc  of  good  metal,  with  a  vertical  spLndlo 
run  through  its  centre,  balanced,  and  turned,  and  faced  true  in  a 
lathe.  The  disc  revolves  at  about  1000  revolutions  per  minute.  With 
«,  little  diamond  dust  and  oil,  the  stone  is  set  in  a  small  brass  cup  filled 
with  common  soft  solder;  it  is  then  screwed  up  in  the  clampa  an** 
Applied  to  the  skive  till  the  facets  is  formed. 


RECEIPTS  FOR  MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS, 
MILLOWNERS,  BLACKSMITHS,  LOCOMO- 
TIVE BUILDERS  AND  METAL  WORKERS 
OF  EVERY  KIND. 

DESTRUCTIONS  TO  ENGINEERS — Getting  up  Steam. — Before  light- 
Sng  tLe  fire  in  the  morning,  raise  your  safety  valve,  brushing  away 
•all  the  ashes  and  dust  which  may  impair  its  free  action,  and  il  it 
leaks  steam  grind  it  on  its  seat  with  fine  emery  or  grindstone  grit. 
Valves  with  vibratory  stems  are  safer  than  those  with  rigid  stems,  as 
they  are  not  so  liable"  to  bind  by  the  lever  and  weight  getting  out  of 
true.  To  guard  against  loss  by  leakage  and  evaporation,  leave  tk? 


MACHINISTS,   ENGINEERS',   AC.,   RECEIPTS.         355 

water  up  to  the  third  gnage  at  night  and  keep  it  up  to  the  second 
gauge  during  working  hours.  Clean  all  ashes  and  cinders  from  the 
Turnace  and  ash  pit,  and  spread  a  layer  of  two  or  three  niches  of 
«oal  over  the  grate  bars  ;  pile  on  plenty  of  shavings  over  the  coal, 
•with  dry  sawdust,  split  wood,  &c.,  then  start  your  fire.  Keep  the 
fire  even  and  regular  over  the  grate  bars,  about  5  inches  thick  with, 
«oft  coal,  and  about  3  inches  with  anthracite,  and  always  avoid  ex- 
cessive firing.  Moderate  charges  or  firings  at  intervals  of  15  to  20 
minutes  give  the  best  results.  In  getting  up  steam  from  cold  water 
the  fire  should  be  raised  gradually,  to  avoid  damaging  the  boiler  by 
unequal  expansion  of  the  iron.  Do  not  keep  the  damper  and  fur- 
nace door  open  at  the  same  time,  as  the  extreme  draught  expels  the 
heat  from  the  furnace  into  the  chimney,  and  the  cold  air  entering: 
through  the  door  induces  a  damaging  contraction  of  the  boiler  plates 
-wherever  it  strikes.  The  current  of  air  enters  the  ash  pit  with  a, 
"velocity  of  12  feet  per  second,  and  every  100  Ibs.  coal  requires  about 
15.524  cubic  feet  for  its  combustion.  With  wood  for  fuel,  the  area  of 
grate  surface  should  be  1.25  to  1.4  that  for  coal.  Volume  of  furnace 
for  coal  burning  should  be  from  2.75,  to  3  cubic  feet  for  every  square 
foot  of  its  grate  surface,  for  wood  4.6  to  5  cubic  feet.  The  use  of  the 
pyrometer  has  satisfactorily  established  the  following  facts.  1st. 
That  the  admission  of  a  certain  quantity  of  air  behind  the  bridge 
developes  a  greater  amount  of  heat  for  raising  steam  by  assisting- 
combustion  and  consuming  the  smoke,  the  existence  of  smoke  being- 
always  a  sure  sign  of  waste.  2.  A  regular  and  continuous  supply  of  air 
to  the  furnace  increases  its  heating  powers  33^  per  cent.  3.  The  supply 
of  air  may  enter  behind  the  bridge,  through  the  bars,  or  through  the 
furnace  doors,  as  long  as  it  is  properly  regalated.  4.  The  supply  of 
air  may  vary  with  the  nature  of  the  fuel ;  light  burning  coal  requir- 
ing less  air  than  caking  ooal,  because  the  latter  becomes  a  compact 
mass  in  the  furnace,  excluding  the  air  from  the  bars,  while  the  latter 
is  the  reverse.  5.  For  perfect  combustion  a  high  temperature  is 
necessary.  In  all  cases  see  that  the  bars  are  well  covered  and  the 
fuel  kept  from  caking.  Knock  away  the  clinkers  as  soon  as  formed, 
keeping  the  spaces  open  between  the  bars.  Regulate  the  supply  ot 
air  either  by  the  dampers,  ashpit,  furnace  doors,  or  by  an  onfic» 
"behind  the  bridge.  A  jet  of  steam  from  a  pipe  placed  across  the  top 
of,  and  inside  the  door,  will  greatly  assist  in  consuming  the  smoke 
and  intensifying  the  heat,  by  yielding  up  its  oxygen  and  hydrogen. 

If  steam  commences  to  blow  off  at  the  safety  valve 'while  tha 
engine  is  at  rest,  start  your  pump  or  injector  to  create  a  circulation^ 
cover  or  bank  your  fire  with  a  charge  01  ashes  or  fresh  coal  to  absorb 
the  heat,  and  allow  the  steam  to  have  free  egress  through  the  safety 
Talve.  If  by  neglect  the  water  gets  very  low,  and  the  boiler  dan- 
gerously hot,  the  fire  should  either  be  drawn,  or  drenched  with  water.. 
Should  the  fire  be  very  hot  and  the  water  supply  temporarily  cut  off, 
stop  the  engine  and  cover  the  fire  quite  thickly  with  fresh  fuel  to 
absorb  the  heat,  keeping  the  usual  allowance  of  water  in  the  boiler 
until  the  supply  is  renewed.  Boilers  should  be  blown  out  every  2  or 
3  weeks,  or  as  often  as  mud  appears  in  the  water,  but  never  until 
after  the  fire  has  been  drawn  at  least  one  hour,  and  the  damper 
closed,  otherwise  the  empty  boiler  mig-ht  be  damaged  by  the  teat. 
Never  fill  a  hot  boiler  with  cold  water,  as  the  sudden  contraction 


356         MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  &c.,  RECEIPTS. 

many  times  repeated  will  eventually  cause  it  to  leak.  Never  blow 
out  a  boiler  with  a  higher  pressure  than  50  Ibs.  to  the  square  inch,  as 
steam  at  a  high  pressure  indicates  a  high  temperature  in  the  iron, 
which  under  careful  management  should  be  always  let  down  gradu- 
ally. Previous  to  filling  a  boiler  raise  the  valve  to  permit  the  free 
egress  of  the  air  which  might  otherwise  do  manifold  damage. 

Use  every  possible  precaution  against  using  foul  v.  ater  as  it  in- 
iduces  foaming  in  the  boiler  ;  soapy  or  oily  substances  and  an  insuffi- 
ciency of  steam  room  have  a  like  effect,  causing  the  boiler  to  burn 
on  the  spots  where  the  water  is  lifted  fnvn  it,  and  the  glass  gauges  to. 
indicate  falsely,  besides  damaging  the  cylinder  by  priming,  carrying 
mud,  grit,  water  and  slush  into  it  through  the  pipe,  and  rendering 
the  cylinder  heads  liable  to  be  knocked  out.  Steam  from  pure  water- 
at  2l~J°  Fahr.  supports  a  30  inch  column  of  mercury.  Steam  from 
sea,  or  impure  water  at  the  same  temperature,  will  support  only 
22  inches. 

Pure  soft  water  derived  from,  lakes  and  large  streams,  rain  water 
from  cisterns,  reservoirs,  <fcc.,  and  springs  outside  of  linn  stone  dis- 
tricts, is  the  best  for  steam  purposes.  Water  from  wells  and  springs 
in  limestone  districts  and  small  streams,  hold  in  solution  large 
quantities  of  chloride  of  sodium,  carbonate  of  lime,  sulphate  of 
litne,  &c.,  besides  quantities  of  vegetable  matter  in  suspension.  The 
carbonic  acid  in  the  water,  which  holds  the  carbonate  of  lime,  &c.,  in 
solution,  being  driven  off  by  boiling,  the  latter  is  precipitated  and 
forms  an  incrustation  which,  adheres  w.th  obstinate  tenacity  to  the 
boiler  plates.  By  continual  accretion  the  deposit  of  scale  becomes 
thicker  and  thicker,  and  being  a  non-conductor  of  heat  it  requires 
60  per  cent,  more  fuel  to  raise  the  water  to  any  given  temperature^ 
when  the  scale  is  ^  of  an  inch  thick  ;  the  conducting  power  of  scale 
compared  with  that  of  iron  being  as  1  to  37.  The  red  scale  formed 
from  water  impregnated  with  salts  of  iron,  derived  from  percolation 
through  iron  ore,  is  still  more  destructive  to  steam  boilers,  and  in  na 
way  can  the  evil  be  completaly  averted  except  by  the'use  of  chemicals, 
which  will  neutralize  the  different  corrosive  impurities  in  the  water. 
gee  arti'-le  on,  Incrustation,  page  368. 

In  tubular  boilers,  the  hand  hole  should  be  opened  frequently  and 
all  sediment  removed  from  over  the  fire ;  keep  the  sheets,  flues, 
tubes,  gauge  cocks,  glass  gauges  and  connections  well  swept  and 
perfectly  clean,  and  the  boiler  and  engine-room  in  neat  condition. 
Keep  a  sharp  lookout  for  leaks,  and  repair  them  if  possible  without 
delay,  and  allow  no  water  to  come  in  contact  with  the  exterior  of  the. 
boiler  under  any  circumstances.  Examine  and  repair  every  blister 
as  soon  as  it  appears,  and  make  frequent  and  thorough  examinations 
of  the  boiler  with  a  small  steel  hammer. 

In  case  of  foaming,  close  the  throttle,  and  keep  closed  long  enough 
* )  show  true  level  of  water.  If  the  water  level  is  right,  feeding  and 
blowing  will  generally  stop  the  trouble.  With  muddy  water  it  is  a 
safe  rule  to  blow  out  6  or  8  inches  every  day.  If  foaming  is  violent 
from  dirty  water,  or  change  from  salt  to  fresh,  or  from  fresh  to  salt, 
in  addition  to  following  the  above  directions,  check,  draught,  and 
•over  the  fire  with  ashes  or  fresh  fuel. 

Great  watchfulness  is  necessary  when  steam  is  raised,  the  safetf 


MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  &c.,  RECEIPTS.       357 

Yalve  fixed,  the  fire  strong,  and  the  engine  at  rest.  In  every  cas» 
there  is  a  rapid  and  dangerous  absorption  of  heat,  the  temperature, 
latent  and  sensible  heat  included,  often  rising  to  1200°  Fahr. 
Frequently  it  is  but  the  work  of  an  instant  to  convert  the  latent  into 
sensible  heat,  thus  generating  an  irresistible  force  which  bursts  the 
boiler  and  destroys  life  and  property.  The  destruction  generally 
coming  at  the  moment  of  starting  the  engine,  the  opening  of  the 
valve  inducing  a  commotion  in  the  water,  which  flashes  into  steam  the 
instant  it  touches  the  heated  plates.  Steam  has  been  known  to  rise 
from  a  pressure  of  32  Ibs.  to  the  square  inch  to  90  Ibs.  to  the  square 
Inch,  in  the  short  space  of  seven  minutes,  with  the  engine  at  rest.  It 
bught  to  quicken  the  vigilance  of  every  engineer  to  know  that  the 
fexplosive  energy  in  each  and  every  cubic  foot  of  water  in  his  boiler 
&t  60  Ibs.  pressure,  is  equal  to  that  contained  in  1  Ib.  of  gunpowder. 

From  avaricious  motives  it  has  become  quite  common  to  discharge, 
br  to  decline  to  employ,  qualified  and  careful  engineers.  Incompe- 
tent men  are  employed  because  their  labor  costs  a  few  dollars  less 
than  that  of  the  former.  This  is  too  much  of  a  bad  thing  to  pass 
over  without  notice.  Employ  good  skilful  men  in  the  management 
of  steam  power,  or  employ  none  at  all,  and  pay  them  decent  wages. 
If  an  oversight  takes  place,  and  the  best  and  most  careful  men  are 
liable  to  make  mistakes,  never  scold,  reprimand,  or  exact  service 
during  dangerous  emergencies,  as  in  the  event  of  lost  water  in  the 
boiler.  In  no  case  risk  life,  limb,  or  property,  and  do  not  let  the 
consideration  of  saving  a  few  dollars  debar  you  from  securing  intelli- 
gent assistants.  The  Turkish  mode  of  driving  business  on  a  late 
occasion  was  to  discharge  the  English  engineers  who  brought  out 
the  war  vessels  which  were  built  in  England,  and  supply  the 
vacancies  by  installing  cheap  green  hands.  After  getting  up  steam, 
the  new  "Chief"  proceeded  to  start  the  engines.  A  lift  at  a  crank 
produced  no  results,  a  pull  at  a  lever  was  equally  useless.  At  length, 
the  illustrious  official  espied  a  bright  brass  cock,  and  thinking  he  had 
got  hold  of  a  sure  thing  this  time,  proceeded  to  give  it  a  twist,  when 
he  was  suddenly  saluted  with  a  jet  of  steam  full  in  the  face,  which, 
swept  the  "engineer"  and  his  assistants  out  of  the  engine  room, 
into  the  fire  room  down  stairs.  So  much  for  cheap  labor  and  the 
consequent  results. 

Duties  to  the  Engine  wTien  under  steam.— Before  starting  the 
engine,  warm  the  cylinder  by  admitting  steam  so  as  to  slowly  move 
the  piston  back  and  forth,  letting  the  condensed  water  flow  from  the 
drip-cocks,  which  should  be  left  open  all  night  for  this  purpose ; 
especially  should  this  be  done  during  cold  and  frosty  weather,  during 
which  time  all  pipes  and  connections  shouid  have  extra  protection. 
The  minimum  speed  of  the  piston  should  be  240  ft.  per  minute,  and 
the  maximum  speed  700  ft.  in  any  engine.  The  most  economical 


loss  of  at  least  30  per  cent,  arising  from  the  irregularity  of  the  steam 
pipes  and  steam  ports,  by  radiation  of  heat,  by  improper  packing,  by 
friction  of  valve,  by  the  effect  of  the  governor  and  by  atmospheric 
pressure,  which  of  itself  entails  a  loss  of  15  Ibs.  per  square  inch  on 
the  Diston,  The  lower  the  steam  pressure  per  square  inch  on  tiit 


358       MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  &c.,  RECEIPTS. 

piston,  the  greater  the  loss  of  power  from  the  atmospheric  pressure  J 
lor  instance,  a  steam  pressure  of  30  Ibs.  per  square  inch  on  the  pistom, 
leaves  only  15  Ibs  per  square  inch  effective  pressure  for  actual  work, 
the  other  15  Ibs.  being  required  to  overcome  atmospheric  pressure. 

In  tightening  piston  rod  packing,  screw  no  tighter  than  merely  to 
prevent  leakage ;  any  more  consumes  power  by  friction,  and  will  des- 
troy tne  packing.  Spring  packing  in  the  cylinder  should  be  adjusted 
•with  great  care,  always  kept  up  to  its  place,  and  never  allowed  to 
become  loose,  or  leakage  will  ensue,  causing  loss  of  power.  On  the 
other  hand,  if  it  is  set  too  tight  it  will  cut  the  cylinder,  and  loss  will 
result  from  friction.  Keep  your  packing  free  from  grit,  sand,  filings, 
&c.,  as  such  substances  will  cut  the  cylinder  and  flute  the  rod. 
Remove  all  old  packing  before  inserting  new,  observing  to  cut  the 
packing  into  proper  lengths,  and  breaking  joints  by  placing  each 
joint  on  opposite  sides  of  the  stuffing  box.  Keep  the  governor  clean, 
easy  in  its  movements,  and  avoid  excessive  tight  packing  around  the 
spindle.  Use  good  oils.  Avoid  waste  in  the  use  of  oil,  as  too  great 
profusion  generates  gum  and  dirt.  Use  it  with  judgment  in  combi- 
nation with  concentrated  ley  when  it  is  required  lo  remove  gum  or 
dirt  from  these  or  other  parts  of  the  machinery.  Do  not  lubricate 
the  cylinder  until  after  starting  the  engine,  and  closing  the  drip  cocks. 
If  you  have  occasion  to  separate  a  rust  joint,  or  any  crank  from  a 
phaft  on  which  it  has  been  shrunk,  the  simplest  plan  is  to  apply  heat, 
•when  the  bodies  being  of  different  dimensions  will  expand  unequally 
and  separate.  Iron  when  heated  expands  with  irresistible  force. 
Railway  contractors  know  that  the  heat  of  the  sun  on  a  warm  day 
will  cause  such  an  extension  of  the  iron,  that  the  rails,  if  laid  with 
close  joints,  will  rise  with  the  sleepers  from  the  ballast,  and  form 
arches  4  or  5  feet  high  and  50  or  60  feet  in  length.  In  accommoda- 
tion to  this  law  of  expansion,  spaces  are  left  between  the  rails  on  rail- 
•way  tracks. 

The  contraction  of  iron  by  cold  is  equally  powerful,  and  has  been 
put  to  good  use  in  trueing  up  large  bulging  buildings  by  fitting  iron; 
girders  across  them  with  strong  wall  plates  at  each  end.  Then,  by 
applying  gas  jets  all  along  the  girders  they  will  expand  ;  the  screw* 
are  then  tightened  up,  and  the  girders  allowed  to  cool,  and  the  strain 
of  these  contractions  several  times  repeated  is  sufficient  to  bring  th& 
•walls  to  the  perpendicular.  Again,  in  hoisting  heavy  machinery,  &c. 
by  means  of  pulley-blocks,  if  the  ropes  stretch  and  the  blocks  coma 
together  too  soon,  wet  the  rope,  and  the  object  will  be  elevated  by- 
its  contraction  without  any  other  force.  These  hints  will  be  found 
useful  wken  occasion  offers. 

In  driving  the  kegs  on  the  crank-phi  and  cross-head,  use  a  leaden 
mallet,  or  interpose  a  piece  of  leather,  or  a  sheet  of  soft  metal  for 
protection,  if  a  steel  hammer  is  used. 

The  piston  should  be  removed  every  6  months,  and  the  parts  in- 
jured by  friction,  &c.  carefully  ground,  fitted,  and  if  need  be  turned, 
trued,  and  made  steam  tight.  If  knocking  oecurs  in  the  engine  it 
may  arise  by  the  crank  being  ahead  of  the  steam  ;  if  so,  move  the 
eccentric  forward  to  give  more  lead  on  the  valve,  if  caused  by  too  much 
lead  move  the  eccentric  further  back,  if  caused  by  the  exhaust  closing 
too  soon,  enlarge  the  exhaust  chamber  in  the  valve  ;  if  caused  by  the 
engine  being  out  of  line,  or  by  hard  or  tight  piston  rod  packing,  these 


MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  &c.,  RECEIPTS 

3&ults  must  be  corrected  ;  if  caused  by  lost  motion  in  the  jam  nuts  on 
ihe  valve,  uncover  the  steam  chest  and  ad  j  ust  them  correctly.  It  may 
be  that  knocking  is  caused  by  lost  motion  in  the  crank-pin,  pillow-* 
blocks,  key  of  the  piston  in  the  cross-head,  or  boxes  on  the  cross- 
head,  if  so,  tighten  the  key,  or  file  off  the  edges  of  the  boxes  if  they 
are  too  tight.  Should  knocking  arise  from  shoulders  becoming  worn 
on  the  ends  of  the  guides  from  any  cause,  replace  the  guides. 
Knocking  may  be  caused  by  insufficient  counterboring  in  the  cylin- 
der, causing  derangement  in  the  movements  of  the  piston.  The 
remedy  for  this  is  to  re-counterbore  the  cylinder  to  the  proper  depth. 

Keep  a  close  watch  over  the  journals  of  the  crank  and  cross-head, 
if  they  are  loose  in  the  boxes,  or  too  tight,  they  will  run  badly,  if 
tightened  too  much,  they  will  heat  and  wear  out  the  brass  shoes,  ft 
not  tight  enough  there  is  danger  of  the  keys  flying  out  and  breaking 
the  engine.  N 

Be  sure  that  your  gteam  gauge  indicates  truthfully.  It  ought  to 
tell  accurately  the  pressure  of  steam  in  the  boiler  when  the  water  is 
hotter  than  212°  Fahr.,  and  indicate  the  variation  in  the  pressure  of 
gteam  from  time  to  time;  but  many  gauges  are  much  worse  than  the 
contrivance  used  by  the  colored  engineer,  who,  disdainfully  dispens- 
ing with  a  gauge  altogether,  used  to  ascertain  the  critical  moment 
^vhen  steam  was  up,  or  danger  at  hand,  by  clapping  his  open  hand 
on  the  outside  of  the  boiler. 

STEAM  PACKING.— Many  varieties  of  packing  are  used,  such  aa 
metallic  packing,  packing  composed  of  a  mixture  of  duck,  paper 
and  tallow  in  proper  proportions,  soapstone  and  loose  twisted  cotton 
coils,  asbestos,  jute,  &c.  An  excellent  packing  is  composed  of  hemp 
in  long  loosely  twisted  coils,  well  saturated  with  melted  grease  or 
tallow,  with  as  much  pulverized  black  lead  as  it  will  absorb.  Pack- 
ing is  always  applied  with  the  best  effect  when  the  parts  of  the  engine 
are  cold,  and  its  efficiency  is  promoted  by  soaking  it  in  beeswax  and. 
tallow  previous  to  use. 

To  WORK  STEAM  EXPANSIVELY.— The  volume  of  steam  at  15  Ibs. 
pressure  to  the  square  inch  or  atmospheric  pressure  is  1700  times; 
greater  than  that  of  any  given  quantity  of  water  from  which  it  may 
be  derived.  When  confined  under  pressure,  as  in  the  cylinder  of  a 
steam  engine,  it  is  always  in  the  effort  to  expand  itself  to  the  fullest 
extent,  and  a  vast  saving  of  fuel  is  effected  by  cutting  off  the  supply 
of  steam  from  the  piston  by  means  of  the  main  valve,  before  it 
readies  the  end  of  its  stroke,  instead  of  allowing  it  to  flow  during 
the  full  length  of  its  stroke. 

The  most  available  points  at  which  to  cut  off  steam  is  J,  £  and  f  of 
•the  full  travel  or  stroke  of  the  piston.  If  steam  at  75  Ibs.  pressure 
to  the  square  inch  is  applied  to  the  piston  and  cut  off  at  half  stroke, 
the  average  pressure,  during  the  whole  stroke,  owing  to  the  expan- 
sive quality  of  the  steam,  would  be  63^  Ibs.,  or  only  11^  Ibs.  less  than 
the  full  pressure,  although  but  half  the  quantity  of  steam  is  used,  f 
requiring  fully  \  less  fuel. 

Imagine  the  diagram  to  be  a  cylinder  of  3  ft.  in  length,  with  steam 
at  60  Ibs.  pressure,  entering  the  open  port.  During  the  first  4  inches 
of  the  travel  of  the  piston  the  steam  port  is  open,  permitting  the 
full  pressure  of  the  steam  to  operate  on  the  piston  ;  but  at  the  twelfth 
inch  marked  Cv  the  steam  lap  on  the  valve  Y  closes  the.  port.  The 


860       MACHINISTS^  ENGINEERS',  AC.,  RECEIPTS. 


imprisoned  steam  will  now  propel  the  piston  to  the  end  o?  th» 
stroke,  driving  out  the  liberated  steam  through  the  port  A  into  the 
-ochaust  cavity  B,  but  by  the  time  the  piston  reaches  D,  12  inch*"/ 


from  C,  the  original  pressure  of  60  Ibs.  per  square  inch  will  have 
decreased  one-half,  or  to  30  Ibs.,  and  when  it  reaches  E,  24  inches 
from  C,  it  will  have  still  further  decreased  to  20  Ibs.  Average  pres- 
sure 39  Ibs.  Two-thirds  of  the  stroke  have  thus  been  made  without 
any  supply  of  steam  from  the  boiler,  and  forms  the  saving  due  to 
•working  the  steam  expansively.  The  lack  of  this  contrivance  is  the 
true  reason  why  some  engines  use  more  fuel  and  steam,  than  others 
of  the  same  capacity  and  power.  It  has  been  stated  that  the  economy 
of  the  Corliss  cut-off  is  such  that  it  requires  only  2  tons  of  coal 
instead  of  6f  tons  used  by  other  engines  of  the  same  power,  but  the 
great  trouble  with  that  engine  is  the  liability  of  the  complex  and 
costly  valve-gear  to  get  out  of  order ^  entailing  difficult  and  expeusiva 
repairs. 

TABLE.— Showing  the  average  Pressure  of  Steam  on  the  cylinder 
when  cut  off"  at  £,  £  and  f  of  the  stroke  or  travel  of  the  Piston,  com- 
mencing with  25  Ibs,  advancing  by  5  Ibs.  and  ending  at  iOO  Ibs. 


45 
26| 
38 
43* 


55   60  [65   70  175  |80  86   90 
38|41f!44f:47f50;|53f 

55   59|  631  67|;72|  76| 
63  |57|  62^167$  72J77J  82   87 


95 


To  realise  the  best  results  from  steam,  keep  the  cylinders,  pipes, 
&c.,  well  covered  with  good  non-conductors.  Various  materials  are 
used,  such  as  common  felting,  asbestos  felting,  hair,  old  wool,  tow  or 
hemp  carpets  cut  up  into  strips  of  the  proper  size  and  smeared  over 
•with  a  substantial  composition  of  mortar,  teased  hair,  &c.  before 
applying  to  the  Tjipes.  Cover  the  whole  with  coarse  canvas,  finish* 


MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  &c.,  RECEIPTS.       361 

tog  with  several  coats  of  white  lead  over  the  canvas.  Some  cover 
boilers  with  a  thickish  composition  of  clay,  intermixed  with  grey  or 
brown  paper  for  a  bind,  to  prevent  cracking,  &c.,  the  paper  being 
worked  up  into  shreds  along  with  the  water  and  clay.  Others  use  a  \ 
mixture  of  mortar,  teased  hair,  &c.  Some  use  asbestos,  wood  ashes, 
&c.,  see  "composition  for  covering  boilers."  Cylinders  should  ba 
•well  clothed  and  jacketed,  and  cased  with  wood  or  polished  metal, ' 
the  latter  when  kept  constantly  bright  being  a  most  powerful  protec- 
tion against  loss  of  heat  by  radiation.  Among  metals,  silver  is  the 
best  absorbent  and  conductor  of  heat.  If  we  call  its  power  of  con- 
duction 100,  tnat  of  copper  is  74,  gold  53,  iron  12,  lead  9,  bismuth  2. 

To  SET  THE  VALVE  OP  AN  ENGINE.— Place  the  crank  at  the  end 
of  its  stroke,  and  give  the  valve  the  proper  amount  of  lead  ;  reverse 
the  crank  to  the  other  end  of  its  stroke,  and  if  the  valve  has  the  cor- 
responding amount  of  lead  it  is  correctly  set.  The  preponderance  at 
either  end.  if  any  exists,  must  be  equally  divided.  Be  careful  in  ad- 
justing the  nuts  attaching  the  valve  to  the  rod,  that  they  do  not 
impinge  against  the  valves,  preventing  it  from  seating  true.  In  ad- 
justing the  slide  valve  to  cut  off  at  any  point  of  the  travel  of  fie 
piston,  the  eccentric  should  be  moved  forward  in  proportion  to  the 
amount  of  lap  given  to  the  valve,  without  any  reference  to  the  ex- 
pansive working  of  steam,  the  valve  must  open  at  the  same  point  of 
travel  of  the  piston. 

To  FIND  THE  STROKE  OF  THE  VALVE.— Place  the  crank  on  the 
dead  centre,  and  make  a  mark  on  the  valve-rod,  then  reverse  the 
movement  to  the  opposite  end  and  make  another  mark.  The  distance 
between  the  two  marks  constitutes  the  stroke  of  the  valve.  "?ho 
stroke  of  the  valve  may  be  increased  as  the  bearing  in  the  rocker-arm 
that  carries  the  eccentric  hook  is  lengthened  ;  shorten  the  same  and 
the  stroke  is  lessened. 

To  FIND  THE  THROW  OF  THE  ECCENTRIC. — Measure  the  eccen- 
tric on  the  heaviest  side,  then  measure  on  the  opposite  or  light  side. 
The  difference  between  the  two  measurements  will  be  the  throw  of 
the  eccentric. 

LEAD  ON  THE  SLIDE  VALVE. — The  lead  of  a  valve  is  the  width 
of  opening  which  the  valve  allows  to  the  steam  port  wlien  the  piston 
is  at  the  end  of  its  stroke,  as  shown  on  the  diagram  at  A,  which  re~ 
presents  outside  lead,  inside  lead,  being  shown  into  the  exhaust  at  B, 
which  ought  to  be  double  the  amount  of  outside  lead  in  order  to  liberate 
the  exhaust  easily,  and  thus  reduce  or  prevent  back  pressure.  Care* 
should  be  taken  not  to  liberate  the  exhaust  too  soon,  as  it  will  greatly 
curtail  the  power  of  the  engine,  especially  if  the  labor  is  heavy  and 
the  speed  slow,  as  in  engines  with  heavy  trains  on  up  grades,  &c.  To 
ascertain  whether  the  exhaust  opens  at  the  right  time  or  not,  uncover 
the  steam  chest ;  then  uncouple  the  valve  from  the  valve  rod,  place  & 
short  batten  of  wood  lengthways  on  the  exhaust  port ;  then  with  » 
scratch  awl  layoff  lines  on  the  valve  seat,  on  each  side  of  the  exhaust 
port,  that  will  appear  above  the  valve.  Next  l?.y  the  batten  on  thV 
lace  of  the  valve  and  lay  off  corresponding  lines  on  the  exhaust 
chamber  that  will  show  on  the  edges  of  the  valve,  now  replace  the 
valve  on  its  seat,  and  give  1-32  of  an  inch  lead,  and  if  the  lines  de- 
scribed on  the  face  of  the  valve  are  past  the  lines  described  on  th« 
valve  seat  1-1G  of  an  inch,  the  exhaust  opens  at  the  proper  time,  if  it 


362      MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  AC.,  RECEIPTS. 


does  not  the  exhaust  chamber  in  the  valve  should  be  enlarged  to  tht 
right  fdze. 


Lead  is  given  to  a  valve  to  enable  the  steam  to  act  as  a;  cushion  on 
the  piston,  by  admitting  the  steam  to  it  previous  to  the  end  of  its 
stroke,  in  order  to  cause  it  to  reverse  its  motion  easily,  without  jar  or 
noise,  for  it  is  not  allowed  to  touch  the  top  and  bottom  of  cylinder  for 
fear  of  knocking  them  out.  The  space  between  the  top  and  bottom 
of  the  cylinder  and  the  piston,  when  the  latter  is  at  the  end  of  its 
stroke,  is  called  the  clearance,  shown  at  C  C  on  diagram.  The  terra 
clearance  is  also  used  to  designate  the  capacity  of  the  connecting 
eteam  ports  and  passages.  It  is  necessary  to  guard  against  too  much 
cushion  as  it  greatly  impairs  the  powers  of  the  engine,  causing  violent 
thumping  or  knocking,  and  sometimes  a  serious  breakdown.  One- 
eighth  of  an  inch  lead  is  sufficient  for  an  ordinary  freight  and  1-16  is 
sufficient  for  passenger  locomotives,  the  difference  being  on  account 
of  the  greater  speed  of  the  latter. 

LAP  ON  THE  SLIDE  VALVE.— The  steam  lap  on  the  slide  valve  la 
the  amount  by  which  it  extends  over  the  extreme  width  of  th« 


cylinder  ports,  as  illustrated  in  the  diagram,  the  distance  between  the 
dotted  lines  B  B  LL,  and  the  sides  of  the  ports  P  P,  being  in  each 
case  the  lap,  the  lines  B  B  indicating  the  outside  lap,  and  L  L  denot- 
ing the  inside  lap,  E  P  exhaust  port,  E  exhaust  cavity  in  valve.  V  S 
valve  seat,  C  C  valve  face,  The  emission  of  steam  into  the  cylinder 


MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  &c.,  RECEIPTS.       365 


is  regulated  by  the  outer  and  inner  edges  of  the  valve  and  of  the 
steam  ports.  When  tk^  valve  is  so  contrived  that  at  ^  stroke  the 
faces  of  the  valve  do  not  covpr  the  steam  ports  internally,  the  space 
by  which  each  face  conies  short  of  the  inner  edges  of  the  ports  is 
known  as  inside  clearance.  By  means  of  the  steam  lap  given  to  the 
valve  the  engine  is  enabled  to  use  its  steam  expansively,  as  elsewhere, 
explained. 

TABLE. — Showing  the  amount  of  Lap  on  the  Slide  valve  at 
various  points  of  cut  off]  also,  the  travel  of  the  valve  in  inches. 

Travel  or  stroke  of  the  Piston  where  steam  is  cut  off. 


Travel 

of  the 

Valve  in 

inches. 


The  correct  amount  of  Lap. 


4* 


7 

7* 

8 

Si 

9 

ID* 


12 


i* 

2 


2 
3 


GIFFARD'S  INJECTOR,  as  made  by  Wm.  Sellers  &  Co.,  is  a  novel 
and  reliable  invention  for  feeding  boilers,  economizing  the  heat  and 
dispensing  with  pumps.  By  a  simple  and  well  known  combination 
of  2  pipes,  the  one  conveying  steam,  the  other  water,  both  terminat- 
ing in  a  third  pipe  or  tube,  a  jet  of  steam  from  the  boiler  escaping 
through  an  orifice,  of  say,  1  inch  in  diameter,  with  60  Ibs.  pressure^. 


364      MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  &c..  RECEIPTS 

la  condensed  in  perhaps  12  times  its  -weight  of  water,  which  it  drive* 
through  the  third  tube,  causing  it  to  enter  the  boiler  through  aa 
orifice  much  smaller  than  the  one  by  which  it  escaped.  The  momen- 
tum of  the  steam  impels  the  water  with  great  force  and  imparts  all 
its  heat  to  the  water  during  transmission.  The  following  table  shows 
the  maximum  temperature  of  the  feed-water  admissible  during 
different  pressures  of  steam. 

Pressure  per  square  inch.       10       20        30       40        50      100 
Temperature  of  feed,Fahr.    148°    130°     130°   124°    120°    110° 

ON  THE  FORM,  STRENGTH  &c.  OF  STEAM  BOILERS.— Regard- 
ing the/orm  of  boilers,  it  is  now  an  ascertained  fact  tli:it  the  maxi- 
mum strength  is  obtained  by  adopting  the  cylindrical  or  circular  form, 
the  haycock,  hemispherical,  and  wagon-shaped  boilers,  so  general  at 
•one  time,  have  now  deservedly  gone  almost  out  of  use.  Good  boiler 
plate  is  capable  of  withstanding  a  tensile  strain  of  50,000  Ibs.  or 
•60,000  Ibs.  on  every  square  inch  of  section  :  but  it  will  only  bear  a  * 
third  of  this  strain  without  permanent  derangement  of  structure, 
and  40,000  Ibs.,  or  30,000  Ibs.  even,  upon  the  square  inch,  is  a  prefer- 
able proportion.  It  has  been  found  that  the  tenacity  of  boiler-plata 
increases  with  the  temperature  up  to  5iO°,  at  which  point  the  ten- 
acity commences  to  diminish.  At  32°  cohesive  force  of  a  square  inch 
of  section  was  56,000  Ibs.  ;  at  570°  it  was  60,500  Ibs. :  at  720°,  65,000 
Ibs.  ;  at  1050°,  82,000  Ibs.  ;  at  1240°,  22,000  Ibs.  ;  and  at  1317°,  9,000 
Ibs.  Strips  of  iron,  when  cut  in  the  direction  of  the  fibre,  were  found 
i)y  experiment  to  be  6  per  cent,  stronger  than  when  cut  across  th» 
grain.  The  strength  of  riveted  joints  has  also  been  demonstrated  by 
tearing  them  directly  asunder.  In  two  different  kinds  of  joints, 
double  and  single  riveted,  the  strength  was  found  to  be,  in  the  ratio 
of  the  plate,  as  the  numbers  100,  70,  and  56. 

Assuming  the  strength  of  the  plate  to  be 100 

The  strength  of  a   double   riveted  joint   would    be,    after 

allowing  for  the  adhesion  of  the  surfaces  of  the  plate 70 

And  the  strength  of  a  single  riveted  joint 56 

These  figures,  representing  the  relative  strengths  of  plates  and 
joints  in  vessels  required  to  be  steam  and  water  ti<;ht,  may  be  safely 
relied  on  as  perfectly  correct.  The  accidental  overheating  of  a  boiler 
has  been  found  to  reduce  the  ultimate  or  maximum  strength  of  the 
plates  from  65,000  to  45,000  Ibs.  per  square  inch  of  section.  Every 
description  of  boiler  used  in  manufactories  or  on  board  of  steamers 
ehould  be  constructed  to  a  bursting  pressure  of  400  to  500  Ibs.  on.  the 
*quare  inch  ;  and  locomotive  engine  boilers,  which  are  subject  to 
much  harder  duty,  to  a  bursting  pressure  of  600  to  700  Ibs.  Such 
boilers  are  usually  worked  at  90  to  110  Ibs.  on  tLo  inch,  but  are  fre- 
quently worked  up  to  a  pressure  of  120,  and,  when  rising  steep  grades 
sometimes  even  as  high  as  200  Ibs.  to  the  square  inch.  In  a  boiler 
subject  to  such  an  enormous  working  pressure,  it  requires  the  utmost 
care  and  attention  on  the  part  of  the  engineer  to  satisfy  himself  thai; 
the  flat  surfaces  of  the  fire  box  are  capable  of  resisting  that  pressure, 
and  that  every  part  of  the  boiler  is  so  nearly  balanced  in  its  powera 
of  resistance  as  that,  -when  one  part  is  at  the  point  of  rupture,  every 
other  part  is  at  the  point  of  yielding  to  the  same  uniform  force  for 
we  find  that,  taking  a  locomotive  boiler  of  the  usual  size,  even  with 


MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  &c.,  RECEIPTS. 

&  pressure  of  100  Ibs.  on  the  square  inch,  it  retains  an  expanding, 
force  within  its  interior  of  nearly  00,000  tons,  which  is  rather  in- 
creased than  diminished  at  a  high  speed.  To  show  the  strain  upon, 
a  high-pressure  boiler,  30  feet  long,  6  feet  diameter,  having  2  ceutr* 
flues,  each  2  feet  3  inches  diameter,  working  at  a  pressure  of  50  Ibs. 
on  the  square  inch,  we  have  only  to  multiply  the  number  of  the- 
square  feet  of  surface,  1030,  exposed  to  pressure,  by  321,  .and  we, 
have  the  force  of  33U)  tons,  which  such  a  boiler  has  to  sustain.  Tc» 
go  farther,  and  estimate  the  pressure  at  450  Ibs.  on  the  square  hrjlv 
which  a  well-constructed  boiler  of  this  size  will  bear  before  it  bursts, 
and  we  have  the  enormous  force  of  29,871,  or  nearly  30,000  tons,  bot 
tied  up  within  a  cylinder  30  feet  long  and  6  feet  diameter.  Boilers  hi. 
actual  use  should 'be  tested  at  least  once  a  year,  by  forcing  water  into 
them  by  the  hand  feed-pump,  until  the  safety-valve  is  lifted,  which 
should  De  loaded  with  at  lean  frrrice  the  working  pressure  for  the  occa- 
sion. If  a  boiler  will  not  stand  this  pressure  it  is  not  safe,  and  either 
its  strength  should  be  increased  or  tho  working  pressure  should  be  di- 
minished. Internal  flues,  such  as  contain  the  furnace  in  the  interior 
of  the  boiler,  should  be  keyt  as  near  as  possible  to  the  cylindrical 
form  ;  and,. as  wrought  iron  will  yield  to  a  force  tending  to  crush  it 
about  one-half  of  what  would  tear  it  asunder,  the  flues  should  in  no- 
ease  exceed  one-half  the  diameter  of  the  boiler,  with  the  same  thick- 
ness of  plates  they  may  be  considered  equally  safe  Avith  the  other  parts. 
The  force  of  compression  being  so  different  from  that  of  tension, 
greater  safety  would  be  ensured  if  the  diameter  of  the  internal  flues, 
were  in  the  ratio  1  to  2^  instead  of  1  to  3  of  the  diameter  of  the  boiler. 
As  regards  the  relative  size  and  strength  of  flues,  it  may  be  stated! 
that  a  circular  flue  18  inches  in  diameter  will  resist  double  the  pres- 
sure of  one  3  feet  in  diameter.  Mill  owners,  with  plenty  of  room 
and  a  limited  experience  with  steam  power,  would  do  well  to  dispense- 
\vith  boilers  containing  many  flues,  the  expense  is  greater  and  the 
durability  less  than  where  there  is  one  or  two  only.  The  foam, 
caused  by  a'  large  number  of  flues  is  apt  to  deceive  an  inexperienced; 
engineer,  causing  him  to  believe  that  there  is  plenty  of  water  in  the. 
toiler  when  he  tries  the  gauge  cock  when  there  is  but  very  little, 
often  causing  an  explosion.  Some  mill-owners  insert  a  fusible  plug: 
in  the  crown  of  the  furnace  to  indicate  danger  from  low  water.  As. 
common  lead  melts  at  620°,  a  rivet  of  this  metal,  1  inch  in  diameter, 
inserted  immediately  over  the  fire  place,  will  give  due  notice,  go  that 
relief  may  be  obtained  before  the  internal  pressure  of  the  steam  ex- 
ceeds that  of  the  resisting  power  of  the  heated  plates.  In  France,  an. 
extensive  use  is  made  of  fusible  metal  plates,  generally  covered  by  a 
perforated  metallic  disc,  which  protects  the  alloy  of  which  the  plate 
is  composed,  and  allows  it  to  ooze  through  as  soon  as  the  steam  has- 
attained  the  temperature  necessary  to  insure  the  fusion  of  the  plate, 
which  varies  from  280°  to  350°.  the  reader  will  find  a  number  of 
euch  alloys  under  the  tabular  view  of  alloys  and  their  melting  heats, 
further  on.  Another  method  is  the  bursting  plate,  fixed  in  a  frame  and 
attached  to  some  convenient  part  of  the  upper  side  of  the  boiler,  of 
such  thickness  and  ductility  as  to  cause  rupture  when  the  pressure 
exceeds  that  on  the  safety  valve.  But,  beyond  all  question,  constant 
use  should  be  made  on  all  boilers  of  a  good  and  reliable  system  of 
gtesuji  -'au^es,  glass  tubes,  gauge  cocks,  safety  valves,  &u.  By  mean* 


866      MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  *c.,  RECEIPTS 

of  the  glass  tubes  affixed  to  the  fronts  of  the  boilers,  the  height  of  th« 
water  within  the  boiler  is  indicated  at  once,  for  the  water  will  stand  at 
the  same  height  in  the  tube  that  it  stands  in  the  boiler,  communication 
being  established  with  the  water  below  and  the  steam  above,  by 
means  of  stop  cocks. 

When  dry  steam  is  an  object,  the  use  of  the  steam  dome  on  boilers 
Is  strongly  recommended ;  opinions  are  divided  as  to  the  real  value  of 
'mud  drums,  some  reason  strongly  in  their  favor  while  others  discard 
them  entirely ;  but  there  can  be  no  question  as  to  the  true  economy  of 
heating  the  feed  water  previous  to  emission  into  the  boiler  ;  it  should 
always  be  done  when  practicable  to  do  so,  by  means  of  some  one  of 
the  many  contrivances  for  that  purpose  which  are  now  in  the  market. 
Regarding  the  power  of  boilers,  it  may  be  stated  that  a  boiler  30  feet 
long  and  3  feet  hi  diameter,  will  afford  30x3x3.14x3—141.30  square 
feet  of  surface,  or  steam  for  14  horse-power,  if  10  feet  are  assumed 
for  one  horse-power.  Two  short  boilers  are  preferable  to  one  long 
one,  on  account  of  having  more  fire  surface, — it  bein<*  always  necessa- 
ry to  have  as  much  fire  surface  as  possible  to  make  the  best  use  of  the 
fuel — as  the  hotter  the  surface  is  kept,  the  less  fuel  it  takes  to  do  the 
same  amount  of  work.  When  there  is  a  large  furnace  it  gives  the 
iireman  a  better  chance  to  keep  the  steam  regular,  for  when  clearing 
out  one  part  of  the  furnace,  he  can  ke»p  a  hot  tire  in  the  other.  For 
each  horse-power  of  the  engino  there  ought  to  be  at  least  one  square 
foot  of  grate,  and  three  feet  would  be  better.  In  setting  a  boiler, 
arrangement  should  be  made  to  carry  on  combustion  with  the  great- 
est possible  heat  This  requires  good  non-conductors  of  heat,  such  as 
brick,  with  which  to  surround  the  fire.  If  these  bricks  are  of  a  white 
color,  the  combustion  is  more  perfect  than  if  of  a  dark  color.  The  roof, 
as  well  as  the  sides,  of  the  furnace  should  be  of  white  fire-brick.  The 
bars  of  the  furnace  should  be  18  or  20  inches  below  the  boiler  or 
crown  of  the  furnace.  They  should  slope  downward  toward  the  back 
part,  about  half  an  inch  to  the  foot  A  crack  in  a  boiler  plate  may 
oe  closed  by  boring  holes  in  the  direction  of  the  crack  and  inserting 
rivets  with  large  heads,  so  as  to  cover  up  the  imperfection.  If  the  top 
of  the  furnace  be  bent  down,  from  the  boiler  having  been  accidentally 
Allowed  to  get  short  of  water,  it  may  be  set  up  again  by  a  screw-j'ack, 
a  fire  of  wood  having  been  previously  made  beneath  the  injured 
plate  ;  but  it  will  in  general  be  nearly  as  expeditious  a  course  to 
remove  the  plate  and  introduce  a  new  one,  and  the  result  will  be  more 
satisfactory.  There  is  one  object  that  requires  very  particular  atten- 
tion, and  which  must  be  of  a  certain  size  to  produce  the  best  effect, 
and  that  is  the  flue  leading,  from  the  boiler  to  the  chimney,  as  well  as 
the  size  and  elevation  of  the  chimney  itself.  Every  chimney  should 
be  built  several  feet  above  the  mill  house,  so  that  there  is  no  obstruc- 
tion to  break  the  air  from  the  top  of  the  chimney.  In  England  a 
factory  chimney  suitable  for  a  20  horse-power  boiler  is  commonly 
made  about  20  inches  square  inside,  and  80  feet  high,  and  these  di- 
mensions are  correct  for  consumption  of  15  Ibs.  coal  per  horse-power 
per  hour,  a  common  consumption  far  factory  engines.  In  the  Do- 
minion of  Canada  and  the  United  States,  chimneys  of  sheet  iron, 
from  30  to  50  feet  high,  are  in  quite  common  use  by  owners  of  saw, 
and  other  mills,  and  they  seem  to  answer  every  requirement. 

FBOPOBTIOX  OF  STEA&I  BOILEKS,'- 'Cylinder  Boilers.    The  length 


MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  <tc.,  RECEIPTS.       367 

should  never  exceed  7  times  its  diameter  ;  the  unit  for  it  is  12  sq.  ft 
>f  heating  surface,  and  f  of  a  square  foot  of  grate  surface  for  each 
jorse-power  ;  a  fair  evaporation  is  6  Ibs.  of  water  for  1  Ib  of  coaL 

Tubular  Boiler. 


Cylinder  Boiler,. 

Very  long  cylinder  boilers  should  have  a  central  support.  All  boiler* 
should  have  an  inclination  of  1  inch  in  every  20  ft.  towards  the  blow- 
off  end.  Tubular  Boilers— Length  4  times  the  diameter.  Evapora*. 


Lancashire  Boiler.  Cornish  Boiler. 

Won  about  9  Ibs.  of  water  to  1  Ib.  of  coal.  Heating  surface  15  squar* 
It.  and  grate  surface.  \  square  ft.  per  horse-power.  Flue  Boiler* 
require  from  14  to  15  square  ft.  of  heating  surface,  and  \  square  ft 
of  grate  per  horse-pcwer.  Evaporation  7  Ibs.  water  to  every  Ib.  of 


868         MACHINISTS,    ENGINEERS7,    AC.,    RECEIPTS. 

coal.  Length  of  flue  boilers  should  not  exceed  5  times  their  diameter, 
diameter  of  flues  not  more  than  12  to  14  in. ;  if  made  larger,  use  heaviei 
iron  than  that  used  in  the  shell  of  boiler,  and  construct  with  butt 
joints.  Cornish  and  Lancashire  Boilers.  In  England,  Cornish  boilers 
are  known  as  those  furnished  with  one  internal  flue,  and  are  usually 
of  great  capacity  and  power,  having  plenty  of  steam  room.  Lancfe 
shire  boilers  have  2  flues.  Return  Pine  Boiler.  When  a  boiler  is 
,  fitted  with  a  flue  curving  round  at  the  rear,  and  returning  to  the 
.'  front,  it  is  called  a  return  flue  boiler.  See  diagrams  of  boilers. 

BOILER  SHELLS. — For  a  boiler  of  48  in.  iu  diameter,  to  carry  90  Ibs. 
r>er  square  in.  pressure,  use  ^  in.  to  §  in.  good  plates.  Wrought  iron, 
heads  for  ditto,  f  to  £  inch.  Tube  Sheets  and  Crown  Sheets  for  ditto. 
§  to  f  inch.  .Rivets  on  boilers  up  to  42  in.  diam.  and  §  in.  iron, 
should  be  §  in.  for  curvilinear,  and  §  in.  for  longitudinal  rivets 
lor  single  riveted  work.  On  double  riveted  work,  §  in.  rivets 
will  answer  for  both  kinds  of  seams.  For  5-16  iron  down  to  3-16 
in.  smaller  rivets  will  answer.  Drilled  rivet  holes  are  preferable 
lo  punched.  It  is  highly  beneficial  to  heat  the  boiler  plates  before- 
rolling  to  form  thw  shell  of  the  boiler.  The  fibre  of  the  iron  should 
always  run  around  the  boiler,  never  across  it.  A  steel  shell  boiler 
4  ft.  in  diam.  and  j  in.  thick,  is  as  strong  as  an  iron  boiler  of  same 
diam.  and  §  in.  thick,  and  will  evaporate  25  per  cent,  more  water, 
besides  being  more  free  from  incrustation  and  corrosion.  The  work- 
ing pressure  of  boilers  should  be  5  times  less  than  the  bursting 
pressure. 

COMPOSITION  FOB  COVERING  BOILERS,  &c.— Road  scrapings,  free 
from  stones,  2  parts ;  cow  manure,  gathered  from  the  pasture,  1 
part ;  mix  thoroughly,  and  add  to  each  barrowf ul  of  the  mixture 
6  Ibs  of  fire  clay  ;  £  Ib.  of  flax  shoves  or  chopped  hay,  and  4  ozs. 
teased  hair.  It  must  be  well  mixed  and  chopped  ;  then  add  as 
much  water  as  will  bring  it  to  the  consistency  of  mortar, — the  more 
it  is  worked  the  tougher  it  is.  It  may  either  be  put  on  with  the 
trowel  or  daubed  on  with  the  hand,  the  first  coat  about  1  inch 
thick.  When  thoroughly  dry,  another  the  game  thickness,  and  so 
on,  three  inches  is  quite  enough,  but  the  more  the  better.  Let  each 
coat  be  scored  like  plaster,  to  prevent  cracks,  the  last  coat  light 
and  smooth,  so  as  to  receive  paint,  whitewash,  &c.  The  boiler,  or 
pipes,  must  firrt  be  brushed  with  a  thin  wash  of  the  mixture  to 
insure  a  catch. 

ON  THE  PREVENTION  OF  SCALE  IN  STEAM  BOILERS.— It  is  well 
known  that  all  natural  waters  contain  more  or  less  impurities,  and 
also  that  these  impurities  work  to  disadvantage  in  steam  boilers.  But 
there  are  very  few  steam  users  who  fully  realize  how  far  the  disad- 
vantages of  these  impurities  extend. 

We  find  that  170  boiler  explosions  are  on  record  for  the  year  1880» 
'by  which  259  persons  were  killed  and  555  were  injured,  and  we  think 
.  /the  following  reports,  given  by  the  Hartford  Steam  Boiler  Inspection 
and  Insurance  Co.  for  the  same  year,  will  show  that  80  per  cent,  of 
these  explosions  were  caused  either  directly  or  indirectly  by  impuritiet 
in  the  water.  The  following  is  the  report :  — 

Furnaces  defective,  1105.  Fractured  plates,  2075.  Burned  plates, 
1165.  Blistered  plates,  3444.  Cases  of  sediment  and  deposit,  275» 


MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  &^'.,  RECEIPTS,         36* 

Incrustation  and  scale,  3891.  Cases  of  corrosion,  3188.  Internal 
grooving,  234.  Water-guages  defective,  525.  Blow-outa  defective, 
208.  Safety  valves  overloaded,  258.  Defective  bracing  a^d  staying, 
403.  Boilers  condemned,  377. 

The  above  report  shows  the  necessity  of  care  and  experience  in  the 
management  of  the  steam  boiler,  and  the  following  figures  will  show 
what  is  lost  by  deposits  of  sediment. 

Mr.  Ham,  Master  Mechanic  of  the  New  York  Central  R.R.,  states 
in  a  report,  at  a  meeting  of  the  Railway  Master  Mechanics'  Associa- 
tion, held  at  Louisville,  Ky.,  in  1871,  that  the  extra  expense  in  one 
year  from  impure  water  and  incrustation,  on  his  road,  would  amount . 
to  $75,000  for  every  hundred  locomotives.  ' 

Many  solvents  have  been  introduced  for  the  removal  and  preven- 
tion or  boiler  scale,  but  from  a  scientific  investigation  recently  made 
of  the  merits  of  articles  sold  for  the  removal  and  prevention  of  boiler 
scale,  we  have  a  report  showing  that  most  of  these  articles  are  made 
up  of  refuse  matter,  the  bulk  being  no  more  or  less  than  water;  the 
strength  or  so-called  virtue  consisting  of  powerful  refuse  acids, 
which  are  damaging  and  destructive  to  the  boiler. 

But  an  article  known  as  Lord's, Boiler  Compound,  manufactured', 
by  Geo.  W.  Lord,  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  is  highly  indorsed.  We  find 
also  in  several  different  works  on  Steam  Engineering  Lord's  Com- 
pound highly  recommended. 

Roper,  in  his  Hand-book  of  Land  and  Marine  Engineering,  in  an 
article  on  Corrosion,  page  450,  says  that  Lord's  Compound  appears 
to  be  the  only  known  remedy  that  affords  any  protection  to  boilers  • 
against  its  fearful  effects. 

The  article  seems  to  possess  the  necessary  ingredients  to  produce 
satisfactory  results  under  all  circumstances.  It  is  found  to  have  no 
injurious  action  upon  the  iron  of  boilers,  but  on  the  contrary  to  have 
a  tendency  to  protect  the  iron  against  grooving,  pitting,  or  wasting 
of  the  plates  by  corrosion. 

A  close  investigation  of  the  Hartford  Inspector's  Reports  for  the 
year  1880,  given  in  this  article,  will  show  that  the  true  value  of  such 
a  remedy  can  hardly  be  estimated. 

AVERAGE  PROPORTION  OP  VARIOUS  PARTS  OF  ENGINES.— Steam. 
Pipe  should  be  £  the  diameter  of  cylinder,  but  varies  on  large  engines. 
Exhaust  Pipe  should  be  £  the  diameter  of  cylinder.     Pis'on  Rod 
thould  be  J  the  diameter  of  cylinder,  if  of  iron,  and  smaller,  if  of 
eteel.    For  high  speeds,  steel  piston  rods  are  the  best.    Steam  Ports). 
vary  according  to  speed,  fro  1-16  to  1-10  the  area  of  piston.     Safety ) 
Valves  should  possess  an  area  of  £  square  in.  of  surface  for  every^ 
foot  of  grate  surface,  and  should  be  constructed  with  loose  vibratory 
•stems,  for  the  reason  that  they  are  not  so  liable  to  get  out  of  order  aa 
those  with  rigid  stems. 

RULE  FOR  SIZE  OF  CYLINDER. — The  requisite  diameter  of  cylinder 
for  a  25-horse  beam  engine  is  28  inches,  and  about  .5  feet  stroke. 
The  nominal  horse-power  of  any  sized  cylinder  can  be  found  by 
the  folio  whig  formuhe  : — For  low  pressure  or  beam  engines, 
divide  the  area  of  cylinder  by  25,  which  will  give  the  number  of 
horse-power.  For  high  pressure  horizontal  engines,  divide  the 

24 


•MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  &c.,  RECEIPTS. 

i-6l  cylinder's  diameter  by  12 '5,  which  will  give  the  number  ol 
liorse-power,  including  all  faction. 

.STKOKE  OF  ENGINES. — The  stroke  of  an  engine  varies  according 
to  circumstances,  which  the  designer  must  take  into  consideration; 
•feat': the  general  rule  is  to  make  the  stroke  about  twice  the  diameter 
;«rf  the  cylinder.  The  diameter  of  the  fly-wheel  should  be  about  4: 
•  times  the  stroke  of  the  engine,  and  the  rim  should  weigh  about 
3  cwt  per  horse-power. 

RULB  TO  FIND  THE  HOBSE-POWEB   OF  STATIONABY   ENGINES. — 

Multiply  the  area  of  the  piston  by  the  average  pressure  in  Iba.  per 
;  pquare  inch.  Multiply  this  product  by  the  travel  of  the  piston  in  feet 
4per  minute^  divide  by  33,000,  this  will  give  the  horse-power.— Roper. 

Diameter  of  cylinder    ..... 


Area  of  piston    . 
Pressure,  70  ;  Average  pressure,  60 

5654.880 
Travel  of  piston  in  feet  per  min.  300 

33,000)1696461.000 

51.  horse-power. 

"BALANCE  WHEELS. — Every  balance  wheel  should  he  speeded  np 
so  as  to  run  twice  or  three  times  as  fast  as  the  crank  shaft  it  is  in- 
tended to  balance.  When  a  balance  wheel  is  applied  in  this  way  it 
makes  the  machine  run  a  great  deal  more  steadily,  for,  when  the 
T>alance  wheel  is  geared  into  the  crank  shaft,  and  runs  two  or  three 
•times  faster  than  the  crank  shaft,  it  forms  a  power  of  itself 
•when  going  over  the  centre,  which  propels  the  crank  shaft  until  it 
.reaches  the  quarter,  where  it  again  takes  its  power  from  tha 
machine.  Although  it  takes  an  additional  shaft  and  gears  to  appl j 
9.  balance  wheel  in  this  way,  the  saving  of  metal  in  the  balance 
wheel  fully  compensates  for  the  extra  labor;  for,  when  a  balance 
wheel  is  speeded  three  times  as  fast  as  the  crank  shaft,  it  needs 
only  one  third  of  the  metal  in  it  that  it  would  were  it  not  speeded 
up  at  all,  and  if  balance  wheels  were  applied  in  this  way  generally 
;  it  would  make  all  engines  run  far  more  steadily. 

To  REVEBSE  AN  ENGINE.— Make  a  legible  mark  on  the  eccentric 
near  the  shaft,  make  a  similar  mark  on  the  shaft  at  the  same  place. 
3? ow  place  one  point  of  the  callipers  on  the  mark  made  on  the  shaft,  | 
and  with  the  other  point  ascertain  the  centre  of  the  shaft  on  the  op-> 
posite  side,  making  another  mark  there  also.  Next  unscrew  the 
«ccentric  and  move  it  in  the  direction  in  which  you  wish  the  engine  to 
ran,  until  the  mark  on  the  eccentric  comes  into  line  with  the  second 
mark  on  the  shaft,  then  screw  the  eccentric  fast  and  the  engine  will 
the  reverse  way. 


MACHINISTS    AND    ENGINEERS'    DEPARTMENT.     371 


MARINE  BEAM  ENGINE.— The  above  cut  represents  a  marine 
.engine,  being  the  kind  so  frequently  seen  on  river,  lake,  and  coastin: 
Steamers.  The  WORKING-BEAM,  W,  is  a  massive  casting  in  the  fonir 
of  a  cross,  surrounded,  strengthened,  and  stayed,  in  every  direction 
by  a  powerful  wrought-iron  strap,  forged  in  one  piece,  and  shaped  to 
Qonfomj  to  the  tasting,  which  contains  sockets  at  each  extremity  fit- 
ted to  receive  the  end  journals,  besides  containing  intermediate  sock- 
for  the  main  centre  and  air  pump  journal,  &c.,  the  whole  ma«§ 
on  the/rame  composed  of  4=  stout  beams  of  wood,  forming  3 


372       MACHINISTS   AND    ENGINEERS'    DEPARTMENT. 

triangles  as  shown  at  DD  in  cut.  These  again  rest  on  massive  beam* 
styled  keelsons,  shown  at  KK,  and  are  braced  and  rigidly  secured  to 
the  vessel  and  machinery  by  other  powerful  timbers,  knees,  straps, 
and  iron  fastenings.  The  guides  are  shown  at  B. 

The  main  link  is  shown  at  A,  the  connecting  rod  at  C,  the  ralvt 
stem  at  V,  and  the  cylinder  at  F,  in  a  vertical  position  over  the  con- 
denser. 

The  steam  cylinder  F,  is  usually  a  massive  casting,  annular  in 
form,  bored  and  finished  very  true  for  the  easy  movements  of  the 
piston.  It  rests  on  a  round  flanged  casting  containing  the  lower  steam 
f>ort,  called  the  cylinder  bottom,  which  intervenes  between  it  and  the 
condenser  S,  and  is  securely  attached  to  each,  by  bolts  and  steam, 
tight  rust  joints.  The  elevated  end  of  the  cylinder  is  immovably 
braced  to  the  framing  above.  The  valve  chest  is  shown  at  EE,  the 
air  pump  at  I,  the  hot  well  at  G,  the  boiler  feed  pump  at  R,  and  the 
delivery  pipe  at  P. 

The  condenser  S,  in  which  the  exhaust  steam  is  reduced  to  a  liquid 
form,  is  of  the  same  shape  and  diameter  as  the  cylinder,  flanged  at 
both  ends,  and  its  contents  should  be  13-30ths  of  the  space  through 
which  the  piston  moves  during  one  stroke.  The  wooden  frame 
vhich  sustains  the  main  beam  is  attached  by  stout  bolts  and  keys  to 
strong  flanges  which  project  from  the  condenser,  the  upper  part  is 
cast  close  and  the  lower  end  is  open  and  fitted  accurately  on  the  bed 
plate  to  which  it  is  attached  by  a  rust  joint  and  bolts. 

In  the  method  known  as  "  surface  condensing"  the  process  is  ef- 
fected by  causing  the  steam  to  pass  through  an  arrangement  of  tubes 
submerged  in  running  cold  water  ;  the  other  method,  known  as  "jet 
condensing,"  and  by  far  the  cheapest  arrangement,  consists  in  bring- 
ing the  steam  in  contact  with  a  jet  of  cold  water  as  shown  in  the  fol- 
lowing diagram,  where  J  represents  the  jet;  E,  the  exhaust  pipe,  P> 


ihe  injection  pipe;  H,  air-pump  cylinder;  AA,  air-pump  valves,  V, 
air-pump  rod;  D,  delivery  valve ;  H,  hot  well. 

The  next  cut- represents  Se wall's  surface  condenser,  in  which  the- 
exhaust  steam  enters  at  B  and  is  liquefied  by  contact  with  the  exterior 
surfaces  of  the  tubes  ;  the  injection  water  is  admitted  at  the  opening' 
K,  passes  through  the  foot  valves  L  L  L  and  is  driven  through  the  de- 
livery valves  S.  The  water  of  condensation  passes  through  the  delivery 
•valves  N,  0,  P,  and  is  driven  through  the  delivery  valves  I  and 


MACHINISTS   AND   ENGINEERS*    DEPARTMENT. 


Ihe  outboard  J,  into  a  cistern  from  which  the  boilers  are  supplied 

by  the  feed  pumps  with  their  water.     The  apertures  D  F,  are  the 

ends  of  a  pipe  connecting  the  fresh  and  salt  water  cisterns,  so  tha'; 

any  shortage  in  the  feed  water  may  be  furnished  from  the  latter 

cistern.  H  represents  the  end  of  a  pipe  thro  gh  which  the  auxiliary 

'pump  draws  water,   and  A  is  an  air  chamber  for  the  salt  water 

,  cistern.     Tha  jet  condenser  is  the  lightest,  simplest  and  cheapest  01 

(  the  two.  only  it  has  the  fault  of  supplying  salt  water  to  the  boilers,  as 

the  condensed  steam  and  the  sea  water  jet  intermingle  ;  on  the  coiv 


ftrary,  the  surface  condenser  preserves  the  water  of  condensation  so 
that  it  may  be  used  in  the  boilers  many  times  in  succession,  and  in 
this  way  maintains  its  freshness,  dispensing  with  the'  necessity  of 
Irequent  blowing  off  in  order  to  avert  the  danger  of  salt  deposits  on 
,the  plates  of  the  boilers.  Care  should  be  used  to  keep  the  steam  and. 
/exhaust  valves  steam  tight  in  order  to  prevent  the  leakage  of  steam 
into  the  condenser  while  the  engine  is  at  rest,  thereby  heating  the 
former  to  such  an  extent  that  the  injection  water  cannot  find  admit- 
tance owing  to  the  pressure.  In  such  cases  the  trouble  may  be  recti- 
fied by  applying  cold  water  to  the  exterior  of  the  condenser,  or  by 
starting  the  engine  and  moving  it  a  few  strokes. 

The  piston,  of  the  marine  engine  possesses  the  usual  form  of  spring 
packing,  and  is  powerfully  braced  by  diverging  arms  cast  on  the  nti 
Mat  aud  Tower  flanges,  the  cylinder  head  is  similaily  strenjfthenei 


$74      MACHINISTS    AND    ENGINEERS*   DEPARTMENT. 

Internally,  while  the  exterior  or  outside  is  turned  and  usually  kepi 
highly  polished.  The  steam  chests  contain  the  usual  appliances  of 
the  receiving  and  exhaust  steam  passages,  valves  and  valve  seats  ; 
the  lower  chest  contains  the  outlet  or  exhaust  port  communicating 
with  the  condenser,  while  the  higher  chest  embraces  the  throttle 
valve  pipe  connected  with  the  supply  pipe,  communicating  with  the 
boilers.  The  steam  chests  are  very  accurately  fitted  and  strongly 
secured  to  the  cylinder,  and  the  valve  bonnets  and  piston  rod  glandg 
are  turned  and  kept  bright.  The  valves  which  control  the  flow  of  the 
steam  are  of  the  description  styled  double-balance  valves,  because 
the  downward  pressure  on  one  valve  is  almost  balanced  by  an  oppo- 
site pressure  on  the  other,  the  two  being  connected  in  pairs,  and 
being  retained  in  their  seats,  by  the  highest  valve  in  the  pairs  on  the' 
induction  side  and  the  lowest  valve  of  each  pair  on  the  exhaust  side 
being  somewhat  larger  than  the  others,  thus  inducing  a  very  slight 
unbalanced  pressure.  The  valve  gear  embraces  the  lifter  rods,  and 
lifters,  the  rock-shafts  and  their  levers.  The  lifter  rods,  four  in  num 
ber,  have  a  vertical  movement  up  and  down  on  guides  attached  to  the 
steam  chests  and  side  pipes,  and  to  these  rods,  eight  projecting  armsr 
called  lifters,  are  attached  by  keys.  Four  of  the  lifters  connect  with 
the  extremities  of  the  valve  spindles,  screwed,  and  fitted  with  double- 
jam  nuts,  the  other  four  are  set  vertically  over  the  levers  on  the  rock- 
shaft,  which  imparts  their  motion  to  them.  The  rock-shafts,  two  in; 
number,  one  for  the  induction  and  the  other  for  the  exhaust  valves, 
are  operated  by  distinct  eccentrics.  There  are  four  levers  on  the- 
shafts,  operating  and  raising  the  rods  and  lifters,  and  to  induce  a. 
smooth  movement,  they  are  bent  or  inflected  on  their  working  faces. 
Cast  iron  side  pipes  polished,  turned,  and  ornamented,  connect  the 
steam  chests,  and  are  fitted  with  expansion  rings  of  sheet  copper  to- 
accommodate  or  compensate  for  the  unequal  expansion  or  contraction 
of  the  metal. 

The  lifter  rods  with  the  valves,  are  alternately  elevated  and  de- 
pressed, by  the  rocking  or  reciprocating  movement  of  the  shafts. 
The  length  of  the  exhaust  levers  is  so  adjusted  as  to  impart  the  exact, 
amount  of  lift  and  lead,  and  are  so  regulated  011  their  rock-shaft  that, 
the  elevation  of  one  rod  commences  at  the  very  instant  the  other  is 
completely  depressed.  The  induction  or  steam  levers  are  longer  than 
the  last  noted,  and  are  placed  on  thin  rock-shafts  so  as  to  incline  to 
each  other,  so  that  a  space  intervenes  between  the  elevation  of  one 
rod  and  the  depression  of  the  other,  during  which  time  both  valves 
are  down,  and  the  steam  connection  stopped.  This  mechanism  forms 
she  expansive  cut  off  gear,  and  may  be  partially  changed  by  varying 
the  fixture  or  position  of  the  eccentrics  on  the  shaft,  the  pin  in  the 
2ccentric  lever,  and  the  levers  on  the  rock-shaft ;  the  required  lift  of 
ihe  valves  may  be  adjusted  by  changing  the  position  of  the  eccentric 
pin. 

The  trip,  or  rock-shaft  is  a  wrought  iron  shaft  moving  in  solid  bear- 
ings on  the  lower  steam  chest,  and  is 'fitted  with  substantial  proiec-  « 
lions  commensurate  with  similar  ones  on  the  lifter  rods,  which  when 
in  motion  elevate  and  depress  the  valves,  operating  in  the  same  way 
*.s  the  large  rock-shafts.  The  rock-shaft  is  fitted  with  apertures  for 
the  insertion  of  the  starting  bar,  which  in  starting  has  to  overcome 
Jhe  weight  of  the  valves,  lifter-rods  and  their  connections. 

DUTLBS  TO  MARINE  AND  OTHER  ENGINES. — Among  the  varied. 


MACHINISTS   AND    ENGINEERS5    DEPARTMENT.      37S 

tagks  that  devolve  on  the  engineer,  none  of  them  are  of  more  impor* 
tance  than  the  imperative  watchfulness  required  to  see  that  all  tb« 
parts  of  the  engine  are  properly  adjusted,  fitted,  and  regulated;  thatf 
everything  is  kept  in  efficient  order ;  that  there  is  neither  dangerous; 
looseness  or  extreme  tightness  about  the  keys,  nuts,  bearings,  etc.  Iir 
the  event  of  the  crank-pin  heating,  apply  a  mixture  of  tallow,  leadi- 
filings,  and  black  lead,  or  sulphur,  black  lead,  and  oil.  In  steamu 
vessels,  the  crank-pin  and  the  pillow-blocks  are  the  points  most  liable 
to  heat.  The  latter  may  be  treated  with  the  cooling  compound  else- 
where mentioned,  or  water  mixed  with  Bath  brick  dust,  or  pulverized 
pumice  stome,  may  be  poured  in  through  the  holes  in  the  bearings. 
In  trouble  caused  by  grit,  the  application  of  concentrated,  potash  lye, 
and  subsequent  lubrication,  has  good  effect. 

If  delayed  in  port,  the  piston  should  be  removed  and  examined,  and 
the  faces  of  the  rings,  where  they  compose  the  joints  with  the  flange 
of  the  piston-head  and  follower-plate,  tried,  and  accurately  fitted, 
by  regriuding,  etc.,  and  the  spring-packing  properly  adjusted.  The* 
tightness  of  the  repairs  may  be  tested  by  the  admission, of  steam,  th« 
use  of  the  indicator,  and  a  few  turns  of  the  engine:  The  steam  chest 
should  be  uncovered,  the  valves,  seats,  etc.,  examined,  and  any  varia- 
tions from  truth  corrected  by  careful  fitting  and  scraping,  and  tha 
proper  amount  of  lead  imparted  to  the  valves,  by  placing  the  crank: 
on  the  top  and  bottom  centres,  adjusting  the  go-ahead  gear  in  proper- 
place,  in  order  to  determine  whether  or  not  the  valves  open  and  closer 
at  the  proper  time. 

The  link-motion  should  be  inspected  and  all  derangements  adjusted",,, 
repaired  and  corrected.    The  valves  of  the  air-pump  should  be  exam- 
ined as  opportunity  offers,  and  all  necessary  repairs  effected^  the 
cover  must  be  taken  off  and  the  bucket  elevated  for  this  express  pur- 
pose.   The  screw-shaft  should  be  kept  true,  and'  great  care  taken  tx>« 
guard  against  the  glands  or  any  other  parts  becoming  damaged  or 
seriously  deranged  in  any  way.    Close  and  frequent  inspection  should 
be  made  of  the  condenser,  which  should  be  tested  by  removing  the  < 
openings  and  pouring  in  cold  water;  and;  should  any  ooze  out,  the  de- 
ficient tubes  should  be  either  repaired  or  renewed?    The  condition  of: 
the  vacuum  may  be  ascertained  by  the  vacuum  guage  connected  wrflfc, 
the  condenser.    If  derangement  exists,  search  out  and '  rectify  linen 
cause.    If  the  temperature  of  the  hot-well'  exceeds  100°,  add  'more  inh- 
jeofcion  water.    Test  the  joinings  of  the  parts  connected  with  the  con- 
denser with  a  lighted  lamp  or  candle;  if  the  union  is  imperfect,  the: 
flame  will  be  inhaled  by  the  internal  suction.    Make  thorough  work: 
in  searching  out  leaks,  and  repair  them  well  whenever  they  are  dis- 
covered.   The  entrance  of  air  into  the-  condenser  and  its  connections, 
can,  when  ascertained,  be  stopped  for  a  while,  by  entering  in  thin 
wedges,  or  using  some  of  the  numerous  impervious  compositions;, 
noted  in  this  work.    In  the  event  of  leakage  into  the  condenser,  it  is* 
useful  occasionally  to  admit  water  through  the  aperture.    Instance*, 
have  happened  where  water-tight  tanks- have  been1  fabricated  (during; 
long  voyages  at  sea)  between  the  side-  keelsons^  in  cases  where  the 
condenser  had  become  inadequate  to  perform  its  use  through  corro- 
sion, or  otherwise,  thereby  submerging  the  air-pumps  and  condenser 
in  a  reservoir  of  water  supplied  by  the  ocean,  excluding  the  air,  and! 
finding  its  way  into  the  leaks,  assisting  the  injection  water  in  condens* 
lag  the  steam \  the  aperture  oi  the  iiLJectian^eock  being  partly  shut,  to 


"376       MACHINISTS   AND   ENGINEERS'  DEPARTMENT. 

conform  to  the  amount  of  internal  leakage.  In  the  event  of  a  violent 
*torm  imparting  a  rolling  motion  to  the  vessel,  and  consequent  irregu- 
jarity  in  the  movement  of  the  engines,  owing  to  the  alternate  elevation 
•aad  depression  of  the  wheels  or  propeller,  the  machinery  is  liable  to 
>>e  stopped  by  a  surplus  of  water  in  the  condenser,  and  in  all  such 
eases  the  supply  of  injection  water  should  be  curtailed.  As  oppor* 
timity  offers  during  occasional  detentions,  search  out  and  close  all 
leaks  connected  with  the  injection-cock  or  air-pump,  which  may  cause 
the  condenser  to  fill  with  water,  causing  much  delay  and  annoyance 
in  starting  the  engine.  Whenever  this  is  anticipated,  the  sea-cock 
;  should  be  shut  at  the  same  time  the  injection-cock  is  closed.  When 
the  indications  of  the  steam  gauge  exhibit  any  excess  of  pressure  over 
the  atmosphere,  raise  the  valves  and  permit  the  steam  to  flow  through 
the  pipes  into  the  cylinder,  to  expel  the  air,  heat  the  cylinder,  and 
prevent  the  liquefaction  of  the  steam  on  the  starting  of  the  engine. 


up.  Previous  to  starting  an  engine  which  has  been  stopped  for  some 
time,  you  should,  as  a  precaution  against  danger,  work  the  engine  a 
-few  turns  with  the  starting  bar,  and  warm  the  cylinder  by  letting  in 
'fite&m.  Lubricants  should  not  be  applied  to  the  cylinder  or  valves 
until  after  the  engine  is  started  up  and  the  drip-cocks  closed,  other- 
wise waste  is  sure  to  result  from  the  expulsion  of  a  portion  of  the  oil  or  tal- 
low through  the  drip-cocks.  On  the  production  of  steam  equivalent  to 
produce  a  vacuum,  and  work  the  air-pumps,  the  injection-cock  should 
be  slightly  opened,  the  eccentric-hook  disconnected,  and  the  valves 
moved  alternately  hither  and  thither,  with  the  starting-bar,  or  the 
link,  as  either  is  convenient,  in  order  to  effect  an  interchanging  move- 
ment in  the  piston.  The  engine  should  then  be  finally  tested  by 
"  turning  over"  three  or  four  times  for  the  purpose  of  making  sure 
that  all  is  right,  and  everything  trim  for  the  anticipated  voyage ;  after 
which,  if  everything  ^  correct,  the  engine  is  brought  to  a  stand,  and 
-all  the  parts  lubricated  in  readiness  for  the  start. 

Previous  to  getting  under  way,  the  boilers  should  be  filled  with 

-  vrafcer  to  the  upper  gauge-cock.    This  can  be  easily  effected,  when  the 
txsiteTs  are  in  the  hold,  by  simply  opening  the  blow-cock,  and  the 
water  Vill  flow  into  the  boilers  by  gravitation,  through  the  vessel's 
Aottom,  from  the  sea.    In  boilers  otherwise  situated,  the  filling  may 
<be  performed  by  the  hand-force  pump,  or  a  pump  worked  by  a  donkey 

v  engine,  etc.    On  starting  the  fires,  sliahtly  elevate  the  safety  valve,  in 

order  to  permit  the  air  to  escape  from  the  boilers ;  but  on  the  emission 

~  of  steam, which  indicates  the  complete  expulsion  of  the  air,  close  them 

••  at  once.     In  stopping  an  engine,  shut  off  the  steam,  open  the  furnace 

•  doors,  close  the  damper  in  the  chimney,  curtail  the  supply  of  injec- 
tion-water, work  the  valves  by  hand,  and  unship  the  eccentric.     To 
back  or  reverse  an  enqine  fitted  with  the  link-motion,  all  that  is  requisite 
Is  to  change  it  to  the  reverse-motion ;  but  where  only  one  eccentric  is 
available,  shut  off  the  steam,  throw  the  eccentric  hook  out  of  gear, 
:and,  with  the  starting-bar,  apply  the  steam  to  the  other  end  of  the 
gpiston. 

ON  MARINE  AND  OTHER  BOILERS.— In  steam  vessels,  it  is  neoea- 
^ary,  in  order  to  maintain  a  proper  equilibrium,  that  the  boilers 
•<liotild.be  placed  equidistant  from  the  keelsons  on  either  side  ;  any 


MACHINISTS    AND    ENGINEERS'   DEPARTMENT.         377 


378      MACHINISTS   AND    ENGINEERS7   DEPARTMENT. 

4etf bociou  from  perfect  truth  in  this  arrangement  entails  much  trow 
Die  in  adjusting  the  proper  balance  of  the  ship.  To  this  end  they 
ought  to  be  secured  by  rigid  fastenings  to  the  hull,  with  the  lower 
face  of  the  boilers  and  the  extension  of  the  flues  ranging  or  conform- 
ing with  the  load  line  in  each  direction.  In  some  places  it  is  usual  to 
place  them  on  a  substantial  platform  composed  of  3  inch  plank  over 
the  keelsons,  on  which  the  boilers  are  placed,  the  planks  being  pre-» 
viously  coated  to  a  depth  of  1^  inches  or  more,  with  a  tenacious  mixture^ 
composed  of  drying  oil  and  whiting,  which  affords  a  hard  impervious' 
protection  to  the  boiler  against  water  and  rust.  Another  way,  which 
has  the  advantage  of  presenting  an  opportunity  for  making  incidental 
repairs,  consists  in  placing  the  boilers  on  cast  iron  saddles  attached  to 
the  boiler  supporters.  Boilers  should  be  properly  protected  by  a 
proper  clothing  of  non  conductors,  such  as  asbestos,  hair  felt,  &c.,  cov- 
ered with  a  lagging  of  wood  ;  or  some  of  the  other  materials  elsewhere 
noted  in  this  work,  may  be  used  instead.  Marine  boilers  demand  the 
greatest  attention  and  care  in  repairing,  testing,  cleaning,  blowing  off  A 


GANG  OF   STEAM  BOILERS  PROPERLY  SET. 

and  water  supply.  Especial  care  should  be  used  at  all  times  to  keep* 
the  brine  at  a  low  degree  of  strength  when  sea  water  is  used,  by  blow- 
ing off  every  two  hours  at  least,  frequently  testing  the  strength  of 
the  brine  by  the  saline  hydrometer,  an  instrument  constructed  to 
indicate  by  gradations  the  number  of  ounces  of  salt  held  in  solution  in 
each  gallon  of  water.  Sea  water  contains  3.03  parts  of  its  weight  in/ 
saline  matter,  or  nearly  1  Ib.  in  every  33  Ibs.  of  water,  and  saturation 
is  complete  when  it  contains  36.37  parts.  When  by  evaporation  the 
proportion  of  salt  increases  to  4  Ibs.  in  33  Ibs.  of  water,  the  formation 
of  scale  is  imminent,  and  should  be  guarded  against  by  blowing  off, 
and  the  repletion  of  the  supply  by  additional  fresher  water.  While  in 
port,  as  opportunity  offers,  the  hand-hole  plates  above  the  furnaces 
ought  to  be  removed  in  order  to  permit  the  removal  of  any  saline 
deposits  on  the  crowu  sheet,  and  as  dampness  is  inimical  to  the  inte- 
rior of  the  boiler,  the  bottom  hand  hole  plates  should  also  be  removed 
when  a  long  detention  is  anticipated,  in  order  to  permit  the  water  to 
drain  off,  and  air  to  circulate,  so  as  to  dissipate  any  dampness,  which 
otherwise  might  result  in  the  rapid  oxidation  of  the  boiler  plates.  If 


MACHINISTS    AND    ENGINEERS'   DEPARTMENT.       37$ 

this  cannot  be  done,  it  is  better  to  keep  the  boilers  full,  rather  tham 
have  them  partially  so. 

Scale  is  not  the  only  danger  to  be  guarded  against,  for  it  is  attested 
by  the  reports  of  the  Hartford  Steam  Boiler  Inspection  and  Insurance 
Company  that  almost  half  of  the  sum  total  of  imperfect  boilers 
became  such  by  reason  of  the  deposit  of  sediment,  there  being  no  less 
than  40  per  cent,  more  hazardous  cases  resulting  from  the  deposit  of 
sediment  causing  the  plates  to  be  burned,  or  overheated,  than  from 
scale  when  hard  water  is  used,  the  lime,  etc.,  held  in  solution  is  pre' 
cipitated,  and  the  deposit  becomes  concreted,  forming  a  terrible 
obstacle  to  t  :e  transmission  of  the  heat  to  the  water,  and  rendering 
the  plates  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  fire  liable  to  be  burnt  through 
or  seriously  weakened. 

In  setting  stationary  boilers,  it  would  be  well  to*  .have  an  air  space 
of  2  or  3  inches  intervene  between  the  boiler  and  the  surrounding 
brick  work,  and  fire-clay  is  every  way  preferable  to  mortar  for  the 
entire  surroundings.  Arrangements  should  be  made  to  have  con- 
venient apertures  at  suitable  places  in  order  to  permit  access  for  the 
removal  of  dust,  soot,  ashes,  and  other  impediments  interfering  with  ^ 
the  effective  action  of  the  fire  on  the  lower  parts  of  the  boiler.  A 
good  way  of  setting  long  stationary  boilers  is  to  attach  cast-iron  knees 
to  tneir  middle  and  at  each  end,  having  them  about  12  feet  apart,  and 
placed  on  brick  foundations;  these  knees,  if  placed  on  substantial  rolls 
on  a  solid  seat,  would  ensure  ample  provision  for  the  contraction  and 
expansion  of  the  boilers,  as  well  as  prevent  all  strains  resulting  from 
unequal  settling. 

As  to  the  attachments  called  mud  drums,  past  experience,  has 
shown,  when  their  great  cost  and  short  duration  are  taken  into  account, 
that  the  benefits  to  be  derived  from  their  use,  are,  to  say  the  least, 
very  equivocal,  as  they  impart  but  a  slight  amount  of  heat  to  the  feed 
water,  retain  none  of  the  ruinous  carbonates  which  induce  scale  on 
the  boiler,  but  only  the  muddy  matter  held  in  suspension  in  the  water, 
while  the  cost  of  renewal  consequent  on  their  rapid  decay,  is  very 
heavy. 

CLEANING  BOILER  TUBES.— Weinlig  recommends  a  copper  pipe,  5 
millimetres  in  diameter,  tapering  at  one  end,  and  fitted  at  the  other 
with  a  flexible  india-rubber  tube,  by  which  it  can  be  connected  with 
the  steam-cock  of  the  boiler  when  required.  The  pipe  is  mounted  on 
a  3ft.  wooden  handle,  and  should  be  long  enough  to  reach  through 
the  fire-box.  In  use,  the  wooden  handle  is  held  firmly  under  the 
right  arm,  and  the  nozzle  of  the  pipe  introduced  an  inch  or  so  within 
the  tube  to  be  cleaned.  Steam  is  then  turned  on  through  the  india- 
rubber  tubing. 

STEAM-PIPE  JACKETING.— The  Stettin  Vulcan  Works  make  use  of 
wool  for  clothing  steam-pipes.  A  lead  cylinder  is  laid  around  the 
pipe,  and  the  space  between,  which  is  about  1^  inches,  is  filled  up 
firmly  with  wool.  The  lead  cylinder  being  drawn  back,  the  wool  as 
exposed  is  tied  down  with  wire,  and  finally  linen  is  sewed  over  the 
whole.  I 

CEMENT. — Sifted  peroxide  of  manganese  and  zinc- white,  equal  parts; 
mud  sufficient  soluble  glass  (commercial)  to  form  a  thin  paste.  Apply 
immediately.  This  cement  will  resist  a  red-heat,  water,  and  oils. 

FLANGES  TO  STAND  BRAZING. — Copper  1  lb.,  zinc  £  oz.,  lead  §  oz. 

GBDGE'S  METAL.— Copper  60,  zinc  38.2,  iron  1.8- 


$80    MACHINISTS  AND  ENGINEERS'  DEPARTMENT'. 


ENGINEERS'  TOOLS. — The  mechanical  appliances  represented  above, 
•hould  be  kept  within  easy  reach,  and,  if  arranged  on  a  vertical  table 
cf  thick  plank,  fitted  with  recesses  conformed  and  adapted  for  the  re- 
ception of  each  tool,  it  would  not  only  prove  a  great  convenience,  but 
ftltfc  a  striking  ornament  to  the  engine  room. 


MACHINISTS    AND    ENGINEERS*    DEPARTMENT.       3&lr 

FIRE  AND  WATERPROOF  CEMENT.— Pulverized  litharge  5  Ibg..  fin* 
Paris  white  2  Ibs.,  yellow  ochre  4  ozs.,  hemp  cut  into  shreds  *oz., 
mix  to  the  density  of  thick  putty  with  boiled  linseed  oil,  and  it  i* 
ready  for  use. 


MARINE  ENGINE  COUNTER,  CLOCK,  VACUUM  GAUGE,  AND  STEAM 
GAUGES. — THE  GAUGE  A,  B,  REPRESENTS  AN  ADAPTATION  APPLICA- 
BLE TO  LOCOMOTIVES  . — A,  SHOWS  THE  POINT  OF  CONNECTION  WITH 
BOILER,  B,  THE  SPIRAL  SPRING  AND  GRADUATED  SCALE. — The  above- 
cuts,  together  with  the  following  ones,  represent  a  Marine  engine 
•ounter  and  clock,  together  with  steam  and  vacuum  gauges  of  van* 
ins  kinds.  The  counter,  inclosed  in  an  annular  box  of  cast-iron,  con* 
arfns  a  mechanism  connected  by  suitable  attachments  to  the  engine, 
%hich  impart  such  a  correct  mechanical  movement  to  a  regular  series 
cf  figures  or  numbers  displayed  through  the  narrow  apertures  in  the 
dial,  as  to  exhibit  at  a  glance  the  exact  number  of  revolutions  per- 
formed by  the  engine.  The  steam  gauges  used  to  determine  the 
pressure  of  steam,  operate  either  by  the  use  of  mercury,  thin  metallic 
tubes,  or  springs,  and  several  of  these  adaptations  are  shown  in  the 
cuts  we  present.  As  used  on  stationary  boilers,  for  it  cannot  be  used 
on  locomotives,  the  mercurial  gauge  is  formed  of  an  upright  glass 
tube  connected  with  a  cistern  of  mercury,  resting  on  a  round  piece  of 
steel  or  gutta  percha;  on  marine  engines  it  consists  of  an  inverted  si- 
phon or  tube  bent  in  the  form  of  a  U,  with  one  end  exposed  to  the, 
pressure  of  the  steam,  and  the  other  open  to  the  atmospbore.  When/ 
JBot  pressed  by  steam,  the  mercury  will  remain  level  in  both  arms  of 


382      MACHINISTS   AND    ENGINEERS*    DEPARTMENT. 


the  syphon,  but  a.s  the  pressure  rises,  it  will  act  with  increasing  foff£ 
on  thennercury  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  steam,  and  forces  it  to 
rise  in  the  limb  exposed  to  the  air,  and  will  determine  the  amount  oC 
the  steam  pressure  over  and  above  that  of  the  atmosphere,  the  indi-  • 
cations  being  exhibited  on  the  gauge,  the  gradations  on  which  are  one 
inch  in  length,  consequently  every  inch  that  the  mercury  rises  in  the 
tube  shows  a  change  of  2  inches  in  the  level  of  the  mercury  contained 
in  the  tube,  and  each  inch  of  mercury  on  the  scale  represents  1  Ifc.  - 
pressure  of  steam. 


Many  excellent  gauges,  nearly  thirty  in  all,  are  in  use  in  the  United 
States  and  Canada,  among  others,  that  of  the  American  Steam  Gauga 
•Co.  and  Bourdon's,  or,  as  it  is  better  known  in  the  United  States, 
Ashcroft's  gauge,  frdm  the  name  of  the 
manufacturer,  the  interior  of  which  is 
shown  in  the  cut.  It  is  composed  of  a 
ttiin  circular  metallic  tube,  a,  closed  at  one 
end;  the  steam  from  the  boiler  is  intro- 
duced at  &.  The  result  of  the  steam  pres- 
sure on  the  interior  of  the  circular  tube  is  j 
to  enlarge  the  circle  more  or  less  in  pro- ' 
portion  to  the  pressure,  the  elastic  proper- 
ties of  the  metal  operating  to  contract  the 
circle  to  its  original  position  on  the  re- 
moval of  the  pressure.  The  sealed  or 
closed  end  of  the  tube  is  united  by  the  link 
c,  to  the  lever  d,  which  operates  a  seg- 
mental  gear  or  rack  placed  at  the  upplr 
end  in  gear  with  a  pinion,  which  imparts 

movement  to  a  hand  on  a  graduated  circular  scale  as  shown  in  th* 
cuts  above. 

The  same  invention,  when  fitted  to  a  condenser  by  the  pipe  A,  see 
cut  above,  will  indicate  the  state  of  the  vacuum  in  a  condensing  en- 


MACHINISTS  AND  ENGINEERS'  DEPARTMENT.     383 

gino.  In  this  case  the  indications  are  caused  by  exterior  atmospheric 
pressure,  the  gauge  is  graduated  to  extend  only  from  1  Ib.  up  to  15 
Ibs.,  and  the  entire  action  is  reverse  from  that  of  steam,  as  described 
above.  On  the  opening  of  the  tap  C,  as  the  vacuum  enlarges,  the 
band  will  be  flattened  and  the  hand  cm  the  dial  will  move  in  an  oppo- 
site direction  from  that  caused  by  the  action  of  steam. 

CAKE  OF  STEAM  GAUGES. — A  little  glycerine,  or  sulphuric  acid, 
placed  on  the  surface  of  the  mercury  will  keep  a  mercurial  steam 
gauge  in  good  order,  by  lubricating  both  glass  and  metals,  preventing 
their  adhesion. 

STEAM  PIPES. — Ruptured  steam  pipes  may  be  repaired  by  heating 
and  then  soldering  them.  The  condensation'  of  steam  in  subterranean 
pipes  may  be  prevented  by  enclosing  the  pipe  inside  a  larger  one,  and 
filling  the  vacant  space  between  the  two  with  a  mixture  of  clay  and 
teased  hair,  or  plaster-ot'-Paris. 

SUBSTITUTE  FOR,  FIRE  CLAY  FOR  BOILKU  FURNACES. — To  common 
«arth  well  mixed  with  water,  add  a  smell  quantity  of  rock  salt  and 
allow  it  to  stand  until  the  salt  dissolves,  then  use  as  fire  clay.  It  au- 
awers  very  well. 

WATCH  THE  LEAKS. — Engineers  should  keep  a  vigilant  eye  for 
leaks,  weak  spots,  &c.,  and  apply  a  prompt  remedy  by,  repairing  all 
defects  without  delay.  See  that  all  the  seams  and  rivets  are  tight, 
-and  the  tubes  and  tube  sheets  in  good  order.  Leaky  tubes  should  be 
replaced  or  stopped,  by  driving  a  tightly  fitting  wooden  plug  at  each 
«nd  and  binding  them  by  means  of  an 'iron- rod  passing  through  the 
tube  fitted  with  broad  washers  at  each  end,  and  screwed  up  tight  with 
the  "  Strong  cement  for  Steam  «7omf*"(see  page  422)  plentifully 
smeared  on  under  each  washer.  A  mirror  or  bright  tin  plate  may  be 
used  advantageously  to  reflect  light  into  obscure  places  while  repair- 
ing boilers.  To  apply  a  hard  patch,  describe  the  proper  size  on  the 
plate  to  be  patched,  allowing  from  Ij  to  1^  ins.  of  good  iron  beyond 
the  weak  part  or  flaw.  Now  drill  the  rivet-holes  through  the  patch, 
•and  chip  its  edges.  Next,  apply  the  patch  to  the  boiler,  and  mark 
the  places  for  corresponding  holes  by  means  of  a  small  brush  with 
white  paint,  drill  the  holes  in  the  shell  with  a  brace  and  ratchet  drill, 
remove  the  deficient  part  of  the  shell,  rivet  on  the  patch,  or  secure 
well  with  tap  bolts:  A  soft  patch,  is  applied  over  the  weak  part  of  the 
shell  (after  being  previously  coated  with  an  intermediate  layer  of 
good  cement),  being  fitted  in  the  same  manner  as  above  described, 
and  secured  to  its  place  by  means  of  nuts,  bolts,  and  washers,  with  a 
twist  of  hemp  under  the  washers  and  bolt  heads  to  ensure  security, 
and  prevent  leakage.  The  first  method  is  decidedly  the  best  for  parts 
of  the  boiler  exposed  to  the  direct  action  of  the  fire. 

DIMENSIONS:  AND  CAPACITY  OF  FIRST  CLASS  AMOSKEAG  STEAM 
FIRE-ENGINE.  (See  Cut.)  Height  from  floor  to  top  of  smokb 
stack,  8ft  10 ins.  Length  over  all,  including  tongue,  23 ft.  Sins. 
Diameter  of  boiler,  2  ft.  8  ins.  Diameter  of  pumps,  4£  ins.  Stroke  of 
same,  8  ins.  Diameter  of  steam  cylinders  7|  ins.  Number  of  dis- 
tharge  gates,  2.  Capacity  in  gals,  per  minute,  900  gals.  Weight, 
6,500  Ibs.  The  boiler  is  an  upright  tubular,  very  simple  in  its  com- 
bination, and  for  strength,  safety,  durability,  and  capacity  lor  genera- 
ting steam,  unsurpassed.  Starting  with  cold  water  in  the  boiler,  a 
Working  head  of  steam  can  be  generated  in  less  than  five  minute* 
Vom  the  time  of  kindling  the  fire.  The  engine  "  Ainoskeag, "  owned 


884      MACHINISTS    AND    ENGINEERS'  DEPARTMENT. 

by  the  city  of  Manchester,  has  played  two  streams  in  three  minute* 
and  forty  seconds  after  touching  the  match  ;  at  the  same  time  draw- 
ing her  own  water.  The  following  instructions  to  engineers,  given 
by  the  Amoskeag  Co.,  for  running  their  engine,  may  be  easily  adapted 
to  efficient  use  in  the  case  of  steam  fire-engines  constructed  by  other 
bailders. 

1.  In  laying  your  fuel  in  the  fire-box,  first  lay  plenty  of  shavings, 
then  light,  dry  kindling  wood  ;  filling  your  furnace  full,  which  in 
most  cases  will  give  you  strain  enough,  by  the  time  you  arrive  at  a 
fire  to  commence  work,  provided  you  light  your  fire  when  you  leave 
the  house,  which,  as  a  general  rule,  is  advisable.  2.  If  you  use  coal, 
be  careful  to  keep  a  thin  fire,  and  not  clog  it.  Use  the  coal  in  as 
large  lumps  as  possible,  arad  do  not  break  it  up  unnecessarily  in  the 
furnace.  The  best  coal  for  this  purpose  is  a  clean  Cannel,  in  lumps, 
free  from  dirt  and  dust.  3.  Be  careful  not  to  let  so  much  fire  collect 
under  your  engine  as  to  burn  the  wheels  :— when  working  for  a  long 
time  at  fires  there  is  a  danger  of  doing  so'.  4.  The  Amoskeag  boiler 
is  an  upright  tubular  body,  with  a  submerged  smoke-box  and  fire-box 
surrounded,  with  water.  When  the  engine  is  running,  the  water  in 
the  boiler  should  be  carried  so  as  to  stand  at  the  third  gauge-cock, 
which  is  placed  near  the  top  of  the  tubes,  and  it  should  never  be  car- 
ried below  the  centre  of  the  tubes  at  which  point  the  first  gauge-cock 
is  looated.  5.  Avoid  using  an  unnecessary  amount  of  steam.  The 
tendency  is  to  use  more  tlitm  is  required.  From  sixty  to  eighty 
pounds  is  as  much  as  you  will  generally  require  to  do  good  fire  duty. 
6  The- engine  nas  two  suitable  feed  pumps  for  supplying  the  boilef 
T,-itK  water.  One  of  these  pumps  should  be  worked  nearly  all  the 
time,  in  order  to  keep  the  water  in  the  boiler  at  the  proper  height, 
«nd  to  preserve  an  even  pressure  of  steam.  7.  If  brackish  water  is 
vged  for  supplying  the  boiler,  or  if  the  boiler  becomes  foul  from  long; 
use  without  being  blown  off,  it  is  likely  to  foam  or  prune.  If  foam- 
ing occurs  while  the  engine  is  working  at  a  fire,  it  may  be  prevented 
or  diminished  by  opening  the  surface  blow-off  cock,  which  is  located 
between  the  third  and  fourth  gauge-cocks,  and  blowing  off  from  the 
surface  of  the  water  the  scum  and  oily  matter  which  usually  causes 
foaming.  In  this  way  the  difficulty  can  generally  be  prevented  with- 
out any  serious  interruption  in  the  working  of  the  engine.  While 
doing  this  the  water  in  the  boiler  should  be  carried  as  high  as  the 
surface  blow-off  cock.  After  the  engine  is  returned  to  the  house,  tie 
water  should  be  blown  entirely  out  of  the  boiler  through  the  biow-ofi* 
c-ock  near  the  bottom  of  the  boiler,  with  a  steam  pressure  of  about 
twenty  pounds,  and  the  boiler  refilled  with  iresfc  water.  This  pro* 
cess  may  be  repeated  until  the  boiler  becomes  clean.  8.  The  pump 
upon  the  Amoskeag  Engine  is  a  vertical  double-acting  pump,  with  the 
cylinder  surrounded  by  a  circular  chamber,  divided  vertically  outside 
the  cylinder,  so  as  to  answer  both  for  the  suction  and  discharge  cham- 
bers of  the  pump.  It  has  a  separate  valve-plate  at  the  top  and  bottom 
of  the  pump,  carrying  both  the  suction  and  discharge  valves  ;  the  suc- 
tion vaive  upon  one  side  of  the  plate,  and  the  discharge  valve  upon 
«h»  other.  Each  of  these  valve  plates  can  be  reached  by  taking  off 
«*»«.  top  and  bottom  of  the  pump,  which  is  so  constructed  as  to  ba- 
r*!S.dily  removed.  The  discharge  and  suction  parts  of  the  water- 
saiainber.  surrounding  the  cylinder,  are  connected  by  a  valve  in  the 
•»oitical  partition,  which  is  called  a  reJief  valve.  9.  With  a  single- 


HACHINISTS  AND  ENGINEEE*'  DEPARTMENT. 


fllf, 


I 


•38$        MACHINISTS    AND    ENGINEERS*    DEPARTMENT. 

long  line  or  hose,  it  may  be  necessary  to  open  your  relief- valve  a  littl^ 
"but  at  «.ll  omer  times  be  particular  to  have  it  closed,  except  whet  f 
you  want  to  feed  your  boiler  without  forcing  any  water  through  tin; 
hose.  10.  In  the  smoke-pipe,  directly  over  the  upper  flue-sheet,  a? 
valve  is  placed,  which  is  called  the  variable  exhaust- valve.  By  oper« 
ating  this  valve  the  size  of  the  aperture  for  the  escape  of  the  steam 
'  from  the  steam-cylinder  is  increased  or  diminished,  thus  regulating 
the  draft  of  the  chimney  and  the  heat  of  the  fire.  This  valve  should  be 
closed,  when  the  engine  J.a  started,  until  a  fair  working  pressure  of  steant 
is  obtained,  after  which  it  may  be  opened.  11.  Care  should  be  taken  to 
.have  the  suction  hose  and  its  connections  air-tight.  12.  Open  you* 
•discharge-gate  and  cylinder  drain-cock  before  starting  your  engine. 
13.  Don't  let  the  flues  of  your  engine  get  filled  up.  14.  Be  particular 
to  ta»ve  your  engine  off  the  springs  before  you  work  it,  and  to  place  it 
on  the  springs  again  when  done  working.  15.  "With  a  long  line  of 
hose  on,  be  particular  to  open  your  throttle  gradually.  If  you  open 
it  too  suddenly  you  are  liable  to  burst  your  hose.  16.  The  pumps  of 
the  engine  should  be  examined  at  least  once  in  six  months,  to  see  that 
All  the  valves  and  parts  are  in  good  condition.  17.  The  pump-valves 
should  have  a  lift  of  about  three-eighths  of  an  inch,  and  the  suction 
valves  the  same  lift.  18.  The  inside  of  the  steam-cylinders  and  the 
steam-valves  should  be  oiled  or  tallowed  always  after  the  engine  has 
worked  at  a  fire,  and  as  often  as  may  be  necessary  to  keep  them  well 
lubricated  ;  and  all  the  parts  of  the  engine,  where  liable  to  friction, 
should  be  kept  well  oiled.  Be  particular  to  use  an  abundance  of  oil 
on  the  "  link-block,"  where  there  is  more  friction  than  in  any  other 
part.  18.  The  running-gear  and  every  part  of  the  engine  liable  to  dis- 
arrangement or  accident,  should  be  thoroughly  examined  every  tima 
after  the  engine  has  been  out  of  the  house,  whether  it  has  been 
worked  at  a  fire  or  not.  19.  Whenever  your  engine  is  repaired,  try 
to  help  to  do  it  yourself,  as  by  so  doing  you  get  a  familiarity  with  i1 
that  you  cai»  in  no  other  way  obtain. 


AUTOMOBILE  FIRE  ENGINE. 

Built  for  the  City  of  New  York,  by  tbe  Nott  Fir*  Engine  Co.,  cl 
Minneapolis,  Minn.  Capable  of  maintaining  a  speed  of  30  miles  per 
hour,  and  can  go  at  the  rate  of  45.  Weighs  16,000  pounds,  and  is 
propelled  by  a  110-horse  power  gasoline  motor.  Time  to  build,  LAI 
Says.  Cost,  820,000. 

A  FIREMANS'  RESPIRATOR.— Consisting  of  an  iron  cylinder  at- 
tached to  a  mask  packed  with  cotton  wool,  glycerine,  and  charcoal. 


MACHINISTS  AND  ENGINEERS'  DEPARTMENT.      38? 


fag  been  exhibited  in  London,  by  Prof.  Tyndall;  the  wearer  is  enabled 
to  remain  in  an  atmosphere  of  smoke,  which  he  could  not  otherwise 
bear,  for  a  quarter  or  half  an  hour. 

AN  IMPROVED  FIRE  ESCAPE, — called  the  Jeuks-Richard's  fire- 
ladder  has  been  adopted  in  many  places.  It  is  a  permanent  fixture  ^a 
the  building,  and  is  attached  to  the  cornice  of  'the  house,  and  comes 
down  when  the  alarm  is  sounded,  giving  the  inmates  a  chance  to  > 
escape  when  other  exits  are  cut  off,  and  the  firemen  a  plan  to  ascend' 
with  the  hose,  and  fight  the  fire  at  the  greatest  possible  advantage. 

CAST  IRON  FOR  STEAM  CYLINDERS— very  hard. — Scrap  iron,  300  Ibs. 
Scotch  pig,  401bs.,  charcoal  pig,  No.  5,  40  Ibs.  Another,  very  strong 
and  close  Drained.  Scrap  iron,  100  Ibs.,  Scotch  pig,  100  Ibs.,  charcoal  pig 
No.  5,  80  Ibs. 

Cylinders  should  be  bored  in  a  vertical  position  whenever  possible, 
removing  a  heavy  cut  at  first  and  gradually  cutting  to  within  1-32  of 
an  inch  of  the  finished  size,  and  finally  brought  down  to  the  proper 
dimensions  by  removing  the  balance  with  a  cutter  embodying  in  its 
form  a  combination  of  the  circular  and  diamond  pointed  shapes. 
Some  manufacturers  used  a  mass  of  lead  (cast  in  tue  cylinder  to  give 
it  the  proper  shape)  together  with  emery  and  oil  between  the  abrading 
surfaces,  for  finishing  their  cylinders,  the  latter  revolving  slowly,  wliila 
the  operation  continues. 

RULE  FOR  THICKNESS  OF  STEAM  CYLINDER.— Divide  the  diameter 
of  cylinder  plus  2  by  16,  and  deduct  a  1-100  part  of  the.  diameter  from 
the  quotient ;  the  remainder  will  be  the  proper  thickness.  The  depth 
of  the  piston  rings  should  be  equal  to  |  the  diameter  of  the  cylinder, 
and  the  follower  plate  should  be  equal  in  thickness  to  the  cylinder. 
The  following  table  gives  very  good  results. 


DIAMETER  OF 
CYLINDER. 

THICKNESS. 

DIAMETER  OF 
CYLINDER. 

THICKNESS. 

6 
8 
9 
10 
11 
12 

5-8 
11-16 
3-4 
13-16 
7-8 
15-16 

14 
15 
17 

IS 
19 
21 

1 
11-16 
11-8 
13-1S 
11-4 
13-8 

Add  to  the  foregoing  dimensions  1-16  of  an  inch,  when  the  piston 
•peed  exceeds  300  feet  per  minute. 

PISTON  RINGS.— To  prevent  rapid  wear  in  the  cylinder,  the  piston 
rings  should  be  formed  of  some  material  softer  than  the  latter  ;  cast 
iron  is  much  used  for  this  purpose,  as  it  soon  attains  a  fine  smooth 
surface,  has  great  endurance,  and  generates  little  friction.  They 
should  be  fitted  >vith  judgment  so  as  to  move  easily  between  the  flange 
of  the  piston-head  and  the  follower  plate,  in  order  that  they  may 
.adjust  or  conform  themselves  to  any  slight  unevenness  in  the  cylinder. 
To  open  piston  rings,  hammer  them  lightly  with  a  round  pene  ham- 
mer all  round  their  inside  faces,  and,  as  they  become  leaky  aii4 
•corrode  around  the  edges,  remove  them  from  the  cylinder  and  trua 
them  up  in  a  lathe,  grind,  and  refit  th«m  to  the  flange  and  follower 
Piston  springs  are  in  the  great  majority  of  cs^es,  too  stiff  and 


388        MACHINISTS   AND   ENGINEERS'    DEPARTMENT 

• 

rigid  to  render  them  in  every  way  satisfactory,  as  in  many  instance* 
they  entail  great  loss  of  power  by  unnecessary  pressure  against  the 
cylinder.  Steam  pistons  possess  the  merit  of  low  first  cost,  very  little 
friction,  simplicity,  and  after  a  proper  adjustment  by  a  competent 
person,  give  very  little  trouble.  Solid  pistons  produce  scarcely  any 
friction,  and  when  the  cylinder  is  bored  perfectly  true  through  it« 
whole  length,  produce  excellent  results,  if  they  are  properly  fitted,  but 
are  irreparable  when  they  become  worn  out,  as  they  cannot  be  re-ad- 
justed. The  piston  speed  of  small  stationary  engines  ranges  from  200 
to  250  feet  per  minute;  average  speed  225  feet,  that  of  large  stationary 
engines,  275  to  350  feet;  average  speed  312  feet;  that  of  Corliss  Engines 
400  to  500  feet  per  minute;  average  speed  400  feet;  that  of  locomotives 
and  Allen  engines  600  to  800  feet  per  minute,  average  700  ;  that  of 
engines  of  river  steamers  400  to  500  feet,  average  450  feet ;  that  of 
ocean  steamers  400  to  600  feet,  average  500  feet.  If  the  piston  rod 
glands  become  tight,  ease  by  revolving  and  sliding  the  gland  back  and 
forth  on  the  rod^  applying  a  little  oil  "to  the  rod  at  the  same  time.  la 
trueing  up  a  gland,  it  should  be  chucked  in  the  lathe  by  the  flange,  tot 
ensure  the  turning  of  the  bore  and  outside  diameter  at  one  chucking, 
without  depending  on  the  accuracy  of  a  mandrel.  Piston  rods  should 
be  secured  to  the  cross  head  by  means  of  a  well  fitted  key  instead  of 
by  the  screw  and  jam  nut  arrangement  used  in  many  cases.  Piston 
rods  are  usually  made  of  wrought  iron,  but  steel  is  to  be  preferred  or» 
account  of  its  great  endurance,  small  friction,  and  extreme  hardnes^ 
which  render  it  less  liable  to  be  fluted  by  grit  in  the  packing,  &c.  The 
cross-heads  should,  in  every  case,  possess  the  essential  element  of 
strength,  to  resist  strains  of  every  kind,  and  also  capacious  anti- 
friction bearings  on  the  guides,  to  resist  the  wear  and  tear  of  protracted 
running. 

The  guides  should  be  powerful  enough  to  withstand  any  degree  of 
speed  without  springing  or  flinching  from  duty  in  the  slightest  degree, 
and,  on  horizontal  engines  they  should  be  made  moveable,  so  that 
they  may  be  easily  replaced  by  others  when  they  become  worn  out 

Crank  pins  are  usually  made  of  wrought  iron,  although  for  obvi- 
ous reasons,  steel  is  the  best  material.  Owing  to  excessive  f  notion  the- 
crank  pins  are  liable  to  become  hot,  and  for  this  reason  they  should 
receive  close  attention  from  the  engineer.  A  mixture  of  a  little  sul- 
phur in  oil,  or  plumbago  and  oil,  forms  a  good  cooling  lubricant  in 
euch  emergencies.  The  diameter  of  the  crank  pin  should  be  from  .2 
to  .25  that  of  the  cylinder,  and  the  length  from  .275  to  .35  the  diameter 
of  the  cylinder,  or 'for  a  cylinder  12  ins.  in  diameter  and  30  ins.  stroke, 
the  length  of  crank  pin  should  be  3.3  to  4  ins.,  and  the  diameter  2.4 
io  3  ins. 

The  Steam  chest  should  be  capacious  enough  io  furnish  sufficient 
f^'^i  for  the  valve  gear  arrangement,  the  transmission  of  steam  to 
fTx,  piston,  &c.,  but  not  unnecessarily  large  to  induce  weakness  in  the 
farts,  loss  of  heat  by  radiation,  &c. 

Valve  rods  should  be  constructed  of  substantial  material  to  with- 
stand the  varied  strains  to  which  they  are  liable  ;  they  are  usually  of 
wrought  iron,  but  steel  is  to  be  preferred  for  various  reasons.  The. 
length  of  valve  rods  may  be  correctly  ascertained  by  placing  the  valve 
in  a  central  position  over  the  steam  ports,  and  the  rocker  or  interme- 
diate bearings  in  a  vertical  position,  and  measuring  from  the  centrt 
•*  the  roeker  stud  to  the  centre  of  the  valve. 


MACHINISTS   AND    ENGINEERS*   DEPARTMENT.        889 

The  dimensions  of  the  rock  shaft-bearing,  should  be,  if  subjected  ta 
*  twisting  movement,  or  torsion,  £  or  £  the  diameter  of  the  engine 
shaft,  if  not  so  subjected,  £  the  diameter  of  the  engine  shaft  will  an- 
swer. The  diameter  of  the  rock  shaft  pin  ought  to  be  no  less  than 
the  valve  stem ;  but  if  it  is  an  overhanging  pin,  it  ought  to  be  from  J 
to  1^  the  diameter  of  valve  stem. 

Eccentric  rods  should  be  substantially  made  of  good  stock,  and  suf- 
ficiently stiff  and  rigid  to  withstand  the  munifold  strains  to  which 
they  are  liable,  without  being  subjected  to  extreme  vibration,  so  that 
a  steady  movement  may  be  imparted  by  the  eccentric  to  the  valve, 
and  they  are  all  the  better  for  being  long. 

To  adjust  an  eccentric  rod,  place  the  crank  at  the  end  of  its  stroke, 
and  the  eccentric  at  right  angles  with  the  crank.  Now  regulate  the 
eccentric-straps  and  adjust  the  rocker  in  a  vertical  position.  The 
proper  length  of  the  eccentric  may  now  be  determined  if  the  eccen- 
tric-catch conforms  itself  to  the  rocker  pin,  without  moving  the  latter 
to  either  side.  The  length  of  the  eccentric  rod  is  the  space  between 
the  centre  of  the  crank  rfhaft  and  that  of  the  rocker  pin,  when  the  lat- 
ter is  vertical. 

The  eccentric  rod  may  be  attached  by  turning  the  end  of  the  rod  ta- 
pering, to  adapt  it  to  a  suitable  hole  in  a  sleeve  cast  on  the  forward 
straps  of  the  eccentric,  to  which  it  may  be  secured  by  a  proper  key  ; 
another  way  is  to  insert  the  rod  into  the  sleeve  and  fasten  with  jam 
nuts.  The  diameter  of  the  eccentric  rod,  should,  at  the  neck,  equal 
that  of  the  valve  rod,  and  should  increase  J  inch  to  the  foot  of  the 
eccentric. 

The  pillow  blocks  or  main  bearings  of  an  engine  should  be  the  ob- 
jects of  close  attention  on  the  part  of  the  engineer,  as,  owing  to  tha 
excessive  friction  and  wear  and  tear  at  this  vital  point,  they  are  liable 
to  become  hot  and  cause  much  trouble.  In  such  emergencies  make 
Use  of  the  following 

COOLING  COMPOUND  *OR  HEAVY  BEARINGS.— Tallow,  2  Ibs  ; 
plumbago,  6  ozs  ;  sugar  of  lead,  4  ozs  ;  melt  the  tallow  with  gentle 
neat,  and  add  the  other  ingredients,  stirring  until  cold.  For  lubricat- 
ing gearing,  wooden  cogs,  &c. ,  nothing  better  need  be  used  than  a 
thin  mixture  of  soft  soap  and  black  lead.  The  following  processes 
will  prove  useful  to  engineers  and  machinists  in  many  cases  : 

To  PREVENT  SPERM  OIL  GUMMING. — The  addition  of  kerosene  oil 
will  greatly  assist  in  preventing  gumming  ;  rummage  100  parts  oil 
with  4  parts  chloride  of  lime,  ana  12  of  water  ;  now  add  a  small  quan- 
tity of  the  decoction  of  oak-bark  to  destroy  all  traces  of  gelatinous  mat- 
ter still  remaining,  and  allow  the  impurities  to  settle.  Next,  agitate  the 
clear  part  with  a  little  sulphuric  acid,  settle  once  more,  and"  wash  to 
remove  the  acid,  which  should  never  be  permitted  to  exist  in  any  oil 
ased  on  machinery.  If  oil  becomes  rancid,  boil  it  along  with  water  i 
and  a  little  bi-carbonate  of  magnesia  for  15  minutes  or  so,  until  it; 
loses  its  power  to  redden  litmus. paper. 

MACHINERY  LUBRICANTS.— A  patent  has  been  taken  out  in  France 
for  lubricants  compounded  as  follows  :  First,  graphite,  35  part*  ; 
talc,  25  ;  sulphur,  20  ;  wax  or  paraffin,  20.  Second,  graphite  30  pai*»\ 
bone-glue,  15  ;  water,  32  ;  sulphur,  12  ;  wax  or  paraffin,  11. 

The  Crank  shaft  being  the  primary  agent  for  the  transmission  ot 
power,  should,  in  all  cases  be  well  proportioned  in  order  to  perform 
•  duty  and  resist  the  shearing  and  twisting  strains  \ 


S90        MACHINISTS    AND    ENGINEERS*    DEPARTMENT. 

ft  is  subjected.  They  are  often  made  of  cast  iron  smoothly  turned, 
and  should  be  5-10  the  diameter  of  the  cylinder  for  efficient  use,  of 
the  diameter  of  the  shaft  may  be  4-10  that  of  the  cylinder  when 
wrought  iron  is  used,  and  the  length  of  the  crank  shaft  bearing  should 
be  equal  to  1^  times  its  diameter,  or,  for  massive  machinery,  twice 
the  diameter  "will  be  required. 

The  area  of  the  crank  at  the  central  part  should  be  exactly  that  of 
the  shaft  ;  the  thickness  should  be  equivalent  to  that  of  the  shaft 
journal  multiplied  by  6  :  the  thickness  of  the  web  of  the  cranfc 
should  be  equivalent  to  3  times  the  diameter  of  shaft  journal.  Ihe 
boss  of  the  crank,  if  of  wrought  iron,  should  be  equivalent  to  the  di- 
ameter of  the  shaft  journal  or  pin  multiplied  by  4,  and  if  of  cast  iron, 
should  equal  double  that  of  the  shaft  journal/aiid  the  depth  should 
vqual  that  of  the  crank  journal  multiplied  by  7.  The  diameter  of 
wank  at  the  pin  should  equal  twice  the  diameter  of  pin,  and  its  depth 
at  the  same  part  should  be  equivalent  to  the  diameter  of  the  pin  mul- 
tiplied by  12. 

The  Governor  should  be  kept  perfectly  clean  and  free  from  all 
gummy  deposits,  or  old  dry  packing  which  may  retard,  or  impede  it* 
movements  in  any  way  whatever.  The  best  of  oil  only  should  be  used,, 
and  thorough  duty  should  be  performed  when  the  governor  spindle- 
"works  through  stuffing  bores,  to  have  the  boxes  carefully  packed  at 
tegular  intervals. 

To  FIKD  THE  DIAMETER  OF  GOVERNOR-SHAFT  PULLEY. — Multi- 
ply the  number  of  revolutions  of  the  engine  by  the  diameter  of  the- 
engine  shaft  pulley  and  divide  the  product  by  the  number  of  revolu- 
tions of  the  governor. 

To  FIND  THE  DIAMETER  OF  THE  ENGINE  SHAFT  PULLEY. — Multi- 
ply the  revolutions  of  the  governor  by  the  diameter  of  the  governor 
shaft  pulley,  and  divide  the  product  by  the  number  of  the  revolutions- 
of  the  engine. 

FACTS  FOR  STEAM  USERS. — A  fair  horse-power  in  a  steam  boiler 
is  an  evaporation  of  301bs.  of  water  per  hour,  from  a  temperature  of 
212°.  Ten  pounds  of  water,  evaporated  from  a  temperature  of  212a 
for  each  pound  of  coal,  is  high  economy.  Six  pounds  is  fair  work, 
and  above  the  average.  Under  the  best  conditions,  a  horse-power  can 
be  had  from  an  evaporation  of  less  than  201bs.  of  water.  Every 
owner  of  steam  power  should  weigh  the  water  evaporated  in  hi* 
boiler,  and  also  the  coal  used  to  produce  such  evaporation.  A  meas- 
ure of  some  kind  that  will  show  the  weight  of  feed  water,  passing 
Into  a  boiler  with  accuracy,  should  be  used  with  all  boilers  when 
economy  is  an  object.  It  should  be  the  duty  of  a  fireman  to  kno^r 
the  weight  of  the  fuel  used  as  well  as  the  weight  of  water.  No  man 
has  any  right  to  find  fault  with  the  economy  of  his  boiler  until  he 
knows  the  amount  of  water  evaporated  per  hour  and  the  amount  of 
coal  required  to  produce  the  same.  In  getting  the  evaporative  power 
of  a  steam  boiler,  it  is  necessary  that  the  steam  should  be  dry  to  get 
a  fair  result.  A  boiler  that  carries  out  water  with  its  steam  may  shew 
a  large  apparent  evaporation,  but  the  steam,being  wet,  is  of  less  valut 
in  the  engine.  A  boiler  should  give  dry  steam  in  all  cases.  Super- 
heating is  beneficial.  Boilers  that  are  overworked,  necessarily  wasta 
fuel.  A  boiler  taxed  to  its  full  evaporative  power,  evaporates,  say, 
5  Ibs.  of  wjrter  to  1  lb.  of  coal :  double  the  size  of  the  boiler,  and  you 
will  get  the  same  amount  of  steam,  with  probably  30  to  50  per  ceuk 


i2-in.  Outside 
Passer. 


i4-in.  Outside 
Freight. 


8,    «S8^ 


i5~in.  Outside 
Passer. 


i6-in.  Outside 
Passer. 


i8-inch, 
6  drivers, 
Freight. 


i8-inch, 
6  drivers, 
Anthracite. 


iS-inch, 

6  drivers, 

Br'd  Gauge. 


OO 


O    oo 


u*       M  oo  N       M      4^ 

M  *vj    Jfc.  *O     •        •        C     M  • 

^1        v|    o          00^1    O\M-**-        0 


9-in.  Outside 
Passer. 


i2-in.  Outside 
Passer. 


i4-in.  Outside 
Treight. 


i5-in.  Outside 
Passer. 


r    "8 

-5 

w      • 


i6-in.  Outside 
Passer. 


Q    CK    -K  M          So          HU^ 

M  ^J  ^O  VJ     M     .  M 

<?»Mlni/,        o»       So-          C-ttW*. 


i8-inch, 
€  drivers. 
Freight. 


i8-inch, 

6  drivers, 

Anthracite. 


2u  *  1  IP-  §!; 


i8-inch, 

6  drives, 

v  Broad  9uag«. 


392      MACHINISTS    AND    ENGINEERS*    DEPARTMENT. 

teas  fuel.  A  boiler  may  generate  steam  with  great  economy,  and, 
owing  to  the  steam  being  wasted  by  improper  application  to  the  work, 
through  the  engine,  the  result  in  work  be  very  unsatisfactory,  and 
the  boiler  blamed  unjustly.  When  steam  is  used  expansively,  under 
the  best  conditions,  it  will  give  double  the  power  for  the  same  amount 
\of  steam  that  can  be  got  from  it  worked  at  full  stroke,  or  without 
5  expansion.  When  steam  is  used  in  non-condensing  engines  at  low 
pressure,  the  loss  is  great,  owing  to  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere 
(15  Ibs. )  being  a  greater  percentage  of  a  low  than  of  a  high  pressure. 
fThe  lo*s  for  piston — not  boiler — pressures  is  as  follows  : — 
•Atmosphere.  Pressure  steam.  Total  pressure  on  piston.  Loss. 


15  

.  10  

25  

3-5 

15 

15    .  .  .  . 

30  

1-2 

15 

20 

35  

3_7 

15  

25  

40  

3-8 

15  

30  

45  

3-9 

15  

35  

50  

S-10 

15  

45  

60  

1-4 

15  

.  .    60  

75  

1-5 

15  .. 

71  

90  

1-6 

15.  

90  

105  

1-7 

The  steam,  made  from  a  certain  weight  of  water,  used  through  a 
non-condensing  engine,  at  10  Ibs.  per  square  inch  pressure  above  the 
atmosphere,  without  expansion,  would  give  only  about  one  quarter 
the  power  that  would  be  got  from  the  same  steam  if  used  at  75  above 
the  atmosphere,  and  with  the  best  expansion.  Boilers  can  scarcely 
be  too  large  ;  20-horse  power  can  be  obtained  in  a  40-horse  power 
boiler  more  economically  than  in  a  20-horse  power.  John  B.  Koot. 

A  prominent  authority  verifies  the  astounding  statement,  that  a 
record  of  BOILER  EXPLOSIONS  that  have  occurred  in  the  United  States 
•extending  over  about  five  years,  shows  the  appalling  results  of  nearly 
600  explosions,  about  3,000  killed,  over  1,000  wounded,  besides  an  im- 
mense loss  of  property.  Fire  insurance  'does  not  cover  the  loss  by 
explosion,  unless  fire  occurs,  and,  even  then,  litigation  often  ensues." 
The  infliction  of  this  terrible  aggregation  of  suffering,  loss  of  life  and 
property,  might  have  been  averted  by  the  exercise  of  common  sense 
in  the  selection  of  boilers  which  possess  the  elements  of  strength  and 
endurance  in  such  a  degree  as  to  put  the  question  of  safety  beyond  a 
peradventara.  Setting  aside  the  beclouded  theories  of  self-styled  ex- 
perts, regarding  certain  explosive  gases,  mysterious  chemical  changes, 
electricity,  etc.,  in  the  boiler,  the  simple  truth  is  reached  when  we 
.  come  down  to  the  solid  basis  of  cause  and  effect;  and  in  every  case 
of  boiler  explosion  we  will  find  that  the  true  cause  is  simply  imperfect 
strength  ir«  the  boiler.  The  deficiency  may  arise  from  defective 
materia^  or  'aulty  workmanship,  overheating,  overpressure,  orer- 
nnng,  bucras  of  the  boiler-plates,  caused  by  shortness  of  water,  or 
the  tolerance  of  scale  or  deposits  in  the  boiler,  or  by  criminal  negli- 
gence.  These  are  only  different  forms  or  phases  of  expressing  the 
truth  j.vst  noted,  and  whoever  constructs  r.  boiler  absolutely  free  from 
liability  M  destructive  explosion,  has  achieved  an  engineering  triumpa 
rhich  entitles  him  to  recognition  as  a  public  benefactor.  As  one  who 
"-,  Cognizant  of  much  suffering  arising  from  the  causes  enumerated 
V0ov«,  the  \rriter  can  truthfully  aver  that  he  is  moved  by  no  motive* 


MACHINISTS    AND    ENGINEERS'    DEPARTMENT.       393 
•tiaer  than  those  of  humanity  in  making  favorable  mention  of 


THE  ROOT  WROUGHT  IRON  SAFETY  BOILER. 

These  boilers,  made  by  the  Abendroth  GE  Root  Manufacturing  Com- 
pany of  New  York,  a'"e  constructed  on  correct  scientific  principles,  on 
what  is  known  as  the  sectional  system,  being  composed  entirely  of 
wrought  iron  lap-weld°.d  tubes,  which  are  tested  to  a  pressure  of  500 
Ibs.  per  square  inch,  and  are  said  to  be  capable  of  withstanding  two 
or  three  timet>  that  pressure.  These  tubes,  4  inches  in  diameter,  and 
10  feet  in  length,  are  lap-  welded,  consequently  they  have  no  rivetted 
joints,  thereby  enhancing  their  strength.  The  boiler  is  constructed 
entirely  of  these  uniform  and  interchangeable  parts,  perfectly  free 
jrom  expcosion,  easily  enlarged  or  diminished  in  size,  all  parts  being 
easily  accessible  for  cleaning,  repairs,  or  removal;  also  economical, 
durable,  and  a  rapid  generate*-  of  steam.  Of  these  boilers,  nearly 
50.000  horse-power  have  been  sold,  and  are  giving  good  satisfaction  to 
the  purchasers. 

The  next  cut  represents  the  Renshaw  Cast  Iron  Sectional  Bo'ler, 
constructed  by  Dougherty  &  Broome,  New  York,  which  embodies,  the 
possession  of  a  perfect  constellation  of  most  excellent  requirements 
as  a  generator  of  steam  power,  among  others,  complete  immunity 
from  explosion.  As  to  the  capacity,  etc.,  of  this  boiler,  limited  space 
wi''  only  permit  the  insertion  of  the  following  valuable  testimony,  by 
Dr.  P.  H.  Van  der  Weyde,  the  able  editor  of  th^  Manufacturer  and 
Builder  :  "  We  have  had  the  pleasure  of  witnessing  the  rapidity 
with  which  steam  may  be  raised  in  a  boiler  of  this  kind,  in  one  rated 
at  25  horse-power,  at  the  establishment  of  Messrs.  Dougherty  & 
Broome,  143-147  Bant  street,  New  York.  The  fire  was  started  white 


S94      MACHINISTS    AND    ENGINEERS'   DEPARTMENT. 

cold,  and  m  half  an  hour  there  wag  a  pressure  of  70  pounds,  and  tha 
engine  started.  As  the  water  used  was  for  the  purpose  of  measure- 
ment inclosed  in  a  tank  of  2  by  4  feet,  and  3  feet  high, we  could  easily 
measure  the  evaporating  capacity,  and  found  it  to  be  600  pounds  per 
hour,  for  which  duty  the  furnace  consumed  50  pounds  of  coal.  Thie 


THE  RENSHAW  CAST  IRON  SECTIONAL  BOILER. 


I 


\ 


the  testimony  of  the  engineer,  that  £  ton  of  coal  was  used 
per  day  of  ten  hours,  while  it  showed  the  capacity  of  the  boiler  and 
furnace  to  be  the  evaporation  of  12  pounds  of  water  with  1  pound  of 
toal.  This  is  a  very  high  ratio,  when  we  consider  that  theoretical 

„  maximum,  when  no  heat~whatsoever  is  lost,  is  14  pounds  of  water  for 
1  of  coal,  (see  "Theory  of  Steam -Engineering,"  on  page  26  of  our 
February  number  for  this  year)." 

Proportion  of  Land  Boilers — For  each  nominal  horse  power  a 
land  boiler  requires  :  1  cubic  foot  of  water  per  hour;  1  square  yard  of 
heating  surface  ;  1  square  foot  of  fire  grate  surface  ;  1  cubic  yard 
capacity;  28  square  inches  of  flue  area;  18  square  inches  of  area  over 
bridge  wall. 

JTW  Cylindrical  Double-fined  Boilers—  Length  multiplied  by  diam- 
eter divided  by  6  =  nominal  horse  power. 

Tubular  Boilers  require  for  each  Horse  Poivcr — 1  cubic  foot  of 
water  per  hour;  10  square  feet  of  heating  surface;  ^  square  foot  fire 
grate;  10  square  inches  sectional  area  of  tube;  13  square  inches  flue 
area;  7  square  inches  chimney  area;  8  cubic  feet  total  boiler  capa- 
city; 2  cubic  feet  of  steam  room.  Diameter  of  tubes  l-30th  of  their 
length. 

The  number  of  square  feet  of  heating  or  flue  surface  required  to 
evaporate  a  cubic  foot  of  water  per  hour,  which  is  equivalent  to  an 

-   actual  horse  power,  is  in  different  boilers  as  follows :  Cornish  Boiler*, 

I*  70  square  feet;  Land  and  Marine  Boilers,  8  to  11  square  feet;  Z/oco- 

§  motive  Boilers,  5  to  6  square  feet. 


MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  &c.,  RECEIPTS.       395 
RTTLE  TO  FTND  THE  WEIOHT  ;NECESSARY  TO  PUT  oar  A  LEVER 

•fcTHEIT  THE  AKEA   OF   VALVE,    LEVES,    &C.    AKE    KNOWX. — Multiply 

the  area  of  valve  by  the  pressure  in  pounds  per  square  inch ;  multiply 
this  product  by  the"distance  of  the  lever  from  the  fulcrum  ;  multiply 
the  weight  of  lever  by  one-half  its  length  (or  its  centre  of  gravity)  ; 
then  multiply  the  weight  of  valve  and  stem  by  their  distance  fron* 
the  fulcrum  ;  add  these  last  two  products  together,  and  subtract  theifr 
sum  from  t'ue  first  product,  and  divide  the  remainder  by  the 
ot  lever  ;  the  quotient  will  be  the  weight  of  the  ball.— fioper. 

Kx AMPLE; 

Area  of  valve  7  sq.  in.    .     601bs.  91bs.  6  Ibs. 

Pressure   .    .    60  Ibs.  7  in.  12  in.  3  in. 

420  Ibs.        108  Ibs.         ISlbau 
Fulcrum  3  in Sin,  ISlbs. 

1260  12$  Ibs. 

Length  of  lever  24  in.    .      126  Ibt*. 

24)  1134  Ibs. 
Weight  of  lever  9  Ibs. 

47.251bs.  weight  of  balL 
Weight  of  valve  and  stem  6  Ibs. 


.— Duties  to  machinery  when  in  Harbor  before 
getting  under  Steam,  by  a  Practical  Engineer.  When  an  engineer 
takes  charge  of  the  machinery  of  a  boat  his  first  attention  ought  to  be 
directed  to  his  boilers;  for,  being  the  source  of  power,  they  may  be- 
come the  source  of  great  danger  if  not  properly  looked  after.  In  in- 
specting the  boilers,  three  things  require  special  attention.  1.  Th» 
tnickness  of  the  plates  above  the  fires  and  other  places  of  importance. 
2.  The  state  of  the  stays.  3.  The  position  of  the  gauges,  viz. :  thd 
•water  gauge,  cocks,  and  glass  water  gauges.  Respecting  the  first,  a 
general  plan  is  to  drill  a  small  hole  through  the  plate,  and  thus  find 
its  real  thickness,  for  it  is  often  the  case  that  a  boiler  plate  may  be 
far  thicker  at  the  seams  than  in  the  middle.  At  the  seams  the  proper 
thickness  cannot  always  be  correctly  ascertained  on  account  of  th« 
way  in  which  they  are  caulked,  by  which  a  plate  may  appear  aon* 


396         MACHINISTS,    ENGINEERS',    AC.,    RECEIPTS. 

tiderably  thicker  than  it  really  is.  After  the  hole  has  served  itg  pu*» 
pose,  it  is  tapped  and  plugged  tightly  up  again. 

As  regards  the  stays,  they  require  a  great  amount  of  attention;  fol 
they  are  very  apt  to  get  eaten  through,  near  the  plates  by  oxidation. 
The  gauge  cocks  are  often  placed  just  above  the  highest  row  of  tubes. 
Now  this  is  a  very  dangerous  practice,  for  it  is  possible  for  an  engineer 
to  lose  his  water,  let  him  be  ever  so  careful,  when  great  danger  fol- 
lows; while  if  the  cocks  were  placed  a  little  higher,  the  loss  of  water 
•l^rould  not  be  attended  by  so  much  danger. 

<  Duties  to  Machinery  when  Steam  is  getting  up.  The  water  in  the 
boiler  when  the  fires  are  lighted  ought  to  be  just  above  the  bottom  of 
the  glass.  In  a  large  or  even  moderate  sized  boiler,  the  water  will 
expand,  and  there  is  also  not  so  much  water  to  heat  at  first;  and  we 
know,  by  reason  of  conduction  and  radiation,  that  small  bodies  of 
water  are  heated  comparatively  more  rapidly  than  larger.  On  first 
lighting  the  fires  they  should  not  be  kept  too  large,  but  just  sufficient 
to  cover  the  bars.  A  large  thin  surface  of  fire  is  found  to  be  the  most 
effective  in  getting  under  way.  When  the  fires  are  lighted,  and  the 
eteamer  is  going  on  a  long  voyage,  it  is  tvie  practice  to  rub  the  polished 
parts  of  the  engine  over  with  a  composition  of  tallow  and  white  lead. 
This  prevents  any  rust  forming  on  the  rods,  etc.,  from  water  dropping 
on  them  which  may  have  been  used  for  keeping  the  bearings  cool. 

The  discharge  valve  is  also  opened  now,  or  else  on  starting  tho 
engine  something  will  give  way.  Several  accidents  have  occurred  by 
neglecting  to  do  this. 

The  safety  valves  are  now  to  be  inspected  to  find  whether  they  are 
last  or  corroded  to  their  seatings.  If  so,  they  must  be  freed  and  made 
ready  to  act  before  starting. 

It  is  a  good  plan  and  one  much  practised,  to  give  the  engines  a  good 
blowing  through  whilst  the  steam  is  getting  up.  This  warms  the 
cylinder  and  tries  any  joints  that  may  have  been  made  since  the 
engines  were  worked  last.  It  also  saves  the  steam,  for  if  not  done  now 
(when  the  engine  is  starting)  a  great  amount  of  steam  is  wasted  ia 
heating  the  cylinder,  instead  of  imparting  its  elastic  force  to  the 
piston. 

Starting  the  Engines.— AM  steamships  are  now  fitted  with  the 
double  eccentrics  or  "  Stephenson's  Link  Motion,"  by  which  the 
•ngines  are  started,  or  rather  by  this  the  slide  valves  are  under  the 
control  of  the  engineer,  and  can  be  worked  back  or  forward  as 
command  is  given,  by  either  a  bar,  lever,  or  generally,  in  large 
engines,  by  a  wheel. 

The  handles,  by  which  steam  is  turned  on  and  off,  with  the  injec- 
tion cock  handles,  are  placed  beside  the  wheel,  so  that  one  man  can 
now  generally  start  the  engine. 

Some  large  ships  have  a  steam  piston  so  fitted  that  it  rises  and  falls 
by  steam  admitted  above  or  below,  thus  raising  or  lowering  the  link  h* 
its  motion.  This  is  what  is  called  steam  starting  gear,  and  is  very 
liandy  when  the  link  is  of  great  weight.  There  is  always  hand  gear 
fitted  as  well,  which  can  be  used  in  cases  of  emergency.  In  giving  in- 
jection to  a  common  condenser,  it  should  be  opened  just  after  the 
Bteam  is  turned  on  to  the  cylinders,  or  else  if  going  slowly  the  con- 
denser may  become  too  full  of  vrater,  and  the  air  pump  not  able  to 
perform  its  work  properly. 


MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  AC.,  RECEIPTS.       397 

In  starting  an  engine  that  is  fitted  with  surface  condensers,  the  only 
filing  requiring  attention  before  going  on,  is  to  open  both  valyei 
communicating  with  the  pea  above  or  below  the  condenser,  viz.: 
suction  to  the  circulating  pumps  and  delivery  from  them. 

Duties  when  under  Steam. — Always  keep  looking  at  the  water 
level.  This  is  sometimes  a  source  of  great  anxiety,  for  some  boilers 
require  the  water  to  be  kept  at  a  certain  fixed  level.  If  water  be  too 
high  they  will  not  keep  steam,  and  if  too  low  the  steam  will  generate 
'ioo  fast. "  Some  boilers  require  a  high  water  level :  nothing  but  practice 
can  determine  it.  A  safe  rule  is  to  keep  the  glass  gauge  about 
two  thirds  full.  Blowing  out  marine  boilers  should  be  practised  every 
two  or  three  hours.  Practice  has  proved  this  to  be  a  good  rule,  on 
account  of  not  so  much  water  oeing  required  to  be  blown  out  at  a  time, 
aud  therefore  the  steam  pressure  id  not  reduced  to  a  very  great 
extent. 

In  steamers  fitted  vith  surface  condensers,  a  little  sea  water  is 
supplied  to  the  boiler  to  make  up  for  the  loss  in  the  steam  pipes, 
•jackets,  caps,  in  the  condensers,  etc.  This  in  time  may  injure  the 
boiler  if  not  counterbalanced  some  way  or  other.  The  general  rule  is 
to  blow  out  about  two  or  three  inches  every  twelve  hours.  The  water 
in  these  boilers  is  never  allowed  to  reach  more  than  2-30  of  saltness. 

The  fires  require  much  consideration.  A  furnace  is  best  worked 
with  a  heavy  fire,  but  not  too  heavy,  thicker  towards  the  back  than 
front.  The  fresh  fuel  should  be  placed  in  front,  and  then  pushed 
back  after  being  thoroughly  heated.  Every  four  hours  (at  the  least) 
the  fires  should  be  cleaned  out,  as  large  clinkers  or  refuse  of  the  coals 
adhere  to  the  fire  bars  and.  prevent  the  draught,  making  the  fires 
burn  dead,  especially  towards  the  back  of  the  furnace.  Sometimes 
the  slag  will  stick  fast  to  a  furnace  bar,  aud  cannot  be  removed  from 
it.  This  causes  a  great  amount  of  trouble,  as  in  trying  to  remove  it, 
the  fire  bars  are  occasionally  pulled  out  of  their  places,  and  the 
greater  part  of  the  fire  falls  through  causing  much  waste  and  often 
danger. 

The  principal  thing  to  pay  attention  to  when  the  engin^  are  under 
steam,  is  to  keep  the  bearings  cool  and  the  glands  steam  tight.  Oil 
is  generally  used  for  keeping  bearings  cool,  but  when  larger  ones  are 
working  hard,  a  jet  of  water  is  kept  playing  on  them.  This  is 
found  to  answer  very  well  when  the  water  is  tunied  on  before  they 
have  had  time  to  heat.  It  should  not  be  used  after  they  have  beea. 
allowed  to  get  heated,  for  it  may  crack  them  by  too  sudden  contraction. 
SA  good  stream  of  water  should  be  kept  running  on  the  thrust  block 
from  the  time  of  starting,  this  with  the  tallow,  which  is  always  put 
into  it  before  starting,  keeps  this  all  important  bearing  cool.  The  cap 
of  the  thrust  block  requires  great  care  in  adjusting.  If  screwed  on  too 
tightly  it  is  almost  sure  to  heat,  or  fire  as  it  is  termed,  and  if  notf 
screwed  down  sufficiently  tight  the  unpleasant  jumping  shake  so  often' 
experienced  in  our  screw  ships  is  sure  to  follow.  The  packing  of  the- 
gland  at  the  stern  tube  should  be  well  looked  after,  and  kept  quite 
tight  and  well  tallowed. 

In  paddle-wheel  steamers  there  is  frequently  not  sufficient  care 
taken  about  the  outer  bearings  of  the  shafts,  lii  very  few  ships  are 
proper  means  provided  for  lubricating  these  important  parts.  At  the 
•ommencement  of  a  voyage,  the  outer  bearings  are  well  tallowed,  and 


598      MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  &c.,  RECEIPTS. 

often  put  down,  screwed  up,  and  left  to  look  after  themselves  as  besl 
they  may.  Very  few  ships,  indeed,  being  provided  with  tubes  lead- 
ing down  from  the  paddle  boxes  to  the  oil  holes  of  the  blocks,  or  ia 
which  means  are  provided  for  thsir  lubrication. 

The  coals  in  the  bunkers  must  be  carefully  watched,  to  prevent 
spontaneous  combustion.  The  stoppers  over  the  noles  should  be 
kept  open  as  much  as  possible,  and  care  taken  not  to  keep  damp  coala 
longer  in  the  bunkers  than  can  be  avoided;  for  it  is  only  damp  coal' 
that  is  liable  to  spontaneous  combustion. 

In  new  fast  running  engines,  castor  oil  is  a  very  good  thing  to  use  on 
first  starting.  When  new  brasses  have  been  fitted  into  the  bearings, 
till  they  form  a  good  bearing  for  themselves,  the  same  should  be 
used.  It  appears  to  have  a  much  finer  body  in  it  to  lubricate  than 
other  oils  have.  The  difference  in  the  cost  of  ie  oil  is  not  very  much, 
coarse  cantor  oil  being  very  little  dearer  than  good  machine  oil. 

Duties  to  Machinery  when  the  Ship  has  arrived  in  Port. — The  white 
lead  and  tallow  should  be  rubbed  off  with  a  piece  of  oily  waste,  and 
then  the  bright  work  of  the  engines  will  give  no  trouble  by  rusting. 
The  engines  should  have  a  good  blowing  through  to  drive  out  all 
water  in  the  condensers,  then  the  Kingston's  valves  communicating 
with  the  sea,  should  be  shut,  next  open  the  condenser  dram  cocks, 
which  let  out  all  water  left  in  them.  This  is  allowed  to  run  into  tho 
"bilges,  which  can  be  pumped  out  by  the  donkey  pump,  or  the  hand 
"pump  if  no  steam  is  left  in  the  boilers. 

Some  engineers  always  blow  out  their  boilers  after  steaming,  others 
io  not,  the  latter  only  let  the  fires  out  and  shut  the  valves  in  the 
fiteam  pipes;  both  plans  have  their  advantages  and  disadvantages. 
Perhaps  the  majority  keeps  the  water  in  the  boilers,  only  blowing  out 
when  repairs  or  an  examination  of  the  boiler  is  required.  An  engineer 
should  always  examine  for  himself,  whether  all  the  fires  are  properly 
out,  and  not" take  the  word  of  the  stokers  for  it.  A  great  amount  of 
•damage  may  be  done  by  the  fire  not  being  properly  put  cut  in  tho 
•ash  pits.  A  frequent  practice  is  to  get  a  heap  of  hot  ashes  together 
and  dash  some  water  over  it.  This  makes  it  black  outside  and  leaves 
it  burning  inside.  The  ashes  should  rather  be  spread  out  evenly,  and 
ihe  water  thrown  over  gradually  and  gently,  to  put  out  the  fire 
•effectually,  and  to  create  as  little  dirt  and  dust  as  possible. 

To  find  the  amount  of  Lap  on  the  Slide  Valves  (before  setting  the 
slides).  Take  a  batten  of  wood,  and  place  it  on  the  cylinder  slide 
face  at  right  angles  to  and  over  the  ports.  Mark  off  on  it  the  edgea 
of  the  steam  and  exhaust  ports  with  a  square  and  scriber.  By  placing 
this  on  the  face  of  the  slide  valve,  the  amount  of  lap  can  at  once  b» 
found. 

To  Set  the  Slides.— Put  the  jriston  at  the  top  or  bottom  of  its  stroke. 
If  the  eccentric  is  rightly  fixed  on  the  shaft,  simply  fasten  the  slide 
•valve  on  the  spindle  with  the  required  amount  of  lead.  Then  t'ira 
the  engine  to  the  other  end  of  its  stroke,  and  see  if  the  lead  is  tho 
-same;  or  in  some  engines  more  lead  is  given  at  the  bottom  than  av  the 
top  (as  in  vertical  engines).  If  the  engine  is  fitted  with  the  link 
motion,  the  reversing  eccentric  is  then  connected  and  the  valve  tested 
in  like  manner.  Also  with  the  link  motion,  the  slide  rod  is  placed  in 
the  centre  of  the  link;  and  although  the  position  of  the  eccentrics  ou 
She  shaft  ought  to  destroy  any  motion  of  the  valve,  yet  there  is  a  littla 


MACHINISTS    AND    ENGINEERS'   DEPARTMENT.       899 

with  a  short  link.  This  is  tested  to  see  that  the  steam  ports  are  always 
closed  and  thus  the  engines  can  be  stopped,  even  if  the  mil  pressure 
of  steam  be  admitted  to  the  back  of  the  slide  ty  the  stop  or  tkrottl« 
valves. 


A 


PORTABLE  CONDENSING  STEAM  ENGINE. 

The  above  cut  represents  a  portable  condensing  steam  engine  of  • 
pattern  quite  common  in  Europe.  A,  Working-beam:  &,  Steam  pis- 
ton; C,  Cylinder;  c,  Upper  Steam  port;  a,  Lower  Steam  port;  E, 
Throttle  valve ;  F,  Fly-wheel;  i.  Crank;  K,  fc,  Eccentric  and  eccentric 
rod  for  working  the  steam  valves;  ?,  Steam  valve  and  valve  casing;  n, 
Condenser;  o,  Injection  cock;  <?,  Hot  well;  r,  Shifting  valve  to  cause 
a  vacuum  in  the  condenser  previous  to  starting  the  «ngine;  S.  S,  Feed 
pump:  t,  Cold  water  pump  for  supplying  the  condenser  cistern;  w, 
Governor;  V,  Connecting  rod;  10,  Air  pump;  X.  X,  The  parallel  mo- 
tion; ?/,  Condenser. 

STERRO  METAL.— Copper,  55  to  60  parts,  zinc,  34 to  44  parts,  iron  9 
to  4  parts,  tin,  2  to  4  parts.  Sterro  Metal  is  used  for  the  pumps  of 
hydraulic  presses,  &c.  It  is  capable  of  withstanding  a  pressure  of 
from  43,000  to  85,000 per  square  inch. 

STEAM  FIRE  ENGINES  are  or  should  be  constructed  with  steel 
boilers  and  blast  tubes,  copper  tubes  and  large  water  spaces,  together 
with  a  good  tit  out  of  gauges,  safety  valves,  injectors,  &c.,  with  facility 
of  getting  up  steam  in  from  6  to  10  minutes  from  cold  water,  aa4  i» 


400      MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  &c.,  RECEIPTS. 

about  5  minutes  from  water  at  130°.  These  machines  as  now  con« 
structed  are  of  great  elegance  and  power,  some  of  them  having  pro- 
jected a  continuous,  solid  stream  of  water  over  300  feet,  through  100 
leet  of  hose,  fitted  with  l£  inch  nozzle.  Steam  pressure  about  80  Ibs. 
per  square  inch.  The  principle  is  that  of  a  steam  pump,  being 
fitted  with  the  usual  air  chamber  to  iuduce  a  continual  steam.  See 
i  diagram  of  fire  engine  with  horses  attached. 

PORTABLE  ENGINES  are  constructed  as  light  as  possible,  consistent 
•with  proper  strength  of  parts,  in  order  to  render  them  available  for 
easy  transportation.  Sometimes  they  are  mounted  on  wheels,  and 
are  in  quite  extensive  use  for  driving  light  saw-mills,  threshing, 
bri  ;k-making,  pumping,  chaff-cutting,  &c. 

CORNISH  ENGiNES.-Are  usually  single  acting  beam  engines  which  use 
the  steam  at  a  very  early  "cut  off,"  and  only  on  one  side  of  the  pis- 
ton, making  great  use  of  its  expansive  property,  and  are  used  entirely 
for  pumping  water  in  mines  and  cities.  Steam  is  used  in  effecting 
the  downward  movement  of  the  piston,  being  the  stroke  which  lifts 
the  water,  the  upward  movement  is  caused  by  the  weight  of  the  plun- 
gers, rods  &c.,  at  the  pump  end  of  the  beam.  Cornish  engines  are 
usually  very  massive  and  powerful,  but  the  first  cost  is  enormous, 
and  there  is  quite  an  outcry  against  them  in  some  places. 

In  the  line  of  pumping  machinery,  possibly  the  largest  engines  in 
the  world  are  those  doing  duty  at  Haarlem  Lake,  Holland.  The  en- 
gines, three  in  number,  drain  a  surface  of  45.230  acres,  an  average 
lift  of  the  water,  depending  on  the  state  of  the  tides,  being  16  feet. 
Each  engine  lifts  66  tons  of  water  per  stroke  to  a  height  of  10  feet ; 
when  pressed,  each  lifts  109  tons  to  that  height.  Running  economic- 
ally, each  lifts  75,000,000  Ibs.  of  water  1  foot  high  for  94  Ibs.  of  Welsh 
coaL  Diameter  of  cylinders  (annular  in  form),  12  feet,  with  inner 
cylinders  7  ft.  diameter. 

INSTRUCTIONS  TO  ENGINEERS  AND  FIREMEN  ON  LOCOMOTIVES. — 
Keep  the  fire  evenly  and  uniformly  spread  over  the  grate  without 
elevations  or  depressions.  Fire  from  large  coal,  as  it  leaves  wider 
openings  between  the  lumps  for  the  admission  of  air,  may  be  deeper 
than  when  the  coal  is  small  and  lies  close  together.  Remove  all 
incombustible  material  and  clinkers  from  the  furnace  as  soon  as  pos- 
eible,  they  prevent  the  draught  from  producing  proper  results.  The 
l)ulk  of  fuel  on  the  grate  should  always  be  m  proportion  to  the 
quantity  of  fuel  consumed.  The  dampers  in  the  front  and  rear  of 
the  ash-pan  regulate  the  draught  admitted  to  the  furnace,  and  require 
very  careful  attention,  as  the  stream  of  air  issues  with  a  velocity  of 
72  ft.  per  second  when  the  dampers  are  open  and  train  under  full 
headway.  At  a  speed  of  CO  miles  per  hour  the  pressure  of  the  cur~ 
rent  of  air  amounts  to  9  Ibs.  on  every  square  foot.  One  ton  of  bitumi- 
nous coal  requires  300,000  cubic  feet  of  air  for  its  combustion,  of 
which  100,000  is  required  to  consume  the  gases  evolved  from  it. 
Anthracite  coal  requires  310.480  cubic  feet  of  air  per  ton  for  its  com- 
bustion. It  burns  without  smoke,  requires  a  good  supply  of  oxygen 
and  intense  heat  to  burn  it,  but  makes  a  very  fierce  fire.  Good 
practice  requires  complete  combustion  of  the  carbon  and  hydrogen 
available  in  tne  fuel  ;  insufflcent  air  causes  a  dense  black  smoke  to 
issue  from  the  chimney,  and  the  loss  of  heating  effect,  and  too  much 
ju*,  lowers  the  temperature  o!  the  flame  and  dissipates  the  heat  Ol 


MACHINISTS,   ENGINEERS',   AC.,   RECEIPTS.        401s 

good  coal,  62.2  per  cent,  go  to  form  steam,  and  1  Ib.  will  in  good 
practice  evaporate  7|  Ibs.  of  water.  In  practice  the  greatest  evapora- 
tive power  of  1  Ib.  of  coke  is  9£  Ibs.  of  water,  in  common  practice  it- 
is  8J  Ibs.  and  78  per  cent,  of  its  products  go  to  form  steam,  22  percent, 
"being  lost  by  products  of  combustion,  ashes,  etc.  The  heating  power 
of  coke  as  compared  with  that  of  coal  is  in  the  proportion  of  about 
14  : 12.  The  temperature  produced  by  the  combustion  of  coke  in  the 
}iottest  part  of  the  fire  box,  may  be  estimated  at  1(>66°  Centigrade. 
The  temperature  produced  by  wood  is  usually  less  than  1111°  Ceiiti- 

frade,  (100°  Centigrade  is  equivalent  to  212°  Fahr).  The  proper  com- 
ustion  of  coal  requires  the  admission  of  air  both  through  and  above 
the  grate,  the  right  proportion  depending  upon  the  percentage  of  the 
gaseous  components  in  the  coal :  In  the  combustion  of  coke  the  air 
maj  be  admitted  through  the  grate  only,  1  Ib.  of  coke  requiring  about 
200  cubic  feet  of  air.  For  receiving  the  best  effects  from  the  fuel, 
the  emission  of  the  gases  from  the  furnace  should  be  retarded,  in 
order  to  promote  complete  combustion  under  high  temperature,  for 
this  reason  the  grate  surface  should  be  as  large  as  possible  to  induce 
a  slower  current,  and  the  weight  of  the  steam  exhausted  and  the  air 
inhaled  should  be  in  every  case,  tho  same.  For  the  prevention  of 
§moke,*  engineers  usually  rely  on  the  damper,  the  ash  pan  and  the 
fire  door,  with  careful  stoking.  They  endeavor  to  prevent  the 
formation  of  smoke  by  controlling  the  admission  of  air  through  the 
grate,  adjusting  it  exactly  to  the  demands  of  the  fuel,  also  by  the  fire 
door  for  the  admission  of  air  above  the  fuel,  by  firing  with  large 
pieces  of  coal,  and  deep  fires  for  heavy  duty,  and  smaller  coals  with 
shallow  fires  for  lighter  duty,  by  firing  more  frequently  to  lighten 
the  duty,  and  at  all  times  by  keeping  the  bars  covered  with  fuel  to 
prevent  excessive  local  draughts  through  the  grate.  Fresh  coal  should 
be  thrown  on  under  the  fire  door  directly  inside,  and,  when  partlj 
burned,  pushed  forwavd  towards  the  tubes;  but  when  the  grate^are 
inclined,  it  will  work  downwards  by  gravitation.  Never  fill  a  hot 
boiler  with  cold  water,  and  always  allow  it  to  cool  off  before  running, 
the  water  out;  never  blow  out  a  boiler  while  hot,  under  any  circum- 
stances, as  liie  heated  plates  will  be  sure  to  bake  the  deposits  of  mud 
into  a  compact  scale  of  great  tenacity  ;  ii  allowed  to  cool,  these 
deposits  will  settle  down  in  a  soft  mass  easily  swept  out  with  a  hose 
and  water.  Frequent  duty  should  be  made  of  washing  out  all 
deposits  of  foreign  matter  from  the  barrel  of  the  boiler,  the  tubes, 
and  from  the  crown  sheets  between  the  crown  bars,  especially  while 
using  bad  water,  and  after  heavy  rams  ;  and  screw-plugs,  made  of 
hard  brass,  should  be  fitted  to  every  boiler  near  the  sides  of  the  fire, 
box,  to  permit  the  use  of  a  hose  with  water  for  this  purpose. 

To  avert  danger  from  intense  heat,  to  save  fuel,  and  keep  up  a 
Iree  circulation,  engineers  should  adjust  the  injector  so  that  the 
boiler  will  lose  a  little  water  while  running  between-  stations,  if  tho 
injector  is  kept  at  work  during  stoppages,  this  loss  will  be  compen- 
sated, and  a  full  supply  always  kept  up,  absorbing  the  surplus  heat 
and  preventing  explosion.  Incessant  watchfulness  is  necessary  to 
look  out  for  impending  danger  in  every  possible  direction,  and  no 
engine  driver,  while  on  duty,  should  relax  his  energy,  care,  caution, 
watchfulness,  decision,  and  presence  of  mind  for  a  single  moment.  If 
vigilance  ana  endurance  were  ever  necessary  in  any  business  or  call- 
20 


402         MACHINISTS,    ENGINEERS',    &C.,    RECEIPTS. 

ing,  most  certainly  they  are  of  paramount  importance  in  this  above  all 
others.    See  -that  the  safety  valves  are  properly  acting,  and  tha* 


•ifee  indications  of  the  steam  gauge  are  correct.    In  experiments  mad* 
twith  a  locomotive  boiler,  the  fire  being  kept  regular,  and  the  ~ 


MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  &c.,  RECEIPTS.       403 

4tt  rest,  in  9  minutes  the  pressure  increased  from  32  Ibs.  to  74|  Ibs.  per 
•quare  inch,  being  much  more  than  double,  a  most  surprising  increase, 
and  one  which  will  enable  us  to  account  for  many  explosions  whk!i 
have  happened  while  engines  were  at  rest. 

Pay  the  closest  attention  to  the  cylinder  and  piston  rod  packing, 
find  exercise  judgment  and  care  in  selecting  the  best  kinds  and  &kj 
in  applying  them  when  selected.  Use  due  precaution  agaiust  making 
mistakes  either  in  packing  too  tight  or  too  loose,  as  each  extreme  in 
its  degree  is  productive  of  much  mischief,  waste,  and  loss  of  power 
It  requires  the  exercise  of  considerable  intelligence  and  care  to  maka 
the  best  possible  adjustment  of  either  spring  or  steam  packing. 

Equal  vigilance  is  necessary  in  guarding  against  incrustation  and 
.scale  hi  boilers.  In  order  to  raise  steam  to  a  pressure  of  120  Ibs.  to 
the  square  inch,  a  very  common  pressure  in  locomotive  boilers,  tii3 
water  must  be  heated  to  a  temperature  of  345°.  This  involves  a 
high  temperature  in  the  furnace  plates  and  other  parts  of  the  boiler, 
imposing  a  very  severe  duty  at  any  time,  but  doubly  destructive  ia 
the  event  of  the  existence  of  incrustation  or  scale. 

The  annexed  figures  are  inserted  with  a  view  to  render  assistance  ia 
Adjusting  the  valves  of  locomotives.  The  first  diagram  represents  tha 


position  of  the  valve  as  it  should  be  when  at  half  stroke,  The  second 
figure  indicates  the  proper  position  of  the  valve  when  at  the  end  of  its 
stroke  with  the  crank  at  the  dead  centre.  A  represents  exhaust  cavity 


in  valve.  F  ditto  in  valve  seat.  P  P  steam  ports.  E  lead.  The  third 
cut  represents  the  position  of  the  valve  when  the  link  is  exactly  under 
the  saddle-pin  and  the  reverse  latch  in  the  outer  notch  in  the  quadrant 
or  sector.  V  V  ::hows  the  lap.  Full  steam  is  the  position  of  the  valvo 
when  fully  open,  and  the  engine  in  motion.  Cut-off  is  the  position  ol 
the  valve  when  it  has  ju*t  closed  the  port  against  the  admission  of 
Angular  Advance  is  the  angular  measurement  of  the  arc  do- 


404      MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  &c.,  RECEIPTS. 

i-cribed  by  the  centre  of  the  eccentric  while  passing  from  the  place  it  •*. 
v-npies  when  the  valve  is  at  half  stroke,  to  that  which  it  occupies  at  th« 
commencement  of  the  stroke  of  the  piston.  Linear  Advance  is  the  dis- 
tance which  the  valve  moves  while  the  centre  of  the  eccentric  in  describ- 
aig  the  above  angle.  See  diagram  of  Eccentric,  Link  and  val 


A  majority  of  railways  allow  for  the  travel  of  valves,  on  Express  Pas- 
senger Engines,  5  inches,  for  outside  lap,  £  inches,  for  inside  lap,  £ 
inch,  for  lead  in  full  gear  1-10  inch.  On  Express  Accommodation, 
EnffineSy  for  travel  of  value,  5  inches,  for  outside  lap,  £  inch,  for  in- 
fide  lap,  |  inch,  for  lead  in  full  gear,  1-10  inch.  On  Ifcary  Freight 
Engines,  for  travel  of  valve,  5  inches,  for  outside  lap,  §  inch,  for  in- 
tida  lap  1-16  inch,  for  lead  in  full  gear  1-16  inch. 

POWER  OF  ENGINES.— Horse-power  in  steam  engines  is  calculate* 
na  tlie  power  which  would  raise  33,000  Ibs.  a  foot  liigh  in  a  minute, 
or  00  Ibs.  at  the  rate  of  4  miles  an  hour.  One-horse  power  is  equal 
*o  t  j.e  lifting,  by  a  pump,  of  250  hogsheads  of  water  ten  feet  in  an 
ho:ir.  Or  it  would  drive  100  spindles  of  cotton  yarn  twist,  or  500 
i  piudles  of  No.  48  mule  yarn,  or  1000  of  No.  110,  or  12  power  looms. 
Cue  horse  power  is  produced  by  19  Ibs.  of  Newcastle  coals,  50  Ibs. 
of  wood,  or  34  Ibs.  of  culm.  Coals  1,  wood  3,  and  culm  2,  giva 
cqnal  heats  in  the  production  of  steam. 

Sixteen  Ibs.. of  Newcastle  coal  converts  ICO  Ibs.  of  water  into  steam. 
A  bushel  of  coal  per  hour  raises  steam  to  15  Ibs.  the  square  inch, 
whose  velocity  is  1350  feet  per  second,  and  2  bushels  raise  it  to  120 
IDS.,  or  velocity  of  3800  feet  per  second.  A  horse-power  requires 
from  5  to  7  gallons  of  water  per  minute  for  condensation  of  steam. 
A  steam  engine  whose  cylinder  is  31  inches,  writh  17  double  strokes 
per  minute,  performs  the  constant  work  of  40  hordes  with  5  tons  of 
coal  per  day.  One  of  19  inches  and  25  strokes,  of  12  horses,  with  1^ 
tons  per  day.  They  raise  20,000  cubic  feet  of  water  24  feet  for  every 
tiundred  weight  of  coals.  One  bushel  of  good  coals  rr.ised  from  24 
x>  32,000.000  Ibs.  one  foot  per  minute.  Four  bushels  of  coal  per  hour 
?dth  cylinder  of  31^  inches  and  17^  strokes  of  7  feet  per  minute,  is  a 
force  equal  to  40  horses  constantly.  A  rotative  double  engine,  with  a 
cylinder  of  23.75  inches,  making  21.5  strokes  of  5  feet  per  minute,  is.) 
a  20  horse-power  ;  and  a  cylinder  of  17.5,  making  25  strokes  of  4  feet,' 
is  a  10  horse-power  ;  the  consumption  of  coals  being  proportional. 

PROPORTION  OF  LOCOMOTIVE  BOILERS,  &c. — Boiler  sheets,  best  cold 
blast  charcoal  iron  §  in.  thick,  or  best  cast  steel  5-16  in.,  double  rivets 
along  horizontal  seams  and  junction  of  fire  box  to  be  double  riveted. 
Waitt  formed  of  2  sheets  rolled  in  the  direction  of  the  fibre  of  the 
ixon  or  steel.  One  longitudinal  seam  in  each,  above  the  water  lisa 


MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  &c.,  RECEIPTS.       40* 


to  b«  double  riveted.  All  Iron  sheets  §  in.  thick,  riveted  with  f  inch 
riveta  placed  2  inches  from  centre  to  centre.  Steel  plates  5-16  in.  thick 
riveted  with  f  inch  rivets,  placed  ll  inch,  from  centre  to  centre 
fcxtea  well  pieces,  riveted  to  side  of  side  sheets,  giving  double  thiob 


1 


406         MACHINISTS,    ENGINEERS*,    AC.,    RECEIPTS. 

ness  of  metal  for  stud  bolts  and  expansion  braces.  Furnace  Platet^ 
if  of  iron,  5-16  inch,  if  of  copper  £  in.,  if  of  steel,  crown  sheets,  §  in., 
side  and  back  sheets  (steel;  5-16  in. ,  flue  sheets  (steel)  £  in. ,  water  space 
3  ins.?  sides  and  back,  4  ins.  front.  Stay  Bolts,  |  in.  diam.  screwed 
and  riveted  to  sheets,  4^  in.  from  centre  to  centre.  Crown  Bars,  made 
of  2  pieces  of  wrought  iron  4£  in.  by  §  in.  set  1£  in.  from  centre  to 
centre,  and  secured  by  bolts  fitted  to  taper  holes  in  crown-sheets,  with, 
head  on  under  side  of  bolt  and  nut  on  top,  bearing  on  crown  bar. 
Crown  Sheets  braced  to  dome,  and  outside  shell.  Furnace  Door 
opening  formed  by  hanging  and  riveting  together  the  outer  and  inner 
sheets.  Tubes,  11  feet  long,  and  2  in.  diam.  set  in  vertical  rows  |  of 
an  inch  apart,  give  the  best  results.  Grate  Bars,  for  burning  wood 
or  soft  coal,  should  have  £  in.  openings.  Smoke  Stack  for  wood 
burning  engines  should  have  the  bonnet  stack,"  from  5  to  5^  ft. 
diam.  at  top,  with  wire  netting  ;  for  engines  burning  soft  coal,  a  much 
smaller  area  of  cone  is  required;  but  for  engines  burning  anthracite 
ccal,  use  a  plain  open  stack  without  cone  or  netting.  Safety  Valves. 
Every  locomotive  should  be  provided  with  two  safety  valves  fitted  to 
brass  seats,  and  secured  by  springs  of  sufficient  elasticity  to  allow  a 
lift  of  the  valve  adequate  to  permit  the  emission  of  all  the  steam  the 
boiler  will  generate  after  it  exceeds  the  maximum  pressure.  The 
bearing  or  mitre  on  the  valve  face  should  not  exceed  §  in.  Mud  Plugs 
should  be  provided  on  the  side  of  the  shell  on  a  level  with  the  crown 
sheet.  To  avoid  weakening  the  boile~.  rivet  a  welt  on  the  inside  of 
the  shell  in  the  line  of  the  holes.  Sto  -M  Room,  6  to  7  cubic  feet  per 
square  ft.  of  growth  surface.  Good  work  has  been  obtained  from 
boilers  possessing  1  cubic  foot  of  steam  room  to  1  square  foot  of  water 
surface,  and  a  water  surface  1-13  that  of  heating  surface. 

AVERAGE  PROPORTION  OF  THE  VARIOUS  PARTS  OF  LOCOMO- 
TIVES.— Cylinders  of  locomotives  vary  in  size,  ranging  all  the  way 
from  8  in.  up  to  20  in.  diara.  Crank  Pin  should  be  J  the  diam.  of 
cvlinder.  Valve  Stems  should  be  1-10  the  diam.  of  cylinder.  Piston 
ttods  should  be  £  the  diam.  of  cylinder.  Pump  Plunger  should  be  1-9 
the  diam.  of  cylinder.  Main  Steam  Pipe.  Area  should  be  from  i 
to  £  the  diam.  of  cylinder.  Steam  Ports.  Area  should  be  1-12  the  area 
of  cylinder.  Exhaust  Port.  Area  should  be  equal  to  $  the  area 
of  cylinder.  The  width  of  bridges  for  different  sized  cylinders  of 
locomotives  vary  from  §  to  1£  inches.  Chimney.  Height  should  not 
exceed  14  ft.,  diameter  a  little  less  than  the  diam.  of  cylinder.  Diam. 
of  Boilers  vary  from  3  ft.  to  4  ft.  3  in.  Tubes  vary  in  number  from 
100  to  220,  top  row  should  be  8  inches  under  water.  Heating  surface. 
Total  should  be  from  1000  to  1500  square  ft.  Fire  Grate  Surf  ace  ranges 
from  12  to  30  sq.  ft.,  usual  rule  15  sq.  ft.,  with  about  90  sq.  ft.  of 
heating  surface  in  fire  box.  Evaporative  Power  should  range  from 
100  to  200  cubic  ft.  of  water  per  hour.  Pi"oportion  of  heating  surface 
to  each  sq.foot  of  grate,  should  be  from  68  to  80  feet  Petticoat  Pipe 
should  be  |  the  diam.  of  the  inside  pipe  of  the  stack.  Ash  Panst 
should  be  9  inches  below  bottom  of  grate  for  wood  burning  engines, 
10  in,  for  soft  coal,  and  12  to  14  in.  for  anthracite  coal  burners,  and 
should  be  as  nearly  air  tight  as  possible  when  dampers  are  shut 
Dan>pers,  should  when  shut  stand  at  an  angle  of  35°  from  perpendicu- 
lar. Smoke  Box,  diam.  should  equal  diam.  of  boiler,  length  from  flu* 
*aoet  to  inside  of  front  door  1£  times  the  length  of  the  stroke  of  the 


MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  &c.,  RECEIPTS. 

oogtoe.  Tires,  when  new  2£  to  2f  in.  thick,  must  not  be  worn  down 
to  less  than  l£  to  1£  in.  Wrought  iron  tires  wear  about  1-12  of  an  inch 
per  annum.  (For  further  details  see  page  413. ) 

RULE  TO  FIND  THE  HOBSE-POWEB  OP  A  LOCOMOTIVE. — Multiply 

the  area  of  the  piston  by  the  pressure  per  square  inch,  which  should 
be  taken  as  §  of  the  boiler  pressure  ;  multiply  this  product  by  the 
number  of  revolutions  per  minute.  Multiply  this  by  twice  the  length 
of  the  stroke  in  feet  or  inches  ;  if  in  inches  they  must  be  divided  by 
12),  multiply  this  product  by  2  and  divide  by  33,000  ;  the  result  will 
be  the  power  of  the  locomotive. — Roper. 
EXAMPLE  : 

Cylinder 19  inches 

Stroke 24     „ 

Diameter  of  Drivers    ...    54     ,f 

Running  Speed,  20  miles  per  hour. 

Area  of  piston,  283.5  square  inches. 

Boiler  pressure,  130  Ibs.  per  square  inch. 

Maximum  pressure  in  cylinders,  80  Ibs. 

283.5X80X4X124X2  _  681<6  horse-power. 
33,000 

STEPHEKSON'S  "ROCKET."— The  annexed  figure  represents  thir 
"Rocket"  as  it  appeared  when  it  ran  in  the  memorable  Rainhill 
competition,  in  1829,  and  gained  the  prize  of  £500  offered  by  the 
directors  of  the  Liverpool  and  Manchester  Railway.  The  stipulations 
were:  (1.)  That  the  engine  should  consume  its  own  smoke;  (2.)  If  the> 
engine  weigh  6  tons,  it  must  draw  after  it  20  tons,  10  miles  an  hour;, 
the  pressure  on  the  gauge  not  to  exceed  50  Ibs. ;  (3.)  There  must  be  i 
safety  valves,  the  engine  and  boiler  must  be  supported  on  springs  and. 
rest  on  6  wheels,  thelieight  of  the  whole  not  to  exceed  15  ft.  to  the* 
top  of  the  chimney;  (4.)  It  must  not  weigh  more  than  6  tons,  less 
weight  preferred,  which  may  draw  a  less  weight  behind  it,  then  it 
may  have  4  wheels;  (5.)  The  price  not  to  exceed  £550. 

Dimensions — Boiler.  Cylindrical  in  form,  length,  6  ft.,  diam.  3  ft. 
4  in.  Cylinders,  two,  diam.  8  in.,  stroke  16£  in.  Weight  of  Engine^ 
4  tons,  5  cwt.  with  water  in  the  boiler,  with  loaded  tender  7  tons,  & 
cwt.  Chimney,  diam.  12  in.  Heating  surface,  117f  square  ft.  The 
boiler  contained  25  copper  tubes,  3  inches  in  diameter ;  the  use  of  those 
tubes  with  coke  for  fuel,  gained  Stephensonhis  victory,  and  established 
his  fame.  The  cylinders  were  set  inclining  to  the  rails  at  an  angle  of 
45°,  this  proved  a  poor  arrangement,  as  tho  jolting  motion  slightly 
lifted  the  boiler  up  and  down  on  the  springs.  Driving  Wheels,  diam. 
4  ft.  8  in.  Highest  Speed  during  trial,  24  miles  per  hour,  for  a  dis- 
tance of  1£  miles.  The  "  Rocket "  with  all  its  defects,  was  a  great  im- 
provement on  Stephenson's  first  engine  constructed  at  Killingworth, 
in  1814,  and  used  to  "  lead  coals  from  the  pit,  the  motion  beinr 
transmitted  to  the  wheels  by  the  intervention  of  cranks  and  toothed 
gearing. 

There  is  a  vast  contrast  between  the  "  Rocket"  and  locomotives  of 
recent  construction.  Some  freight  engines  are  now  in  use,  which 
weigh  66  tons,  having  4  cylinders  and  12  coupled  driving  wheels. 
Some  have  cylinders  20 in.  diam.,  with  26  inches  stroke,  others  have 
driving  wheels  9  ft.  diam.,  cylinders  18 in.  diam.,  and  24- inches  etrok* 


S98       MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  AC.,  RECEIPTS. 


English  express  engines  have  attained  a  speed  of  73  miles  pet 
between  Holyliead  and  London. 


The  illustrious  Stephenson  is  well  deserving  of  double  honor  as  th« 
^worthy  champion  of  the  loftiest  description  of  mechanical  progress, 
.-at  a  time  when  it  might  truly  be  said  that  he  "was  opposed  by  almost 
the  entire  nation.  In  interference  with  the  old  state  of  affairs  nearly 

•  every  one,  high  and  low,  seemed  to  see  visions  of  bankrupt  coach 

•  companies,  deserted  hotels,  ruined  landlords,  roads  overgrown  with 
grass,  buildings  and  mansions  burned  to  the  ground  'by  flying  sparks 

:  from  the  engine,  commerce  ruined,  and  man  and  beast  everywhere 

:  run  over  and  crushed  under  the  car  wheels.  During  Stephenson's 
memorable  examination  before  the  committee  of  the  House  of  Com- 
mons, ;>ne  of  the  questions  put  to  him  was — "Would  it  not  be  an 

•awkward  thing  for  an  engine  to  run  over  a  cow?"    The  honest 
Northumbrian's  reply  is  well  known,  "  Yes,  it  would  be  awkward  for 
tke  coo." 
FIRE  CEMENT.— Fire  clay,  wet,  100  parts,  white  lead,  3  parts,  pow- 

r  dered  asbestos,  i  part,  mix  "all  together  and  use  as  mortar. 

RAILWAY  TKAIK  SPEED   TABLE.—A  train  going  1  mile  an  houiv 

•  travels  one  and  seven-fifteenths— say  one  and  a  half  foot  per  sec- 
ond.   To  form  a  table  of  speed  from  these  data  is  a  mere  matter  of 

•  multiplication.    Example :— A  train  going  70  miles  an  hour  travel* 
,p«  second  1  and  7-15  ft.  multiplied  by  70=102  and  two  thirds  feet 


MACHINIST'S  AND    ENGINEERS'   DEPARTMENT.          409 

THE  STEPHENSON  L*NK  AND  VALVE  GEAR'  OF  1833,  shown  in  the 
•ut,  differs  but  little  from  the  arrangement  of  the  present  day,  aa 
exhibited  on  page  402.  In  the  sketch,  A  A  represents  the  eccentrics 
keyed  on  the  driving-shaft  B,  C  is  the  link,  and  D  the  " strap-link" 
connected  with  the  eccentrics  by  the  rods  E  E,  as  shown  in  cut,  F  is 
the  valve  and  G  the  valve-rod  working  slide-valve  and  connected  with 
link -block.  The  elevation  or  depression  of  the  link,  necessary  to  in- 
duce a  backward  or  forward  movement  of  the  engine,  was  effected  by 
a  lever  handle  H,  fitted  with  a  catch  which  could  be  dropped  into  a 
series  of  notches  in  the  sector  I ;  this  lever-handle  operating  by  means 
of  the  reaching-rod  K,  and  the  counter-weighted  bell-crank  L,  had 


the  effect  of  bringing  the  pin  on  the  link-block  connecting  with  the 
valve-stem  into  operation  with  either  eccentric  as  the  forward  or 
reverse  movement  of  the  engine  might  require.  The  lever  as  shown 
At  H,  shows  the  link  in  full  gear  for  reversing ;  at  1  (mid-gear)  steam 
would  be  shut  off,  as  the  valve  would  cover  both  steam-ports ;  at  M 
the  lever  would  be  in  full-gear  for  running  forward,  and  in  inter- 
mediate positions  between  mid-gear  and  full  gear  the  effect  would  bd 
more  or  less  expansion  of  the  steam,  but  never  the  full  power. 

The  locomotive,  with  its  entire  connections  and  surroundings, 
should,  while  on  the  road,  be  the  object  of  a  care  and  vigilance  which 
knows  no  weariness.  Before  s-tarting  from  a  station,  the  engine 
should  be  closely  inspected  to  be  sure  that  all  is  light;  the  boiler 
should  be  well  replenished  with  water,  and  a  good  surplus  stored  in 
the  tank.  The  injector  should  be  closed  before  starting,  and  while 
ascending  grades,  but  should  be  opened  to  admit  feed  water  during 
stoppage,  or  while  descending  a  down  grade  if  required,  and  fuel  may  • 
be  added  at  the  same  time.  In  descending  down  grades,  the  steam 
should  be  either  partially  or  entirely  shut  off,  and  the  engineer  should, 
like  a  trusty  sentinel,  be  always  at  his  post,  with  his  hand  on  the 
lever,  and  with  all  the  faculties  of  his  body  and  mind  on  the  alert,  • 
ready  to  act  in  response  to  signals,  or  on  the  first  intimation  of  danger 
in  any  o  fits  varied  forms.  Modern  improvements  have  rendered  it 
an  easy  matter  to  stop  an  engine  at  very  short  notice,  although  it 
sometimes  happens,  on  critical  occasions,  that  some  of  the  most  power- 
ful patent  brakes  have  proved  inoperative,  owing  to  complicated  or 
imperfect  mechanical  adjustment.  Broken  rails,  mo»-e  especially  during 
winter,  in  cold  climates,  like  that  of  Canada  and  Russia,  are  a  fertile 
cause  of  numerous  disasters,  severe  loss,  and  much  solicitude  and 
Anxiety  to  the  engineer.  The  frequency  of  these  breakages  always 
increases  in  proportion  with  the  xjgor  of  the  climate. 


410  MACHINISTS  AND  ENGINEERS'  DEPARTMENT. 


MODERN  PASSENGER  LOCOMOTIVE. 

Built  for  the  Chicago  and  Northwestern  Railway  Com- 
pany, U.  S.  A.,  by  the  American  Locomotive  Company, 
New  York.  • 


The  valve  gear  and  eccentrics  should  be  frequently  examined,  and 
if  found  defective  in  any  way,  no  time  should  be  lost  in  adjusting 
them  by  following  the  directions  given  elsewhere.  Use  clean  water  ; 
by  so  doing  much  trouble  and  danger  will  be  averted.  Keep  the 
tubes  well  swept,  and  if  one  should  burst,  plug  both  ends  of  it  with 
as  little  delay  as  possible  ;  if  impeded  by  the  emission  of  steam  or 
•water,  an  ample  supply  of  cold  feed  water  will  decrease  the  pressure 
and  permit  work.  If  the  leak  is  very  serious,  it  would  be  the  besd 
plan  to  quench  the  fire  in  order  to  secure  proper  access  to  repair  thf 
defective  tube.  Every  engineer  should  make  a  point  of  having  .on 
hand  all  those  appliances  which  experience  has  shown  to  be  neces- 
sary for  use  during  possible  emergencies,  such  as  plugs  for  the  tubes, 
screw  jack,  wrecking  tools,  wrenches,  hammers,  signals,  wedges, 
files,  rope,  buckets,  chisels,  waste,  oil,  tallow,  &c. 

RAILWAY  SIGNALS. — A  red  flag  by  day,  or  red  light  by  night,  is  a 
signal  of  danger.  Hoisted  at  a  station  it  is  a  signal  for  a  train  "  to 
stop."  Hoisted  by  the  road  side,  it  is  a  signal  of  danger  on  the  train 
ahead.  Carried  unfurled  on  an  engine,  it  is  a  warning  that  another' 
engine  or  train  is  on  its  way.  One  short  sound  of  the  whistle  is  th« 
•ignal  to  apply  brakes;  two,  to  let  them  go;  three,  to  back  up; 
four,  to  call  in  the  flagmen ;  five,  for  road  crossings. 

A  sweeping  parting  of  the  hands  on  a  level  with  the  eye  is  a  signal 
to  go  ahead.  A  downward  motion  of  one  hand,  with  extended  arm, 
to  stop.  A  beckoning  motion  of  one  hand,  to  back. 

A  lantern  raised  and  lowered  vertically,  is  a  signal  for  starting; 
'  when  swung  at  right  angles,  or  across  the  track,  to  stop;  when  swung 
in  a  circle,  to  back  the  train. 

One  stroke  of  the  alarm-bell  signifies  stop;  two,  to  go  ahead;  three, 
to  back. 

SPEED  OF  PASSENGER  TRAINS. — In  the  United  State*,  the  News- 
paper Express  train,  between  New  York  and  Philadelphia  makes  th* 
daily  trip  of  93  miles  in  1£  hours,  inclusive  of  four  stoppages. 


MACHINISTS    AND    ENGINEERS'    DEPARTMENT.      411 


The  most  remarkable  feat  of  railway  travel  on  record,  was  accom* 
^lished  June  4,  1876,  by  a  fast  special  train,  which  made  the  journey 
from  New  York  to  San'  Francisco,  a  distance  of  2900  miles  in  26  niin«: 
ntes  less  than  84  hours,  being  at  the  rate  of  40  miles  per  hour. 

Regarding  English  railways,  the  following  table  embraces  an  enu- 
meration  of  trains  which  run  o*er  60  miles  without  stopping,  shows1 
the  distance  run,  and  the  average  speed  per  hour.  It  will  be  seen 
that  the  London  and  Northwestern  run  the  longest  distance  without 
stopping,  as  their  engines,  suck  up  water  on  the  way  while  running  at 
full  speed.  The  fastest  is  the  11.45  A.  M  from  Paddington  over  the 
Great  Western,  which  runs  from  London  to  Exeter,  194  miles  in  4£ 
hours  on  the  "broad  gauge."  The  Great  Northern,  though  running  on 
the '  'narrow  gauge, ' '  maintains  an  average  speed  of  more  than  50  miles 
per  hour,  and  the  10  A.  si.  Express  from  London  to  Edinburgh,  called 
by  some  of  the  country  people  the  "  Flying  Scotchman,"  travels  138£ 
niiles  in  4|  hours,  from  London  to  York.  The  Great  Northern  R., 
with  their~new  engines,  having  8  ft.  driving  wheels,  sometimes  at- 
tains 51  miles  per  hour. 


London  to  Swindon  (Broad  Gauge  Express) 

London  to  Peterborough 

York  to  Newcastle 

Grantham  to  York : 

Newcastle  to  Berwick. 

New  Cross  to  Canterbury 

Carstairs  to  Carlisle. 

Oxford  to  London 

London  to  Dover 

Rugby  to  Crewe 

London  to  Rugby 

Kentish  Tn.  to  Wellington)' 

Holyhead  to  Chester 

Wigston  to  Lutou 

Carlisle  to  Preston. . . 


G.W. 

G.  N. 

N.  E. 

G.  N. 

N.  E. 

S.  E. 
Caledonian  74 

G.  W. 

S.  E. 
L.  &  N.  W. 

L:  &  N.  w. 

M. 
L&  N.W. 

M. 
L.  &  N.  W. 


89 


Besides  the  above,  there  are  well  attested  cases  of  passenger  train* 
running  78  miles  per  hour  with  16  coaches  attached,  and  even  as  nigh 
as  84  miles  per  hour  have  been  attained. 

*HE  FOLLOWING  TABLE  EXHIBITS  THE  EFFECTIVE  ADHESIOX  OT 
LOCOMOTIVES  PER  TON  DURING  DIFFERENT  WEATHERS,  OS  THH. 
RAILS  : 


Lbs. 
During  frost  or  snow  .......  200 

During  misty  weather  ......  350 


Lbs. 
During  damp  weather  ..........  400 

During  fine  dry  weather  .......  76(1 


During  wet  rainy  weather.  .600 

The  adhesion  of  a  locomotive  with  4  wheels,  compared  with  out 
having  6  wheels,  is  in  the  proportion  of  5  to  6. 


412     MACHINISTS   AND   ENGINEERS'   DEPARTMENT. 


Experiments  have  demonstrated  that  trains  (properly  fitted  with 
good  brakes),  moving  at  the  rate  of  33  miles  per  hour,  can  be  stopped 
within  a  distance  of  57  yards,  and  within  273  yards  if  moving  at  the 
rate  of  60  miles  an  hour,  the  resisting  power  of  brakes  being  about 
129  Ibs.  per  ton  of  train.    Resistance  caused  by  defects  of  roads  vary 
from  5  to  40  per  cent.,  and  strong  side  winds  resist  to  the  extent  of 
20  per  cent.    Resistance  increases  with  the  speed  in  about  the  follo\y 
ing  ratios  : — 
Speed  of  Trains  in  miles  per  hour. ...      10       15       20       30   I    40       50 


Resistance  on  level  railway  in  Ibs.  per 

ton j    8% 

Resistance  on  irregular  or  curved  road 

and  high  winds |  1314 

EFFECTIVE  PRESSURE  OF  STEAM  ON  PISTON,  with  different  de- 
grees of  expansion,  boiler  pressure  being  assumed  at  100  Ibs.  pe» 
Square  inch. 

Steam  cut  off  at  f  of  stroke  -=  90  effective  pressure. 


50 
40 


In  experiments  with  Locomotive  No.  47,  North  London  Railway,  it 
was  found  that  in  two  17  inch  cylinders,  24  ins.  stroke,  lap  of  valve, 

fin.,  lead,  \  in.,  position  of  gear,  4th  notch  from  middle  gear,  drivers, 
ft  6  ins.  diam.,  with  boiler  pressure  160  Ibs.  per  square  inch,  the 

actual  horse-power  of  both  cylinders  was 840.5*2 

That  the  friction  of  both  valves  was 54.  ^52 

"    eccentrics 74.326 

Total  friction  of  valves  and  eccentrics. 129.251 

or  15  per  cent,  of  the  power  of  the  engine  required  to  move  them. 
REVOLUTIONS  OF  DRIVINO  WHEELS  PER  MTT.E. 


V)iam. 
in  ins. 

Rev.  per  mile. 

Diam. 
in  ins. 

Rev.  per  mile. 

Diam. 
in  ins. 

Rev.  per  mile. 

42 
43 
46 
48 
50 

480.4 
469 
439 
420 
403.5 

54 
55 
60 
62 
63 

373.5 
367 
336 
325.4 
320 

66 

72 
78 
81 
84 

306 
280 
258.6 
249 
240 

The  average  me  01  a  car  wheel  under  a  load  of  6%  tons,  is  4o,OW) 
miles.  The  weight  of  iron  rails  per  mile  varies  from  78  tons,  11  cwt.,' 
48  ibs.,  to  157  tons,  3  cwt.,  84  Ibs.,  according  as  the  rails  range  from 
50  ibs.  to  100  Ibs.  weight  to  the  yard. 

No.  of  15  ft.  rails  per  mile,    704    No.  of  18  ft.  rails  per  mile,    587 
"  16  ft.     "  "  660      "         20  ft.     "  528 

A  rise  of  60°  hi  the  temperature  of  a  25  ft.  rail  lengthens  it  to  25  ft 
$  in.  The  last  table  refers  to  No.  of  rails  required  for  single  track, 


i"  jrl.S-3  s  1 5*^5:^3  i?  prsr«  5 

jg  JH»  ax  i.P-30  -."S.^^.e  g-H 

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f^iil'llf  fill'  sfr  P  IS 


,I|iSl .--.-  • 
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'•ri«li§SfBEl|^i'i 

?££*-    »iaX-3S''--"tHfa| 
J|  =•  ?1'S"§  °  S*g  2 II  K"  3I 


£14    MACHINISTS'  AND  ENGINEERS  DEPARTMENT. 


GEORGE  STEPHENSON, 

THE  FIRST  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINEER, 

Born  June  9,  1781      Died  August  12,  1848. 

TTie  iron  energy,  indcrnitable  perseverance,  sterling  integrity,  and 
thorough  practical  sagacity  for  which  this  Father  of  Railways  was 
noted,  hare  indelibly  enrolled  his  honored  name  among  the  benefac-i 
tors  of  the  race.  Of  the  first  railway,  that  between  Stockton  and 
Parlington,  George  Stephenson  was  both  surveyor  and  contractor, 
laying  out  every  foot  of  the  road,  and  taking  the  sights  through  the 
spirit  level  with  his  own  hands  and  eyes.  On  his  persistent  recom~ 
_nendations,  the  intended  plan  of  a  wooden  tramway  was  set  aside 
.'and  iron  rails  substituted,  and  reluctant  permission  given  him  to 
place  upon  the  road,  which  had  been  intended  only  for  horse-draught, 
£  steam  locomotive.  The  trial  day  was  fixed  for  the  27th  of  Septem- 
ber, 1825,  which  may  be  regarded  as  the  natal  day  of  railway  travel. 
Ji  great  throng  of  people  was  present  to  witness  the  new-fangled  and 
Biuch  ridiculed  affair,  the  multitude  being  ready  to  applaud  the  BOO* 


MACHINISTS    AND    ENGINEERS*    DEPARTMENT.       415 


ENGINE  NO.  1.— STOCKTON  &  DARLINGTON  R.  R.— 1825. 

cess  or  deride  the  failure  of  the  man  whom  they  were  equally  ready 
to  canonize  as  the  wisest,  or  condemn  as  the  craziest  man  in  England. 
The  veteran  was  fully  prepared  to  withstand  the  ordeal.  A  long  pro- 
fession of  vehicles  was  formed,  consisting  of  6  wagons,  loaded  with 
flour  ;  a  covered  coach,  containing  directors  and  passengers  ;  21  coal 
wagons,  fitted  up  for  and  crowded  with  passengers.  Locomotive  en- 
gine No.  1,  represented  in  the  cut,  driven  by  our  hero,  headed  the 
procession,  which  was  preceded  by  a  precursor  on  horseback,  who 
jode  before  to  herald  the  coming  of  the  train,  the  velocity  of  which 
was  not  expected  to  exceed  4  or  5  miles  an  hour.  But  different  re- 
gults  followed.  An  immense  multitude  of  people,  both  on  horseback 
:and  on  foot,  accompanied  the  train,  but  not  long  ;  they  were  soon 
distanced,  the  man  on  horseback  who  heralded  was  compelled  to 
leave  the  track,  and  the  first  train  that  e^-er  carried  passengers  fin- 
ished its  journey  at  the  rate  of  12  to  15  miles  an  hour.  The  load 
carried  amounted  to  90  tons,  including  450  passengers.  The  railway 
passenger  coach  which  formed  part  of  the  procession  was  totally 
nnlike  anything  now  in  use,  and  was  drawn  by  horse  power.  It  was 
several  years  before  passengers  wore  drawn  over  the  road  by  steam 
, (the  traffic  being  confined  to  freight  only),  as  the  terror  inspired  by 
the  locomotive  was  such  that  the  Liverpool  £  Manchester  R.  R, ,  j 
Committee  pledged  themselves  not  to  require  any  clause  empower- 
ing  its  use,  and  as  late  as  1820  the  Newcastle  and  Carlisle  Act  was  ' 
conceded  on  the  express  condition,  that  it  should  not  be  worked  by  ' 
locomotives,  but  by  horses  only. 

The  plans  of  the    Liverpool    &  Manchester  R.  R.   were  fought 
through  Parliament  by  the  indefatigable  Stephenson  in  the  face  of    . 
difficulties  which  would  have  appalled  any  common  man  ;  and  whem 
at  last  the  charter  was  obtained,  and  the  work  begun,  he  personally  • 


416 


MACHINISTS  AND  ENGINEERS'  DEPARTMENT. 


MACHINISTS  AND  ENGINEERS'  DEPARTMENT.     417 

jnpervised  it  from  beginning  to  end,  petting  his  breakfast  of  oatmeal 
with  his  own  hands,  living  on  horseback,  personally  inspecting  th« 
progress  of  the  work,  supervising  the  pay-rolls  of  the  men,  and  per- 
fecting with  his  own  hands  the  working  drawings.  In  1829,  we  find 
Robert,  the  younger  Stephenson,  at  a  later  day  engineer  of  the  famous, 
Victoria  Bridge,  Montreal,  treading  in  his" father's  footsteps,  audit 
coming  off  the  victor  at  the  noted  contest  at  Rainhill,  when  the-) 
Rocket,  as  shown  on  a  previous  page,  eclipsed  the  performance  of 
the  Novelty,  Sanspareil,  and  Perseverance.  Soon  the  Liverpool  & 
Manchester  R.  R.  was  opened  with  the  Rocket,  altered  and  im- 
proved, as  locomotive,  running  at  the  rate  of  30  miles  an  hour.  The. 
illustration  exhibits  the  Rocket,  as  remodelled  after  the  trial  and 
ftg  »ow  to  be  seen  ir  the  South  Kensington  Museum. 


SPARKS  FROM  THE  LOCOMOTIVE.—  (HI.  Cent.  R.)  Fuel,  etc.* 
Ayerage  number  of  miles  run  to  1  cord  of  wood,  43.98.  Ditto  to  i 
ton  of  coal,  39.87.  Ditto,  to  1  pint  of  oil,  13.83.  Cost  of  Repairs, 
Mechanics'  waees,  62ner  cent.  Materials — iron,  steel,  brass,  etc.,  31 
per  cent  Superintendence,  paints,  tools,  etc.,  7  per  cent.  Average 
cost  per  mile,  in  cents,  for  passenger  engines,  20.10,  for  freight,  do, 
35.42. 

French  Locomotives. — Average  actual  power  exerted,  450  horses  ; 
ppeed  of  passenger  trains  with  15  vehicles,  is  24  miles  per  hour ; 
freight  trains,  18  miles,  mixed  engines,  20  to  30  miies  per  hour. 

American  Locomotive.~-A  10  wheeled  engine,  18  x  22  cylinder, 
total  weight,  30  tons  9  cwt. :  weight  on  drivers,  22  tons,  on  Readiaff 

07 


418         MACHINISTS    AND    ENGINEERS'    DEPARTMENT. 


EDSON'S  TIME,  PRESSURE,  SPEED  RECORDING,  AND 
ALARM  GAUGE. 

K.  B.  EDSON,  91  LIBERTY  ST.,  NEW  YORK,  INVENTOR  AND  PATENTS**, 
ACCORDED  EXCLUSIVE  MENTION  AT  THE  'CENTENNIAL  EXHIBITION 
OF  1876. 

RR. ;  will  haul  130  loaded  cars  ;  weight  of  coal,  676  tons  ;  of  cars,  38C 
tons  ;  total  load,  1,085  tons  ;  on  a  down  grade,  maximum,  13-5  ft.  per 
mile  ;  minimum,  0.65  per  mile.  Same  Engine  will  haul  70  loaded  cars, 
or 561  tons,  overall  ascending  grade  35.3  ft.  per  mile. 

NEW  YORK  CITY  STREET  DUMMY  ENGINES.  —Cylinders,  6  ins.  by  1C 
ins.  stroke  ;  can  haul  2  cars,  containing  100  passengers  each,  up  a  grade 
100  ft.  per  mile,  at  5  miles  per  hour  ;  on  a  level  and  low  grade,  at  1C 
Thiles  per  hour,  runs  125  miles  per  day,  burns  1,200  Ibs.  of  coal  ;  stean; 
pressure,  130  Ibs. 

A  Crampton  locomotive,  drawing  12  carriages,  consumes  35  Ibs. 
of  coke  per  mile  in  summer,  and  37  Ibs.  in  winter  ;  the  weight  with 
tf»4*r  is  90,000  Ibs.  ;  the  cost  of  running  a  trip  per  mile,  all  items 
included,  if  33  cents  (gold).  An  engine  is  generally  worn  out  when 


MACHINISTS    AND    ENGINEERS'    DEPARTMENT.       419 


it  has  travelled  186,000  miles,  although  some  have  run  mo^e  than 
•twice  that  distance  ;  the  usual  performance  is  from  15,600  to  25,000 
miles  per  annum.  The  lifetime  of  an  engine  may  be  taken  at  10  year^* 
the  cost,  in  England,  $9,600  (gold),  tender,  $2,200,  and  the  annual 
earnings  about  $25,000. 


UPPOTD'S  TN IECTCR 


GIFFARD'S  INJECTOR. 

A.,  steam-pipe  connecting  with  boiler.  B,  tube  or  cylinder, 
fckwwgh  vrhich  steam  passes  into  the  space  b.  C,  screwed  rod  fot 
regulating  the  passage  of  steam  through  circular  conical  space  c,  and 
worked  by  the  handle  shown  above.  E,  water  supply  pipe  connect- 
ing the  reservoiror  hot-well  with  the  small  chamber  in.  C,  I,  circular 
conical  opening  or  discharge  pipe,  the  dimensions  of  which  is  ad- 
justed by  the  movement  of  the  tube  or  cylinder  C.  G,  hand  wheel 
for  operflftngthe  cylinder  C.  H,  opening,  in  connection  with  the  at- 
mosphere, intervening  between  discharge  pipe  and  the  receiving 
pipe  through  which  the  water  is  forced.  I,  tube  through  which  fthg 


420      MACHINISTS    AND    ENGINEERS'    DEPARTMENT. 

water  Is  passed  to  the  boiler.  K,  valve  for  preventing  the  return  of 
the  water  from  boiler  when  the  injector  is  closed.  L.  overflow  ot 
waste-pipe. 

METHOD  OF  OPERATION. — Turn  the  wheel  so  as  to  allow  a  littla 
water  to  flow  into  the  injector.  Open  the  tap  connecting  the  instru« 
ment  with  the  boiler  :  the  admission  of  the  steam  will  create  a  par- 
tial yacuum,  into  which  the  water  will  flow  with  rapidity.  The  steam 
condenses  as  it  mingles  with  the  water,  and  as  it  rushes  forward  it 
I  carries  the  water  along  in  its  course,  driving  it  into  the  boiler  with 
'great  force.  The  quantity  may  be  iiK'reased  or  diminished  by  meai-.s 
of  taps  fitted  to  the  steam  and  water  supply-pipes,  and  any  surplus 
water  will  escape  at  the  overflow  or  waste-pipe.  This  inventio» 
effects  great  economy  in  the  transmission  of  hot  water  to  the  boiler, 
for  not  the  slightest  particle  of  heat  is  lost. 

Samuel  Rue's  injector,  a  mos'u  valuable  invention,  is  well  adapted 
to  operate  as  a  boiler  feeder  OD  land  or  water ;  but  may  be  considered 
as  iudispeiisaole  on  marine  boilers,  as  from  its  peculiar  construction, 
with  steam  of  from  40  to  50  Ibs.  pressure,  it  is  capable  of  forcing 
water  against  a  pressure  of  over  200  Ibs.  per  square  inch. 

In  40  years  the  miles  of  railway  in  the  Lnited  States  have  increased 
irom  3  miles  to  60,000  miles. 
RAILWAY  CROSS  TIES,  No.  per  mile,  2  ft.  centre  to  centre,  2.641 

a  it  a  '      «  <>i  »»  it  *>  343 

'*  "  "  "         24          "  "         21  IS. 

«<  c«  u  «  n  u          l  921^ 

«  tt  «  ii          3  (i  «          jV^ 

The  usual  dimensions  of  railway  ties  are  9  feet  long,  10  ins.  wide 
X  5  ins. ,  average  life  time,  7  years ;  best  material,  seasoned  white- 
oak.  If  ties  are  preserved  by  Burnettizing  they  will  last  15  years. 

The  test  for  new  steel  car  axles,  is  5  blows  of  a  ram,  weighing 
-1,650  Ibs.,  falling  30  ft.  on  axle  placed  on  supports  3  ft.  apart.  The- 
test  for  new  iron  axles,  is  5  blows  of  a  ram,  weighing  1,650  Ibs.,  fall- 
ing 20  ft.,  on  axle  placed  on  supports  3  ft.  apart. 

NON-CONDUCTOR  FOR  STEAM  PIPES  AND  CYLINDERS.— Good  clay,. 
50  Ibs.,  finely  sifted  coal  ashes  50 Ibs.,  hair  for  a  bind  12  ozs.,  mix  all 
thoroughly  with  water  to  the  consistence  of  mortar,  and  allow  it  to, 
rest  for  a  few  hours,  but  just  previous  to  use,  add  50  Ibs.  plaster  of 
Paris,  working  it  in  well.  Now  apply  it  to  the  pipes,  &c. ,  while  warm, 
in  a  thm  coai,  and  when  dry,  add  another,  continuing  until  the  prop* 
er  thickness  is  secured,  whitewashing  or  painting  over  all. 
EVAPORATIVE  POWERS  OF  FUEL,  ETC.— 

1  Ib.  of  coal  evaporates  9  Ibs  of  water. 
1     "    coke  "  7£to9      ''' 

1     "    wood         "        4i 
1     "    turf  (peat)"       6          " 
«*  Stationary  engines  use  from  3  to  7  Ibs.  of  coal  per  horse  power  pel 

hour, 
locomotive  passenger  engines  25  to  30  Ibs.  coal  per  mile. 

"          freight  "       45  to  55        "  " 

Wood-burning  "       1  cord  of  wood  to  42  miles. 

Bulk  of  coal  is  6  times  less  than  its  equivalent  in  wood. 
60  bush.  Newcastle  coal  will  make  92  bush,  of  coke. 
1  bash,  anthracite  coal  weighs  86  Ibs  ;  bituminous  coal  =  80  Ibft 
charcoal  (hardwood)  -=  32  Ibs. ;  coke  =  32  Ibs. 


MACHINISTS    AND    ENGINEERS*    DEPARTMENT.      421 


THE  FIRST  RAILWAY  PASSENGER  COACH. 
The  magnificent  caravan  represented  by  the  cut  conveys  a  good 
idea  of  railway  passenger  travel  and  accommodations    previous  to 
the  use  of  steam  power  for  that  purpose. 


M.  W.  BALDWIN'S  LOCOMOTIVE  "  IRONSIDES"  — 1832* 
M.  w.  BALDWIN'S  LOCOMOTIVE  "IRONSIDES"— 1852. 

The  engine  represented  above,  constructed  by  M.  TV.  Baldwin^ 
founder  of  the  Baldwin  Locomotive  Works,  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  U.  S.  i 
A.,  was  first  run  on  the  Philadelphia  &  Norristown  R.  R.,  in  1832, 
and  proved  to  be  the  pioneer  o£  successful  railway  locomotion  in  the 
United  States. 

The  average  life  of  an  irou  rail  is  15,000,000  of  tons,  orequa.1  to 
100,000  trains  of  150  tons  each.  On  the  Great  Northern  Railway  at 
Barnet,  the  life  of  an  iron  rail  was  5  years,  with  13,484,661  tons  of 
last  trains,  and  38,303,028  tons  of  slow  traffic.  Steel  rails  were  only 
talf  worn  out  with  95,577,240  tons  traffic. 


422       MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  &c.,  RECEIPTS. 

LATENT  HEAT  OF  STEAM.— Take  2  small  vessels  contacted  at  theft 
tops  by  a  tube.  Let  one  contain  1  Ib.  of  water  at  32°  Fahr. ,  the  othet 
B£  Ibs.  at  the  same  temperature.  Apply  a  spirit  lamp  below  the  ves- 
sel containing  the  1  Ib.  of  water  until  it  is  all  boiled  away  and  its  vapor 
condensed  by  passing  through  the  tube  and  mingling  with  the  5£  Ibs, 
of  water  in  the  other  vessel.  At  this  point  the  heat  absorbed  by  tha 
5^  Ibs  of  water  will  raise  the  temperature  to  212°  Fahr.  or  boilin* 
heat,  and  the  combined  weight  will  be  6^  Ibs.  instead  of  5^  Ibs.,  as 
placed  in  the  vessel  at  first.  Tho  whole  of  this  heat  has  been  trans- 
ferred from  the  1  Ib.  of  water  held  over  the  spirit  lamp,  although  at 
BO  time  has  its  heat  exceeded  212°.  Inasmuch  as  this  heat  cannot  be 

Seasured  by  any  known  instrument,  it  is  called  latent  heat.  The  1 
.  of  water  made  the  5^  Ibs.  to  boil,  and  from  this  we  know  by  cal- 
culation that  the  combined  latent  and  sensible  heat  of  steam  is  about 
1200°. 

The  pressure  of  steam  is  measured  by  atmospheres.  Steam  of  15 
Ibs.  pressure  is  steam  of  one  atmosphere,  of  30  Ibs.  pressure,  of  2 
atmospheres,  &c.  It  is  frequently  used  as  high  as  6  or  7  atmospheres. 
Steam  below  2  atmospheres  is  called  low  pressure  steam,  and  all  pros- 
gure  above,  high  pressure  steam.  Heat,  by  expanding  water, 
Imparts  motion  to  the  gulf  stream,  when  transformed  into  steam 
it  evolves  sufficient  power  to  drive  the  rolling  mill,  cotton  and  other 
mills,  the  machine  shop,  the  locomotive,  and  impel  the  steamship 
over  the  trackless  ocean.  As  the  temperature  of  water  falls  below 
100°  Centigrade  (212°.)  the  boiling  point,  it  will  contract  or  occupy  a 
smaller  space  until  it  descends  to  3°.  8  Centrigrade,  when  it  will  con- 
tract no  more,  as  its  greatest  density  is  then  reached.  From  5°.  8,  as 
the  water  becomes  colder,  it  expands,  till  it  reaches  the  freezing 
point  0°.  Centigrade,  so  that  is  specifically  lighter  than  water,  and 
floats  on  the  surface,  being  about  10  per  cent,  lighter.  Were  it  not 
for  the  interposition  of  this  merciful  law,  and  were  ice  to  sink  in 
water,  many  of  the  lakes,  rivers  and  streams  within  the  temperate 
zones  would  be  rendered  incapable  of  navigation  during  the  greater 
|>art  of  the  year  by  reason  of  the  ice  at  the  bottom. 

APPLICATION  FOR  BURNS  AND  SCALDS.  The  following  has  been 
tested  in  the  severest  cases  of  burning  and  scalding  from  railway  anc* 
steamboat  accidents.  Glycerine,  6  ozs. ;  white  of  egg,  4  ozs. ;  tiuct,  of 
arnica  3  ozs. ;  mix  the  glycerine  and  white  of  egg  thoroughly  in  a 
mortar  and  gradually  add  the  arnica.  Apply  freely  on  linen  rag3 
night  and  morning,  previously  washing  with  warm  castile  soap  suds. 
In  urgent  cases,  if  nothing  better  can  be  had,  clap  on  a  mud  poultice, 
a  favorite  and  very  effectual  remedy  with  school  boys  who  are  stung 
•while  making  war  on  hornets'  nests. 

CEMENT  TO  MEND  LEAKY  BOILERS. — Powdered  litharge,  2  parts, 
very  fine  sand,  2  parts,  slaked  quick  lime,  1  part.  Mix  all  together. 
To  use,  mix  the  proper  quantity  with  boiled  linseed  oil  and  apply 
quick.  It  gets  hard  very  soon. 

STRONG  CEMENT  FOR  STEAM  JOINTS. — White  lead  ground  in  oil, 
10  parts,  black  oxide  of  manganese,  3  parts,  litharge,  1  part.  Reduce 
to  the  proper  consistency  with  boiled  linseed  oil  and  apply. 

CEMENT  FOR  HOLES  OR  CRACKS. — Red  lead  ground  in  oil,  6  parts, 
-white  lead,  3  parts,  oxide  of  manganese,  2  parts,  silicate  of  soda,  1 
part,  litharge,  £  part,  all  mixed  and  used  as  putty. 


MACHINISTS,    ENGINEERS',    &C.,    RECEIPTS.          425 

RUST  JOINT,  QUICK  SETTING — Sal  ammoniac  pulverized,  1  lb.,  flour 
ef  sulphur,  2  Ibs. ;  iron  borings,  80  Ibs. ;  mix  to  a  paste  with  water  in- 
quantities  as  required  for  immediate  use. 

QUICK  SETTING  JOINT  BETTER  THAN  THE  LAST,  BUT  REQUIRES 
MORE  TIME  TO  SET. — Sal  ammonia,  2  Ibs.,  sulphur  1  lb.,  iron  filing? 
206  Ibs. 

AIR  AND  WATER  TIGHT  CEMENT  FOR  CASKS  AND  CISTERNS.-' 
"Melted  giue,  8  parts,  linseed  oil,  4  parts,  boiled  into  a  varnish  witkj 
litharge ;  hardens  in  48  hours. 

MARINE  GLUE.—  India  rubber  1  part,  coal  tar  12  parts,  heat  gently 
mix,  and  add  20  parts  of  powdered  shellac,  pour  out  to  cool,  when  usea' 
heat  to  about  250°. 

ANOTHER  DITTO. — Glue  12  parts,  water  sufficient  to  dissolve,  add 
yellow  resin  3  parts;  melt  then  add  turpentine  4  parts,  mix  thor- 
oughly together. 

CEMENT  FOR  EXTERNAL  USE. — Ashes  2  parts,  <:lay  3  parts,  sand: 
1  part;  mix  with  a  little  oil,  very  durable. 

CEMENT  TO  RESIST  RED  HEAT  AND  BOILING  "WATER. — To  4  or  5- 
parts  of  clay,  thoroughly  dried  and  pulverized,  add  2  parts  of  fine  iroi* 
filings  free  from  oxide,  1  part  of  peroxyde  of  manganese,  1  part  of 
common  salt,  and  \  part  of  borax.  Mingle  thoroughly,  render  as  fine- 
as  possible,  then  reduce  to  thick  paste  with  the  necessary  quantity  of 
water,  mixing  well;  use  immediately,  and  apply  heat,  gradually  in- 
creasing almost  to  a  white  heat. 

CEMENT  TO  JOIN  SECTIONS  OF  CAST-IRON  WHEELS,  &c. — Make 
a  paste  of  pure  oxide  of  lead,  litharge,  and  concentrated  glycerine, 
Unrivalled  for  fastening  stone  to  stone  or  iron  to  iro^. 

VARNISH  FOR  BOILERS. — Asphaltum  dissolved  in  turpentine. 

SOFT  CEMENT  FOR  STEAM-BOILERS,  STEAM-PIPES,  &c. — Red  or 
•white  lead,  in  oil,  4  parts;  iron  borings,  2  to 3  parts. 

HARD  CEMENT. — Iron  borings  and  salt  water,  and  a  small  quantity 
of  pal-ammoniac,  with  fresh  water. 

GASFITTERS'  CEMENT.— Mix  together  resin,  4j  parts  ;  wax,  1  part ; 
and  Venetian  red,  3  parts. 

PLUMBERS'  CEMENT.— Black  resin,  1  part;  brick  dust,  2  parts, 
well  incorporated  by  a  melting  heat. 

COPPERSMITHS'  CEMENT.— Boiled  linseed  oil  and  red  lead  mixed 
together  into  a  putty,  are  often  used  by  coppersmiths  and  engineer 
to  secure  joints  ;  the  washers  of  leather  or  clotii  are  smeared  with 
th's  mixture  in  a  pasty  state. 

COMPOSITIONS  TO  FILL  HOLES  IN  CASTINGS.— Mix  1  part  of  borax 
in  solution  with  4  parts  dry  clay. — Another :  Pulverized  binoxide  ot 
manganese,  mixed  with  a  strong  solution  of  silicate  of  soda  <wate»; 
clay)  to  form  a  thick  paste. 

CABT  IRON  CEMENT.— Clean  borings,  or  turnings  of  cast  iron,  15 
parts  ;  sal-ammoniac,  2  parts  ;  flour  of  sulphur,  1  part  ;  mix  them 
well  together  in  a  mortar,  and  keep  them  dry.  When  required  for* 
,  use,  take  of  the  mixture,  1  part;  clean  borings-,  20  parts  ;  mix  thor- 
oughly, and  add  a  sufficient  quantity  of  wa*er.  A  little  grind-stone 
dust  added  improves  the  cement. 

CEMENT  FOR  STEAM-PIPE  JOINTS,  ETC.,  WITH  FACED  FLANGES.— 
White  lead,  mixed,  2  parts  ;  red  lead,  dry,  1  part *  grind,  or  other- 
wise  mix  tkem  to  a  consistence  of.  ttun  put»#  ;  apply  interposed  lay  era 


424      MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  AC.,  RECEIPTS, 

with  1  or  2  thicknesses  of  canvas,  or  gauze  wire,  as  the  necessity  of 
the  case  may  be. 

CEMENT  FOR  JOINTS  OF  IRON  PIPES  OB  HOLES  EN  CASTINGS.—*^ 
Take  of  iron  borings,  coarsely  powdered,  5  Ibs.  ;  of  powdered  sal-' 
ammoniac,  2  oz. ;  of  sulphur,  1  oz. ;  and  water  sufficient  to  moistem 
it.  This  composition  hardens  rapidly,  but,  if  time  can  be  allowed  it 
sets  more  firmly  without  the  sulphur.  Use  as  soon  as  mixed,  and 
ram  tightly  into  the  joints  or  holes. 

BEST  CEMENT  FOB  AQUARIA.— One  part,  by  measure,  sav  a  gill  of  • 
litharge  ;  1  gill  of  plaster  of  Paris  ;  1  gill  of  dry,  white  sand  ;  &  a  gik 
of  finely  powdered  resin.  Sift,  and  keep  corked  tight  until  required 
for  use,  when  it  is  to  be  made  into  a  putty  by  mixing  in  boiled  oil. 
(linseed)  with  a  little  patent  drier  added.  Never  use  it  after  it  has 
been  mixed  (that  is,  with  the  oil)  over  fifteen  hours.  This  cement 
can  be  used  for  marine  as  well  as  fresh  water  aquaria,  as  it  resists 
the  action  of  salt  water.  The  tank  cr..n  be  used  immediately,  but  Yt 
is  best  to  give  it  three  or  four  hours  to  dry. 

ANOTHER.— Mix  equal  quantities  of  any  white  lead  and  red  lead  to 
a  paste  with  mastic  varnish,  and  use  as  soon  as  mixed. 

CEMENT  FOR  BELTING.     Waterproof.—  Dissolve  gutta  percha  ,n 
bisulphide  of  carboi  '.^)  the  consistence  of  molasses,  slice  down  a^U . 
thin  the  ends  to  be  united,  warm  the  parts,  and  apply  the  cement 
then  hammer  lightly  on  a  smooth  anvil,  or  submit  the  parts  to  heavy 
pressure. 

To  REPAIR  LEAKAGES  IN  FIRE  ENGINE  HOSE.— Pass  a  round  bar 
of  iron  into  the  hose  under  the  leak,  then  rivet  on  a  patch  of  leather, 
previously  coated  with  marine  glue. 

To  REPAIR  RUBBER  HOSE.— Cut  the  hose  apart  where  it  is  defe  &• 
tave  ;  obtain  from  any  gasfitter  a  piece  of  iron  pipe  2  or  3  inches  long, 
twist  the  hose  over  it  until  the  ends  meet,  wrap  with  strong  twine,  well 
waxed,  and  it  will  last  a  long  time. 

PORTABLE  GLUE  FOR  DRAUGHTSMEN.— Glue  5  ozs. ;  sugar  2  ozs.  / 
•water  8  ozs. ;  melt  in  a  water  hath,  cast  it  in  molds.  For  use  dissolv  o 
in  warm  water. 

CEMENTING  EMERY  TO  WOOD.— Melt  together  equal  parts  vt 
shellac,  white  resin  and  carbolic  acid  in  crystals  ;  add  the  last  after 
the  others  are  melted. 

To  COAT  IRON  WITH  EMERY.— Give  the  iron  a  good  coat  of  oil 
and  white  lead,  when  this  gets  hard  and  dry,  apply  a  mixvuTO 
of  glue  and  emery. 

To  CLEAN  COTTON  WASTE.— Pack  the  waste  in  a  tin  cylinder- 
I  with  a  perforated  false  bottom  and  tube  with  stop-cock  at  bottom. 
»Pour  on  the  waste  bisulphide  of  carbon  sufficient  to  cover,  and 
allow  to  soak  a  few  minutes,  then  add  more  bisulphide,  and  so  on 
for  a  time  or  two,  and  then  squeeze  out.  By  simple  distillation 
the  whole  of  the  bisulphide,  or  nearly  all,  can  easily  be  recovered 
and  BO  be  used  over  again.  This  will  free  the  cotton  completely 
from  grease. 

FRENCH  PUTTY. — Seven  pounds  linseed  oil  and  4  Ibs.  brown 
limber  are  boiled  for  two  hours,  and  62  grammes  wax  stirred  in. 
After  removal  from  the  fire  5^  Ibs.  fine  chalk  and  11  Ibs,  white  lead 
are  added  and  thoroughly  incorporated  ;  said  to  be  very  hard  aod 
permanent. 


MACHINISTS,    ENGINEERS',    &CM  RECEIPTS.          42$ 

To.  MEND  CRACKED  CAST-IKON  VESSELS. — Drill  a  hole  at  each  ex- 
treme end  of  the  crack,  to  prevent  its  further  extension,  plug  rivet 
the  holes  with,  copper,  and,  with  fine  iron  filings  saturated  with 
urine,  caulk  the  crack.  Four  parts  of  pulverized  clay  and  one 
part  of  iron  filings  made  into  a  paste  with  boiling  linseed  oil  and 
applied  hot  is  a  good  cement  for  the  same  purpose. 

To  PREVENT  IRON  RUSTING. — Give  it  a  coat  of  linseed  oil  and 
whiting,  mixed  together  in  the  form  of  a  paste.  It  is  easily  removed 
and  will  preserve  iron  from  rusting  for  years. 

GLUE  FOR  LABELLING  ON  METALS.—  Boiling  water,  1  qt. ;  pulver- 
ized borax,  2  ozs. ;  gum  shellac,  4  ozs.  Boil  till  dissolved.  Used  for 
attaching  labels  to  metals,  or  it  will  do  to  write  inscriptions  with, 
and  dust  or  dab  on  a  little  bronze  powder  over  it,  varnishing  over 
the  bronze. 

CEMENT  FOR  PETROLEUM  LAMPS.— Boil  3  parts  of  resin  with  1 
part  of  caustic  soda  and  5  of  water.  The  composition  is  then  mixed 
with  half  its  weight  of  plaster  of  Paris,  and  sets  firmly  in  \  to  f  of  an 
hour.  It  is  of  great  adhesive  power,  not  permeable  to  petroleum,  a  low 
conductor  of  heat,  and  but  superficially  attacked  by  hot  water. 

FOR  LUTE,  or  cement  for  closing  joints  of  apparatus,  mix  Pan? 
plaster  with  water  to  a  soft  paste,  and  apply  it  at  on  ;e.  It  bears  nearly 
a  red  heat.  To  render  it  impervious,  rub  it  over  with  wax  and  oil. 

ROMAN  CEMENT. — Slaked  lime,  1  bush.,  green  copperas,  3£  Ibs., 
fine  gravel  sand,  ^  bush.  Dissolve  the  copperas  in  hot  water,  and  mix 
all  together  to  the  proper  consistency  for  use  ;  use  the  day  it  is  mixed 
and  keep  stirring  it  with  a  stick  while  in  use. 

VICAT'S  HYDRAULIC  CEMENT  is  prepared  by  stirring  into  water 
a  mixture  of  4  parts  chalk  and  1  part  clay  ;  mix  with  a  vertical  wheel 
in  a  circular  trough,  letting  it  run  out  in  a  large  receiver.  A  deposit 
noon  takes  place  which  is  formed  into  email  bricks,  which  after  be- 
ing dried  in  the  sun,  are  moderately  calcined.  It  enlarges  about  § 
when  mixed  with  water. 

GLUE  TO  RESIS-'  MOISTURE.— Glue,  5  parts,  resin,  4  parts,  red 
ochre,  2  parts,  mix  with  the  smallest  possible  quantity  of  water. 

CEMENT  TO  FASTEN  LEATHER  ON  TOP  ROLLERS. — Gum  arabic,  2£ 
ozs.,  isinglass  2|  ozs.,  dissolve  each  separately  in  water  and  mix. 

PARCHMENT  GLUE. — Parchment  shavings,  1  lb.,  water,  6  qts. 
JBoil  till  dissolved,  strain  and  envaporate  to  right  consistence. 

To  ATTACH  GLASS  OR  METAL  LETTERS  TO  PLATE  GLASS. — Copal 
Tarnish,  15  parts;  drying  oil,  5  parts;  turpentine,  3  parts;  oil  of  tur- 
pentine, 2  parts ;  liquefied  glue,  5  parts.  Melt  in  a  water  bath  and 
add  10  parts  of  slaked  lime. 

TURNERS'  CEMENT.— Beeswax,  1  oz.;  resin,  $  oz.;  pitch,  f  oa^ 
melt,  and  stir  in  fine  brick  dust. 

BANK  NOTE  GLUE.— Dissolve  1  lb.  of  fine  glue  or  gelatine  in  wuter; 
evaporate  it  till  most  of  the  water  is  expelled;  add  A  lb.  of  brown \ 
;  sugar,  and  pour  it  into  moulds. 

,  CEMENT  FOR  ELECTRICAL  MACHINES  AND  GALVANIC  TROUGHS.— 
Melt  together  5  Ibs.  of  resin  and  1  lb.  of  beeswax,  and  stir  in  1  lb.  of 
red  ochre  (highly  dried  and  still  warm)  and  4  oz.  of  plaster  of  Park, 
continuing  the  heat  a  little  above  212°,  and  stirring  constantly  till  aH 
frothing  ceases,  or  (for  troughs)  rosin,  6  Ibs. ;  dried  red  ochre,  J  ilx. 
Mlcined  plaster  of  JMris,  i  lb. ;  linseed  oil,  i  ib. 


426        MACHINISTS    AND    EXGINSEES'   DEPARTMENT. 

ARCHITECTURAL  CEMENT — 1.  Reduce  paper  to  a  smooth  paste  by  boflc 
Ing  it  in  water;  then  add  an  equal  weight  of  sifted  whiting  and  good  size; 
boil  to  a  proper  consistence.  2.  Paper  paste  and  size,  equal  parts ;  finely 
powdered  plaster  of  Paris  to  make  it  of  a  proper  consistence.  Use  it  as 
soon  as  mixed.  Can  be  used  in  making  architectural  busts,  statues^ 
columns,  &c.  It  is  light,  receives  a  good  polish,  but  will  not  stand  water. 

ALABASTER  CEMENT. — 1.  Finely  powdered  plaster  of  Paris,  made  into! 
a  paste  with  water.  2.  Melt  yellow  rosin,  or  equal  parts  yellow  rosia 
and  beeswax,  then  stir  in  half  as  much  finely  powdered  plaster  of  Paris* 
\The  first  is  used  to  join  and  fit  together  pieces  of  alabaster  or  marble, 
or  to  mend  broken  plaster  figures.  The  second  is  to  join  alabaster, 
marble,  and  other  similar  substances  that  will  bear  being  heated. 

FRENCH  CEMENT  FOR  ROOM >.— A  coat  of  oxide  of  zinc,  mixed  with 
size,  made  up  like  a  wash ,  is  first  laid  on  the  wall,  ceiling,  or  wainscot,  and 
over  that  a  coat  of  chloride  of  zinc  applied,  prepared  in  the  same  way  as 
the  first  wash.  The  oxide  and  chloride  effect  an  immediate  combina- 
tion, and  form  a  kind  of  cement,  smooth  and  polished  as  glass,  and  said 
to  be  superior  to  plaster  of  Paris  for  coating  the  walla  of  rooms. 

CEMENT  FOR  CLOTH  OR  LEATHER. — Take  ale,l  pt. ;  best  Russia  isin- 
glass, 2  ozs. ;  put  them  into  a  common  glue  kettle  and  boil  until  the  isin- 
glass is  dissolved;  then  add  4  ozs.  of  the  best  common  glue,  find  dissolve- 
it  with  the  other  ;  then  slowly  add  1J  ozs.  of  boiled  linseed  oil,  stirring  all 
the  time  while  adding,  and  until  well  mixed.  When  cold  it  appears  like. 
India  rubber.  To  use,  dissolve  what  you  need  in  a  suitable  quantity  of 
ale  to  have  the  consistence  of  thick  glue.  It  i.s  applicable  for  earthen- 
ware, china,  glass,  or  leather  ;  for  harness,  belts  for  machinery,  cloth 
belts  for  cracker  machines  for  bakers,  &c.  If  for  leather,  shave  off  as  if 
for  sewing,  apply  the  cement  with  a  brush  while  hot,  laying  a  weight  to 
keep  the  joint  firmly  pressed  for  6  to  10  hours,  or  over  night. 

CUTLERS'  CEMENT.— Black  rosin,  4  Ibs. ;  beeswax,  1  Ib. ;  melt  together 
and  add  1  Ib.  finely  powdered  and  dried  brick-dust.  Used  for  fastening 
knives  and  forks  in  their  handles  when  they  become  loosened  by  use. 

CEMENT  FOR  FASTENING  FIBROUS  MATERIALS  TO  METALS. — This 
can  be  effected  by  dissolving  glue  in  vinegar  by  heat  and  adding  one- 
third  of  its  volume  of  white  pine  pitch,  also  hot. 

GOOD  PASTE  THAT  WILL  KEEP  A  YEAR.— Dissolve  a  teaspoonful  of 
alum  in  a  quart  of  warm  water.  When  cold,  stir  in  as  much  flour  as  will 
bring  it  to  the  consistence  of  cream,  being  particular  to  break  up  all  the 
lumps  ;  next,  place  it  on  the  fire  and  allow  it  to  cook  gently  for  a  few 
minutes,  stirring  well  meanwhile  ;  add  2  teaspoonfuls  of  corrosive  sub' 
limate,  a  few  drops  of  carbolic  acid,  and  a  teaspoonful  of  oil  of  rose- 
mary, or  cloves,  or  lavender,  or  any  other  essential  oil,  stirring  in  well. 
Tkis  paste  will  keep  for  any  length  of  time  in  prime  condition. 

MUCILAGE. — Put  3  ozs.  of  gum  arable  in  an  earthen-ware  vessel  con- 
t  lining  ^  pt.  of  cold  water.  If  the  liquid  is  occasionally  stirred,  the 
jam  in  24  hours  will  be  dissolved  and  ready  for  use. 
\  CEMENT  TO  FASTEN  RUBBER  TO  WOOD  OR  METAL. — Soak  pulverized 
gum  shellac  in  10  times  its  weight  of  ammonia  ;  in  3  or  4  weeks  a  slimy 
mass  is  obtained  which  will  become  liquid  without  the  use  of  hot  water  ; 
}his  softens  the  rubber,  and  becomes,  after  volatilization  of  the  ammonia, 
iiard  and  impermeable  to  gases  and  fluids  whenever  it  is  used  on  rabbdf 
connected  to  wood  or  metal,  as  in  steam,  or  other  apparatus. 

IMPERISHABLE  PUTTY. — Linseed  oil,  7  Ibs.  ;  brown  umber,  4  Ibs. ; 
boil  together  two  hours  ;  stir  in  2  oz.  beeswax,  remove  from  the  fir%. 
and  mix  in  5^  Ibs  chalk  and  11  Ibs.  white  lead,  mixing  thoroughly. 

CHEAP  GOLD  VARNISH  FOR  ORNAMENTAL  TIX-WARE. — Turpentine  • 
varnish,  2  gals.  ;  turpentine,  1  gal.  ;  asphaltum,  1  gill ;  umber,  8  oz. ', , 
yellow  aniline,  4  oz.  ;  gamboge,  1  Ib.  Boil  and  mix  for  10  hours. 


MACHINISTS    AND    ENGINEERS'    DEPARTMENT          42? 


Temporary  Repairs  in  Locomotive  Rrcak-downg 
on  the  Road. 

That  the  locomotive,  in  its  long  and  rapid  trips,  with  continual  oscilla- 
tion, jars,  and  heavy  shocks,  over  uneven  rails,  passing  around  curves 
and  sinuosities,  twisting  first  one  way  and  then  another,  should  meet. 

.-  with  frequent  break-downs,  is  a  matter  of  small  wonder.  The  real 
wonder  is  that  they  do  not  occur  more  frequently.  Much  of  this  im- 
munity from  accident  is  doubtless  owing  to  the  watchful  care  of  the 
men  to  whom  they  are  intrusted,  whose  perceptions  and  intuitions  are 
quickened  to  a  wonderful  degree  of  activity  by  the  peculiar  dangers 

-  which  beset  them  in  their  calling.  Among  the  emergencies  in  which  the 
locomotive  engineer  may  be  called  to  act,  the  following  may  be  noted  : 

1.  Bursting^ of  the  Tubes  or  Flues. — The  temporary  remedy  for  this  is 
to  drive  a  tapering  plug  of  pine  wood  into  the  ruptured  tube  by  ram- 

t*  ruing  it  with  the  end  of  an  iron  bar.  When  a  simple  leak  exists,  the 
plug  should  be  driven  hito  the  tube  so  as  to  cover  the  fractured  part, 
where  the  action  of  the  steam  will  swell  the  plug,  causing  it  to  fit  tight 
and  correct  the  trouble.  The  timber  used  should  be  well  seasoned,  and 
the  plugs  formed  a  trifle  too  small  for  the  tube  ;  the  expansion  due  to 

'  the  moisture  will  do  the  rest.  With  bursted  tubes  the  wooden  plugs 
.should  be  followed  up  by  tapering  iron  plugs  driven  tight  into  the  flues. 
To  do  this  comfortably  it  will  be  necessary  to  repress  the  heat  in  the 
iurnace  by  covering  the  fire  with  fresh  fuel  from  the  tender. 

2.  Throwing  off  a  Driving  Wheel. — When  the  break  occurs,  as  is  fre- 
'  quently  the  case,' just  outside  the  driving-axle  box,  remove  the  driving- 
box  and  substitute  in  its  place  a  substantial  piece  of  timber  fitted  to  use 
as  a  journal  bearing  for  the  axle.   Adjust  this  timber  on  the  pedestal  cap 
so  as  to  sustain  the  axle  in  the  centre  of  the  pedestal.     By  cautious 
management,  disconnecting  the  valve  gearing,  securing  the  piston,  and 

>   opening  the  cylinder  cocks  as  before,  the  engine  may  be  run  slowly  to- 
|   wards  its  destination. 

3.  Where  a  Wheel  Tire  is  Thrown  Off,  the  best  way  is  to  elevate  the 
dismantled  wheel  from  the  track  by  fitting  a  block  of  timber  into  the 
oil  cistern  of  the  driving-box;  when  this  is  done  connect  with  another 
engine  and  tow  the  disabled  machine  to  the  repair  shop  without  allow- 
ing the  tireless  wheel  to  touch  the  rails. 

4.  Heated  Axle-Boxes. — This  trouble  is  frequently  detected  by  the 
odor  of  burning  oil.    In  this  case  the  speed  should,  if  possible,  be  re- 
duced, and  the  box  freely  lubricated ;  but  if  this  proves  of  no  avail,  a 
brisk  jet  of  cold  water  from  the  tank  should  be  directed  on  the  hot  box 
by  means  of  a  small  rubber  hose,  which  should  always  be  kept  on  hand 
for  such  emergencies.    To  avert  all  danger  from  the"  fused  lining  metal 
of  the  brasses  becoming  brazed  to  the  journal  of  the  axle  the  engine 
should  be  kept  moving  very  slowly,  and  not  allowed  to  come  to  a^full 
etop  until  the  trouble  is  past. 

5.  When  the  Piston-Rod  becomes  Heated,  the  remedy  is  to  loosen  the 
eland  sufficiently  to  permit  the  free  emission  of  steam  from  the  engine  cyl- 
inder through  the  packing.    Lubricate  freely  and  apply  water  with  the 
£ose  as  above  noted,  while  running  slowly. 

1  6.  Broken  Crank  Pin. — Where  only  oiie  crank-pin  is  broken  remove 
the  parallel  or  coupling  rods  on  60^1  sides  of  the  engine,  and  if  the 
broken  crank-pin  belongs  to  the  driving-wheels,  remove  the  connecting 
rod  at  the  same  time,  open  the  cylinder  waste-water  cocks,  and  se- 
curely block  the  cross-head.  If  the  parallel  rods  on  both  sides  of  the 
engine  are  not  removed,  there  is  imminent  danger,  while  running,  of 
breaking  the  remaining  crank-pins  on  the  opposite  side. 


425         MACHINISTS    AND    ENGINEERS'   DEPARTMENT. 

7.  Driving  out  the  Front  Cylinder-head. — Remove  the  connecting-rod 
on  the  disabled  side  of  the  engine,  and  detach  the  valve  motion,  either 
by  taking  down  the  eccentric  rod  straps  or  at  the  rock-shaft  arm.    Next, 
get  the  valve  in  the  centre  of  its  travel,  so  as  to  overlap  and  cover  both  , 
of  the  cylinder  steam  ports,   but  with  the  exhaust  port  open.    Then  / 
crowd  the  back  towards  the  tender  as  far  as  it  will  go  and  proceed  with 
the  scund  cylinder, 

8.  Breaking  of  the  Piston-red.—  The   provisional    remedy  for  this, 
'where  the  cylinder-head  is  not  driven  out,  is  to  proceed  as  directed  in  the  > 
ilast  noted  emergency.     Open  the  waste-water  cocks  of  the  disabled  cyl- 
inder to  check  any  leakage  of  steam  past  the  slide  valve  from  gaining 
Admission  to  the  cylinder  and  forcing  the  piston  against  the  cylinder- 
head  and  driving  it  out.     Block  the  piston  securely  by  means  of  pieces 
«rf  timber  fitted  between  the  guide-bars,  so  as  to  extend  between  the 
guide-yoke  and  cross-head. 

9.  Broken  Spring  or  Spring-Hanger. — Apply  the  jacks  and  raise  the 
engine  until  the  axle-box  of  the  drivJng-wheeHs  nearly  in  the  centre  of 
the  pedestal,  then  place  a  suitable  piec-e  of  iron  crosswise  of  the  upper 
part  of  the  driving-axle  box,  but  between  it  and  the  engine  frame,  BO 
as  to  rest  the  weight  of  the  engine  on  the  frame  and  relieve  the  spring. 
To  prevent  the  movement  of  the  equalizing  bar,  and  to  permit  the  opera- 
tion of  the  spring  at  the  other  end  of  the  said  bar  without  moving  it,  a 
piece  of  iron  should  be  placed  between  the  bar  and  the  top  of  the  engine 
frame. 

10.  Breaking  of  Piston-Rod  from  the  Cross-Head. — In  this  case  the 
piston  maybe  removed  from  the  cylinder,  or  immovably  braced  against 
the  front  cylinder-head,  as  may  be'most  convenient     It  matters  not  if  it 
does  leak  a  little  steam. 

11.  Breaking  a,  Lifting  Link  or  the  Saddle  Pin  Connecting  the  Re- 
verse  Shaft  to  the  Slot-Link. — The  temporary  remedy  for  this  accident  is 
to  fit  a  piece  of  wood  and  fasten  it  with  stout  twine  on  the  top  of  the  die 
or  link-block.    It  should  be  of  sufficient  length  to  keep  the  link  in  proper 
position  for  duty  in  running  the  train.     Next,  secure  another  piece  of 
wood  (by  the  same  means  as  the  last  noted)  in  the  link-slot  below  the 
,iie  or  sliding-block,  to  fasten  that  block  in  the  right  position  to  allow 
the  engine  to  run.    As  the  engine  cannot  be  reversed  on  the  disabled 
side,  the  driver  must  exercise  double  caution  in  stopping. 

12.  Slipping  of  the  Eccentrics. — The  provisional  remedy  for  this  ac- 
cident is  as  follows :  Place  the  reverse  lever  in  the  end  notch  of  the  sector 
forward  and  place  the  driving  crank-pin  or  engine-crank  as  nearly  on  a 
dead  centre  as  possible,  opening  the  waste-water  cocks  at  both  ends  of 
the  cylinder.  Now  detach  the  rocker-arm  from  the  slide-valve  spindle,  and 
move  the  latter  until  the  opening  of  the  cylinder  steam-port,  corresponding 
to  the  end  of  the  cylinder  at  which  the  piston  stands,  will  be  shown  by 
the  emission  of  steam  through  the  waste-water  cock  at  that  end  of  the/ 
cylinder  ;  the  throttle-valve  being  slightly  opened  to  admit  a  small  quan-{ 
tity  of  steam  to  the  cylinder  and  steam-chest,  for  if  a  large  supply  en- 
tered it  would  be  liable  to  pass  through  leaks  in  the  piston  and  thenc*  . 
through  both  of  the  waste-water  cylinder-cocks.    The  position  of  the 
val-re  being  now  ascertained,  the  eccentric  is  next  moved  nppn  the 
driving-axle,  and  adjusted  so  that  the  valve-spindle  will  connect  with  the 
rocker-arm  without  being  moved,  or  moving  the  valve  at  all.    Still  an- 
other temporary  remedy  is  this  :    Set  the  reverse  lever  in  the  forward  i 
notch,  place  the  crank  on  its  forward  dead  centre,  and  slacken  the  set-' 
screw    of   the   eccentric    which  connects  to    the    upper    end  of   the 
link  ;  the  forward  eccentric.    This  eccentric  must  now  be  moved  round 
upon  the  axle  until  the  slide-valve  causes  the  steam-port  at  the  front  end 
of  the  cylinder  to  open  auffic.'0"*1"  **•  -<*~-«|  the  required  amount  of 


MACHINISTS    AND    ENGINEEKS'    DEPARTMENT.  429 

/ 

,V*lve  tead.  To  accomplish  the  desired  results,  the  eccentric  must  be 
'  moved  as  it  operates  when  the  engine  is  going  ahead.  The  eccentric 
being  thus  properly  adjusted  in  position,  it  should  be  firmly  secured  by 
means  of  its  set-screw.  If  the  rear  eccentric  becomes  loose,  place  the  re- 
verse lever  in  the  backward  notch,  and  elevate  the  link  so  that  the  ec- 
centric connected  to  the  lower  end  of  the  link  may  be  properly  adjusted, 
moving  it  around  on  the  axle  as  it  operates  when  the  engine  is  running 
backwards,  until  the  rear  cylinder-cock  is  open  to  the  required  aniourj 
of  valve  lead,  when  it  must  be  secured  as  above  noted. 

How  TO  SHAPE  A  SAILING  VESSEL  OB  STEAMER.— The  model  of  a  vessel 
is  in  every  case  determined  by  the  nature  of  the  traffic  for  which  she  is  des- 
tined, the  motive  power  by  which  she  will  be  impelled,  and  the  character  of 
the  waters  she  is  intended  to  navigate.  For  shallow  ports  and  rivers,  she 
must  be  fiat-bottomed  and  of  light  draught.  If  she  is  to  navigate  northern 
seas,  she  must  be  constructed  to  encounter  and  outride  the  fearful  gales  and 
tremendous  storms  of  frequent  occurrence.  ~ii  she  is  to  visit  tropical  climates 
and  follow  the  great  marine  highways  of  commerce  in  deep  water  from 
ocean  to  ocean,  she  must  be  equally  adapted  for  conflict  with  the  tropical 
hurricane  and  the  freezing  gales  of  the  north.  It  is  a  fact  that  the  first-class 
iron  steamers  which  ply  between  New  York  and  the  various  European  ports 
have  proved  themselves  abundantly  capable,  where  no  serious  derangement 
is  sustained  by  the  machinery,  of  coming  safely  into  port  through  the  worst 
possible  kind  of  weather.  Even  contrary  winds  have  the  beneficial  effect  of 
quickening  the  draught  of  the  furnaces,  and  thus  increasing  the  speed  of  the 
vessel.  This  wonderful  endurance  and  nice  adaptation  to  duty  is  no  chance 
work  ;  it  is  the  result  of  design— the  careful  adjustment  of  forces,  and  th» 
closest  calculation  on  the  part  of  the  designer. 

If  a  vessel  is  to  be  impelled  by  the  wind,  she  will  have  one  shape  ;  if  by 
steam,  and  with  paddles,  quite  another  ;  and  still  another  if  a  propeller. 
There  is  a  vast  discrepancy  between  the  graceful  curves  and  swe'iing  lines 
of  a  first-class  excursion  steamer  and  the  unwieldy,  cumbrous  form  of  the 
collier,  yet  each  vessel  is  specially  designed  for  its  particular  vocation. 

The  character,  cost,  length,  width,  depth,  and  capacity  of  the  vessel  being 
determined,  the  first  step  is  to  make  the  model.  To  do  this  a  number  ef 
pieces  of  well-seasoned,  select  pieces  of  wood,  of  a  uniform  thickness,  are 
chosen.  The  size  may  be  from  4  to  7  ins.  wide,  and  from  18  ins.  to  3  ft.  in 
length.  An  equal  number  of  pieces  of  veneer,  of  a  corresponding  size,  are 
next  selected,  of  a  color  contrasting  with  that  of  the  boards  previously 
chosen.  The  boards  are  now  carefully  adjusted  over  each  other,  with  a 
Iveneer  between  each,  ana  the  whole  are  glued  together,  and  submitted  to 
.pressure,  so  as  to  make  a  solid,  compact  block  of  the  whole.  From  this  block 
the  designer  forms  the  model  of  one  side  of  the  hull  of  the  projected  vessels 
for  as  both  sides  will  be  exactly  alike,  there  is  no  use  for  representing  more- 
than  one-half  of  the  hull.  The  greatest  care  and  the  nicest  calculation  must' 
be  used  in  order  to  render  the  form  of  the  block  an  exact  counterpart  of  th« 
hull  of  the  future  ship,  as  in  building  the  latter  every  part  must  be  con- 
structed to  conform,  in  the  minutest  particulars,  to  the  model.  It  will  be 
seen  from  this  that  every  thing  relating  to  the  ship's  capacity,  speed,  draught, 
safety,  &c.,  depends  upon  the  ability,  forethought,  and  prescience  of  the  de- 
signer in  calculating  every  possible  contingency  relating  to  the  displacement 
of  water,  draught,  buoyancy,  the  force  of  the  wind  and  waves,  &c.  If  the 
,'  future  vessel  be  intended  for  a  steamer,  the  designer  must  be  ab?C  to  calcu- 
L  late  the  proper  degree  of  immersion  for  the  paddles  '»r  sufcw^rw"1**  for  the 
[propeller,  as  either  of  the  twt>  way  be  used  for  propulsion,  vi*U  i  uuueroat 
I  other  minor  details. 


130  MACHINISTS   AND    ENGINEERS*  DEPABTMEMt 


JAMES  WATT. 

Among  the  benefactors  of  humanity,  whose  labors  have  conduced  to  rendaf 
the  latent  forces  of  nature  subservient  to  the  use?  of  mankind,  the  name  of 
James  Watt  holds  preeminent  rank.  The  following  epitaph  is  inscribed  oil  th« 
pedestal  of  Chantry's  statue  of  Watt  in  Westminster  Abbey : 

NOT  TO  PERPETUATE  A  NAME,  WHICH  MUST  ENDURE  WHILE  THE  FEACEFUIi 
ARTS  FLOURISH,  BUT  TO  SHOW  THAT  MANKIND  HAVE  LEARNT  TO  HONOR  THO8H 
-WHO  BEST  DESERVE  THEIR  GRATITUDE,  THE  KING,  HIS  MINISTERS,  ANB 
MANY  OF  THE  NOBLES  AMD  COMMONERS  OF  THE  REALM,  RAISED  THIS  MONU- 
MENT TO  JAMES  WATT,  WHO  DIRECTING  THE  FORCE  OF  AN  ORIGINAL  GENIUS, 

EARLY  F.XERCISED  IN   PHILOSOPHIC   RESEARCH,  TO   THE  IMPROVEMENT  OF  THJB 

ST&AM  ENGINE,  ENLARGED  THE  RESOURCES  OF  HIS  COUNTRY,  INCREASED 
THE  POWER  OF  MAN,  AND  ROSE  TO  AN  EMINENT  PLACE  AMONG  THE  ILLUSTRIOUS 
FOLLOWERS  OF  SCIENCE  AND  THE  REAL  BENEFACTORS  OF  THE  WORLD.  BORJ? 
AT  GREENOCK,  1736.  DIED  AT  HEATHFIELD,  IN  STAFFORDSHIRE,  1819. 

In  1764,  Watt  constructed  the  first  pteam  engine  of  real  practical  value  erer 
-made  in  England,  and  in  1786  he  patented  and  introduced  the  first  non-condens- 
ing engine.  This  improvement  consisted  in  his  discovery  of  the  power  of  cold 
water  to  condense  steam,  and  he  applied  this  means  'in  a  separate  vessel. 
Four  ounces  of  water  will,  in  a  second,  condense  200  feet  of  steam,  and  reduce 
their  expansive  force  to  one-fifth. 

THE  WATEROUS  ENGINE  WORKS  Co.'s  HIGH  PRESSTTRE  "ENGINE,  repre- 
sented in  the  cut,  is  in  very  extensive  use  in  Canada,  and  is  credited  with  first- 
•class  performances.  The  improved  Governor  used  on  this  engine  is  superior  t* 
most  of  the  best  kinds  now  manufactured  in  its  controlling  and  regulating 
notion,  combined  with  easy  adjustment.  Outer  bearings  are  added  to  the  valve 
«pindles,  and  brass  glands  to  the  stuffing  boxes,  which  are  held  to  plaoe  with  tt 
tap  screwed  on,  thus  obviating  any  liability  to  get  out  of  line.  The  piston 


*M;IIINISTS  AND  ENGINEERS'  DEPARTMENT,     41 


432      .MACHINISTS   AND    ENGINEERS'    DEPARTMENT. 

rods  and  crank-pins  are  of  steel,  and  all  valve  spindles  and  enginf 
fcolts  are  made  of  Lowmoor  iron. 

The  above  noted  engine  must  not  be  confounded  with  the  20  and 
25-horse  power  direct  action  portable  engines  manufactured  by  the 
same  company,  so  well  known  and  so  extensively  used  in  driving  saw 
mills,  and  performing  work  connected  with  ship  building  in  the 
Maratime  Provinces,  and  other  parts  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada^ 
These  engines  and  mills  are  considered  by  many  who  use  them  as 
marvels  of  perfection,  several  parties  having  sent  in  attestations  Oi 
having  performed  nearly  double  the  work  guaranteed  by  the  com 
tpany. 


RICHARD'S  INDICATOR,  BY  ELLIOT  BROTHERS,  LONDOff. 

The  above  cut  represents  a  Richards  Steam  Engine  Indicator, 
consisting  at  a  cylinder  containing  an  accurately  adjusted  piston,  th« 
upper  side  of  which  is  always  exposed  to  the  downward  pressure  ol 


MACHINISTS    AND    ENGINEERS'    DEPARTMENT.       433 

the  atmosphere,  and  fitted  with  a  stiff  spiral  spring  of  known  strength 
to  resist  the  upward  movement  of  the  steam  when  it  operates  from 
beneath.  The  indications  of  the  instrument  are  exhibited  by  means 
of  a  pencil  connected  with  the  piston  and  operated  by  the  fluctuating 
pressure  of  the  steam,  whereby  the  pencil  is  compelled  to  move  up  or 
down  in  a  vertical  direction,  a»d  describe  a  line  on  a  piece  of  papei 
placed  on  the  card  barrel  or  drum  shown  in  the  cut,  with  the  gradiu. 
ated  scale,  the  drum  in  the  meantime  being  compelled  to  move  hither 
and  thither  on  its  axis  by  means  of  a  cord  connecting  it  with  a  suit- 
able part  of  the  engine  operating  to  draw  it  one  way  against  the  ten.  • 
sion  of  a  spring  during  the  forward  stroke  of  the  engine,  the  back, 
ward  movement  of  the  drum  towards  its  original  position  being] 
effected  by  the  operation  of  the  spring  while  the  cord  is  relaxed  dur-' 
ing  the  return  stroke  of  the  engine.  The  piston  to  which  the  pencil 
is  attached,  is  very  light,  has  very  little  friction,  small  momentum, 
and  very  limited  motion,  the  spring  on  the  upper  part  being  quite 
stiff  and  rigid,  and  so  graduated  in  strength  that  a  variation  in  the 
pressure  of  1  Ib.  to  the  square  inch  will  force  the  pencil  up  or  down  a 
definite  part  of  an  inch.  The  indicator  is  intended  to  exhibit  the 
pressure  of  steam  in  the  cylinder  at  every  part  of  the  piston's  travel, 
and  thus  show  the  actual  or  indicated  horse-power.  In  applying  the 
indicator  to  horizontal  cylinders,  the  proper  place  for  insertion  is  on 
the  upper  side,  near  the  ends,  but  averted  as  much  as  possible  from 
the  steam  ports,  as  the  rushing  gteam  has  a  tendency  to  derange  the 
indications.  Vertical  cylinders  should  be  tapped  at  the  upper  end, 
and  the  indicator  cock  screwed  in,  or  the  aperture  in  which  the  oil 
cup  is  inserted  may  be  used  for  that  purpose;  for  the  lower  end,  drill 
*hrough  the  side  of  the  cylinder,  and  insert  a  tube  with  the  end  bent 
upwards  for  the  reception  of  the  indicator  cock.  The  indicator  be- 
ing in  position,  a  cord  (fine  wire  is  preferable),  from  the  paper  barrel 
is  attached  to  a  "  reducing  wheel,"  which  is  secured  to  gome  part  of 
the  engine  frame ;  another  cord  connects  the  reducing  wheel  with  the 
piston  head  ;  the  Intervention  of  this  wheel  is  necessary  in  order  to 
diminish  or  reduce  the  long  movement  of  the  piston  to  a  sufficient 
extent  to  conform  to  the  small  size  of  the  instrument  used.  The 
connection  being  complete,  and  the  engine  in  motion,  the  paper  bar- 
rel will  commence  to  revolve  with  the  forward  movement  of  the 
piston,  in  antagonism  to  the  tension  of  the  coiled  spring  above  noted, 
when  the  cord  is  relaxed  by  the  return  stroke  of  the  piston,  the  paper 
barrel,  operated  by  the  spring,  will  resume  its  original  position,  and 
this  motion  will  continue  as  long  as  may  be  desirable.  The  penal, 
if  now  allowed  to  press  upon  the  moving  paper,  will  describe  a 
straight  horizontal  line,  called  the  atmospheric  line.  On  the  admis- 
sion of  steam  by  turning  the  tap  of  the  indicator,  tins  Horizontal 
motion  will  suddenly  change  into  an  upward  or  downward  move- 
ment, just  as  the  piston  in  the  indicator  is  driven  upwards  by  the 
steam  or  downwards  by  the  atmosphere,  as  either  gains  the  ascend- 
ancy: and  the  pencil  will  describe,  on  the  moving  paper,  a  space  or 
outline,  compounded  of  the  tAvo  motions,  called  an  indicator  diagram, 
each  point  in  the  course  of  which  -vrill  determine,  by  its  elevation  or 
depression  above  the  atmospheric  line,  the  exact  amount  of  pressure 
in  that  part  of  the  cylinder,  during  each  part  of  the  forward  and  re- 
turn stroke.  Many  prefer  to  trace  the  indicator  diagram  previous  to 
tracing  the  atmospheric  line.  *  . 

tt 


434     MACHINISTS   AND   ENGINEERS'  DEPARTMENT. 


In  diagram  E,  the  atmospheric  line  A  B,  described  by  the  pendl 
without  steam,  is  equivalent  to  the  stroke  of  the  piston,  which  maj 
t>c  divided  into  as  many  aliquot  parts  as  there  are  inches  in  the  strok* 
of  the  piston.  Perpendiculars  raised  on  this  line  will  cut  the  diagram 
at  points  indicating  the  corresponding  pressure.  The  curved  line 
A  B,  traced  by  the  pencil,  exhibits  the  varying  pressure  of  the  steam) 
during  the  steam  stroke,  in  the  direction  A  B,  aiid  during  the  return- 
stroke  B  A;  the  continuation  B  C  A  represents  similarly  the  back1 
pressure  due  to  incomplete  exhaust.  The  curve  is  thus  arranged  to 
oegin  and  end  in  itself,  and  it  plainly  represents  the  pressure  of  the 
*team  on  one  side  of  the  piston  during  a  double  stroke.  Divide  the 
toase  line  into  inches  of  stroke,  say  20,  and  at  each  division  draw 
vertical  lines;  similarly  draw  lines  parallel  to  the  atmospheric  line 


at  equal  distances,  of  say  10  Ibs.  pressure  by  the  indicator  scale  ;  thfl 
force  of  steam  at  all  points  of  the  stroke  will " 


be  obvious. 


Corner 


E   _ 

Steam  StroTce, 


Corner 


-60T&J. 


Iteturn  Stroke, 


To  Compute  the  Power  of  the  Diagram — Set  down  the  length  of 
the  spaces  formed  by  the  vertical  lines  from  the  base,  in  measure- 
ments of  a  scale  accompanying  the  indicator,  and  oif  which  a  10th  of 
an  inch  usually  represents  a  pound  of  pressure;  add  up  the  total 
length  of  all  the  spaces,  and  divide  by  the  number  of  spaces,  which 
•will  give  the  mean  length,  or  the  mean  pressure  upon  the  piston  in 
pounds  per  square  inch;  multiply  the  area  of  the  piston  in  square 
inches  by  the  pressure  in  pounds  per  square  inch,  and  by  the  speed 
of  the  piston,  in  feet,  per  minute,  and  divide  by  33,000,  which  givei 
the  actual  number  of  horses'  power. 


MACHINISTS    AND    ENGINEERS*    DEPARTMENT.      435 


At  such  times  a  register  should  be  used  to  count  the  number  oi 
tCYolutions  per  minute.  Note  the  size  of  the  ports,  the  form  and 
kind  of  engine,  the  lap  and  lead  of  the  valve,  the  exhaust  lead,  the 
pressure  of  stearn  in  the  boiler,  diameter  of  cylinder,  number  of 
strokes  per  minute,  the  diameter  and  length  of  steam  pipe,  the  point 
of  cut-off,  the  height  of  the  barometer  and  temperature  of  the  engine 
room;  and  the  vacuum  by  gauge,  the  temperature  of  the  hot-well, 
and  that  of  the  injection  water,  if  the  operation  has  been  performed 
on  a  condensing  engine.  To  take  a  diagram  with  absolute  truth  it 
Is  necessary  to  operate  at  each  end  of  the  cylinder. 
POWER  REQUIRED  FOR  VARIOUS  PURPOSES. — 

To  drive  a  20  to  30  inch  circular  saw,  4  to  6  horse  power- 
32  to  40  12        "        f' 

48  to  50  15 

"         50  to  02  "          25        "        ** 

POWER  NECESSARY  TO  GRIND  GRAIN  WITH  PORTABLE  MILLS. 


Horse 
Power. 

Size  of 
Stones. 

Revolutions 
per 
Minute. 

Bushels  Corn 
Ground 
per  Hour. 

Bushels  of 
Wheat  Ground 
per  Hour. 

2  to   4 
4  to    6 
6to    8 
8  to  12 
12  to  15 

12-inch. 
20    " 
30    " 
36    " 
48    « 

800  to  900 
650  to  700 
550  to  600 
450  to  500 
350  to  400 

Ito   4 
5  to   8 
10  to  15 
18  to  25 
25  to  35 

Ito   3 
4to   6 
7  to  10 
12  to  15 
15  to  18 

SAW  MACHINE  FOR  STONES. — Soft  Sand  Stone :  Breadth  of  saw- 
cut,  |  inch;  time  required  to  saw  10  square  feet, 5 minutes  25  second**; 
power  expended,  4.54  horses,  Hard  Sand  Stone:  breadth  of  cut, 
£  inch ;  time  employed  to  cut  10  square  feet,  1  hour  37  minutes ;  pow- 
er required.  2  horses.  In  sawing  stone  the  labor  on  calcareous  atones 
is  as  45  to  50;  on  granite,  as  500  to  700;  on  porphyry  1,200.  A  mar- 
ble  saw  requires  half  a  horse  power. 

WATER  WORKS.— (Molesworth.)—!  gal.  of  water  =  0.16  cubic  ft.  ap 
jroximately;  1  cubic  foot  of  water  =  6*4  gallons  approximately. 

Consumption  of  water  in  towns.— 16  gallons  per  head  per  day  in  noiw 
manufacturing  towns;  20  gallons  per  day  in  manufacturing  towns.  The 
mam  should  be  large  enough  for  double  the  usual  quantity.  Impounding 
reservoirs  to  contain  about  120  days'  supply  in  the  less  rainy  districts  in 
England.  Service  reservoirs  to  contain  3  davs'  supply-  On  the  average, 
about  6-10ths.  of  the  rainfall  is  available  for  storage.  Loss  from  overflow 
ot  storm- water,  about  10  per  cent.  Evaporation  is  50  per  cent,  less  on 
flat  country  than  on  an  undulating  rocky  country, 

c  Infiltration,  m  England,  in  winter 33  per  cent. 

inspring 35    "        " 

in  summer 2    "        " 

"          in  autumn 48    <«       " 

'Avevage  of  the  year 42    ««       " 

FILTERS  FOR' WATER  •WORKS.— 1  'square  yard 'of 'filter'  for  every  70C 
gallons  in  24  hours;  formed  of  2  ft.  6  ins.  of  fine  sand,  6  in.  of  'com- 
aaon  sand,  6  ins.  of  shells.  2  ft.  6  ins.  of  gravel. 

Perforated  pipes  to  be  laid  in  the  lowest  stratum. 

To  UNITE  WATER  PIPES.— An  excellent  material  for  uniting 
water  pipes  is  prepared  by  combining  4  parts  of  Portland  cement  and 
1  part  of  unslacked  lime,  mixed  together  in  small  portions  in  a  stout 
mortar,  adding  enough  water  to  permit  it  to  be  reduced  to  a  soft  paste. 


436      MACHINISTS    AND    ENGINEERS"    DEPARTMENT. 


THE  ALLEtf  HIGH  PRESSURE  CUT-OFF  ENGINE. 

The  engine  represented  above  is  constructed  in  the  best  manner,  and 
valuable  improvements  have  been  introduced  with  a  view  to  attain  a 
very  high  speed  and  thus  ensure  immense  power  in  a  limited  smee. 
The  travel  of  the  piston  is  from  600  to  800  ft.  per  minute,  and  tha 
engine  is  constructed  of  the  best  material,  and  is  of  excellent  design* 
throughout. 

HAMPSON  AND  WHITEHILL'S  HIGH  PRESSURE  ENGINE.— This 
massive  and  powerful  engine  (see  cut)  is  in  quite  extensive  use,  and 
is  noted  for  its  substantial  construction,  its  excellent  valve  arrange* 
merit  powerful  governor,  economical  expansion  gear,  and  many  other 
valuable  points. 

THE  FOLLOWING  TABLE  SHOWS  THE  DIMENSIONS,  POWER,  WEIGHT* 
&C.,  OF  DIFFERENT  KINDS  OF  PORTABLE  STEAM  ENGINES  AXZV 
BOILERS.— Haswell. 


Power. 

Cylinder. 

Driving  or  Fly 
Wheels. 

Weight  of 
Engine  and 

Nom- 

Act- 

j       Jd 

j 

Revolu- 

Boiler. 

inal. 

ual.* 

e|           g 

3        9 

tions. 

3          00 

3     & 

ins. 

IDS. 

4 

4.7 

4x  10 

175 

2,800 

5 

7.3 

5X  10 

3  2X     7 

175 

3,200 

7 

10.6 

6X  10 

3V?X     7 

175 

4,200 

8 

14.3 

7X  10 

3%X     8 

175 

4,900 

12 

19.2 

8  X  12 

4X8 

150 

6,100 

15 

24.3 

9X  12 

5X9 

150 

6,900 

20 

30.9 

10X16 

6     X  10 

116 

11,200 

25 

36.3 

11  X18 

6    X  10 

100 

12,300 

30 

43.2 

12  X  18 

6     X  12 

100 

.13,800 

40 

58.8 

14X18 

7     X  14 

100 

16,700 

•Computed  at  60  Ibs.  pressure.  All  the  Portable  Engines  hare  twe  1£ 
•heels,  or  Driving  pull«7». 


438      MACHINISTS    AND    ENGINEERS'   DEPARTMENT. 

THE  BAXTER  PORTABLE  STEAM  ENGINE,  ns  manufactured  b^ 
the  Colt  Arms  Co.  of  Hartford,  Conn.,  is  made  of  five  sizes,  embracing 
two,  four,  six,  eight,  and  ten-horse  power,  respectively,  is  certainly 
one  of  the  most  complete,  unique,  simple,  and  economical  portable 
engines  ever  constructed.  It  is  too  well  known  to  require  a  detailed 
descri  on;  but  two  illustrations  are  presented  herewith,  the  first 
ghowi  g  a  front  view  of  the  exterior  part,  and  the  other  exhibiting  a 
lectioual  view  of  the  plain  boiler  ior  the  two-horse  power  engine. 


The  largest  s^  has  a  bursting  strength  corresponding  to  500  Iba.' 
Co  ihe  square  inch,  •vrhewas  the  working  pressure  is  about  70  Ibs. ;  th«: , 
emallest  size  a  bursting  strength  of  1000  Ibs.,  and  a  working  pressure  ' 
of  about  90  Ibs.    All  the  heatofi  surfaces  are  below  the  water  line, 
which  ensures  safety  to  the  boiler.  Tttn  circulation  of  the  water  within 
the  boiler  is  perfect,  thus  holding  the  sediiueuS  k«  suspension,  so  that 
ft  may  be  expelled  by  blowing  out.    The  cylinder  *^ul  iH  parta  arff 
tfept  not  by  immersion  in  the  steam,  so  that  no  caloric  is  lost,  ana  «•» 
oiston  has  a  vertical  movement,  so  that  there  is  but  little  wet*  o* 


MACHINISTS    AND    ENGINEERS'    DEPARTMENT,       43f 

,ear  resulting  from  friction.  It  is  hardly  possible  to  explode  thrf 
boiler  in  any  contingency,  and  100  Ibs.  of  coal  will  run  a  four-norsflf 
engine  for  10  hours.  The  whole  machine  is  composed  of  about  13<i 
component  parts,  all  interchangeable,  so  that  each  article  can  be  fur- 
nished by  the  manufacturer,  as  it  may  be  required  to  effect  repairs 
rendered  necessary  by  wear  or  breakage.  The  engine  has  a  piston 
speed  of  about  200  feet  per  minute,  the  diameter  of  the  piston  is  about 
the  same  as  the  length  of  the  stroke,  and  the  valve  arrangement  is 
most  complete. 

GRIFFITH  AND  WEDGE'S  VERTICAL  PORTABLE  ENGINE. — Th« 
'engine  represented  below  presents  a  combination  of  manj  valuable 
features,  among  others,  the  mini- 
mum of  friction,  owing  to  the 
vertical  position  of  the  cylinder, 
an  improvement  which  is  quite  a 
novelty  on  engines  of  this  de- 
scription, and  effectually  pre- 
vents the  unequal  wear  of  the 
cylinder  and  piston  to  which  all 
horizontal  engines  are  liable. 
The  whole  mechanical  arrange- 
ments are  most  complete,  and  so 
efficient  that  it  can  be  driven  from 
«75  revolutions,  the  proper  speed 


GRIFFITH  AND  WEDGE'S  VERTICAL  PORTABLE  ENGINK 


for  saw  mills,  to  460  revolutions  per  minute,  without  overtasking  tb« 
boiler. 


140       MACHINISTS    AND    ENGINEERS'    DEPARTMENT* 


ROBERT  FULTON, 


THE  PIONEER  OF   STEAM  NAVIGATION  IN  AMERICA. 

While  Robert  Fulton  was  in  England,  converting  a  speculation  infte 
u  reality,  he  was  on  friendly  intercourse  with  Sir  R.  Phillips,  to  whom 
he  wrote  a  triumphant  letter  on  the  evening  of  his  first  voyage  on  the 
Hudson.  This  letter  was  shown  to  Earl  Stanhope  and  four  or  five 
eminent  engineers,  but  treated  with  scorn  as  descriptive  of  an  impo»< 
sibility.  Sir  R.  Phillips  then  advertised  for  a  company  to  repeat  on 
the  Thames  what  had  been  done  on  the  Hudson,  but  he  obtained 
only  two  ten-pound  conditional  subscribers,  after  expending  soma 
pounds  in  advertising!  He  then  printed,  with  commendation,  FUL- 
TON'S letter  in  the  Monthly  Magazine  and  his  credulity  was  general- 
ly reprobated.  Then,  for  several  years,  the  American  a-ccounts  were 
treated  ;\*  falsehoods  f.ill  a  man  ruined  himself  by  launching  &  vessel 


MACHINISTS    AND    ENGINEERS*   DEPARTMENT.       441 

•n  the  Clyde.  Three  Scotchmen  afterwards  made  experiments.  H 
was,  however,  a  mere  speculation  until  taken  up  by  Fulton  in  1806-7,' 
and  introduced  on  the  American  rivers.  Thence  Bell  introduced  it  to 
the  Clyde.  At  first  every  one  derided  the  inventor  as  well  as  the  in- 
vention, being  afraid  to  trust  themselves  on  the  boat.  The  ignoble 
treatment  accorded  by  America  to  the  memory  of  her  noble  son,  the' 
generous  FULTON,  is  a  blot  most  foul  upon  her  banner.  Hundreds  of 
tkjurands  now  avail  themselves  of  the  great  invention  which  his 
genius  brought  to  light,  on  the  waters  and  wharves  where  70  years 
ago,  during  his  life  time,  the  name  of  the  poor  unrequited  inventor 
•was  a  laughing  stock  and  a  bye-word.  It  is  but  a  few  days  ago  that 
a  relation  appeared  in  the  New  York  Sim,  giving  an  account  of  the 
accidental  discovery  of  his  bones  in  a  vault,  where,  as  we  now  learn, 
they  had  been  granted  a  temporary  resting  place  by  the  favor  of  the 
owner,  and  final1  y  forgotten. 

SUGAR  MILL  FOB  CANES.— A  3-cylinder  mill,  with  rollers  5|  f t. 
long,  30  ins.  diam.,  and  making  2J  turns  per  minute,  driven  by  an 
engine  of  25  to  30  horse  power,  will  express  the  juice  opt  of  100  "tons 
of  canes  in  12  to  15  hours.  An  acre  of  land  produces  from  10  to  20 
tons  of  canes,  according  to  the  age  and  locality  of  the  canes.  The 
juice  stands  from  8  to  12  of  the  sacchrometer,  according  to  the  locality. 
The  product  in  sugar  varies  from  6  to  10  per  cent,  of  the  weight  of 
the  canes,  according  to  the  locality  and  mode  of  manufacture.  Well' 
constructed  mills  give  in  juice  from  60  to  70  per  cent,  of  the  weight  of 
the  canes,  and  one  main  condition  of  efficiency  is,  that  the  rollers 
shall  travel  slowly,  as  with  too  great  a  speed  the  juice  has  not  time 
to  separate  itself  from  the  woody  refuse  of  the  cane,  and  much  of  it 
is  reabsorbed.  To  defecate  330  gals,  of  juice,  6  boiling  pans  or  caul- 
drons are  required,  4  scum  presses,  and  10  filters,  and  to  granulate 
the  sugar,  2  vacuum  pans,  6^  feet  diam.,  are  required,  with  two  con- 
densers, and  it  is  better  also  to  have  two  air  pumps.  The  steam  for 
boiling  the  liquor  in  the  vacuum  pans  is  generated  in  3  cylindrical 
boilers,  each  6  ft.  in  diam.  To  whiten  the  sugar,  there  are  10  centri» 
fugal  machines,  driven  by  a  12  h.  p.  engine,  which  also  drives  a  pair 
of  crushing  rollers. — Bourne. 

OIL  MILL.— Weight  of  edge  runners,  6,000  Ibs. ;  number  of  turns 
of  the  vertical  spindle  per  minute,  6;  weight  of  seed  introduced  every 
10  minutes,  55  Ibs. ;  weight  of  seed  crushed  daily,  3.300  Ibs. ;  product 
in  oil  in  12  hours,  1,320  Ibs. ;  power  expended,  2'72  horses. 

HYDROSTATIC  PRESS.— 30  bales  of  cotton  per  hour.  Engine  (high 
pressure  cylinder),  10  ins.  diam. ;  stroke  of  piston,  3  ft. ;  Pressiire  of 
steam,  50  Ibs.  per  square  inch;  full  stroke;  Revolutions,  45  to  60  per 
minute;  Presses,  2,  with  12-inch  rams;  stroke,  4'5  ft.;  Pumps,  2; 
diam.,  2  ins. ;  stroke,  6  ins. — HaswelL 

FULLING  MILL.— In  fulling  the  cloth  called  "  Beauchamps," 
^each  piece  being  220  yds.  long  and  .66  wide,  and  weighing  from  121  to 
127  Ibs.,  the  fuller  makes  100  to  120  strokes  per  minute;  each  piece 
requires  2  hours  to  full  it,  and  the  expenditure  of  2  horse  power 
during  that  time. — Bourne. 

INDELIBLE  RED  INK  FOR  COTTON  AND  WOOLLEN  MILLS.-— Use 
equal  parts  of  copperas  and  cinnabar,  both  in  fine  powder,  sift,  and  rub 
tip  with  linseed  oil  with  a  muller;   then  squeeze  through   cloth 
tTsed  for  writing  or  stamping  on  cotton  or  woollen  goods,  it  cannot  b« 
bleached  out. 


442      MACHINISTS    AND    ENGINEERS'   DEPARTMENT. 

WIND  MILLS.— The  length  of  an  arm  (whip)  is  divided  into  sere* 
parts,  the  sails  extending  over  six  parts.  The  force  of  wind  at  10  miles 
an  hour,  is  half  a  pound  per  square  foot ;  at  14  miles  is  a  pound  ;  at; 
20  miles  2  Ite. ;  at  25  miles  3  Ibs. ;  at  35  miles  6  Ibs. ;  at  45  miles  1« 
Ibs. ;  at  60  miles  17|  Ibs. ;  and  at  100  miles  is  nearly  50  Ibs.  The  driv- 
ing shaft  of  a  wind  mill  should  be  set  at  an  elevated  angle  with  tha< 
horizon  when  set  in  low  localities,  and  at  a  depressed  angle  When  set 
on  elevations.  These  angles  may  range  from  3°  to  35°.  To  give  the' 
fullest  effect  to  the  force  of  the  wind,  the  sails  are  inclined  to  the  axis 
from  72°  to  75°.  The  tips  of  the  sails  often  move  £0  miles  per  hour, 
or  44  feet  per  second.  From  tip  to  tip  is  about  70  feet,  and  Liie 
breadth  from  5  to  6  feet  The  performance  of  such  a  mill  is  equiva- 
lent to  the  power  of  34  men. 

Experiments  prove,  1st,  That  in  a  vertical  wind  mill  employed  to 
grind  corn,  the  mill  stone  usually  makes  5  revolutions  to  1  of  the  sail. 
2nd,  When  the  wind  is  19  feet  per  second,  the  sails  ,vill  make  from  11 
to  12  revolutions  per  minute,  and  the  mill  will  grind  880  to  990  ?••»«.  in 
an  hour,  or  about  22,000  Ibs.  in  24  hours.  3d,  With  the  wind  at  oO- 
feet  per  second,  a  mill  will  carry  all  sail,  and  make  22  revolutions  per 
minute,  grinding  1984  Ibs.  of  flour  in  an  hour,  or  47,693  Ibs.  in  24  hours. 

From  the  experiments  of  Smeaton,  it  appeals  that  the  following 
positions  are  the  best  Suppose  the  radius  to  be  divided  into  6  equal 

rrts,  and  call  the  first  part,  beginning  with  the  centre,  1,  the  second 
and  so  on,  the  extreme  part  being  6  :— 

ANGLE  WITH  THE 
JTO.  ANGLE  WITH  AXIS  PLANE  OF  MOTION. 

1  72  deg.  18deg. 

2  71    "  19     ' 

3  72    "  18 

4  74    "  16 

5  77i  "  12 

6  83    "  7 

FRENCH  FLOUR  MILL.— Diameter  of  millstones,  70  inches;  num- 
ber of  revolutions  per  minute,  70;  quantity  of  corn  ground  and  sifted 
per  hour,  260.7  Ibs.;  povrer  consumed,  3.34  horses,  as  tested  by  the 
dynamometer. 

ENGLISH  FLOUR  MILL. — Diameter  of  millstones £1. 18  inches:  rev- 
olutions per  minute,  110;  corn  ground  per  hour  by  each  revolving 
millstone,  220  Ibs. ;  power  required  for  two  revolving  stones,  5.64 
horses.  Power  consumed  by  one  winnowing  machine  and  two  bolt- 
ing machines,  with  brushes  sifting  1,650  Ibs.  of  flour  per  hour  was  6V 
horses.  In  another  mill  the  number  of  turns  of  the  millstone  was  486 
per  minute,  the  quantity  of  corn  ground  by  each  horse  power  was  120 
Ibs.,  of  which  72.7  per  cent  was  flour,  7.8  per  cent,  was  meal,  and 
19.5  per  cent,  was  bran.  In  a  portable  flour  mill,  with  machinery  for 
cleaning  and  sifting,  the  total  weight  was  1000  Ibs. — Bourne. 

ENGLISH  FLOUR  MILL  NEAR  METZ. — Diameter  of  stones.  51.18 
inches;  number  of  revolutions  per  minute,  110  ;  weight  of  millstone, 
1  ton ;  com  ground  per  hour  by  each  pair,  220  Ibs.  with  two  pairs  of 
millstones  acting,  1  bolting  and  1  winnowing  machiAs;  the  power  con- 
sumed was  8£  horse  power.— Bourne.  5  bushels  of  Northern,  and  4jt 
bushels  of  Southern  wheat,  are  required  tc  make  1  barrel  of  float  j  ? 
Ibs.  of  wheat  make  about  3  Ibs  of  bread. 


MACHINISTS    AND    ENGINEERS*    DEPABTMENT, 


THE  L«FFEL  IMPROVED  DOUBLE  TURBINE  WATER  WHEEL.— 
this  celebrated  wheel  (see  cut),  manufactured  by  Jas.  Leffel  &  Co., 
of  Springfield,  Ohio,  and  New  Haven,  Conn.,  of  which  there  are  now 
about  8,000  in  use,  combines  two  independent  sets  and  kinds  of  buck* 
ets,  one  a  vertical,  and  the  other  a  central  discharge,  differing  entirely 
from  each  other  in  the  principle  of  action  upon  the  water.  The  two 
sets  of  buckets  are  so  combined  as  to  make  really  but  one  wheel,  and 
by  their  arrangement  admit  the  greatest  possible  quantity  of  water 
consistent  with  economical  use  to  any  given  wheel  of  whatever  size, 
and  at  the  same  time  the  greatest  area  for  the  escape  of  the  water  ia 
secured.  Thus,  the  surface  of  the  wheel  is  reduced  to  a  minimum, 
as  compared  with  the  quantity  of  water  used,  and  a  very  great  loss ' 
of  power  by  friction  is  avoided.  In  connection  with  these  wheels  the 
Globe  cast-iron  casing  is  coming  to  be  almost  universally  used,  espe- 
cially for  the  smaller  wheels.  Many  of  them  are  placed  under  head* 
of  water,  varying  from  80  to  240  feet,  and  the  tremendous  pressure 
is  withstood  in  the  most  admirable  manner.  The  severest  test,  that 
of  taking  the  place  of  an  over-shot  wheel  under  a  very  high  fall,  and 
•with  an  extremely  limited  supply  of  water,  is  repeatedly  applied,  and 
in  every  instance  with  the  most  complete  success.  For  over  12  year* 


444      MACHINISTS    AND    ENGINEER'    DEPARTMENT. 


this  wheel  has  stood  the  severest  practical  tests,  developing  the  u* 
most  power  from  a  given  quantity  of  water,  in  all  places  and  undei 
all  circumstances,  from  the  magnificent  cotton  mill  down  to  tht 
humble  frontier  saw  and  grist  mill. 

JABLE  OF  SPOUTING  VELOCITY  AXD  DISCHARGE  OF  WATER  FO* 

GATE  ORIFICES. 
Bf    E    f    F  Ji  B   |    E     |     F    ||  11    |     E     |     F   ||   B   |     E    |    P 


1  17.64      0-62        11      58.51      2.03       21       80.84  I    2.81     I   31        98.22  ~3~V 

2  24.95      0.86        12      61.11      2.12        22       82.75      2  87    !   32       99.80|  3.46 

3  30.55      1.16        13      63.61      2.21        23       84.61      2.93    j   33     101.341  3.5  J 

4  35.28      1.22        14      66.01      2.29        24       86.43      3.00       34     102.871  3.57 

5  39.45      1.37        15      68.33      2.37        25        88-21      3.06    '   35     104.371  3  63  . 
€    43.21      1.50        16      70. 5T      2.45       26        89.96      3.12    j   36     105.85,  3.67 

7  46.68      1.62       17      72.74      2.53       27        91.67      3.18       37     107.311  3.7.'J 

8  49.90      1.73       18      74.85      2.60       28        93.35      3.24  jj   38     108.75!  3.77 

9  52.92      1.84        19      76.UO      2.67       29        95.00      3.30  j    39     110. 17 1  3.82 
10    55.79     1.94       20      78.90      2.75       30       96.63     3.55  |l  40     111.58J  3.87 

The  above  table  gives  depth  in  inches  from  1  to  40,  as  noted  under 
columns  B.  Columns  E  represent  the  velocity  per  second,  in  inches 
and  decimals  of  an  inch.  Columns  F  represent  the  number  of  cubio 
feet  per  minute  for  each  square  inch  of  orif.ee. 

ILLUSTRATION. — Suppose  the  opening  under  a  forebay  gate,  re- 
ouired  to  pass  the  water  of  a  stream,  is  48  inches  wide  and  3  inches 
deep,  with  a  head  of  water  (B)  in  forebay  of  28  ins. ;  to  find  the  water 
discharged,  run  down  the  columns  marked  B  until  you  come  to  28  ins, 
(head  given  in  this  example);  then  run  across  to  column  F,  and  you. 
will  find  3.24,  the  number  of  cubic  feet  of  -vater  discharged  by  an 
orifice  1  in.  square,  under  28  ins.  head,  "me  area  of  the  opening 
given,  48  ins.  by  3  ins.  is  144  square  inches,  this  multiplied  by  3.24 
gives  466.50  cubic  feet  that  the  above  opening  will  discharge  per  min- 
ute. This  table  gives  the  actual  and  not  the  theoretical  discharge. 

In  the  measurement  of  large  open  streams,  first  ascertain  the  mean 
velocity  in  feet  per  minute,  and  also  the  area  of  cross  section  of  the 
stream  in  square  feet,  when  the  product  of  these  two  quantities  will 
give  the  required  quantity  of  water  afforded  by  the  stream.  The 
velocity  of  such  stream  can  be  estimated  by  throwing  floating  bodies 
on  the  surface  of  near  the  specific  gravity  of  the  water,  and  rating  the 
time  accurately  required  in  passing  a  given  distance.  It  is  generally 
t)est  to  ascertain  the  velocity  at  the  centre,  and  fiom  this  ascertain 
the  mean  velocity,  which  has  been  found  by  accurate  and  reliable  ex« 
periments  to  be  83  per  cent.,  or  about  four-fifths  of  the  velocity  of  the 
surface  of  the  stream.  The  cross  section  may  be  estimated  by  measur- 
ing the  depth  of  the  stream  at  a  number  of  points,  at  equal  distances 
apart  (these  points  being  in  a  line  across  the  stream),  adding  the 
depths  together,  and  multiplying  their  sum  by  the  distance  apart  in 
feet  of  any  two  points.  This  will  give  the  result  required  in  square 
feet  of  cross  section,  when  the  product  of  mean  velocity  in  feet  per 
minute  and  cross  section  in  square  feet,  obtains  the  quantity  of  water 
that  the  stream  affords  in  cubic  feet  per  minute.  Leff  ell's  Wheel 
Book. 

SAW  AND  GRIST  MILL. — A  Waterous  40-horse-power  engine  will 
drive  a  60  inch  circular  saw,  capable  of  cutting  20,000  feet  of  ship 
^Jank  in  12  hours,  edger,  trimmer,  shingle  machines,  lath  machine^ 
tad  bolter,  and  2  run  of  stones  in  grist  mill. 


MACHINISTS    AND    ENGINEERS'    DEPARTMENT. 


PITCH  OF  WHEELS,  BEING  A  TABLS  OF  RADII  OF  WHEELS  ul 
INCHES,  HAVING  FROM  7  TO  226  IEETH,  THE  PITCH  BEING  2  INCHES, 
BHOWING  HOW  TO  COMPUTE  THE  PITCH  FOB  A  DESIGNATED  DlAM« 
ETEK,  OK  THE  DIAMETER  FOR  A  DESIGNATED  PlTCH. 


Teeth.  Radius. 

Teeth. 

Radius. 

Teeth. 

Radius.  Teeth. 

Radius. 

Teeth. 

Radio* 

"   7 

2.29 

51 

16.24 

95 

30.24 

139 

44.25 

183 

58.25 

8 

2.61 

52 

16.56 

96 

30.56 

140 

44.57 

184 

58.  51 

9 

2.93 

53 

16.88 

97 

30.88 

141 

44.88 

185 

58.89 

10 

3.24 

54 

17.20 

98 

31.20 

142 

45.20 

186 

59  21 

11 

3.53 

55 

17.52 

99 

31.52 

143 

45.52 

187 

59.53 

12 

3.86 

56 

17.83 

100 

31.84 

144 

45.84 

188 

59.84 

13 

4.113 

57 

18.15 

101 

32.15 

145 

46.16 

189 

60.16 

14 

4.49 

58 

18.47 

102 

31'.  47 

146 

46.4$ 

190 

60.48 

15 

4.81 

59 

18.79 

103 

32.79 

147 

46.70 

191 

60.80 

16 

5.12 

60 

19.11 

104 

33.11 

148 

47.11 

192 

61.13 

17 

5.44 

61 

19.42 

105 

33.43 

149 

47.43 

193 

61.44 

18 

5.76 

62 

19.74 

106 

33.74 

150 

47.75 

194 

61.76 

19 

6.39 

63 

20.06 

107 

34.06 

151 

48.07 

195 

62.07 

20 

6.71 

64 

20.38 

108 

34.35 

152 

48.39 

196 

62.30 

21 

7.71 

65 

20.70 

109 

34.  7C 

153 

48.70 

197 

62.71 

22 

7.03 

66 

21.02 

110 

35.02 

154 

49.02 

198 

63.03 

23 

7.34 

67 

21.33 

111 

35.34 

155 

49.34 

199 

63.34 

24 

7.66 

68 

21.65 

112 

35.65 

156 

49.66 

200 

63.66 

25 

7.98 

69 

21.97 

113 

35.97 

157 

49.98 

201 

63-98- 

26 

8.30 

70 

22.29 

114 

36.29 

Iff 

50.30 

202 

64.30 

27 

8.61 

71 

22.61 

115 

36.61 

159 

SO.  61 

203 

64.62 

28 

8.93 

72 

22.92 

116 

36.93 

160  )  50.93 

204 

64.94 

29 

9.25 

73 

23.24 

117 

37.25 

161 

51.25 

205 

65.26 

30 

9.57 

74 

23.56 

118 

37.56 

162 

61.57 

206 

65.57 

81 

9.88 

75 

23.88 

119 

37.88 

163 

61.89 

207 

65.89 

82 

10.20 

76 

24.20 

120 

38.20 

164 

62.21 

208 

66.21 

83 

10.52 

77 

24.52 

121 

38.52 

165 

62.52 

209 

66.53 

84 

10.84 

78 

24.83 

122 

38.84 

166 

62.84 

210 

66.85 

35 

11.16 

79 

25.15 

123 

39.16 

167 

63.16 

2U 

67.17 

86 

11.47 

80 

25.47 

124 

39.47 

168 

63.48 

212 

67.48 

37 

11.79 

81 

25.79 

125 

39.79 

169 

63.80 

213 

67.89 

38 

12.11 

82 

26.11 

126 

40.11 

170 

64.12 

214 

68.12 

36 

12.43 

83 

26.43 

127 

40.43 

171 

54.43 

215 

68.44 

40 

12.74 

84 

26.74 

128 

40.75 

172 

54.75 

216 

68.  7C 

41 

13.06 

85 

27.06 

J29 

41.07 

173 

55.07 

217 

69.07 

% 

13.38 

86 

27.38 

130 

41.38 

174 

65.39 

218 

69.3| 

f 

13.70 
14.02 

87 
88 

27.70 
28.02 

131 
132 

41.70 
42.02 

175 
176 

55.71 
56.02 

219 
220 

69.71 
70.0? 

• 

14.33 

89 

28.34 

133 

42.34 

177 

56  34 

221 

70.3& 

46 

14.65 

90 

28.65 

134 

42.66 

178 

56.66 

222 

70.67 

47 

14.97 

91 

28.97 

135 

42.98 

179 

56.98 

223 

70.68 

48 

15.29 

92 

29.30 

136 

43.29 

180 

67.23 

224 

71.30 

49 

15.61 

93 

29.61 

137 

43  61 

181 

57.62 

225 

71.66 

60 

15.93 

94 

29-93 

138 

43.93 

182 

58.93 

226 

71.94 

To  find  the  Radius  for  any  given  Pitch  other  than  two  inches,  the  rn]e 
fe,  as  two  inches  is  to  the  given  pitch,  so  is  the  radius  of  the  Table  to 
the  radius  required,  or,  to  determine  the  number  of  Teeth  in  a  wheel  for 
a  designated  pitch  and  diameter,  divide  the  diameter  1  y  the  pitch,  and 
opposite  to  the  quotient,  in  the  Table  will  be  fo"ijd  the  proper  number 
of  teeth. 

WHEEL  GEARING,  CONSTRUCTION  or  TEET^I. — The  cut  represents 
a  section  of  a  pair  of  gears  whose  teeth  act  on  each  other  on  the  gam* 
plane;  they  are  known  as  spur  year.  The  largest  is  &  spu*  mortiot? 


446      MACHINISTS    AND    ENGIXEERS'    DEPARTMENT. 


wheel,  fitted  with  wooden  cogs.     A  shows  the  square  wooden 
.generally  driven  into  mortice  wheels  previous  to  being  laid  off  wi__ 
the  dividers  and  dressed  down  to  the  exact  pitch  and  outline,  as  showm 


Jto  the  shaded  part  representing  the  finished  tooth.  The  teeth  of  th« 
small  wheel  (called  the  driven,  the  large  one  with  the  cogs  being  known 
AS  the  driver)  are  iron,  being  cast  with  the  wheel,  and  are  sufficiently 
Strong  if  but  half  the  size  of  cogs. 

The  pitch  line  (see  dotted  lines  extending  from  B  to  C,  and  from  P 


MACHINISTS    AND    ENGINEERS'    DEPARTMENT.       447 

AD  E)  is  a  circle  of  sufficient  dimensions  to  permit  the  requisite  nura* 
foer  of  teeth  and  spaces  to  be  laid  out  on  it. 

The  length  of  a  tooth  should  be  .7  of  the  pitch,  A  of  it  being  below 
the  pitch  line,  and  .3  above,  as  shown  in  cut.  As  a  general  thing,  the 
greater  the  breadth  of  a  tooth  across  the  surface  the  longer  it  will  wear. 
By  the  pitch  is  understood  the  space  between  the  middle  or  centres 
of  two  adjoining  teeth,  as  shown  by  the  arrows  at  F  F,  or  the  breadth 
.of  a  tooth  and  a  space,  as  shown  by  the  arrows  at  G  G.  The  semi- 
diameter  running  to  the  pitch  line  is  called  the  pitch  radius. 

The  true  or  chordiat  pitch  is  a  straight  line  drawn  between  the 
centres  of  two  adjoining  teeth,  and  is  that  by  which  the  dimensions 
ol  the  teeth  and  speed  of  wheel  are  computed. 

The  radius  is  the  space  between  the  centre  of  the  wheel  and  the 
periphery  of  a  tooth,  or  half  the  diameter  of  the  wheel. 

The  line  of  centres,  shown  at  H,  passes  through  the  centres  of  two 
wheels,  and  on  this  line  the  pitch  circles  of  the  wheels  should  merge 
into  each  other  (as  shown  in  cut)  when  they  are  properly  regulated 
ior  operation. 

PBOPORTION  OF  TEETH  OF  WHEELS—. 

From  pitch  line  to  top  of  tooth        —  Pitch  X  0'33 

Total  depth  of  tooth  =  Pitch  X  0'7a 

Thickness  of  tooth  on  pitch  line      =  Pitch  X  0'45 

Space  between  teeth  on  pitch  line  =  Pitch  x  0°55 

Thickness  of  rim  of  wheel  =r  Pitch  x  0-45 

Thickness  of  arms  in  flat  =  Pitch  x  2'50 

Thickness  round  centre  =s  Pitch  x  1'30 

Mortice  wheels  to  be  wider  than  iron  wheels  by  twice  the  thickness  ot 

the  rim ;  rim  to  be  double  the  thickness  of  iron  wheels. 

PITCHES  OF  EQUIVALENT  STRENGTH  FOB  THE  TEETH  OF  WHEELS  cs 
DIFFERENT  MATERIALS — 

Pitch  for  cast  iron  =  1-00 

brass  =  1-00 

hardwood  =  1-20 

according  to  other  authorities  r=  1-26 

The  number  of  arms  in  wheels  should  be  as  follows  : — 

1-5   to  3.26  feet  in  diameter,  4       ]         8.5  to  16  feet  in  diameter,  8 
3-25  to  5          "  "          5  16     to  24    ««  "          10 

5      to  8.5       "  "         6       J 

FLY  WHEELS. — Weight  of  rim  should  be  85  to  95  Ibs.  per  horse 
power,  momentum  of  wheel  being  4J  times  that  of  the  piston ;  dia* 
meter  3  to  4  times  that  of  the  stroke  of  the  engine.  Single-acting 
engines,  fly-wheel  to  be  5  times  heavier  than  in  double  acting  engines. 
To  Compute  Weight  of  Rim — Multiply  the  mean  effective  pressure 
upon  the  piston,  in  pounds,  by  its  stroke,  in  feet,  and  divide  the  pro- 
duct by  the  product  of  the  square  of  the  number  of  revolutions,  the 
diameter  of  "the  wheel,  and  '00023.-  For  a  light  wheel  multiply  by 
•0003;  for  a  heavy  one  by  '00016. 

To  Compute  Dimensions  of  Rim — Multiply  the  weight,  in  pounds, 
by  '1,  and  divide  the  product  by  the  mean  diameter  of  the  rim,  in 
ieet  ;  the  quotient  will  give  the  sectional  area  of  the  rim  in  square 
inches  of  cast  iron. 

Ginning  Cotton — 4  horse  power  will  drive  a  gin  of  from  40  to  60 
eaws.  and  for  every  additional  20  saws  add  1  horse  power. 

Threshing  Grain — i  hosee  power  should  thresh  50  bushels  pel- 
hour  ;  6  to  8  horse  power  will  drive  the  ordinary  10  to  12  hoise 
thresher  and  separator. 


448      MACHINISTS    AND    ENGINEERS* 


BORING  MACHINE  FOR  SUBMARINE  TUNNELS. 
The  above  engraving  represents  a  back  view  of  the  tunnelling  of 
boring  machine  intended  to  be  used  in  perforating  the  proposed  tunnel 
tinder  the  English  Channel,  between  France  and  England.  Opera* 
tions  have  already  been  commenced  on  the  French  coast,  and  feiv 
vent  hopes  BT*  entertained  that  no  insurmountable  obstacles  will  bs 
encountere'"  l"he  chalk  formation  through  which  it  is  proposed  to 
drive  the  tui^oi,  is  400  feet  thick  on  the  English  coast  and  300  feet 
on  the  French  '  and,  as  the  Straits  of  Dover  are  in  ;iopart  deeper  than 
186  feet  it  is  cuuHdently  anticipated  that  the  proposed  enterprise  will 


MACHINISTS    AND    ENGINEERS'   DEPARTMENT.       443 

be  successful.  It  is  intended  that  the  machine  will  at  once  bore  out 
the  tunnel  to  the  proper  size,  16  or  18  feet  in  diameter  ;  and,  as  the 
eoil  to  be  penetrated  consists  only  of  soft  chalk  beds,  it  is  thought 
ttiat  all  the  operations  can  be  conducted  without  resorting  to  the  use 
of  steel  drills  or  blasting  operations,  as  simple  boring  tools  will  be 
all  that  will  be  requisite.  The  power  will  be  transmitted  from  a 
steam  engine  placed  at  the  mouth  of  the  shaft  or  rn trance  to  the  tun-» 
nel,  by  means  of  a  wire  rope  connecting  with  the  first  wheel  or; 
pulley,  as  shown  in  the  cut,  which  then,  by  means  of  intermediate 
gearing,  &c.,  communicates  motion  to  a  series  of  cutters  and  borers  in 
front  of  the  machine.  Should  this  arrangement  prove  too  compli- 
cated, it  is  most  probable  that  compressed  air  will  be  used  as  a  sub- 
stitute for  steam  power.  The  machine,  as  represented  above,  is  im« 
movably  braced  by  means  of  two  uprights,  fitted  with  stout  rollers, 
extended  against  the  arch  above,  and  four  projecting  wheels  with 
triple  flanges,  fitted  into  temporary  rails  below,  the  whole  being 
further  secured  by  two  heavy  jack-screws,  one  above  the  machine 
and  another  below,  pressing  on  proper  bearings  against  the  contri- 
vance from  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  tunnel.  It  is  estimated  that 
the  tunnel,  if  driven  through  the  lower  chalk  formation,  will  be  abou. 
23  miles  long  ;  but  in  the  event  of  serious  obstacles  arising  from  over- 
whelming quantities  of  water  breaking  in,  It  is  not  improbable  that 
the  advice  of  Professor  Prestwick  may  be  followed  :  to  drive  a  tun- 
nel through  the  Paleozoic  rocks  (the  lowest  fossiliferous  strata),  which 
are  supposed  to  Ire  about  600  feet  below  the  surface  at  Dover,  in 
which  event  the  length  would  somewhat  exceed  the  above  estimate. 
The  only  question  in  connection  with  the  prosecution  of  this  enormous 
enterprise^  is  merely  one  of  money,  as  the  scientific  appliances  of 
the  present  day  put  the  practicability  of  the  work  beyond  a  doubt. 
That  a  vast  amount  of  money  will  be  required,  may  be  manifest  from 
the  following  table,  compiled  by  Major  IticClellan,  U.  S.  A.,  showing 
the  cost  of  tunnels  in  various  localities  prior  to  1855  : — 


Location.              per  Cubic 
Yard. 

Location.                Per  Cubi« 
Yar4. 

Black  Rock,  TJ.S.,  grey 
wacke  slate                         $6  60 

England,  freestone,  mar- 
ble, clay,  &c.,  lined..          $3  46 
Lehigh,  U.S.,  hardgraii- 
ite  ,...           436 

Blaisley,  France,  lined           3  18 
Blisworth,   Eng.,  blue 
clav.  lined  1  55 

Schuylkill,  U.  S.,  giate..           2  00 
Union,  U.  S.  stete  2  08 

Blue  'Ridge,  U.  S  4  00 

RAILWAY  TUNNELS  in  soft  stndstrnc,  in  the  United  States,  cost, 
Without  lining,  per  lineal  yard,  $88.  In  loose  ground,  thick  lining, 
per  lineal  yard.  $7.10.  Ordinaiy  briCK  lining,  including  centering,  peri 
cubic  yard,  $8.50. 

SHAFTS. — Blateletf  Tunnel,  clay,  chalk,  and  loose  earth,  cost,  pe* 
yard  in  depth,  $139.11.  Deepest,  646  ft.  Black  Rock,  1  ft.  in  dian>» 
ana  139  in  denth,  hard  slate,  cost,  per  yard  in  depth,  $79.50,  or  per 
cubic  yard,  $18.72.  The  time  required  to  drive  the  heading  of  th« 
fclack  Rock  Tunnel  for  1782-.*  feet,  was  23,387  turns  of  12  hours  each 

THE  INGKRSOLL  ROCK  DRILL,  represented  in  the  cuts,  is  a  most 
powerful  and  effective  mechanical  appliance  in  the  varied  require 


450      MACHINISTS  AND    ENGINEERS*   DEPARTMENT. 


*aents  of  tunnelling,  mining,  submarine  blasting,  &c.    It  works  on 

the  percussion 
principle,  and  la 
operated  either  by 
steam  power,  as  il- 
lustrated in  the 
cut,  or  by  com- 
pressed air,  acting 
on  a  piston  within 
a  cylinder,  secured 
by  clamps  to  a  ver- 
tical or  horizontal 
column  or  tripod. 
It  can  be  adjusted 
to  perforate  the 
rock  at  any  desired 
angle,  and,  on  open 
quarry  work,  the 
large  drill  (they 
are  made  of  differ- 
ent sizes),  is  an 
equivalent  to  the 
work  of  25  men, 
and  has  often  done 
the  work  of  40  men 


VIEW  OF  THE  DRILL  ATTACHED  TO  COLUMN,  AS 
USED  WITH  COMPRESSED  AIR  OR  STEAM, 
WHEN  PRACTICABLE. 

senting  impedi- 
ments to  active 
work,  of  course  the 
progress  is  consid- 
erably less.  The 
average  boring 
done  in  hard  rock, 
per  day,  of  ten 
nours,  is  from  70 
to  80  feet.  In  Un- 
derground work, 
where  foul  air  ex- 
ists, the  employ- 
ment of  compress- 
ed air  becomes  a 
necessity,  as  it  not 
only  dissipates  all 
danger  from  explo- 
sive gases,  but 
drives  the  drill 
equal  to  steam 
power,  cools  the 
atmosphere,  and 

or  DRILL  ATTACHED  TO  COLUMN,  AS  AR-  dispenses  f resh  air 
JTOft  USS  lif  SHAFTS,  to    the   workmen. 

Considered  in  all 
its  bearings,  it  is  a 
most  wonderful 


ASSAYING   AND    SMELTING    METALS.  *5l 

GOLD  ASSAY  BY  SMELTING  PROCESS. — Take  600  grains  of  thi 
fold-bearing  quartz,  tinely  pulverized,  and  free  from  sulphurete;  mix 
With  600  grs.  litharge  and  7  grs.  of  charcoal;  melt  all  in  a  crucible  of 
ample  size,  and  set  off  to  cool.     Break  the  crucible   when   cold, 
and  the  gold  wiii  be  found  in  a  small  button  under  the  refuse  matter 
at  the  bottom.    To  ascertain  the  amount  of  gold  in  a  metallic  6«6-j 
stance,  select  a  small  sample,  weigh  it,  and  melt  in  a  small  cupel,* 
composed  of  calcined  bone  ashes.     This  absorbs  the  common  metal,* 
leaving  the  gold  and  silver  exposed  to  view.     The  resultant  button  is 
melttd  once  more  in  the  proportion  of  gold,  1  part,  silver,  3  parts, 
and  then  rolled  intova  thin  baud  and  boiled  in  nitric  acid,  which  dis- 
solves out  the  silver,  and  leaves  the  gold  pure  at  the  bottom.    The 
gold  can  be  removed,  and  the  silver  subsequently  precipitated  with 
fait 

GOLD  ASSAY  WITH  A  HORN  SPOON. — Take  an  ox  horn  and  re- 
move half  of  it,  so  as  to  leave  an  open  part  7  or  8  ins.  long  and  about 
Sins,  wide;  pulverize  the  rock  to  be  tested  very  tine,  and  using  it 
]  instead  of  a  pan,  wash  out  a  few  ounces,  and  if  some  particles  of  gold 
are  detected,  or  a  "  color"  perceived,  as  a  rule  it  will  pay  to  work  it. 

IN  THE  ASSAY  OF  ROCK  CONTAINING  PYRITES,  it  must  be 
roasted  until  it  ceases  to  evolve  sulphurous  fumes,  then  mix  600  grs. 
of  the  powder  with  300  grs.  carbonate  of  soda,  300  grs.  charcoal,  300 
.grs.  litharge,  300  grs.  dried  borax,  and  15  grs.  charcoal;  melt  all  in 
a  crucible,  and  treat  as  directed  above. 

SILVER  ASSAY  BY  SMELTING. — If  no  lead  is  present,  mix  600 
grs.  of  the  pulverized  ore  with  300  grs.  carbonate  of  soda,  600  grs.  of 
litharge,  and  12  grs.  of  charcoal  in  a  crucible,  add  a  slight  coat  of 
borax  over  all,  put  on  the  furnace,  melt,  take  off,  give  it  a  few  taps 
to  settle  the  metal,  let  it  cool,  and  remove  the  button. 

To  ASSAY  ARGENTIFEROUS  GALENA,  or  lead  bearing  silver  ore. — 
Mix  300  grs.  of  the  pulverized  ore  with  1)00  grs.  carbonate  of  soda  and 
30  grs.  charcoal;  melt  in  a  crucible  on  a  furnace,  and  treat  as  de- 
scribed above,  and  remelt  the  button  in  a  porous  cupel  made  of  bone 
dust,  which  absorbs  the  lead,  leaving  the  silver  pure. 

TEST  FOR  IRON  OR  COPPER  PYRITES.— Place  a  sample  of  the 
mineral  rock  on  an  anvil;  if  it  becomes  flat  under  a  blow  of  the 
hammer  it  is  gold,  but  if  it  scatters  into  fragments  it  is  pyrites;  or 
place  some  of  the  doubtful  material,  pulverized,  in  a  cup  with  nitric 
ncid  over  a  flame  until  it  evolves  dark  red  vapors :  the  acid  will  be- 
come stained  or  tinged  if  pyrites  are  present. 

SILVER  ASSAY  WITH  TESTING  TUBE. — Place  in  the  tube  enough 
of  the  powdered  mineral  to  fill  one  inch  of  space,  and  om  this  pour 
nitric  acid  in  quantity  to  occupy  2  ins.  more,  and  hold  the  mixture 
over  a  flame  until  the  acid  boils.  The  acid  will  dissolve  what- 
ever silver  may  be  present,  and  must  be  passed  through  filter- 
ing paper  to  remove  extraneous  matter,  and  returned  to  the  tube. 
Isext  add  a  few  drops  of  water  saturated  with  salt :  any  silver  or  lea<5 
that  may  be  present  will  be  precipitated  in  a  cloudy  form  to  the  bottom. 
Drain  off  the  acid,  place  the  precipitate  in  the  sunlight,  and  in  a  few 
minutes,  if  ic  contains  silver,  it  will  turn  to  a  purple  color,  and  may 
be  again  liquified  by  the  addition  of  spirits  of  ammonia.  The  testing 
tube  is  formed  of  thin  glass,  about  5  ins.  long,  and  less  than  1  in. 
diam. ;  bottom  and  sides  of  equal  thickness.  Where  thto  tube  is  Jack* 
&£>  a  cup  may  be  used  instead. 


45t  PROSPECTING   FOR    GOLD. 

PROSPECTING  FOR  QUARTZ. — The  first  step  to  be  taken  is  to  asce** 
tain  the  direction  of  the  strata  of  the  bed-rock  and  quartz  veins  im- 
bedded therein.  Then  take  a  common  *?ick,  shovel,  and  good  iron 
pan,  and  prospect  the  surface  dirt  along,  and  just  under  the  break  of 
the  veins  every  few  yards,  then  following  the  vein  as  far  as  it  shoAva 
itself,  either  by  its  outcrop  or  loose  fragment  ;  and  if  gold  is  found 
in  the  surface  along  the  vein,  it  is  a  good  presiimptive  evidence  that  the 
vein  is  gold  bearing.  Then  ascertain  the  point  on  the  vein  that  gives 
the  best  "  prospect,"  and  make  a  cut  across  it  deep  enough  to  show 
the  vein  as  it  is  inclosed  in  the  bed  or  wail  rock  •  then  make  a  careful 
examination  of  every  part  of  the  vein,  so  as  to  determine  what  part  of 
it  is  gold  bearing.  The  casing  of  the  vein  where  it  joins  the  wall  rock 
should  be  carefully  tested  also  ;  it  frequently  occurs  that  the  casing 
is  richer  than  the  vein  itself.  The  best  mode  of  testing  the  rock  is  to. 
pound  it  up  finely  in  a  hand  mortar,  and  wash  it  out  in  a  pan  or  hora 
spoon.  If  a  satisfactory  result  is  obtained,  then  sink  a  shaft  so  as  to 
cut  the  vein  at  the  point  where  the  prospect  is  obtained,  and  follow  it 
down,  say  40  or  50  feet.  The  character  of  the  "  wall  rock  "  should  b& 
closely  observed,  to  ascertain  the  "  line  of  its  texture."  The  smooth 
faces  that  separate  the  vein  from  the  Tvall  rock  should  be  carefully 
examined  ;  the  smooth  faces  have  numerous  small  ridges  upon  them,, 
that  show  "the  line  of  its  projection,"  or  the  direction  from  which 
the  vein  was  forced  up  between  the  wa.ls  enclosing  it.  The  ridges 
and  fine  grooves  on  the  faces  of  the  veins  will,  in  most  cases,  be  found 
to  have  the  same  direction  jf  the  texture  of  the  wall  rock ;  and  the- 
rich  section  of  the  vein  will  most  generally  continue  rich  in  the  "  line 
of  its  projection."  It  is  frequently  the  cast*  thatfci  vein  will,  have  a 
section  of  a  few  feet  that  will  be  rich,  and  all  the  balance  of  it  be- 
poor  ;  therefore,  it  is  very  important  to  learn  the  "  line  of  its  projec- 
tion," for  the  rich  sections  always  follow  the  course  indicated  by  the 
"  line  of  projection,"  and  the  "line  of  texture"  of  the  wall  rock.— J. 
E.  Clayton. 

To  PROSPECT  A  RIVER  BAR. — The  prospector  should,  during  the- 
season  of  low  water,  select  the  bend  of  a  stream  below  where  it 
emerges  from  a  deep  gorge,a«d,noting  the  spot  where  the  eddy  usually 
exists  during  high  water  on  the  inward  bend  of  the  stream,  he  will 
proceed  to  dig  to  a  depth  of  2  or  3  ft.,  as  near  the  water's  edge  as  pos- 
sible, but  distant  enough  to  keep  the  hole  dry  on  reaching  the  rock. 
Now  fill  the  pan  nearly  full  with  the  bottom  dirt  from  the  rock,  take 
it  to  the  stream,  immerse  it  in  the  water  and  agitate  the  mass,  break« 
ing  up  the  lumps  of  clay,  &c.,  if  any  exist.  Keep  the  pan  underwater, 
with  the  side  next  the  operator  slightly  elevated;  shake  from  side  ta 
eide;  the  muddy  water  will  flow  out,  as  the  clear  water  flows  in,  car- 
rying away  the'dirt;  the  pan  is  now  raised  from  the  water,  and  the- 
Ihaking  continued,  with  the  lower  side  still  more  depressed  in  order 
to  allow  the  light  sand  to  pass  over  the  further  edge;  the  stones  are 
f emoved  by  hand,  and  the  operation  continued  until  but  a  few  dregs 
fc:e  left;  the  particles  of  gold,  if  any  existed  in  the  sample,  will  be 
'  found  in  the  pan,  and  a  search  for  them  will  decide  the  question  of 
value. 

To  PROSPECT  IN  A  GULLY. — Select  a  spot  soon  after  a  rain,  when 
•water  is  abundant,  and  if  possible  let  it  be  a  level  place  over  a  vein  ot 
elate  with  vertical,  or  nearly  vertical  strata,  presenting  its  ragged 
edges  towards  the  adjacent  acclivities  in  such  position  as  to  intercept 


FROSPECTING,  .PLACER   MINING.  4$3 

4he  gold  in  Its  downward  progress.  Fill  the  pan  with  dirt  fiom  th* 
slaty  bed,  make  a  dam  across  the  stream  and  pan  out  in  standing 
water. 

IN  PROSPECTING  FLATS,  examine  the  surface  for  the  indications 
of  old  channels,  and  the  beds  of  ancient  streams  or  brooks,  and  ex- 
plore the  most  promising  spots  by  digging  down  to  the  bed  rock,  and 
'  lest  by  panning  out  a  portion  of  the  dirt  In  mining  districts,  th* 
high  elevations  containing  gravel  and  clay  should  be  well  tested  by 
the  panning  out  of  numerous  samples,  as  they  frequently  contain  vast 
•tores  of  golden  wealth. 

To  PROSPECT  WITH  A  KNIFE. — Select  a  suitable  spot  in  a  ravins 
in  an  auriferous  district,  remove  the  earth  to  the  vicinity  of  the  rock, 
making  a  hole  large  enough  to  afford  room  to  admit  the  prospector  to 
overhaul  the  dirt  with  the  point  of  a  knife.  The  particles  of  gold  are 
carefully  picked  as  they  are  discovered,  and  the  rest  is  rejected ;  the 
seams  and  crevices  in  the  rock  should  be  thoroughly  scraped  out  and 
the  contents  closely  examined,  as  these  places  often  contain  the  most 
precious  deposits. 

PLACER  MINING,  BOARD  SLUICE  PROCESS.— The  board  sluice  is  a 
trough  from  50,  to  1400  or  1500  ft.  long  (composed  of  li  m-  boards, 
length  of  boards  from  12  to  14  feet, )  constructed  in  -sections  or  boxes 
of  the  same  length  as  the  boards.  The  sections  composing  the  trough 
are  made  to  fit  into  each  other,  and  usually  rest  on  trestles  elevated 
from  the  ground,  but  with  an  inclination  of  from  12  to  18  ins.  in  every 
12  feet  of  length.  The  box  may  be  from  12  to  50  ins.  wide,  anA  half 
as  deep  as  it  is  broad,  more  or  less  as  desired.  By  placing  division 
boards  edgeways  aloug  the  centre  it  may  be  divided  into  two  parts, 
thus  adopting  it  for  the  use  of  two  parties,  or  for  keeping  up  constant 
work  in  the  washing  department  on  the  one  side,  while  cleaning  is  go- 
ing on  in  the  other.  The  bottom  of  the  sluice  is  fitted  with  longitudinal 
riffle  bars  from  3  to  7  his.  high,  and  from  2  to  4  ins.  wide,  well  se- 
cured from  1  inch  to  1J  ins.  apart,  by  ^eans  of  wedges,  two  sets  of  riffle 
bars  being  fitted  into  each  box. 

The  labor  of  from  5  to  18  or  20  men  is  required  to  fill  the  dirt  into 
the  sluice,  and  a  stream  of  water,  say  from  15  to  40  inches  or  more,  is 
admitted  at  the  upper  end  and  emerges  at  the  lower,  carrying  along 
the  mud,  gravel,  stones,  &c.,  in  its  course.  A  vessel  containing 
quicksilver  is  placed  at  the  head  of  the  sluice,  and,  about  2  hours  af- 
ter the  washing  commences,  the  liquid  particles  are  allowed  to  trickle 
through  an  aperture  in  the  side  of  the  vessel  into  the  stream,  which 
hurries  them  onwards  and  downwards  through  the  sluice,  where  they 
mingle  with  the  gold  particles  and  lodge  together  against  the  riffle 
bars.  The  precious  metals  being  heavy,  alwav  trend  towards  the 
bottom,  and  lodge  against  these  interposed  obstacles,  the  riffle  bars. 
Ine  same  effects  may  be  seen  on  our  streets  and  roads  any  day  after 
A  shower,  the  dirt  is  washed  away,  and  the  heavy  articles,  as  nails, 
Buttons,  horseshoes,  &c.,  remain.  This  furious  torrent  "  or  run  "  of 
water,  gravel,  stones,  mud,  &c.,  is  continued  through  the  sluice  for  6 
or  8  days,  by  which  time  the  riffle  bars  are  usually  worn  out,  and  the 
cleaning  up  process  is  commenced  by  raising  6  or  7  sets  of  the  riffle 
bars  towards  the  head  of  the  sluice,  and  the  auriferous  matter  found 
lodged  against  them  is  removed  with  scoop  and  pan.  Another  lot  of 
riffle  bars  is  then  raised  and  the  same  operation  is  repeated  until  they 
•re  all  cleaned  out,  An  amalgam  plate,  inserted  in  the  last  box  oi 


454  HYDRAULIC    MINING,    LONG    TOM. 

the  sluice,  is  very  effective  in  arresting  the  fine  gold  on  its  downward 
course.  To  prepare  the  plate,  place  a  sheet  of  copper,  say  3  feet  or 
more,  in  length,  and  the  same  width  as  the  box,  very  even  and  flat  on 
the  bottom.  Make  a  tight,  close  fit  on  the  upper  edge,  and  secure 
each  side  by  nailing  down  narrow  strips  of  board.  Next,  take  nitric 
acid,  1  lb.,  add  to  this,  water,  1  lb.,  and  apply  the  mixture  to  the  cop- 
per plate  with  a  rag  on  the  end  of  a  stick ;  drop  on  some  quicksilver, 
and  wipe  it  all  over  the  plate  until  it  is  completely  silvered.  This  i» 
the  amalgam  plate.  Now  get  a  sheet  of  stout  plate  iron,  equal  in  di- 
mensions to  the  copper  plate,  and  perforate  with  numerous  slits  |* 
inch  long  and  1-16  inch  wide,  crosswise  of  the  plate,  not  in  regular 
lows,  but  as  it  were  with  broken  joints,  like  bricks  in  a  wall,  ranged 
with  their  ends  out  of  line  on  every  half  inch,  in  order  to  permit  the 
easy  entrance  of  fluid  material  at  all  points.  The  perforated  iron 
plate,  being  now  ready,  is  laid  in  the  box  immediately  over  the  amal- 
gamated plate,  and  resting  on  the  narrow  boards,  which  hold  the  lat- 
ter in  place,  and  is  firmly  secured  in  this  position,  but  so  as  to  be 
easily  detached  when  required.  The  sluice  box  is  now  adjusted  or 
placed  at  the  same  grade  as  the  others,  but  so  that  the  iron  plate  will 
be  on  a  level  with  the  bottom  of  the  box  above.  It  will  be  found  that 
while  the  gravel,  stones,  and  gross  material  will  easily  pass  over  the 
iron  plate,  part  of  the  fluid  portion,  with  the  fine  atoms  of  gold,  wil? 
fall  through  the  crevices  on  the  amalgamated  plate  below,  when  the 
latter  will  be  arrested  at  once.  Each  day,  for  the  first  week  or  less, 
the  iron  plate  should  be  removed,  the  copper  cleaned  from  a  green 
substance  which  adheres,  and  more  quicksilver  added .  A  riffle  bar 
should  be  placed  below  the  plate  to  secure  the  surplus  quicksilver. 
The  gold  may  be  removed  at  proper  intervals  as  it  accumulates.  The 
value  of  the  catch  will  be  enhanced  by  admitting  a  small  quantity  of 
water  into  the  sluice  just  above  the  plate. 

The  water  used  by  miners  is  generally  gold  by  water  companies  at 
a  certain  rate  per  inch ;  it  is  delivered  from  art  orifice  in  the  side  of  a 
flume,  which  in  many  cases  conveys  the  water  from  distant  mountains 
over  hills,  ravines,  piains,  and  along  excavations  on  the  sides  of  pre» 
cipitous  mountains,  &c.  An  inch  of  water  is  estimated  to  be  the 
quantity  emitted  through  an  aperture  an  inch  sqxiare  under  a  head  of 
6  or  7  inches,  and  the  price  per  inch  varies  from  12  cents  up  to  40 
cents  per  day,  according  to  the  locality,  demand,  &c. 

HYDRAULIC  MINING. — The  operative  power  in  hydraulic  mining 
is  derived  from  a  reservoir  of  water  placed  at  a  high  elevation  above 
the  point  of  action,  from  whence  the  water  is  conveyed  through  a 
hose,  and  projected  with  terrific  force  under  a  r.ressure  of  from  80  to 
200  feet,  against  the  dirt  above  the  bed  rock.  The  effect  is  equal  to 
the  combined  labor  of  several  hundred  men;  the  force  exerted  being 
Kterally  equivalent  to  the  removal  of  mountains,  as  the  enperincunu 
bert  masses  of  earth  and  rock  frequently  comes  tumbling  down  in 
quantities  of  hundreds  of  tons  at  a  time.  The  dirt  thus  loosened  is 
conveyed  into  and  washed  down  the  sluice.  To  fortify  the  hose  to 
(withstand  the  fearful  pressure  of  the  water,  it  should  be  stoutly  band- 
ed with  strong  galvanized  iron  rings  about  2  ins.  broad,  secured 
around  the  hose  at  intervals  of  about  2  ins.  apart.  The  quantity  of 
water  required  by  a  hydraulic  claim  varies  from  50  to  300  ins, 

THE  LONG  TOM,  at  one  time  in  quite  extensive  use  by  mi!»ei>*  hi 
California,  is  a  trough  ranging  from  8  to  U  ft.  in  length,  g^nwailj  rv 


QUARTZ    CRUSHING,    MINING   MACHINERY.         455 

ins.  wide  at  the  upper  end  where  the  dirt  is  deposited,  30  ins.  wide  at 
the  lower  extremity,  and  about  8  ins.  deep.  The  bottom,  at  the  wide 
end  is  composed  of  a  sieve  or  riddle  of  perforated  sheet  iron,  with  a 
small  riitie  box,  or  trough  with  riffle  bars  placed  underneath.  The 
water  entering  in  at  the  upper  end,  flows  through  the  entire  length  ol 
uhe  torn,  washing  the  dirt  in  its  passage,  but  is  prevented  from  forcing 
it  over  the  lower  end  by  an  upward  erection  at  the  lower  end  of  the> 
riddle.  The  gravel,  sand,  and  small  stones  escape  through  the  perfo- 
rated iron,  while  the  large  stones  are  tossed  out  with  the  shovel,  and 
«lie  gold  is  caught  in  the  riffle  box  below,  quicksilver  being  used  oc- 
casionally to  assist  in  securing  the  finer  particles. 

QUARTZ  CRUSHING  BY  STAMPS.—  The  rotary  stamp  is  very  highly- 
commended  as  the  most  efficient  stamp  in  use  for  the  crushing  of 
quartz  rock.  The  square  stamp  is  vertical,  with  the  main  part  or 
shaft  about  8  ft.  long,  and  from  5  to  8  ins.  square,  shod  with  massiva 
iron  weighing  from  100  to  1000  Ibs.  They  are  elevated  by  cams  pro- 
jecting from  a  horizontal  shaft,  which  effect  a  lift  of  from  6  to  18  ins. 
at  each  revolution,  when  the  stamp  falls  with  all  its  force  into  the 
battery  or  the  quartz  below.  The  quartz,  previously  broken  to  pieces 
the  size  of  a  hen's  egg  or  less,  may  be  crushed  in  a  dry  state,  or  in  a 
wet  condition,  with  a  small  stream  of  water  constantly  flowing  through 
the  battery,  which  is  enclosed  by  a  wire  cloth  or  perforated  plate  of 
sheet  of  iron,  to  permit  the  egress  of  the  quartz  when  sufficiently  trit- 
,  prated  .  The  separation  of  the  gold  from  the  quartz  is  effected  by  wash- 
ing, etc.,  as  in  placer  mining;  much  of  it  is  caught  by  the  use  of 
coarse  blankets  laid  in  troughs,  through  which  the  quartz  is  washed 
as  in  a  sluice,  and  many  use  the  amalgam  plate,  made  as  described 

•  above,  to  secure  the  gold. 

1  In  amalgamating  in  the  battery,  2  ozs.  of  quicksilver  to  1  oz.  of  gold 
Is  the  best  proportion  for  use,  and  produces  the  most  effective  results 
in  securing  the  gold. 

i        MINING  MACHINERY  (MOLESWORTH). 

Speed  of  crushing  rolls  at  periphery  ........  60  ft. 

Diameter  of     "  "  ........  24  to  30  ins. 

Breadth  of       «          "          ««  ........  12  to  15  ins. 

Roller  shaft  ......................................  6  ins.  square. 

*  Tumbling  shaft  ..................................  4% 

Sifting  screen  shaft  .........................  1%  ing.  diameter. 

Kolls  crushed  together  with  a  force  of  .................  60  tons. 

Weight  of  stamper  heads,  from  ...................  V/9  to  5  cwt. 

Lift  of  ditto  .........................................  9  to  12  ins. 

Number  of  liftg  per  minute  ...........................  45  to  60. 

i  Exposed  area  of  cast  gratings  about  ................  9  X  10  ins. 

j  Number  of  holes  to  the  inch  for  tin  ........................  14(j. 

,\  Area  of  stamper  bottom,  generally  .................  6X30  ins. 

Pumps  for  deep  mines,  usually  .............  8  to  10  ft.  stroke. 

Each  lift  .......................  .............  from  150  to  200  ft, 

*  Horse  power  of  pumping  engines  :— 

\  Q  =  quantity  of  water  raised  per  minute,  cubic  feat. 

)  H  =  height  in  feet.  fe, 

Actual  horse  power  =  «0021  H  Q. 


IN  SMELTING  SILVER,  fifty  per  cent,  of  lead  is  added  to  silver 
•rle&d  ore  containing  that  proportion  of  lead,  will  do  as  well.    Add 
JO  pe*  cent,  of  iron,  and  melt  all  together;  the  silver  is  then  permit- 
ted tt  escape  through  an  orifice  in  the  lower  part  of  the  furnace.    Tht 


456 


SILYER    SMELTING,    STUBS*    GAUGE,   AC. 


•ilyer  is  once  more  put  in  a  furnace  and  boiled  until  all  impurities  ait 
driven  off. 

IN  THE  SALT  SOLUTION  PROCESS,  five  per  cent,  of  salt  is  added  to 
the  silver  ore,  and  the  mixture  is  roasted  until  the  salt  is  converted 
into  a  chloride.  When  in  this  state,  and  still  red  hot,  it  is  thrown  into' 
a  very  strong  solution  of  boiling  brine,  to  dissolve  the  chloride  of 
silver.  The  brine  is  filtered  at  a  temperature  of  212°  and  the  silver  . 
4s  precipitated  by  adding  small  pieces  of  copper,  together  with  a  small 
quantity  of  muriatic  acid. 


WIRB.GAUCH  COMPARED  WITH  INCHEST 


B.  W.  0.  -  ln«. 

B.  W.  O  ^  IB*. 

No.  to  =.137 

No.  10  =.042 

II   .1.25 

20   .035 

xa.  .169 

ai  .032 

X3  '095 

as  .028 

14  .083 

»3  «o*s 

IS   -072 

16  .065 

24  .022 

25    -02 

17  .056 

36    .018 

1  8   .049 

27    .016 

2    No.  28  -=  .o* 

Q  »Of£ 

3  .OI3 

I.  «Ot 

2  .00^ 


No,  ii  W.  G.=., 

16      « 

22       M 


.007 
.cof 

.06* 

i  in. 


AWTIFICIAL  MEERSCHAUM  is  made  with  very  fine  sifted  plaster  of 
ris,  baked  for  a  few  hours  and  thrown  while  warm  into  melted  wax 

or  linseed  oil;  the  resemblance  may  be  increased  by  a  coloring  solo* 

&MR  of  gamboge  and  dragon'  e  blood. 


ttACHINISTS,   ENGINEERS',   AC.,   RECEIPTS.         457 

-In  addition  to  the  following  inestimable  Receipts  and  p**  - 
he  blacksmith  will  find  Iron  Tables,  and  Tables  of  Circum* 
ferences,  Areas  and  Diameters  of  Circles,  for  measurement  of  hoop^  -j 
rings,  &c.,  at  the  end  of  the  mechanical  department.  » 


TEMPERING  LIQUIDS.—!.  Water,  3  gals ;  soda,  2  ozs.;  saltpetre,  4 
•zs. ;  prussic  acid,  loz.,  or  oil  of  vitrol,  2  ozs.  2.  Water,  6  gals.; 
«altpetre,  sal-ammoniac  and  alum,  of  each  4  ozs.,  and  draw  no  tem- 
per. 3.  Water,  4  gals. ;  saltpetre  and  alum,  of  each,  4  ozs. ;  sal-am- 
moniac, pulverized,  1  oz. ;  salt,  3  Ibs.  Heat  to  a  cherry  red  and 
plunge  in,  drawing  no  temper.  4.  Water,  4  gals. ;  saltpetre,  1  oz. ; 
pulverized  borax,  1  oz. ;  pulverized  sal-ammoniac,  1  oz. ;  white  vitriol, 
2  ozs. ;  salt,  3  pts.  Do  not  hammer  too  cold,  nor  heat  too  high.  & 
Water,  4  gals. ;  salt,  2  teacupf  uls ;  saltpetre,  2  ozs. ;  pulverized  alum, 
4  teaspoonf uls ;  never  heat  over  a  cherry  red,  nor  draw  any  temper. 
€.  Water,  2  gals.:  add  corrosive  sublimate,  1^  oz. ;  common  salt,  2 
handf  uls ;  when  dissolved  it  is  ready  for  use.  The  first  gives  tough- 
ness to  the  steel,  while  the  latter  gives  the  hardness,  causing  the  water 
to  adhere  to  the  steel,  which  otherwise  would  be  repelled  by  the  heat 
7.  Tempering  Liquid  for  Mill  Picks. — Water,  3  gals. ;  spts.  of  nitre,  3 
ozs. ;  hartshorn,  3  ozs ;  white  vitriol,  3  ozs. ;  alum,  3  ozs. ;  sal-ammo- 
niac, 3  ozs. ;  salt,  6  ozs.,  with  2  handfuls  of  the  parings  of  horses' 
hoof.  The  steel  is  to  be  heated  to  a  cherry  red.  A  large  jug  of  this 
preparation  should  be  kept  corked  tight,  in  order  to  retain  its  strength. 
TJse  soft  water  in  all  these  tempering  liquids. 

TEMPERING  MILL  PICKS.— Get  double  refined  cast  steel  made  ex* 
pressly  for  mill  picks.  In  drawing  out  the  pick,  use  an  anvil  and  . 
hammer  with  smooth  faces,  and  be  careful  not  to  heat  the  steel  higher 
than  a  dark  cherry  red.  Do  not  strike  the  pick  on  the  edge  when  * 
finishing  it,  but  hammer  it  on  the  flat  side,  striking  light  and  often, 
.  until  the  steel  is  quite  dark,  letting  the  blows  fall  so  as  to  close  the 
,  pores  of  the  steel.  When  a  dozen  picks  are  ready  to  temper,  get  2 
gals,  of  rain  water  from  which  the  chill  should  be  taken,  if  in  winter, 
by  dipping  a  hot  iron  into  it ;  add  2  Ibs.  salt,  and  it  is  ready  for  use. 
Heat  your  pick  gradually  from  the  centre ;  let  the  heat  run  to  the 
point,  and  when  it  is  a  dark  cherry  red,  dip  the  point  vertically  into 
the  bath  and  hold  it  still.  When  the  heat  has  left  the  part  immersed, 
take  it  out,  and  cool  the  balance  of  the  pick  in  ordinary  water.  Be 
sure  to  heat  and  hammer  well. 

To  TEMPER  A  DRILL  VERY  HARD. — Heat  your  drill  to  a  cherry, 
red  and  quench  it  in  mercury.  This  will  drill  hardened  steel. 


458         MACHINISTS,    ENGINEEBB.   *C.,   RECEIPTS. 

COMPOSITION-  FOB  TEMPERING.— Rosin,  73,  parts;  whale  oil,  1| 
parts:  pulverized  charcoal,  i  part;  tallow,  |part,  Directions. — Very 
small  tools  should  be  dipped  in  this  mixture  the  game  as  in  water, 
'  then  polish  and  draw  the  temper  as  usual.  Large  tools  should  ba 
dipped,  then  heated  up  again  and  temperas  usual.  This  composition 
will  also  restore  burnt  steel  as  good  as  new.  If  small  tools,  dip  once. 
If  large,  dip  two  or  three  times;  no  hammering  is  required. 

To  MAKE  IRON  TAKE  A  BRIGHT  POLISH  LIKE  STEEL. — Pulverize 
:  and  dissolve  the  folio  whig  articles  in  1  qt.  hot  water ;  blue  vitriol,  1  oz. ; 
'  torax,  1  oz. ;  prussiate  of  potash,  1  oz. ;  charcoal,  1  oz. ;  salt,  \  pt. ;  thent 
,  add  1  gal.  linseed  oil,  mix  well,  bring  your  iron  or  steel  to  the  proper 
heat  and  cool  in  the  solution.  It  is  said  the  manufacturers  of  the  Judson 
governor  paid  $100  for  this  receipt,  the  object  being  to  case  harden 
iron  so  that  it  would  take  a  bright  polish  like  steel. 

DIPPING  TOOLS  WHEN  HARDENING.— To  harden  a  pen-knife  blade» 
lancet,  razor,  chisel,  gouge-bit,  plane,  spoke-shave,  iron  shaving 
knife,  three  or  four  square  files,  and  round  and  flat  files,  dii> 
them  endwise  or  perpendicularly.  This  keeps  them  straight, 
which  would  not  be  the  case  were  they  dipped  in  the  water  ob- 
liquely. 

SUBSTITUTE  FOB  BORAX.— Alum,  2  ozs. ;  dilute  with  water  and  mix 
\vith  2  ozs.  potash,  boil  in  a  pot  half  an  hour  over  a  gentle  fire,  take  it 
out  of  the  water,  add  2  ozs.  gem  salt  in  powder,  as  much  of  alka- 
line salt,  3  Ibs.  honey,  and  one  of  cow's  milk,  mix  all  together,  set  it 
in  the  sun  for  3  days  and  the  borax  is  ready  fo*r  use.  This  will  go 
twice  as  far  in  a  blacksmith's  shop  as  common  borax. 

WELDING  CAST  STEEL.— Silver  sand  2  Ibs.,  plaster  of  Paris,  1  Ib. ; 
tnix  thoroughly.  Heat  your  article  and  dust  it  with  the  above,  placa 
it  in  the  fire  again  until  you  get  a  red  heat  and  it  will  weld. 

RESPIRATOR.— An  excellent  respirator  may  be  made  of  a  thick 
eheet  of  carded  cotton  wool  placed  between  two  pieces  of  muslin. 
Unequalled  for  arresting  dust,  steel  particles,  &c. 

ANNEALING  STEEL.— For  small  pieces  of  steel,  take  a  piece  of  ga& 

trfpe  2  or  3  niches  hi  diameter,  and  put  the  pieces  in  it,  first  heat- 

Jng  one  end  of  the  pipe,  and  drawing  it  together,  leaving  the  other 

:  tnd  open  to  look  into.    When  the  pieces  are  of  a  cherry  red,  cover 

|  Hhe  fire  with  saw  dust,  use  a  charcoal  fire,  and  leave  the  steel  hi  over 

jught. 

;  To  DRILL  HARDENED  STEEL. — Coyer  your  steel  with  melted  beeswax, 
When  coated  and  cold,  make  a  hole  in  the  wax  with  a  fine  pointed  nee» 
die  or  other  article  the  size  of  hole  you  require,  put  a  drop  of  strong' 
aitric  acid  upon  it,  after  an  hour  rinse  off,  and  apply  again,  it  will 
gradually  eat  through. 

1  To  HARDEN  METALS.— Iron,  60  parts:  chrome,  40  parts:  form  a 
composition  as  hard  as  the  diamond.  A  high  degree  of  hardness 
•may  also  be  imparted  to  iron  or  steel  by  adding  i  part  of  silver. 
.^Copper  may  be  externally  hardened  by  the  fumes  of  zinc  and  tin. 
'^Th«  specula  of  Lord  Ross's  telescope  is  1  part  tin  and  I  part 
.'copper,  this  is  as  hard  as  steel,  and  takes  a  very  high  polish  ;  if 
'jaore  than  this  be  added  it  will  scarcely  cohere. 

WELDING  CAST  STEEL.— Rock  saltpetre,  £  Ib. ;  dissolve  in  J  Ib.  oil 
Yttriol;  and  add  it  to  1  gal.  water.  After  scarfing  the  steel,  get  it 
feet;  and  quench  in  the  preparation.  Then  weld  the  same  as  * 


MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  &cv  RECEIPTS.       459 

piece  of  iron,  hammer  it  very  quick  with  light  blows.  It  answers  th» 
purpose  much  better  than  borax ;  cork  it  in  a  bottle,  and  it  will  keep 
for  years.  Another. — Borax,  15  parts;  sal-ammoniac,  2  parts;  cyan* 
5de  of  potassium,  2  parts;  dissolve  all  in  water,  and  evaporate  the 
•water  at  a  low  temperature. 

GERMAN  WELDING  POWDER. — Iron  turnings,  4  parts;  borax,  3 
parts,  borate  of  iron,  2  parts ;  water,  1  part. 

TEMPERING  SWORDS  AND  CUTLASSES.— N.  B.  Ames,  late  of  Clii- 
copoe,  Mass.,  after  many  costly  experiments,  found  that  the  best 
means  of  tempering  swords  and  cutlasses  that  would  stand  the  U. 
8.  Government  test,  was  by  heating  in  a  charcoal  fire,  hardening 
in  pure  spring  water,  and  drawing  the  temper  in  charcoal  flame. 

BELGIAN  WELDING  POWDER. — Iron  filings,  1000  parts;  borax,  500 
parts ;  balsam  of  copaiba,  or  other  resinous  oil,  50  parts ;  sal-ammo* 
niac,  75  parts.  Mix  all  well  together,  heat,  and  pulverize  completely 
The  surfaces  to  be  welded  are  powdered  with  the  composition,  and 
then  brought  to  a  cherry  red  heat,  at  which  the  powder  melts,  when 
the  portions  to  be  united  are  taken  from  the  fire  and  joined.  If  fho- 
pieces  to  be  welded  are  too  large  to  be  both  introduced  into  the  forge, 
one  can  be  first  heated  with  the  welding  powder  to  a  cherry  red  heat, 
and  the  other  afterwards  to  a  white  neat,  after  which  the  welding 
may  be  effected. 

COMPOSITION  USED  IN  WELDING  CAST  STEEL. — Borax,  10  parts; 
sal-ammoniac,  Ipart;  grind  or  pound  them  roughly  together;  then 
fuse  them  in  a  metal  pot  over  a  clear  fire,  taking  care  to  continue  the 
heat  until  all  spume  has  disappeared  from  the  surface.  When  the> 
liquid  appears  clear,  the  composition  is  ready  to  be  poured  out  to 
cool  and  concrete;  afterwards  being  ground  to  a  fine  powder,  it  is- 
ready  for  use.  To  use  this  composition,  the  steel  to  be  welded  i» 
raised  to  a  heat  which  may  be  expressed  by  "bright  yellow;"  it  is- 
then  dipped  among  the  welding  powder,  and  again  placed  in  the  fire- 
until  it  attains  the  same  degree  of  heat  as  before :  it  is  then  ready  to> 
ibe  placed  under  the  hammer. 

To  RESTORE  BURNT  STEEL  AND  IMPROVE  POOR  STEEL. — Borax, 
3  ozs. ;  sal-ammoniac,  8  ozs. ;  prussiate  of  potash,  3  ozs. ;  blue  clay,  2 
ozs. ;  resin,  J  Ib. ;  water,  1  gill;  alcohol,  1  gill.  Put  all  on  the  fire, 
and  sf  jamer  till  it  dries  to  a  powder.  The  steel  is  to  be  heated,  dip- 
ped in  this  powder,  and  afterwards  hammered. 

To  RESTORE  BURNT  CAST  STEEL. — Borax  1^  Ibs. ;  sal-ammoniaft 
$  Ib. ;  prussiate  of  potash  £  Ib. ;  rosin,  1  oz.  Pound  the  above  fine, 
add  a  gill  each  of  water  and  alcohol,  and  boil  all  to  a  stiff  paste  in  an 
iron  kettle.  Do  not  boil  too  long,  or  it  will  become  hard  when  cool. 
The  burnt  steel  is  dipped  while  quite  hot  in  the  composition  and 
elightly  hammered. 

RESTORING  BURNT  STEEL. — It  is  not  generally  known  that  burnt 
steel  maybe  almost  instantaneously  restored  by  plunging  it  while  hot 
in  cold  water,  and  hammering  it  with  light  strokes  on  the  anvil,  turr>- 
ing  it  so  as  to  hammer  all  over  it,  again  dipping  in  the  cold  water,  and 
repeating  the  hammering  process  as  before  Try  it ;  if  you  don't  sue* 
ceed  the  first  time,  you  will  soon  do  so. 

COMPOSITION  TO  RESTORE  BURNT  STEEL. — Two  parts  horn  fil- 
ings ;  10  parts  tallow ;  1  part  sal-ammoniac,  1  part  pulverized  charcoal : 
1  part  Bod&;  pulverize  the  hard  ingredient*  eeparately,  mix  a]) 


430      MACHINISTS.  ENGINEERS',  &c.,  RECEIPTS. 

thoroughly  with  the  tallow.  Bring  your  burnt  steel  to  a  cherry  refl 
and  dip  it  in  the  mixture;  when  it  gets  cold  it  may  be  hardened  in 
the  usual  manner. 

COMPOSITION  TO  TOUGHEN  STEEL.— Resin,  2  Ibs.;  tallow,  2  Ibs.; 
black  pitch,  1  Ib. ;  melt  together,  and  dip  in  the  steel  when  hot. 

BURGLAR  AND  DRILL-PROOF  DIAMOND  CHILL. — Take  1  gal.  urine, 
and  add  to  it  1  oz.  borax  and  1  oz.  salt. 

To  RE-SHARPEN  OLD  FILES.— Remove  the  grease  and  dirt  from  your 
files  by  washing  them  in  warm  potash  water,  then  wash  them  in 
•warm  water,  and  dry  with  artificial  heat;  next,  place  1  pt  warm 
wrater  in  a  wooden  vessel,  and  put  in  your  files,  add  2  ozs.  of  blue 
vitriol,  finely  pulverized,  2  ozs.  borax,  well  mixed,  talcing  care  to  turn 
the  files  over,  go  that  each  one  may  come  in  contact  with  the  mixture. 
Now  add  7  ozs.  sulphuric  acid  and  £  oz.  cider  vinegar  to  the  above 
mixture.  Remove  the  files  after  a  short  time,  dry,  sponge  them  with 
olive  oil,  wrap  them  up  iu  porous  paper,  and  put  aside  for  use  Coarse 
files  require  to  be  immersed  longer  than  fine. 

SUBSTITUTE  FOR  BORAX. — Copperas,  2  ozs. ;  saltpetre,  1  oz. ;  com- 
mon salt,  6  ozs. ;  black  oxide  of  manganese,  1  oz ;  prussiate  of  pot- 
ash, 1  oz. ;  all  pulverized  and  mixed  Avith  3  Ibs.  nice  welding  sand, 
and  use  the  same  as  you  would  sand.  High-tempered  steel  can  be 
welded  with  this  at  a  lower  heat  than  is  required  for  borax. 

To  SOFTEN  IRON  OR  STEEL. — Either  of  the  following  methods 
will  make  iron  or  steel  very  soft:— 1.  Anoint  it  all  over  with  tallow, 
temper  it  in  a  gentle  charcoal  fire,  and  let  it  cool  of  itself.  2.  Take  a 
little  clay,  cover  your  iron  with  it,  temper  in  a  charcoal  fire.  XI 
When  the  iron  or  steel  is  red  hot,  strew  hellebore  on  it.  4.  Quench 
the  iron  or  steel  in  the  juice  or  water  of  common  beans. 

TEMPERING  STEEL  SPRINGS. — The  steel  used  should  be  that  called 
"spring"  for  the  large  work;  for  small  work,  "double  shear  "J 
After  hardening  in  the  usual  way,  in  water,  or,  as  some  prefer,  in  oil,  , 
dry  the  spring  over  the  Sro  to  get  rid  of  its  moisture,  then  smear  it 
over  with  tallow  or  oil,  hold  it  over  the  flame  of  the  smith's  forge, 
passing  it  to  and  fro,  so  that  the  whole  of  it  will  be  equally  heated, 
lolding  it  there  until  the  oil  or  tallow  takes  fire.  Take  the  article 
out  of  the  fire  and  let  it  burn  a  short  time,  then  blow  it  out  The 
process  may  be  repeated  two  or  three  times  if  the  operator  fancies 
that  any  portion  of  the  spring  has  not  been  reduced  to  the  proper 
temperature,  or  rather  raised  to  it. 

TEMPERING  SAWS. — A  late  improvement  consists  in  tempering 
and  straightening  the  saws  at  one  operation.  This  is  done  by  heat- 
ing the  saws  to  the  proper  degree,  and  then  pressing  them  with  a 
sudden  and  powerful  stroke  between  two  surfaces  of  cold  iron.  A 
drop  press  is  employed  for  the  purpose.  The  mechanism  is  quite 
simple  and  inexpensive.  Its  use  effects  an  important  economy  in  the 
manufacture  of  nearly  all  kinds  ol  sa  ws,  and  also  improves  their 
quality. 

.  TEMPERING  SPIRAL  SPRINGS. — Place  a  piece  of  round  iron  inside 
the  spring,  large  enough  to  fill  it;  then  make  the  spring  and  iron  red 
hot,  and,  when  hot  place  them  quickly  into  cold  water,  and  stir  them 
about  tiU  cold;  afterwards  rub  them  with  oil  or  grease,  and  move 
them  about  in  a  flame  till  the  grease  takes  fire;  the  spring  will  the*  \ 
be  reduced  to  ita  proper  temper.  \ 


MACHINISTS,    ENGINEERS*,   &C.,   RECEIPTS.          46f 

•To  TEMPER  SMALL  SPRINGS,— In  Large  Quantities.— First,  hardw* 
.  them  ic  the  usual  manner  of  hardening  steel;  then  place  as  many  a» 
1  convenient  in  a  vessel  containing  oil.    Heat  the  oil  containing  the- 
)  springs  until  it  takes  fire  from  the  top,  then  set  off  the  vessel  and  let 
it  cool.     The  springs  will  then  be  found  to  p^sess  the  required 
temper.  , 

TEMPERING. — The  article  after  being  completed,  is  hardened  b> : 
being  heated  gradually  to  a  bright  red,  and  then  plunged  into  cold 
water:  it  is  then  tempered  by  being  warmed  gradually  and  equably/ 
either  over  a  fire,  or  on  a  piece  of  heated  metal,  till  of  the  color  cor- 
responding to  the  purpose  foi  which  it  is  required,  as  per  table  b*» 
low,  when  it  is  again  plunged  into  water. 

Corresponding  Temperature. 


Darker  Straw 
Yellow     .    . 
Brown  yellow 
Slightly  tinged 
Purple.     .    . 
Dark  purple. 
Blue    . 

)U 

pi 

470 
490 
500 
3520 
530 
550 
570 

Penknives  }  All   kinds    of    wood 
Scissors     j          Screw  taps. 
Hatchets,  Chipping  Chisels, 
Saws. 
All  kinds  of  percussive  tools. 

Springs. 

tool* 

Dark  blue    ....  600    Soft  for  saws. 

TEMPERING  RAZORS,  CUTLERY,  SAWS,  &c.— Razors  and  pen* 
knives  are  too  frequently  hardened  without  the  removal  of  the  scale- 
arising  from  the  foregoing  :  this  practice,  which  is  never  done  with 
the  best  works,  cannot  be  too  much  deprecated.  The  blades  are  heated 
in  a  coke  or  charcoal  fire,  and  dipped  in  the  water  obliquely.  In 
tempering  razors,  they  are  laid  on  their  backs  upon  a  clean  fire,  about 
half-a  dozen  together,  and  they  are  removed  one  at  a  time,  when  the 
edges,  which  are  as  yet  thick,  come  down  to  a  pale  straw  color. 
Should  the  backs  accidentally  get  heated  beyond  the  straw-color,  tha 
blades  are  cooled  in  water,  but  not  otherwise.  Pen-blades  are  tem- 
pered a  dozen  or  two  at  a  time,  on  a  plate  of  iron  or  copper,  about  12 
inches  long,  3  or  4  inches  wide,  and  about  £  of  an  inch  thick.  The 
blades  are  arranged  close  together  on  their  back  and  lean  at  an 
angle  against  each  other.  As  they  come  down  to  the  temper,  they 
are  picked  out  with  small  pliers  and  thrown  into  water  if  necessary; 
other  blades  are  then  thrust  forward  from  the  cooler  parts  of  the 
plate  to  take  their  place.  Axes,  adzes,  cold  chisels,  and  other  edge 
tools,  in  which  the  total  bulk  is  considerable  compared  with  the  part 
to  be  hardened,  are  only  partially  dipped ;  they  are  afterwards  let 
down  by  the  heat  of  the  remainder  of  the  tool;  and,  when  the  color 
indicative  of  the  temper  is  attained,  they  are  entirely  quenched. 
With  the  view  of  removing  the  loose  scales,  or  the  oxidation  acquired 
in  the  fire,  some  workmen  rub  the  objects  hastily  in  dry  salt  before 
plunging  them  in  the  water,  in  order  to  give  them  a  cleaner  and 
brighter  face. 

k  Oil,  or  resinous  mixtures  of  oil,  tallow,  wax,  and  resin,  are  used  for 
many  thin  and  elastic  articles,  such  as  needles,  fish  hooks,  steel  pen* 
and  springs,  which  require  a  milder  degree  of  hardness  than  is  give* 


462        MACHINISTS,    ENGINEERS  ,    AC.,    fcECEIPTS. 

Ay  water.  Gnn  lock-springs  are  sometimes /rfetf  in  oil  tor  a  eon-- 
•iderable  time  over  a  fire,  in  an  iron  tray;  the  thick  parts  are  thea 
eure  to  be  sufficiently  reduced,  and  the  thin  parts  do  not  become  the 
more  Bofteued  from  the  continuance  of  the  blazing  heat.  Saws  and 
springs  are  generally  hardened  in  various  compositions  of  oil,  suet, 
wax,  &c.  The  saws  are  heated  in  long  furnaces,  and  then  immersed 
horizontally  and  edgeways  into  a  l^ng  trough  containing  the  com- 
position. Part  of  the  composition  is  wiped  off  the  saws  with  a  piece 
of  leather,  when  they  are  removed  from  the  trough,  and  heatea  one 
by  one,  until  the  grease  inflames.  This  is  called  '  blazing  off."  The 
composition  used  by  a  large  saw  manufacturer  is  2  Ibs.  suet.'  and  £  Ib. 
}f  beeswax,  to  every  gallon  of  whale  oil;  the  seare  boiled  together, 
and  will  serve  for  thin  works  and  most  kinds  of  steel.  The  addition 
of  black  resin,  about  1  Ib.  to  each  gallon,  makes  it  serve  for  thicker 
pieces,  and  for  those  it  refused  to  harden  before;  but  resin  should 
t)e  added  with  judgment,  or  the  works  will  become  too  hard  and 
brittle. 

To  IMPROVE  POOH  IRON.— Black  oxiila  of  manganese,  1  part;  cop- 
peras and  common  salt,  4  parts  each;  dissolve  in  soit  water,  and  boil 
till  dry;  when  cool,  pulverize,  and  mix  quite  freely  with  nice  welding 
cand.  When  you  nave  poor  iron  which  you  cannot  afford  to  throw 
away,  heat  it,  and  ro1!  it  in  this  mixturo;  working  for  a  time,  reheat- 
ing, &c.,  will  soon  free  it  from  all  impurities,  which  is  the  cause  of  its 
rottenness.  By  this  process  you  can  make  good  horse  nails  out  of 
common  iron. 

CASE-HARDENING  FOR,  IRON. — Cast  iron  may  be  case-hardened  by 
heating  to  a  red  heat,  and  then  rolling  it  hi  a  composition  composed 
of  equal  parts  of  pmssiato  of  potash,  sal-ammoniac,  and  saltpetre,  all 
pulverized  and  thoroughly  mixed.  This  must  be  got  to  every  part  of 
the  surface;  then  plunged,  while  yet  hot,  into  a  bath  containing  2  ozs. 
prussiate  of  potash,  and  4  ozs.  sal-ammoniac  to  each  gallon  of  cold 
water. 

MOXON'S  CASE-HARDENING  PROCESS.— Cow's  horns  or  noofs  are 
to  be  br,ked,  dried  and  pulverized  in  order  that  more  may  be  got  into 
tho  box  %7ith  the  articles,  or  bone  dust  answers  very  well.  To  this 
add  an  equal  quantity  of  bay  salt;  mix  them  with  stale  chamber 
ley,  or  white  wine  vinegar;  cover  the  iron  with  this  mixture,  and  bed 
it  in  the  same  in  loam,  or  enclose  it  in  an  iron  box,  lay  it  on  the 
hearth  of  the  forge  to  dry  and  harden;  then  put  it  into  the  fire,  and 
blow  till  the  lump  has  a  blood  red  heat,  and  no  higher,  lost  the  iron 
mixture  be  burnt  too  much  Take  the  iron  out  and  throw  it  into  cold 
water. 

FOR  MALLEABLE  IRON. — Put  the  articles  in  an  iron  box,  and  strat* 
ify  them  among  animal  carbon,  that  is,  pieces  of  horns,  hoofs,  skins, 
or  leather,  just  sufficiently  burned  to  be  reduced  to  powder.  Lute 
the  box  with  equal  parts  of  sand  and  clay :  then  place  it  in  the  fire, 
and  keep  at  a  light  red  heat  for  a  length  of  time  proportioned  to  the 
depth  of  steel  required,  when  the  contents  of  the  box  are  emptied 
into  water. 

ANOTHER  FOR  WROUGHT  IRON.— Take  prussiate  of  potash,  finely 
pulverized,  and  roll  the  article  in  it,  <f  its  shape  admits  of  it;  if  noli, 
•prinkle  "the  powder  upon  it  freely,  while  the  iron  is  hot. 

To  TEMPEB  SPRINGS.— For  tempering cast-atee!  trap  springs,  alii 


MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  AC.,  BECEIPTS.      468 

that  is  necessary  is  to  heat  them  hi  the  dark,  just  so  that  von  can  see 
that  they  are  red;  then  cool  them  in  luke-wa/m  \pater.  ion  can  ob- 
serve a  much  lower  degree  ot  heat  in  the  dark  than  by  daylight,  and 
the  low  heat  and  warm  water  give  the  desired  temper. 

CASE-HARDENING  COMPOUND. — Prussiate  of  potash,  3  Ibs. ;  sal-am.-*, 
moniac,  2  Ibs. ;  bone  dust,  2  Ibs. 

COMPOSITION  FOR  WELDING  CAST  STEEL. — Pulverized  borax  any 
quantity,  and  slightly  color  it  with  dragon's  blood.    Heat  the  steel  red ! 
tot,  shake  the  borax  over  it;  place  it  again  in  the  fire  till  the  borax 
amokei  on  the  steel,  which  will  be  much  below  the  ordinary  welding 
heat,  and  then  hammer  it. 

To  WELD  CAST  IRON. — The  best  way  of  welding  cast  iron  is  to 
take  it  at  a  very  intense  heat,  closely  approaching  the  melting  point 
In  this  state  it  will  be  found  sufficiently  malleable  to  stand  welding  by 
the  hammer.  There  are  other  methods,  but  most  of  them  are  attend- 
ed by  almost  insurmountable  difficulties. 

To  TEMPER  TAPS  OR  RE  AM  Kits  without  springing,  select  your 
'gteel  for  the  job,  and  forge  the  tap  with  a  little  more  than  the  usual 
allowance,  being  careful  not  to  heat  too  hot  nor  hammer  too  cold; 
.ftfter  the  tap  or  reamer  is  forged,  heat  it  and  hold  it  on  one  end  on 
the  anvil.  If  a  largo  one,  hit  it  with  the  sledge;  if  a  small  one,  the 
.hammer  will  do.  This  will  cause  the  tap  to  bend  slightly.  Do  not 
straighten  it  with  the  hammer,  but  on  finishing  ana  hardening  the 
tan,  it  will  become  straight  of  its  own  accord. 

To  HARDEN  AND  TEMPER  CAST  STEEL. — For  saws  and  springs 
In  general  the  following  is  an  excellent  liquid ;  Spermaceti  oil,  20 
gals. ;  beef  suet  rendered,  20  Ibs. ;  neat's-foot  oil,  1  gal. ;  pitch,  1  Ib. ; 
black  resin,  3  Ibs.  The  last  two  articles  must  be  previously  melted 
together,  and  tlicn  added  to  the  other  ingredients,  when  the  whole 
must  be  heated  in  a  proper  iron  vessel,  with  a  close  cover  fitted  to  it, 
until  all  moisture  is  evaporated,  and  the  composition  will  take  fire  on 
•a  flaming  body  being  presented  to  its  surface. 

WATER  ANNEALING.— Heat  the  steel  to  a  red  heat,  and  let  it  lie  a 
iew  minutes,  until  nearly  black  hot;  then  throw  it  into  soap-suds; 
cteel  in  this  way  may  be  annealed  softer  than  by  putting  it  into  the 
ashes  of  the  forge. 

To  SOFTEN  MALLEABLE  IRON.— When  your  furnace  is  charged 
-with  fuel  and  metal,  get  the  fire  up  to  a  dull  red  hea.,,  then 
-pour  fluoric  acid  all  over  the  coke;  use  £  pt.  to  1  pt  or  even  1 
qt.  adding  a  handful  of  iluor  spar;  it  will  make  the  metal  much 
softer. 

WORKING  STEEL  FOR  TOOLS.— In  working  steel  for  tools,  great 
care  should  be  taken  to  hammer  all  sides  alike,  for  if  one  side  is 
hammered  more  than  another  it  will  cause  it  to  spring  in  harden- 
ing. Again,  steel,  when  being  hammered,  should  be  heated  as  hot 
as  it  will  stand,  until  finishing,  and  should  then  be  hammered  until 
almost  black  hot,  for  the  reason  that  it  sets  the  grain  finer,  and 
gives  the  tool  a  better  edge.  The  reason  for  heating  the  steel  so 
hot  while  hammering  is  simply  because  it  makes  the  steel  tougher 
•when  hardened,  and  softer  when  annealed,  while  if  it  were 
•worked  at  a  low  red  heat,  the  continued  percussive  shocks  of  th« 
hammer  would  so  harden  it  as  to  make  it  almost  Impossible  t« 
anneal  it.  and  at  the  same  time  render  it  brittle  when  hardened, 


464       MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  &c.,  RECEIPTS. 

To  MAKE,  HARDEN,  AND  TEMPER  TOOLS.— Experience  has  prore| 
that  all  steel  cutting  tools  should  be  hardened  at  a  low  red  heat,  of 
the  lowest  degree  of  heat  compatible  to  yield  efficient  results,  not 
forgetting  that  large  tools  require  more  heat  than  small  ones,  for  the 
reason  that  they  retain  the  heat  much  longer  in  the  cooling  process. 
Very  small  tools  such  as  some  surgical,  and  dental  instruments,  all 
springs,  centre  drills,  needles,  etc.,  should  be  hardened  in  oil,  as  cold 
water  is  apt,  by  cooling  them  too  rapidly,  to  render  them  brittle  and 
'worthless.  Too  much  heat  imparts  a  coarse  grain  like  cast  iron,  to 
the  steel,  and  makes  it  liable  to  break  when  in  use.  A  heat  sufficient 
to  raise  scales  should  never  be  taken  unless  with  an  implement  too 
large  to  temper  without  it,  fo~  it  is  sure  to  result  in  injury  to  the  steel, 
even  though  the  temper  is  drawn  to  a  straw  color.  Tools  such  a* 
cutters  and  reamers  which  require  to  be  hardened  without  springing* 
should  be  accurately  turned  to  within  £  inch  of  their  finished  size,  and 
then  annealed  previous  to  finishing.  In  annealing  steel,  it  should  be 
heated  very  slowly  to  a  red  heat,  being  careful  to  keep  it  under  the 
scaling  degree,  then  allow  it  two  days  or  more  to  cool  in.  In  mating 
taps,  you  should  have  immediately  under  the  square  head,  a  place 
accurate  size  of  the  outside  of  the  thread,  so  that  you  will  have  no 
trouble  in  getting  dimensions  of  the  thread  wherever  an  odd  number 
of  flutes  exist  Every  tap  should  be  the  accurate  size  of  the  bottom  of 
the  thread  to  within  about  £  an  inch  of  the  square  head,  shaping  it 
this  way,  when  a  strain  comes  in  the  work  it  will  twist  instead  of 
breaking.  The  threads  on  V  taps  ought  to  be  cut  with  a  tool  exactly 
three  square,  (unless  the  thread  is  rounded  on  the  top),  and  then 
finished  with  a  sharp  tool  without  polishing,  as  this  produces  a  glaze 
on  the  metal  while  being  tapped.  In  making  a  tap  for  common  ma- 
chine screws  or  for  bolts,  measure  with  callipers,  the  lower  part  of 
the  thread  of  one  of  the  screws,  and  proceed  to  cut  your  tap  at  the. 
bottom  of  the  thread  the  exact  size  of  the  measurement.  Strong  taps 
for  square  thread  screws  ought  to  be  cut  ^  the  depth  of  their  pitch, 
so  if  the  thread  is  five  to  the  inch,  cut  one-tenth  of  an  inch  deep. 
The  threads  teing  5  to  the  inch,  leaves  a  space  between  the  threads  of 
one  tenth  of  an  inch,  and  the  thread  being  one  tenth  in  depth  and 
one-tenth  wid^,  would  make  the  thread  square.  In  square  threads 
required  for  wear,  the  cut  should  be  £  the  depth  of  their  pitch. 

In  hardening  a  tap,  use  a  clear,  bright  fire ;  a  fire  of  charcoal  is  the. 
test;  heat  to  a  cherry  red,  and  holding  it  by  the  upper  end  immerse 
the  entire  thread-part  first,  keeping  it  stationary  until  the  smooth 
part  attains  a  dark  red  color;  then  gradually  dip  the  whole  tool,  hold« 
ing  it  stationary  until  cold  Brighten  the  fluted  parts  and  proceed  to 
temper  the  tool  by  heating  a  piece  of  an  iron  pipe  to  a  bright  red ;  re« 
move  it  from  the'fire,  place  it  in  a  vertical  position,  and  insert  the 
tap  in  the  centre  of  the  tube  (but  not  touching  any  part  of  it)  with 
the  threaded  part  outside.  The  interior  of  the  tube  should  be  twice  the 
diameter  of  the  tool,  and  the  length  but  half.  RsTrlve  the  tap  in 
:the  hot  pipe  until  the  smooth  partis  vrarm  enough  t>  slightly  pain 
the  hand,  keeping  it  in  motion  endways,  back  aud  f  Ji  th  through  the 
pipe  and  turning  it  until  the  thread  is  tinted  to  a  f^eep  brown,  and  the 
rest  of  the  tool  to  a  brown  purple,  modify  any  uy^gularity  in  the  colot 
by  holding  the  light  colored  parts  longer  in  tne  tube,  or  if  any  part* 
color  too  deep,  cool  off  with  a  little  oil.  The  &i  «>res  of  taps  ahould  *• 
tempered  to  a  deep  blue,  fi&lor. 


MACHINISTS    TOOLS. 


4GS 


fig.  1.  Tool  for  cutting  square  thread  serews,  &c- 

Fig.  2.  Lathe  tool  for  boring. 

fig.  3.  Tool  for  cutting  interior  screws. 

fig.  4.  Left  hand  side  tool,  top  view. 

Fig.  5.  Tool  for  cutting  V  thread  screws. 

Jig.  6-  Diamond-point  tool,  to  turn  small  shafting,  && 

Fig.  7.  Round-ended  tool,  to  turn  heavy  shafting,  &«, 


466  MACHINISTS,   ENGINE^S'   &C.,   RECEIPTS. 

To  DIP  OB  TEMPER  HALF-RC./ND  FILES  OB  KEAMERS. — Off 
account  of  the  unequal  surface  presented  to  the  water  by  half  round 
tools,  it  is  necessary,  in  order  to  keep  them  straight,  or  nearly  so. 
while  tempering,  that  they  should  be  inserted  with  the  s.cmi-cireidar 
side  20?  leaning  toioards  the  water.  To  dip  a  fluted  reamer,  insert  it  £ 
an  inch  beyond  the  fluting,  dipping  and  withdrawing  it  several  times 
in  succession.  This  ensures  a  reliable  temper  in  the  tool  and  will 
assist  greatly  in  preventing  fracture,  and  breakage. 

To  SET  A  LATHE  TO  TURN  TAPERING. — Calculate  a  certain 
amount  of  taper  to  the  foot  or  the  extension  of  the  piece  to  be  turned, 
for  instance  with  a  shaft  one  foot  long  with  a  thickness  of  1  inch  at 
one  end  larger  than  the  other,  set  the  puppet-head  over  £  inch,  and 
you  will  obtain  the  desired  taper  of  1  inch  per  foot.  With  a  shaft  20 
ins.  long,  you  will  obtain  a  taper  of  2  ins.  over  its  whole  length,  by 
setting  your  lathe  over  1  inch. 

To  SET  A  LATHE  TO  TURN  SHAFTING.  —Find  out  if  your  centres 
are  true,  and  adjust  them  correctly  if  they  are  not,  using  a  square 
end  tool,  keeping  them  true  to  a  three-square  gauge,  otherwise  you 
will  be  apt  to  ruin  your  work.  Now  set  your  puppet-head  so  that  it 
will  turn  the  shaft  true  and  straight,  and  if  without  a  straight  mark 
upon  it,  turn  one  end  of  the  shaft  for  about  an  inch,  next,  without 
stirring  your  tools,  take  the  shaft  from  the  lathe,  run  the  carriage 
down  to  the  main  head,  and  if  the  tool  comes  in  contact  with  the  spot 
you  have  turned,  the  machine  is  straight,  if  not,  screw  over  the 
puppet  head,  and  keep  adjusting  it  until  the  tool  touches  the  place 
turned  at  both  ends  of  the  lathe. 

ON  KEYS,  PLANING  KEY  WATS,  &c.— To  ensure  an  easy  entrance, 
apply  oil  to  the  key  way  and  enter  the  key,  marking  where  it  binds, 
avoiding  extreme  tightness  at  the  sides,  and  securih."-  the  lock  by  a 
proper  taper  at  the  rate  of  about  £  of  an  inch  to  the  foot  of  length. 
To  ease  hardened  key  ways  and  slots,  use  a  strip  of  copper  as  a  file  on 


size  ;  this  is  done  with  a  square  point  tool,  afterwards  finish  with  a 
tool  of  the  desired  size;  this  method  ensures  a  much  neater  finish, 
than  the  use  of  one  tool  only.  -  To  ensure  true  cutting  in  adjusting  a 
tool  for  cutting  a  key  way,  test  each  side  of  it  by  a  square  set  on  the 
planer  bed,  to  see  that  it  is  perpendicular.  To  plane  a  T  shaped  slot 
or  way,  plane  to  the  desired  depth  with  a  square  point  tool,  then  plane 
the  upper  part  of  the  way  to  the  proper  width.  Now  plane  the  bottom 
part  of  the  way  with  two  tools,  each  being  bent  to  a  different  angle, 
one  to  the  right  and  the  other  to  the  left  Shallow  ways  may  be  cut 
out,  the  upper  width  and  proper  depth,  then  finished  'with  one  tool 
shaped  the  desired  form  of  the  way.  Powerful  tools  should  be  used  in 
planing  large  ways  in  order  to  avoid  breaking,  and  should  cut  easily 
on  each  of  the  three  sides.  Use  a  sheet  iron  gau^e  and  plane  the  way 
to  conform  to  it.  To  plane  a  gibe  rest  or  slide,  plane  it  all  over, 
omitting  the  slide,  on  both  sides ;  then  set  the  planer  head  at  an  angle 
of  30°,  and  finish  the  slide  with  a  taper  point  tool.  In  planing  thin 
cast  iron  surfaces,  the  outside  being  harder  than  the  inside,  it  is 
necessary  in  order  to  prevent  springing  owing  to  the  expansion  of  tht 
fcale,  to  plane  ever  a  cut  o»  each  side  previous  to  finishing  either. 


MACHINISTS'  TOOLS. 


Fig.   8.  Side  view  of  right-hand  side  tool. 

Fig.    9.  Tool  for  cutting  V  threads,  side  view. 

Fig.  10.  Tool  for  planing  a  key-way. 

Fig.  11.  End  view  of  a  fluted  tap  or  reamer, 

Fig.  12.  Side  tool  for  squaring  the  ends  of  wrought  iron  work 

Fig.  13.  Tool  for  parting  or  cutting  brass  apart. 

Fig.  14.  Side  tool  for  cast  iron,  wrought  iron  or  steel,  left  Land  fo«ai» 

Fig.  15.  Parting  tool  for  iron  or  steel  work. 


468  MACHINISTS,   ENGINEERS'   AC.,"  RECEIPTS. 

CXRB  OF  BATHES,  PLANERS,  DRILLS,  &c. — In  order  to  utilize  yonf 
lathes,  &c.,  for  nice  fine  work,  and  keep  your  ways,  arbors,  an<£ 
centres  in  order,  it  is  necessary  to  keep  them  clean  by  brushing  away 
me  rubbish  from  the  ways,  feed  gears,  and  other  working  parts; 
clean  well  by  frequent  rubbing  with  cotton  waste,  and  keep  them  in 
?asy  working  order  by  regular  oiling.  j 

TOOLS  FOR  TuR:NTi;!srG. — 1.  For  turning  balance  wheels,  or  squaring* 
up  large  surfaces,  use  a  round  end  tool  constructed  well  tapering  tb| 
jut  from  the  side.  2.  The  best  tool  for  turning  small  shafting  is  a 
iiamond  point  tool;  for  heavy  shafting  use  a  round  end  tool,  shaped 
to  .<tand  nigh  like  a  diamond  point  and  to  cut  full  and  free  from 
the  side.  3.  For  cutting  off  a  shaft,  use  a  tool  shaped  thin  and 
having  the  tapering  down  the  reverse  of  turning  tools.  4.  Fot 
cutting  a  V  thread  screw  use  a  V  thread  tool,  with  the  pointa 
ground  to  lean  down  when  finished,  so  as  to  prevent  running  and  de- 
stroying both  the  tool  and  the  work.  5.  For  cutting  a  square  thread 
screw,  the  best  way  is  to  use  a  square  point  tool  about  f  of  the  thick- 
ness of  the  thread  you  intend  to  cut,  and  finish  with  another  the  exact 
size  of  the  thread.  In  cutting  a  thread  within  a  hole  apply  the  same 
method.  6.  For  boring  out  a  hole  use  a  lathe  boring  tool  with  the  end 
turned  on  a  right  angle  to  the  left,  and  the  point  turned  up  hooking. 

The  side  tool  shown  in  Fig.  12,  should,  for  light  work,  be  hardened 
right  out;  temper  to  a  straw  color  for  heavy  work.  For  heavy  work 
on  a  slotting  machine,  temper  to  a  brownish  purple,  and  grind  so  that 
the  cutting  edge  first  strikes  the  cut  near  the  body  of  the  tool,  and 
not  at  the  point  ends;  use  at  a  speed  of  about  10  feet  per  minute. 

The  parting  tool  for  brass,  Fig.  13,  should  be  made  to  conform  to 
the  shape  as  represented  and  hardened  right  out. 

The  side  tool  for  iron.  Fig.  14,  cannot  be  made  too  hard;  and  should 
be  used  at  a  speed  ranging  from  20  to  30  feet  per  minute,  with  feed 
from  20  to  30  revolutions  for  each  inch  cut,  varying  as  the  dimensions 
of  the  work  ranges  from  1  inch  up  to  12  inches  in  diameter,  the  speed 
decreasing  as  the  size  of  the  work  increases. 

The  parting  tool  for  iron,  Fig.  15,  should  be  tempered  in  accordance 
with  the  size  of  the  tool  and  the  nature  of  the  work  to  be  done;  it 
may  be  hardened  right  out,  or  hardened  to  a  dark  straw,  or,  for  a 
we.ak  tool,  to  a  purple  color. 

The  roughing  tool  for  wrought  iron,  Fig.  16,  when  used  on  large 
work,  should  be  tempered  to  a  light  straw,  but  for  work  of  5  inch 
iiameter  or  less,  it  should  be  made  as  hard  as  possible  and  not  tem- 
De-ed  at  all.  The  cutting  speed  varies  from  15  to  35  feet  per  minute 
is  the  size  of  the  work  varies  from  1  inch  to  20  inches  or  more  ia< 
3ia  meter ;  feed  &c.,  ranging  about  as  follows :  — 

diameter  of  Work  Cutting  Speed  Feet  F«e<J  per  Inch 

in  Inche*.  jer^Iinutet  Cut. 

1  or  less.  36  £>      f 

Ito2  24  19 

2-5  20  19 

5  "  10  IT  I* 

10"  20  16  12 

20  and  upwards  15  _.12-  „_ 

In  hardening  and  tempering  the  boring  tools  represented  by  Jigs.  17, 
19,  20,  21. 22  and  26  proceed,  according  to  the  directions  given  else* 
•rhere ;  making  them  very  hard 

The  tide  tool  for  brasst  Fig.  2»,  should  be  hardened  as  much  as  fir« 


MACHINISTS*    TOOLS. 


46* 


Fig.  16.  Tool  for  roughing  out  wrought  iron  work. 

Fig.  17.  Boring  tool  for  heavy  work  on  wrought  iron. 

Tig.  18.  Side  tool  for  brass  work. 

Fig.  19.  Boring  tool  for  heavy  cutting  on  wrought  iron 

Fig.  20.  For  boring  on  cast  iron  where  tool  is  liable  to  vibrato  t,f  treniM*. 

Fig.  21.  Stout  finishing  tool  on  cast  iron.    The  back  part  of  the  tool  IP 

formed  for  scraping  only,  the  front  corner  doing  tho  cutting., 
<lg.  22.  Tool  to  cut  out  a  straight  corner  at  the  bottom  of  a  hole  56 

Wrought  irou.     Fig.  23.  Boring  tool  for  wrought  iron  or  eto«L 


470        MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS'  &c.,  RECEIPTS. 

and  water  will  permit,  and  may  "be  used  at  a  cutting  speed  of  from  156 
to  350  feet  per  minute  on  work  ranging  from  1  inch  up  to  20  inches  in 
diameter,  with  a  feed  of  30  and  25  revolutions  to  each  inch  turned. 

The  boring  tool  for  wrought  iron,  etc.,  Fig.  23,  should,  if  slight,  b« 
tempered  to  a  light  straw  color;  otherwise,  harden  it  right  out,  and 
when  in  use  lubricate  well  with  a  mixture  of  soft  soap  1  Ib;  boiling 
water,  1  gal. 

The  finishing  tool  for  cast  iron,  Fig.  24,  should  be  hardened 
right  out;  the  cutting  speed  on  the  lathe  is  about  25  to  30  feet  per 
.ninute  on  small  work,  and  18  feet  on  large  work,  with  a  coarse  feeej, 
ji  say, 8  revolutions  of  the  lathe  per  inch  of  travel. 

To' make  &  counter  boring  tool,  (Fig.  25),  adjust  the  handle  to  a 

S roper  collet  and  turn  the  governor,  which  ought  not  to  be  over  a  £  of 
ich  in  length;  next  tarn  a  spot  for  the  lips  about  f  of  an  inch,  on 
email  tools  and  about  f  inch  on  large  ones.  Above  tkis  spot,  turn  it 
about  £  larger  than  the  governor  and  straight  up  to  the  handle,  by 
leaving  the  place  for  the  lips  short,  thus  saving  filing.  Next  file  4 
spiral  Tips  in  them,  resembling  a  drill;  afterwards  dress  off  the  back 
back  side  of  the  lips  on  the  end  to  an  edge  with  a  file,  and  harden. 

Milling  tools  or  cutters,  (Fig.  27. )  ought  to  be  chucked  to  fit  loosely 
on  the  arbor,  so  that  they  may  not  prove  to  be  too  small  after  harden- 
ing. Now  turn  them  to  within  a  32nd.  of  an  inch  of  the  required 
thickness,  and  again  heat  previous  to  finishing.  This  second  heating 
renders  them  less  apt  to  spring  when  heated  for  the  final  hardening. 

The  front  tool  for  brass,  Fig.  29,  should  be  hardened  right  out, 
and  the  speed  and  feed  should  be  about  the  following  : — 

Diameter  of  Work  Cutting  Speed  ft.  Amount  of  Fe«J 

in  Inches.  per  minute. 

1  or  less,  345  25 

2  to  5,  245  25 
5  to  10,  195  25 
10  to  20,  150  30 

The  tool  for  cutting  square  threads,  Fig.  30,  should  be  made  quite 
hard,  and  formed  as  shown  in  cut.  The  game  remark  applies  to  the 
tool  for  hard  metal,  shown  at  Fig.  31. 

The  boring  tool  for  brass,  Fig.  32,  should  be  made  as  hard  as  fire 
and  water  will  make  it,  and  used  with  a  quick  speed  and  lightfeed. 

The  finishing  tool  for  wrought  iron,  &c.,  Fig.  33,  should  be  hard- 
ened right  out,  and  used  at  a  cutting  speed  of  from  18  to  38  revolu- 
tions per  minute,  as  the  size  of  the  work  varies  from  18  inches,  or 
more,  down  to  1  inch  in  diameter,  with  a  feed  from  14  to  30  revolu- 
tions for  each  inch  «ut,  aa  follows  : — 

Diameter  of  Work  Cutting  Speed  ft.  Amount  of  Fee* 

in  Inches.  per  minute. 

1  or  less,  38  30 

1  to  2,  29  24 

2  to  4,  24  19 

4  to  10,  22  19 

10  to  18,  19  16 

18  and  upwards,  18  14 

In  addition  to  these  Instructions,  each  tool  requires  to  be  ground 
In  such  a  way  as  will  best  adapt  it  for  the  performance  of  the  variouf 
kinds  of  work  that  may  be  in  hand. 

SPIRAL  DRILLS,  Fig.  35,  should  be  annealed  and  turned  to  l-50tb 
«f  an  inch  larger  than  the  finished  sice  ;  then  heated  again,  and  ax* 


MACHINISTS      TOOLS. 


471 


fig.  24  Finishing  tool  for  cast  iron. 

fig.  25.  Counter  boring  tool,  end  view. 

Fig.  26.  To  be  used  on  wrought  iron  when  the  tool  la  liabietciprtogi 

account  of  distance  from  the  tool  poet, 
fig.  27,  Fluted  milling  tool  or  cutter. 


472      MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  AC.,  RECEIPTS. 

Healed  in  a  vertical  position,  among  lime,  aslies,  or  soap-suds  ;  th« 
jBlmik  is  then  turned  to  fit  a  proper  collet  socket,  and  afterwards  the 
point  may  be  turned  to  the  desired  dimensions  and  shaped.  Next 
measure  from  the  point  and  finish  the  turning,  by  making  it  tapering 
to  the  extent  of  100th  of  an  inch  smaller  for  every  2  inches  of  the 
length  of  the  drill.  The  spiral  grooves  are  cut  on  a  machine  con- 
etructed  for  the  purpose,  containing  a  spindle,  which  imparts  the 
double  movement  of  sliding  and  revolving  slowly  while  the  spiral* 
'fcre  being  cut.  The  spindle  contains  a  screw,  on  which  a  chuck  to 
%old  the  drill  is  adjusted.  The  drill  being  inserted  in  the  chuck,  pro- 
seed  to  elevate  the  sliding  block  beneath  the  drill,  so  that  it  will; 
touch  it,  adjusting  it  so  as  not  to  raise  it  too  high  ;  then  insert  a  cut-! 
'ter,  which  should  be  one- half  the  diameter  of  drill,  and  groove  your 
•drills,  which  should,  for  a  drill  1  inch  in  diameter,  be  cut  1  to  the 
inch,  and  down  to  within  a  32nd  cf  the  centre  ;  for  £-inch  drills,  cut 
the  grooves  1£  to  the  inch,  down  to  within  a  64th  of  the  centre  ;  foi 
it-inch  drills,  cut  the  grooves  2  to  the  inch,  dowrn  to  within  100th  of 
'the  centre,  computing  as  you  would  in  cutting  a  screw  in  a  lathe,  the 
index  plate  giving  'jou  the  twro  starting  points  at  which  to  commence 
'the  work. 

FLUTED  REAMERS,  Fig.  36,  should  be  carefully  turned  to  a  32nd 
of  an  inch  of  the  finished  size,  then  heated  and  allowed  to  cool  in  a 
perpendicular  position,  previous  to  finishing.  The  treatment  re- 
moves the  strains  and  the  occasional  hardness  made  by  the  hammer- 
ing, so  that  they  will  not  spring  in  the  operation  of  heating  for  tem- 
jjering.  The  lips  of  a  reamer  should  be  made  uneven  ;  otherwise, 
vhen  it  chatters,  it  leaps  from  one  lip  to  the  other.  In  reamers  from 
1  inch  to  1|  inches  in  diameter,  the  flutes  or  channels  should  be  9  in 
number,  and  11  in  reamers  of  from  1|  to  1£  inches  in  diameter. 
Reamers  from  i  to  §  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  should  have  5  flutes,  and 
reamers  from  f  to  1  inch  should  have  7.  After  cooling,  as  above 
noted,turn  the  part  intended  for  the  lips  100th  of  an  inch  larger  than 
the  finished  size  ;  afterwards  turn  a  spot  in  the  middle  of  it  $  long, 
and  l-12th  of  the  size  of  the  reamer  smaller  than  the  reamer.  After 
hardening,  this  is  the  place  to  pene  it  straight  When  the  turning  of 
all  but  the  upper  part  is  finished,  put  it  on  the  centres,  and  prepare 
to  flute  it,  deferring  the  turning  of  the  upper  part  until  after  harden- 
ing and  straightening.  Place  it  on  the  centres  ;  if  on  a  planer,  flute 
with  a  round  end  tool,  l-10th  of  an  inch  thick,  and  plane  down  to 
tae  face  of  each  lip,  to  the  bottom  of  the  spot  intended  for  the  pen- 
ing,  and  plane  them  so  that  the  space  between  every  other  of  the  two 
lips  will  be  shorter  than  that  of  the  two  just  before  them.  The 
next  step  is  to  plane  off  the  back  side  of  the  lips  with  a  square  end 
'fool  to  within  a  32nd  of  an  inch  from  the  face.  The  faces  of  the  lips 
should  be  planed  even  with  the  centre,  the  lips  dressed  smooth  with 
;the  file,  hardened  again,  and  then  pened  straight.  Finish  by  turning 
.fte  upper  part  to  the  desired  size,  and  polish  it  off ;  grind  the  lips  to 
a  sharp  edge  and  to  the  proper  size,  and  it  is  all  right. 

To  flute  taps,  Fig.  38,  adjust  the  work  on  the  centres,  and  plane 
the  faces  of  all  the  teeth  with  a  cutter  or  planing  tool,  made  circular 
;at  the  end,  the  thickness  at  the  end  being  £  the  diameter  of  the  tap. 
'Tlape  should  be  fluted  with  the  teeth  slightly  hooking  on  the  face. 
:Uress  the  faces  of  all  the  teeth  with  the  planer  one-half  the  depth  of 
&e  thread  deeper  than  the  bottom  of  the  thread  ;  this  done,  plane 


MACHINISTS'  TOOLS. 


47* 


Fig.  29.  Front  tool  for  brass  work. 

Fig.  30.  Tool  for  cutting  square  threads. 

Fig.  31.  Tool  for  cutting  hard  metal. 

Fig.  32.  Boring  tool  for  brass. 

Fig.  33.  Tool  for  finishing  cast  iron,  wrought  Iron  and  •*•*!. 

Jig.  34  Pie  for  screw-cutting,  face  vi«wf 

9Ig.  35.  Spiral  drill 


474          MACHINISTS,    ENGINEERS7,   &C.,    RECEIPTS. 


off  the  back  parts  of  the  teeth,  giving  them  1.3  the  breadth  of  theii 
pitch,  leaving  tnein,  if  tne  pitcn  is  lu,  a  lutii  and  a  20tn,  wuich  leaves 
them  quite  strong  enough  lor  efficient  service  and  easy  work.  Trim 
the  back  parts  ot  the  teeth  with  a  planing  tool  0/nial  in  thicknes  to 
the  size  of  the  tap.  Two  taps  should  be  used  for  each  thread;  witto 
ihve  first,  remove  two-thirds  ol  the  thread,  and  frnish  oil'  with  tlia 
other.  No  taer  is  prequired  on  taps  for  5  threads  ;  if  they  are  fabri- 
cated by  this  plan,  they  are  not  liable  to  break,  and  work  easy. 
Extra  large  mongrel-thread  taps  should  invariably  be  of  two  or  more*, 
sizes,  owing  to  the  coarse  thread  and  the  mass  of  metal  to  be  re- 
moved by  them,  which  otherwise  would  be  crushed  and  torn. 

Cold  Chisels  should  be  shaped  thin  at  the  cutting  end,  and  with 
the  edge  slightly  rounded  outwards,  instead  of  being  square  across 
or  hollowed  inwards,  as  is  frequently  the  case.  This  shape  imparts 
more  endurance  to  the  tool,  and  makes  it  cut  easier  than  when  it  is 
even  across  or  rounded  inwards,  as  we  see  it  in  many  cases.  In  hard- 
ening, heat  the  tool  to  a  dark  red  heat  to  a  depth  equivalent  to  itsf 
width,  and  dip  it  half  that  length  into  the  tempering  liquid,  holding1 
it  stationary  about  4  seconds  ;  then  plunge  it  a  little  deeper  and  with- 
draw ;  brighten  one  side  by  rubbing  on  an  emery  or  sand  board,  re- 
move the  bad  color  with  a  piece  of  waste  or  rag,  and  bring  out  a 
clear  blue  color  by  immersion  in  the  water.  In  many  cases  it  is 
rather  difficult  to  temper  a  piece  of  steel  uniformly,  and  molteu 
metallic  mixtures  are  used,  being  chiefly  made  up  of  tin  and  lead  ; 
the  bright  hardened  steel  is  kept  in  these  molten  mixtures  until  it  has 
assumed  the  temperature  of  the  bath.  The  following  tabulated  form 
exhibits  the  composition  of  the  metallic  baths  which  experience  ba§ 
proved  to  be  the  best  for  the  manufacturing  of  cutlery  : — 

Temperature. 


Hardly  pale  yellow. 

ipale  yellow  to  etr«| 
yellow 

Straw  yellow. 
Brown. 

Purplish  Colored, 
Bright  blue. 
Deep  blue. 


Blackish  olud. 


Such  tools  as  ire  required  to  work  iron  and  other  metals,  and 
hard  stones,  are  heated  to  a  bright  yellow  ;  razors,  coining  dies,  en- 
gravers' tools,  and  wire-drawing  plates  follow  next  to  straw  yellow  ; 
carpenters'  tools  to  purplish  Ted,  while  such  tools  and  objects  as  are 
required  to  be  elastic  are  heated  to  the  violet  or  deep  blue  tint.  Th» 
\e*fc  gteel  is  Seated  th«  harder  It  remains,  but  also  the  more  brittle. 


Composit!' 
Metallic  M 
Lead. 

m  of 
xture. 
Tin. 
4 

4 

4 
4 

4 
4 

2 

lin-j 

Melting 
Point. 

220° 
228° 

232° 
254° 

266° 
288° 
292a 
316® 

..    8 

Pen-knives  

.      8Va 

Pairs  of  Scissors... 
Clasp-knives,  Join- 
ers' and  Carpen- 
ters' Tools  
Swords.    Cutlasses,  ' 
and     Watch 
Springs  
S  t  i  1  ettos,  Boring 
Tools,  and  Fine 

.14* 

19 

I 

60 

in  boiling 
eeed  oil 

Ordinary  saws  j 

MACHINISTS'   TOOLS. 


47* 


Fig.  36.  Fluted  reamer,  side  view. 

Kg.  37.  Single  lipped  drill,  to  drill  very  tra* 

Fig.  38.  Square  thread  tap,  side  view. 

Fig.  39.  Single  lipped  reamer. 

Fig.  40.  Counter  boring  tool,  Bide  vi«w. 


176       MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  &c.,  RECEIPTS 

Single-lipped  Reamers,  Fig.  39,  should  be  fabricated  from  a 
piece  of  steel,  with  the  head  forged  square  to  adept  it  to  a  proper 
wrench ;  turn  it  tapering  and  exactly  round,  and,  after  placing  it  on 
the  centres,  plane  a  groove  through  its  entire  length,  one  side  of 
which  groove  will  form  the  lips  of  the  reamer.  From  this  groovt> 
dress  off  the  64th  of  an  inch  half  the  distance  round.  Finish  by, 
filing  up  the  face  of  the  lips  on  a  line  through  the  middle  on  the  end:, 
next  harden  and  temper.  Ease  reamers  should  be  made  with  square 
fends,  with  the  corners  removed,  lips  cut  about  9  to  the  inch  on  thei 
and,  and  a  little  hooking,  with  a  temper  like  other  roamers. 

To  CHUCK  PULLEYS. — This  means  to  adjust  or  secure  the  worki 
in  such  position  as  to  ensure  truthful  drilling  or  planing  ;  the  term, 
chuck  is  also  used  to  denote  the  instrument  employed  to  secure  the 
work,  being  merely  a  circular  piece  of  iron  with  an  aperture  on  one 
eide  of  it,  fitted  with  a  screw  arrangement  used  to  secure  it  to  the 
soiudle  of  a  lathe.  The  other  side  contains  a  number  of  jaws,  gener- 
ally three  or  lour,  whicn  screw  together  for  the  purpose  of  securing 
the  work  while  it  is  being  drilled  or  otherwise  operated  upon.  To 
chuck  a  pulley,  first  secure  it  by  screwing  it  in  the  jaws  of  the  chuck 
%s  near  the  right  position  as  possible,  next  screw  a  tool  into  the  post, 
irith  one  end  of  it  near  the  face  of  the  pulley;  then  turn  and  true  the 
pulley  by  means  of  the  screws,  so  that  the  tool  touches  it  all  around, 
and  true  the  edges  the  same  way  ;  repeat,  trying  the  face  again  to 
eee  if  it  has  moved.  Pulleys  should  be  chucked  either  on  a  mandril 
or  else  chucked  by  the  arms,  siu«i  chucking  them  by  the  rims  springs 
them  out  of  true. 

To  SET  THE  CHUCK  REST.— To  set  the  rest,  place  it  into  the  tool 
post  with  the  centres  of  the  slats  through  which  the  drills  passes 
just  as  high,  and  no  more,  as  the  centres  of  the  lathe,  (otherwise  it 
will  fail  to  bore  true)  and  drill  your  wheel,  using  two  drills,  to  ensure 
true  work,  or  three,  if  the  holes  are  cored  badly  to  one  side  ;  the  last 
tool  should  remove  no  more  than  the  ^  of  an  inch,  which  will  leave 
the  hole  exactly  right. 

To  SCRAPE  CAST-IRON  SMOOTH.— Place  a  rest  close  to  the  sur- 
face to  be  operated  on,  and,  using  a  thin  wide  scraper,  rest  it  on  one 
edge  and  scrape,  twisting  it,  and  upholding  it  while  cutting,  in  your 
hand.  Don't  bear  on  very  hard,  but  remove  as  thin  a  chip  as  pos- 
sible, and  you  will  easily  succeed. 

Work  should  be  .fitted  as  exact  and  true  as  possible  before  being 
scraped  with  the  flat  scraper,  which  should  be  used  on  flat  surfaces 
Only.  The  half  round  scraper  is  the  best  form  for  curves,  hollow 
work,  etc.,  the  three-cornered  scraper  being  the  least  useful.  Old 
files  which  have  never  been  re-cut  make  very  good  scrapers. 

To  MAKE  DRILL  SOCKETS  OR  COLLETS.— The  best  collets  for 
correct  work  on  drill  lathes  are  those  formed  to  screw  on  to  the  spin- 
dle, and  constructed  with  a  tapering  hole  for  the  retention  of  the 
drill,  and  a  key-way  to  secure  the  end  of  the  drill  from  turning. 
Sockets  for  ordinary  job  form,  should  be  shaped  with  a  set-screw  to 
retain  the  drills,  and  the  aperture  for  the  drills  should  be  drilled 
circular,  adapted  for  the  reception  of  round  drill  steel  about  yV  °f  ai* 
in.  in  diameter.  For  collets  to  screw  on  the  drill  lathe,  bore  out  the 
end  and  shape  the  screw  to  conform  well  to  the  spindle,  and  attach  it 
toy  screwing  it  on  to  the  lathe  where  it  is  required  for  use.  Next* 


,   ENGINEERS',   &C.,   RECEIPTS.         477 

VJTO  a  hole  for  the  drill  shank  1|  ins.  deep,  exactly  straight  and 
true,  ream  it  tapering,  and  cut  a  key-way  through  the  metal,  below 
the  lowo7  part  of,  and  running  into  the  aperture  bored  for  the  shank. 
This  k*  -way  is  intended  to  secure  the  drill  and  ought  to  be  \  an 
inch  long  and  J  wide.  A  collet  for  upright  drills  should  be  made  by 
drilling  the  centres  and  turning  up  the  ends  to  be  drilled  for  the 
shank  so  as  to  adapt  it  for  running  in  a  back  rest;  then  insert  the  end 
to  be  drilled  into  the  back  rest  and  the  other  end  on  the  lathe  centre 
and  proceed  to  drill  out  the  hole  for  the  shank;  then  remove  it  from 
the  back  rest,  and,  making  use  of  the  hole  for  r  centre,  turn  it  to  fit 
the  drill,  insert  a  set  screw  in  it,  and  all  is  finished. 

SCREW  THREADS.  —  THE  ENGLISH  PROPORTIONS,  THE 
WHITWORTH  THREAD. 

Diam.  in  inches  ......  ft  i  A  I  iV  *  *   it11*  H  4  2I 

Threads  per  inch....  21  20  18  16  14  12  11  10  9  8   7    7     6    g 

Diam.  in  inches  .....  If  If  U  2  2|  2|  2f  3  3434  3f  4   41  4 
Threads  per  inch.  .  .  .  5    54J4J4    43^a 


Diam.  in  inches  .....  4f  5  5£  5£  5f  6 
Threads  per  inch  ____  2f  2|  2|  2f  2^  2^ 


Angle  of  threads  =  55°.  Depth  of  threads  =  pitch  of  screws. 
One-6th  of  the  depth  is  rounded  off  at  top  and  bottom.  Number  of 
threads  to  the  inch  in  square  threads  =  \  number  of  those  in  angular 
threads. 

SCREW  THREADS. — STANDARD   AMERICAN  PROPORTION*. 

Diam.  in  inches. ., -x    A   f    A    4   f    f   J   1 
No.  of  threads 2*6   18  16   14  13  11  10  9    8 

Diam.  in  inches. .  .!•£ 
No.  of  threads. .    ..6 


Diam.  in  inches. .  ..3f 

.Vo.  of  threads 3      3     2|    2f      2|      \    2\    2|     3f  2^. 

Angle  of  threads  =  60°.  Flat  surface  at  top  and  bottom  =  f  of 
the  pitch.  For  rough  bolts,  the  distance  between  the  parallel  sides  of 
bolt-head  and  nut  =  \\  diameters  of  bolt  -f-  \  of  an  inch.  Thickness 
^f  head  =  \  distance  of  between  parallel  sides.  Thickness  of  nut  =a 
diam .  of  bolt.  In  finished  bolts,  thickness  of  head  equals  thickness 
of  nut.  Distance  between  parallel  sides  of  a  bolt-head  and  nut  and 
fbickness  of  nut  is  T^  of  an  inch  less  for  finished  work  than  for  rough. 
.  SPEED  OF  EMERY  WHEELS.— A  12-inch  wheel  should  make  1,20C 
evolutions  per  minute;  an  8-inch,  18,00;  and  a  6-inch,  2,400. 
.  To  TRUE  CORUNDUM  WHEELS.— Adjust  the  wheel  in  the  lathe 
•nd  start  it  at  a  high  speed,  holding  a  piece  of  corundum  stone  against 
the  uneven  surface.  The  stone  will  soon  melt  and  unite  itself  to  the 
defective  places  in  the  wheel. 

To  CLEAN  GREASY  COTTON  WASTE.— Boil  it  in  a  strong  solution 
>f  common  soda  in  water,  and  use  the  resultant  emulsion  as  a  lubrfc 
•ant  lor  drills,  reamers,  &c. 


478         MACHINISTS,    ENGINEERS,'   AC.,    RECEIPTS. 

TEMPEBIXO  TOOLS.— Drawing  the  temper  of  tools  is  usually  don« 
In  a  charcoal  flame,  and  to  draw  the  temper  of  a  tool  properly  it 
•hould  be  held  in  the  thickest  part,  or  the  part  not  requiring  any 
temper,  towards  the  fire,  and  in  the  meantime,  should  be  often 
wiped  with  a  piece  of  waste  or  rag,  dipped  in  oil.  The  oil  keeps 
the  temper  even,  and  prevents  it  drawing  more  to  one  place  than 
another.  And  in  drawing  tha  temper  of  any  tool  it  should  be  [ 
drawn  very  slowly,  otherwise  it  will  run  too  far  ere  you  are  aware  / 
of  it.  Lancet  blades  and  razors  should  be  drawn  to  a  straw' 
color.  Knife  blades  and  chisels  should  be  drawn  to  a  copper  or 
almost  red  color.  Plane  irons,  shaving  knives  and  shoemakers 
knives  the  same  temper ;  cold  chisels  and  stone  drills,  should  be 
drawn  to  a  dark  blue.  Fluted  reamers  should  only  be  drawn  to  a 
etraw  color,  on  the  end,  as  they  never  break  elsewhere,  and  keep 
their  size  longer  by  leaving  the  lips  hard.  Half  round  or  tapering 
reamers,  also  taps,  dies,  and  drills,  should  be  drawn  to  a  straw 
color.  Jijucs  and  gauges,  also  common  lathe  tools,  need  no  drawing, 
feeing  tempered  enough  when  merely  hardened. 

HARDENING  AND  FILLING  FOB  FIRE-PROOF  SAFES.— Experience  has 
ehown  that  the  fire  and  burglar-proof  diamond  chill  for  iron  or  steel, 
described  in  another  part  of  this  work,  has  no  superior  as  a  harden- 
ing for  security  in  the  construction  of  safes ;  and,  as  a  non-conductor 
©fneat,  we  would  recommend  a  filling  of  plaster  of  Paris  or  alum.  It  is 
claimed  by  some  that  a  mixture  of  both  of  these  articles  forms  the  best 
known  filling  for  safes,  as  an  external  application  of  intense  heat  is 
certain  to  liberate  a  large  quantity  of  water,  which  is  transformed  into 
eteam,  thus  ensuring  entire  safety  to  the  contents  of  the  safe.  Other 
manufacturers  employa  concrete  filling  for  safes,  and  extol  it  very  high- 
ly. Mr.  Moffat,  gas  and  stcamfitter,  Boston,  has  informed  me  that  he 
has  applied  for  protection  in.  the  matter  of  a  discovery  by  which  he  claims 
that  he  can  fully  protect  a  safe  against  a  double  blast  furnace  heat,  by 
means  of  an  outside  lining  of  bricks  composed  of  asbestos  and  kaolin, 
a  very  small  portion  of  the  latter  material  being  used.  From  the  well 
known  incombustible  nature  of  these  materials,  there  can  be  no 
reasonable  doubt  but  that  the  claim  in  question  is  a  just  one. 

METALLIC  BATH  FOB  TEMPERING. — Use  a  black  lead  or  cast  iroa 
crucible  (of  the  requisite  depth),  and  place  the  same,  filled  with  lead, 
on  a  fire  made  of  coal  or  charcoal,  and  surrounded  on  all  sides  by  a 
metallic  or  brick  wall,  level,  or  nearly  BO,  with  the  top  of  the  crucible; 
but  at  a  sufficient  distance  (say  5  or  6  inches)  from  it,  to  receive  the 
fuel  necessary  to  maintain  the  fire,  in  order  to  keep  the  lead  in  a 
melted  state.  Let  the  crucible  rest  on  iron  bars,  and  leave  apertures  to 
admit  ak  to  the  fire.  The  articles,  slightly  greased  to  prevent  tha< 
adherence  of  oxide,  are  immersed  in  the  melted  lead  (which  is  kept' 
et  a  red  heat)  by  means  of  tongs,  two  or  three  pairs  being  generally 
used,  in  order  that  one  or  two  pieces  may  be  heated  while  the  other 
is  undergoing  manipulation  by  the  hardening  process.  Keep  the  lead 
covered  with  charcoal  dust  or  cinders.  This  pl.in  is  used  by  many 
cutlers  and  file  manufacturers  for  giving  the  proper  degree  of  heat  in 
the  tempering  of  their  wares.  The  process  is  highly  valued  by  those 
*ho  use  it.  See  file  manufacture. 

CONCERNING  SAWS,  RAILWAY  SPRINGS,  &c.-~- \Vhen  the  saws  are 
wanted  to  be  rather  bard,  but  little  of  the  oil  tempering  composition 


MACHINISTS,   ENGINEERS',    AC.,   RECEIPTS  47$ 

Is  fonrned  off;  when  milder,  a  large  portion;  and  for  a  spring  temper 
the  whole  is  allowed  to  burn  away.  Saws  as  well  as  springs  appear  to 
lose  their  elasticity,  after  hardening  and  tempering,  from  the  reduction 
they  undergo  in  grinding  and  polishing.  Towards  the  conclusion  of 
the  manufacture,  the  elasticity  of  the  saw  is  restored  principally  by 
% hammering,  and  partly  over  a  clear  coke  fire  to  a  straw  color;  the 
%stint  is  removed  by  very  diluted  muriatic  acid,  after  which  the  saws 
are  well  washed  in  plain  water  and  dried.  Spring  manufacture  in- 
cludes the  heaviest  specimens  of  hardened  steel  works  uncombine<v 
with  iron;  for  example,  bow-springs  for  all  kinds  of  vehicles,  some 
intended  for  railway  use,  measure  3$  feet  long,  and  weigh  SOlbs.  each 
piece;  two  of  these  are  used  in  combination;  other  single  springs  are 
€  feet  long,  and  weigh  70  Ibs.  The  principle  of  these  bow-springs  will 
be  immediately  seen  by  conceiving  the  common  archery  bow  fixed 
horizontally  with  its  cord  upwards;  the  body  of  the  carriage  being 
attached  to  the  cord  sways  both  perpendicularly  and  sideways  with 
perfect  freedom.  In  hardening  them  they  are  heated  by  being  drawn 
Backwards  and  forwards  through  an  ordinary  fire  built  hollow,  and 
Ihey  are  immersed  in  a  trough  of  plain  water.  In  tempering  them 
ihey  are  heated  until  the  black  red  is  just  visible  at  nignt ;  by 
daylight  the  heat  is  denoted  by  its  making  a  piece  of  wood  sparkle 
when  rubbed  on  the  spring,  which  is  then  allowed  to  cool  in  the  air. 
The  metal  is  nine-sixteenths  of  an  inch  thick,  and  some  consider  fivo- 
•eighths  the  limits  to  which  steel  will  hard  enproperly,  that  is  sufficiently 
•alike  to  serve  as  a  spring.  Their  elasticity  is  tested  far  beyond  their 
intended  range. 

TEMPERING  LOCOMOTIVE  TIRES. — This  is  quite  ponderous  work,  as 
the  tires  of  the  eight  foot  wheels  weigh  about  10  cwt.  and  consist  of 
-about  one-third  steel.  The  materials  for  the  tires  are  first  swaged  se- 
parately, and  then  welded  together  under  the  heavy  hammer  at  the 
steel  works,  after  which  they  are  bent  to  the  circle,  welded,  and 
turned  to  certain  gauges.  The  tire  is  now  heated  to  redness  in  a  cir- 
cular furnace  ;  during  the  time  it  is  getting  hot,  the  iron  wheel,  pre- 
viously turned  to  the  right  diameter,  is  bolted  down  upon  a  face- 
plate, the  tire  expands  with  the  heat,  and  when  at  a  cherry  red,  it  is 
•dropped  over  the  wheel,  for  which  it  was  previously  too  small,  and  is 
also  hastily  bolted  down  to  the  surface  plate.  The  whole  load  is 
•quickly  immersed  by  a  swing^  crane  into  a  tank  of  water  about  five 
feet  deep,  and  hauled  up  and  down  until  nearly  cold  ;  the  steel  tires 
*re  not  afterwards  tempered.  The  spokes  are  forged  out  of  flat-bars 
with  T  formed  heads,  these  are  arranged  radially  in  the  founder's 
imould  whilst  the  cast-iron  centre  is  poured  around  them,  the  ends  of 
the  T  heads  are  then  welded  together  to  constitute  the  periphery  of 
ihe  wheel  or  inner  tire,  and  little  wedge-form  pieces  are  inserted 
•where  there  is  any  deficiency  of  iron.  The  wheel  is  then  chucked  on 
a  lathe,  bored  and  turned  on  the  edge,  not  cylindrically,  but  like 
^e  meeting  of  two  cones,  and  about  one  quarter  of  an  inch  higher  hi 
the  middle  than  the  two  edges.  The  compound  tire  is  turned  to  the 
(.corresponding  form,  and  consequently,  larger  within  or  under  cut  so 
that  the  shrinking  secures  the  tire  without  the  possibility  of  obliquity 
or  derangement,  and  no  rivets  are  required.  It  sometimes  happens, 
that  the  tire  breaks  hi  shrinking,  when  by  mismanagement  the  diam« 
itter  of  the  wheel  is  in  excess. 


180         MACHINISTS,    ENGINEERS'.    AC.,    RECEIPTS. 

MAKING  ANCHORS. — The  anchor  smith's  forge  consists  of  &  neartfc 
of  brickwork,  raised  about  9  inches  above  the  ground,  and  generally 
about  7  feet  square.  In  the  centre  of  this  is  a  cavity  containing  tha 
fire.  A  vertical  brick  wall  is  built  on  one  side  of  the  hearth,  which 
supports  the  dome,  find  a  low  chimney  to  carry  off  the  smoke. 
Behind  this  wall  are  placed  the  bellows,  with  which  the  fire  is  urged  ; 
the  bellows  being  so  placed  that  they  blow  to  the  centre  of  the  fire. 
The  anvil  and  the  crane  by  which  the  heavy  masses  of  metal  are 
moved  from  and  to  the  fire  are  adjusted  near  the  hearth.  The  > 
Hercules,  a  kind  of  stamping  machine,  or  the  steam  hammer,  neecHf 
Tiot  be  described  in  this  place.  To  make  the  anchor,  bars  of  good* 
iron  are  brought  together  to  be  fagoted  ;  the  number  varying  with  the 
size  of  the  anchor.  The  fagot  is  kept  together  by  hoops  of  iron, 
and  the  whole  is  placed  upon  the  properly  arranged  hearth,  and 
covered  up  by  small  coals,  which  are  thrown  upon  a  kind  of  oven 
made  of  cinders.  Great  care  and  good  management  are  required  to 
keep  this  temporary  oven  sound  during  the  combustion  ;  a  smith 
strictly  attends  to  this.  When  all  is  arranged,  the  bellows  are  set  to 
work,  and  a  blast  urged  on  the  dre  ;  this  is  continued  for  about  an 
hour,  when  a  good  welding  heat  is  obtained.  The  mass  is  now 
brought  from  the  fire  to  the  anvil,  and  the  iron  welded  by  the 
hammers.  One  portion  havi'g  been  welded,  the  iron  is  returned  to 
to  the  fire,  and  the  operation  is  repeated  until  the  whole  is  welded  in 
cne  mass.  The  different  parts  of  the  anchor  being  made,  the  arms  are 
united  to  the  end  of  the  shaik.  This  must  be  done  with  great  care, 
as  the  goodness  of  the  anchor  depends  entirely  upon  this  process 
being  effectively  performed.  The  arms  being  welded  on,  the  ring  has 
to  be  formed  and  welded.  The  ring  consists  of  several  bars  welded 
together,  drawn  out  into  a  round  rod  passed  through  a  hole  in  the 
shank,  bent  into  a  circle,  and  the  ends  welded  together.  When  all 
the  parts  are  adjusted,  the  whole  anchor  is  brought  to  a  red  heat, 
and  hammered  with  lighter  hammers  than  those  used  for  welding, 
the  object  being  to  give  a  finish  and  evenness  to  the  surface.  The 
toughest  iron  that  can  be  procured  should  be  used  in  anchors.  Good 
"Welsh  mine  iron"  is  suitable ;  also  "scrap  iron."  An  anchor  of 
the  ordinary  or  Admiralty  pattern,  the  Trotman,  or  Porter's  im- 
proved (pivot  fluke),  theHoniball,  Porter's,  Aylin's,  Rodger's,  Mitche- 
son's  and  Lennox's,  each  weighing,  inclusive  of  stock,  27000  Ibs., 
withstood  without  injury  a' proof  strain  of  45000  Ibs.  In  dry  ground* 
Rodger's  dragged  the  Admiralty  anchor  at  both  long  and  short  stay  j 
at  short  stay,  Rodger's  and  Aylin's  gave  equal  resistance;  Mitche- 
son's  dragged  Aylin's  at  both  long  and  short  stay ;  and  Aylin's 
dragged  the  Admiralty  at  short  stay,  they  giving  equal  resistance  at 
long  stay.  In  ground  under  water,  Trotman's  dragged  Aylin's, 
Honiball  s,  Mitcheson's,  and  Lennox's  :  Aylin's  dragged  Rodger's  j 
Mitcheson's  dragged  Rodger's,  and  Lennox's  dragged  the  Admiralty' st 
The  breakingweights  between  a  Porter  and  Admiralty  anchor,  as 
tested  at  the  Woolwich  Dockyard,  were  as  43  to  15. 

MANUFACTURING  AND  REPAIRING  ANVILS. — The  common  anvil  is 
usually  made  of  seven  pieces  :  1,  the  core,  or  body  ;  2,  3,  4,  5,  the 
four  corner  pieces,  which  serve  to  enlarge  its  base  ;  6,  the  projecting 
end,  which  has  a  square  hole  for  the  reception  of  the  tail  or  shank  of 
•  chisel  on  which  iron  bars  may  be  cut  through,  and  7,  the  beak,  or 


MACHINISTS,    ENGINEERS      AC.,   RECEIPTS  48 

horizontal  cone  round  which  rods  or  slips  of  metal  may  be  turned  in 
a  circular  form,  as  in  making  rings.  These  six  pieces  are  welded 
separately  to  the  first  or  core,  and  then  hammered  into  a  uniform  body. 
In  manufacturing  large  anvils  two  hearths  are  needed,  in  order  to 
bring  each  of  the  two  pieces  to  be  welded  to  a  proper  heat  by  itself, 
and  several  men  are  employed  in  working  them  together  briskly  in 
the  welding  state,  by  heavy  swing  hammers.  The  steel  facing  is  ap« 
^>lied  by  welding  in  the  same  manner,  powdered  borax  with  sal-am- 
moniac (1  part  to  10  parts  of  borax)  being  used  as  a  flux.  The  anvil 
is  then  heated  to  a  cherry  red,  and  plunged  into  cold  water,  a  run* 
ning  stream  being  better  than  a  pool  or  cistern,  the  rapid  formation 
of  steam  at  the  sides  of  the  metal  preventing  the  free  access  of  the 
wuter  for  the  removal  of  the  heat  with  the  required  expedition.  lo 
§ ome  cases  a  stream  of  water  is  contrived  to  descend  from  a  cistern 
above  on  the  part  to  be  chilled,  which  is  sure  to  render  it  very  hard, 
The  facing  should  not  be  too  thick  a  plate,  for  when  such,  it  is  apt  to 
crack  in  the  hardening.  It  is  somewhat  dangerous  to  stand  near 
euch  works  at  the  time,  as  when  the  anvil  face  is  not  perfectly  weld- 
ed, it  sometimes,  in  part,  flies  off  with  great  violence  and  a  loud  re- 
port In  the  case  of  broken  anvils  the  repairs  will  have  to  be  made 
in  accordance  with  the  above  description.  In  finishing  off  the  face,  it 
is  smoothed  upon  a  grindstone,  and,  for  fine  work,  polished  with  em- 
ery and  crocus. 

MANUFACTURING  CHAINS. — For  this  purpose  the  iron  is  cut  off 
with  a  plain  chamfer,  as  from  the  annular  form  of  the  links  their  ex- 
tremities cannot  slide  asunder  -vhen  struck.  Every  succeeding  link 
is  bent,  introduced,  and  finally  welded.  In  some  of  these  welded 
chains  the  links  are  not  more  than  £  an  inch  long,  and  the  iron  wire 
|  inch  diameter.  These  are  made  with  great  dexterity  by  a  man  and 
a  b«y,  at  a  small  fire.  The  curbed  chains  are  welded  in  the  ordinary 
way  and  twisted  afterwards,  a  few  links  being  made  red-hot  at  fi 
time  for  the  purpose/  The  massive  cable  chains  are  made  much  i% 
the  same  manner,  although  partly  by  aid  of  machinery.  The  bar  of 
iron,  now  one,  one  and  a  half,  or  even  two  inches  in  diameter,  is  heate<« 
and  the  scarf  is  made  as  a  plain  chamfer,  by  a  cutting  machine  ;  tha 
link  is  then  formed  by  inserting  the  edge  of  the  heated  bar  within  a, 
loop  in  the  edge  of  an  oval  disc,  which  may  be  compared  to  a  chuck 
fixed  on  the  end  of  a  lathe  mandril.  The  disc  is  put  in  gear  by  tht 
eteam  engine  ;  it  makes  exactly  one  revolution  and  throws  itself  oat 
of  motion.  This  bends  the  heated  extremity  of  the  iron  into  an  oval 
figure.  Afterwards  it  is  detached  from  the  rod  with  a  chamfered  cut 
by  the  cutting  machinej  which,  at  one  stroke,  makes  the  second  scarf 
©i  the  detached  link,  and  the  first  of  that  next  to  be  curled  up.  Th(V 
link  is  now  threaded  to  the  extremity  of  the  chain,  closed  togsthap 
ind  transferred  to  the  fire,  the  loose  end  being  carried  by  a  traverse 
crane*  When  the  link  is  at  the  proper  heat,  it  is  returned  to  the  anvil 
welded,  and  dressed  off  between  the  top  and  bottom  tools,  after  which 
the  cast  iron  transverse  stay  is  inserted,  and  the  unk  having  beea 
closed  upon  trie  stay,  the  routine  is  recommenced.  The  «rork  com- 
monly requires  three  men,  and  the  scarf  is  placed  at  the  pide  of  the 
oval  link,  and  flat  way  through  the  same.  In  similar  chains  mad* 
by  hand,  it  is,  perhaps,  more  customary  to  weld  the  link  at  tJie  crown* 


482      MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  &c.,  BECEIPTS. 

VULCAHTTB  EMERY  WHEELS.— pse  a  compound  of  India  rnbbe^ 
And  Wellington  mills  emery,  as  little  of  the  former  as  will  suffici 
to  hold  the  particles  of  emery  together.  The  materials  must  be  thor- 
oughly incorporated  together,  then  rolled  into  sheets,  cut  into  wheels 
of  the  desired  size  and  pattern,  pressed  into  the  iron  moulds,  and  vul- 
canized or  cured  by  being  subjected  to  a  high  degree  of  eteam  heat 
for  several  hours,  making  it  almost  as  hard  as  cast  iron. 

To  BRAZE  A  BAND  SAW.— Whitney* a  metlwd.— The  tools  required 
are  a  small  portable  forge,  brazing  clamps,  &c.  and  a  straight  edge, 
^  or  4  feet  long,  also  some  brass  wire  and  powdered  borax.  Take  th« 
*awand  cut  it  to  the  proper  length,  scarf  the  ends  from  one-half  to 
three-fourths  of  an  inch,  then  put  the  saw  in  the  clamps.  I  would 
•ay  that  I  use  a  very  small  and  simple  clamp  in  the  shape  of  a  doubls 
vise.  Keep  the  back  of  the  saw  out  of  the  jaws  of  the  vise,  or  clamps, 
and  apply  the  straight  edge  to  the  back,  as  it  id  very  necessary  to 
fcraze  it  straight ;  make  the  fire  in  as  small  a  compass  as  possible  ; 
place  the  clamps  directly  over  the  centre  of  the  fire,  and  then  put  on 
three  pieces  of  brass  wire,  bent  in  the  form  of  the  letter  U,  so  that 
they  will  pinch  the  laps  together  ;  put  as  much  borax  as  will  lie  on  the 
«aw,  cover  the  whole  with  a  piece  of  charcoal  :  melt  the  brasg  so 
that  it  will  flow  over  the  saw  before  taking  it  off  the  fire,  and  cool 
rery  slow  so  as  not  to  make  the  braze  brittle.  File  off  what  remains 
on  the  saw  and  it  is  ready  for  use. 

To  REMOVE  RUST. — If  you  immerse  the  articles  in  kerosene  oil  and 
let  them  remain  for  some  time,  the  rust  will  become  so  much  loos- 
ened as  to  come  off  very  easy. 

DAMASCUS  STEEL.— It  is  said  that  this  steel  consists  of  a  highly 
carburetted  metal  which,  by  undergoing  careful  cooling  and  annealing^ 
separates  into  two  compounds  of  iron  and  carbon,  giving  it  the  peculiaf 
appearance  known  as  Damasceening."  The  wonderful  strength  ot 
this  steel  is  no  doubt  owing  to  careful  manipulation. 

GEARING  A  LATHE  FOB  SCREW  CUTTING. — Every  screw-cutting 
lathe  contains  a  long  screw  called  the  lead  screw,  which  feeds  the 
carriage  of  the  lathe,  while  cutting  screws;  upon  the  end  of  this  screw 
is  placed  a  gear  to  which  is  transmitted  motion  from  another  gear 
placed  on  the  end  of  the  spindle,  these  gears  each  contain  a  different 
number  of  teeth,  for  the  purpose  of  cutting  different  threads,  and  the 
threads  are  cut  a  certain  number  to  the  inch  varying  from  1  to  50. 
Therefore  to  find  the  proper  gears  to  cut  a  certain  number  of  threads 
to  the  inch,  you  will  first: — multiply  the  number  of  threads  you  de- 
iire  to  cut  to  the  inch,  by  any  small  number,  four  for  instance,  an6 
this  will  give  you  the  proper  gear  to  put  on  the  lead  screw  Thev 
with  the  same  number,  four,  multiply  the  number  of  threads  to  the 
inch  in  the  lead  screw,  and  this  will  give  you  the  proper  gear  to  put 
on  the  spindle.  For  example,  if  you  want  to  cut  12  to  the  inch,  mul- 
tiply 12  by  4,  and  it  will  give  you  48.  Put  this  gear  on  the  lead 
ecrew,  then  with  the  same  number,  4,  multiply  the  number  of  threads 
to  the  inch  in  the  lead  screw.  If  it  is  five,  for  instance,  it  will  givf  you, 
twenty,  put  this  on  the  spindle  and  your  lathe  is  geared.  If  tht  iead. 
icrew  is  4,  5,  6,  7,  or  8,  the  same  rule  holds  good.  Always  multiply 
the  number  of  threads  to  be  cut,  first.  Some,  indeed  most  small 
lathes,  are  now  made  with  a  stud  geared  into  the  spindle,  which  stud 
only  runs  half  as  fast  as  the  spindle,  and  in  finding  the  gears  for  thest 


MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS",  &c.,  RECEIPTS.       488 

Athes,  you  will  first  multiply  the  number  of  threads  to  be  cut,  as  be* 
fore,  and  then  multiply  thf*  number  of  threads  on  the  lead  screw,  &• 
double  the  number  it  is.  For  instance,  if  you  want  to  cut  10  to  the 
inch,  multiply  by  4,  and  you  get  40,  put  this  on  the  lead  screw,  then 
if  your  bad  screw  is  five  to  the  inch,  you  call  it  10;  and  multiply  by 
4  and  it  will  give  you  40.  Again  put  this  on  your  stud  and  your  lathe 
is  geared  ready  to  commence  cutting. 

CUTTING  A  SCREW  IN  AN  ENGINE  LATHE.— In  cutting  V  thread- 
jcrews,  it  is  only  necessary  for  you  to  practice  operating  the  shipper 
jind  slide-screw  handle  of  your  lathe,  before  cutting.  After  having 
done  this,  until  you  get  the  motions,  you  may  set  the  point  of  the  tool 
as  high  as  the  centre,  and  if  you  keep  the  tool  sharp,  you  will  find  no 
•difficulty  in  cutting  screws.  You  must,  however,  cut  very  light 
chips,  mere  scrapings  in  finishing  and  must  take  it  out  of  the  lathe 
•often,  and  look  at  it  from  both  sides,  very  carefully,  to  see  that  the 
threads,  do  not  lean  like  fish  scales.  After  cutting,  polish  with  an 
emery  stick,  and  some  emery. 

CUTTING  SQUARE  THREAD-SCREWS. — In  cutting  square  thread- 
«crews,  it  is  always  necessary  to  get  the  depth  required,  with  a  tool 
-somewhat  thinner  than  one-half  the  pitch  of  the  thread.  After  doing 
this,  make  another  tool  exactly  one-half  the  pitch  of  the  thread,  and 
use  it  to  finish  with,  cutting  a  slight  chip  on  each  side  of  the  groove, 
After  doing  this,  polish  with  a  pine  stick,  and  some  emery.  Square 
threads  for  strength  should  be  cut  one-half  the  depth  of  their  pitch, 
while  square  threads,  for  wear,  may,  and  should  be  cut  three-fourths 
the  depth  of  their  pitch. 

MONGREL  THREADS. — Mongrel,  or  half  V,  half-square  threads  are 
nsually  made  for  great  wear,  and  should  be  cut  the  depth  of  their 
pitch  and  for  extraordinary  wear  they  may  even  be  cut  1$  the  depth 
of  the  pitch.  The  point  and  the  bottom  of  the  grooves  should  be  in 
•width  t  the  depth  of  their  pitch.  What  is  meant  here  by  the  point  of 
the  thread,  is  the  outside  surface.  And  the  bottom  of  the  groove  is 
the  groove  between  the  threads.  In  cutting  these  threads  it  is  neces- 
sary to  use  a  tool  about  the  shape  of  the  thread,  and  in  thickness 
about  one-fifth  less  than  the  thread  is  when  finished.  As  it  is  im- 
possible to  cut  the  whole  surface  at  once,  you  will  cut  it  in  depth 
about  one-sixteenth  at  a  time,  then  a  chip  off  the  sides  of  the  thread 
and  continue  in  this  way  alternately  till  you  have  arrived  at  the 
depth  required.  Make  a  gauge  of  the  size  required  between  the 
threads  and  finish  by  scraping  with  water.  It  is  usually  best  to  leave 
•rich  screws  as  these  a  little  large  until  after  they  are  cut,  and 
then  turn  off  a  light  chip,  to  size  them,  this  leaves  them  true  and ' 
nice. 

PLANING  METALS. — The  first  operation  about  planing,  is  to  oil 
your  planer  and  find  out  if  the  bed  is  smooth.  If  it  is  not,  file  off 
the  rough  places  ;  then  change  the  dogs  to  see  if  they  will  work 
well,  and  find  out  the  movements  of  the  planer.  After  doing  this, 
"bolt  your  work  on  the  bed,  and  if  it  is  a  long,  thin  piece,  plane 
cff  a  chip,  then  turn  it  over  and  finish  the  other  side,  taking  two 
chips,  the  last  of  which  should  be  very  light.  Great  care  should 
be  taken,  in  bolting  it  to  the  bed,  not  to  spring  it.  After  finish* 
ing  this  side  tun>  it  to  the  other  side,  and  take  off  a  light  cut  to 


484       MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  &c.,  RECEIPTS. 

PLAsriNa  PERPENDICULARLY. —In  planing  perpendicularly,  it  if 
necessary  to  swivel  the  bottom  of  the  small  head  around,  so  it  wiM 
stand  about  three-fourths  of  an  inch  inside  of  square,  towards  the 
piece  you  are  to  plane.  This  prevents  breaking  the  tool  when  the 
bed  runs  back. 

GEAR  CUTTING.— In  cutting  gears,  they  are  reckoned  a  certain 
number  of  teeth  to  the  inch,  measuring  across  the  diameter  to  a  ccr* 
tain  line  which  is  marked  on  the  face  or  sides  of  the  gear  with  a  tool 
This  line  is  one-half  the  depth  of  the  teeth  from  the  outer  diameter. 
That  is,  if  the  teeth  of  the  gear  are  two-tenths  of  an  inch  deep,  this 
line  would  be  one-tenth  of  an  inch  from  the  edge  and  is  called  the 
pitch  line. 

DEPTH  OF  TEETH.— Every  gear  cut  with  a  different  number  oi 
teeth  to  the  inch,  should  be  cut  of  a  depth  to  the  pitch  line,  to  corres- 
pond with  the  number  of  teeth  to  the  inch.  This  is  called  proportion. 
Therefore,  if  you  cut  a  gear  eight  to  the  inch,  the  depth  to  the  pitch 
line  should  be  one-eight  of  an  inch,  and  the  whole  depth  of  the  tooth 
would  be  two-eighths.  Again,  if  you  cut  a  gear  twelve  to  the  inch,  tlio 
depth  to  pitch  line  should  be  one-twelfth  of  an  inch,  and  the  who!  3 
depth  of  tooth  two-twelfths.  And  again,  if  you  cut  a  gear  twenty  to  A. 
the  inch,  the  depth  to  pitch  line  should  be  one-twentieth  of  ac  inch, 
•while  the  whole  depth  should  be  two-twentieths,  and  so  on  ad  iVt- 
finitwn. 

MEASURING  TO  rcn>  THE  NUMBER  OF  TEETH.— To  find  the  size 
ft  certain  gear  should  be,  for  a  certain  number  of  teeth,  is  an  easy 
matter,  if  you  study  carefully  these  rules.  If  you  want  a  gear  with 
thirty-two  teeth  and  eight  to  the  inch,  it  should  be  four  inches  measur « 
lug  across  the  diameter  to  the  pitch  line,  and  the  two-eighths  outside 
of  the  pitch  line  would  make  it  four  inches  and  two-eighhts.  Again,. 
if  you  want  a  gear  with  forty  teeth,  and  ten  to  the  inch,  it  should; 
measure  across  the  diameter  to  pitch  line  four  inches,  and  the  two- 
tenths  outside  the  pitch  line  would  make  the  whole  diameter  four- 
inches  and  two-tenths.  And  again,  if  you  want  a  gear  with  eighty 
teeth,  and  twenty  to  the  inch,  it  should  measure  to  the  pitch  line, 
across  the  diameter,  four  inches,  and  the  two-twentieths,  outside 
the  pitch  line,  would  make  it  four  inches  and  two-twentieths,  and 
these  examples  will  form  a  rule  for  the  measurement  of  all  except 
feevel  gears. 

BEVEL  GEARS. — These  are  turned  a  certain  bevel  to  correspond 
With  each  other,  according  to  the  angle  upon  which  the  shafts  driven 
by  them  are  set.  For  instance,  if  two  shafts  are  set  upon  an  angle  of. 
ninety  degrees,  the  surfaces  of  the  faces  of  these  gears  will  stand  at 
an  angle  of  forty-five  degrees.  To  get  the  surface  of  these  gears,  in 
turning  them,  put  a  straight  edge  across  the  face.  Then  set  your 
level  oa  an  angle  of  forty-five  degrees,  and  try  the  face  of  the  teeth  by 
placing  the  level  on  the  straight  edge.  After  turning  the  face  of  tha 
teeth,  square  the  outer  diameter  by  the  face  of  the  teeth;  and  to  get 
tbe  size  to  which  you  wisii  to  cut,  measure  from  the  centre  of  tha 
iace  of  the  teeth.  Thus,  if  a  bevel  gear  is  six  inches  in  diameter,  and  - 
the  face  of  the  teeth  is  one  inch,  you  will  measure  from  the  centre  of 
the  face,  and  find  it  is  five  inches.  On  this  line  you  calculate  tha 
tmmber  of  teeth  to  the  inch,  and  if  you  want  a  gear  with  twenty 
ttuili,  and  tea  to  the  'ttch,  it  iliouid  measure  two  iuchea  aerate  Uft 


MACHINISTS,    ENGINEERS',    AC.,  RECEIPTS.          466 

face  to  the  centre  of  the  surface  of  the  teeth ;  and  if  the  face  of  the 
teeth  were  one  inch  iu  length,  the  diameter  of  the  gear  would  be 
three  inches,  and  the  inside  of  the  teeth  would  measure  only  one 
inch.  Again,  if  you  want  to  cut  a  gear  with  forty  teeth,  and  ten  to 
the  inch,  it  wculd  measure  four  inches  to  the  centre  of  the  teeth  o» 
the  surface.  And  if  the  surface  of  the  teeth  were  one  inch  long,  the 
diameter  of  the  gear  would  be  five  inches,  while  it  would  only 
measure  three  inches  inside  the  teeth.  These  examples  will  form  ft 
rule  for  all  bevel  gears. 

DRAW-FILING  AND  FINISHING.— To  draw-file  a  piece  of  work 
ernoothly  and  quickly,  it  is  best  to  first  draw-file  it  with  a  medium 
fine  file,  and  finish  with  a  superfine  file.  ^  After  doing  this,  polish 
"the  work  with  dry  emery  paper  and  then  with  emery  paper  and  oil. 

LINING  BOXES  WITH  BABBITT  METAL. — To  line  boxes  properly,  so 
as  to  insure  their  filling  every  time,  it  is  necessary  to  heat  the  box. 
nearly  red  hot,  or  at  least  hot  enough  to  melt  the  metal.  Then  smoke 
the  shaft  where  the  metal  is  to  be  poured  upon  it.  This  insures  its 
•coming  out  of  the  box  easily,  after  it  is  cold.  After  smoking  the 
«haft,  put  it  into  the  box  or  boxes,  and  draw  some  putty  around  the 
«nds  of  them,  for  the  purpose  of  stopping  them,  taking  care 
not  to  press  upon  it,  for  if  you  do  it  will  go  into  the  box  and  fill  a 
place  that  ought  to  be  filled  with  metal;  and,  in  the  meantime,  your 
metal  ought  to  be  heated,  and  after  you  have  poured  it,  let 
the  box  stand  till  it  is  nearly  cold  ;  drive  out  you*  shaft,  andrtia 
<ione. 

TUBNINO  AND  BOKING. — For  turning,  the  proper  spee4  for  the  cir- 
cumference is  about  fifteen  feet  per  minute.  The  best  speed  for  bor, 
ing  cast  iron  is  about  7^  feet  per  minute.  For  drilling,  about  10  o^ 
11  feet  per  minute  is  a  good  speed  for  the  circumference  of  the  toot 
For  a  1  inch  drill,  40  revolutions  =  11  feet  per  minute,  other  sizes  ii 
proportion. 

How  TO  FIT  KEYS  INTO  LOCKS. — When  it  is  not  convenient  to 
take  locks  apart  in  the  event  of  keys  being  lost,  stolen,  or  missing, 
when  you  wish  to  fit  a  new  key,  take  a  lighted  match  or  candle  and 
emoke  the  new  key  in  the  flame,  introduce  it  carefully  into  the  key- 
hole, press  it  firmly  against  the  opposing  wards  of  the  lock,  withdraw 
it;  and  the  indentations  in  the  smoked  part  of  the  key  will  show  you 
exactly  where  to  file. 

PUTTING  MACHINES  TOGETHER. — In  putting  machines  together  no 
part  should  be  finished  except  where  it  is  necessary  to  make  a  fit,  as 
it  is  sometimes  the  case  that  machinery  is  miscalculated,  and  by 
Unishing  it  would  be  spoiled,  while  if  it  were  not,  it  might  be  saved 
by  slight  alterations  in  design.  And  again,  in  finishing  certain  parts 
before  you  get  a  machine  together,  you  are  unknowingly  finishing 
parts  not  necessary  to  be  finished,  and  making  them  of  a  shape  any* 
thing  but  desirable.  This  rule,  however,  is  not  intended  to  apply  to 
machinery  being  made  to  detail  drawings. 

To  DRILL.  A  HOLE  WHERE  you  HAVE  NO  REAMER. — It  is  some^ 
times  necessary  to  drill  a  hole  of  an  exact  size  to  fit  a  certain  shaft, 
and  at  the  same  time  have  it  smooth  without  reaming  it.  This  may 
be  done,  by  first  drilling  a  hole,  oue-hundreth  of  an  inch  smaller  than 
the  size  desired,  and  then  making  a  drill  the  exact  size  and  running  if 
through  to  finish  with.  This  last  drill  should  have  tie  corners  o£  ta 


486      MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  AC.,  RECEIPTS, 

lips  rounded,  like  a  reamer,  and  the  hole  should  be  finish*^  ;/ythou| 
holding  the  drill  with  a  rest. 

SQUARING,  OR  FACING  UP  CAST  IRON  SURFACES.— A  i^rid-end 
tool  is  best  for  this.  A  rough  chip  should  first  be  taken  off  over  tha 
entire  surface  to  be  faced.  Then  speed  your  lathe  up  aus  Caking  a 
light  chip,  merely  enough  to  take  out  the  first  too!  mark,  run  over 
the  entire  surface  agaiu.  In  turning  up  surfaces  it  in  always  best  to 
begin  at  the  centre  and  feed  out,  as  the  tool  cuts  freer  and  "will  weai 
twice  as  long. 

BORING  A  HOLE  WITH  A  BORING  TOOL. — Tn  boring  a  hole  with  a, 
Coring  tool,  it  is  usually  necessary  to  drill  the  hole  first,  and  too 
mnch  care  cannot  be  taken  in  finishing.  An  iron  gauge  should  be, 
made  first;  it  is  usually  made  of  a  piece  of  sheet  iron  or  wire.  The 
hole  should  then  be  drilled  smaller  than  the  size  desired,  and  then 
fcored  to  the  required  size,  and  it  is  impossiblo  to  bore  a  hcle  perfect 
•without  taking  two  or  three  light  chips,  mere  scrapings  with -which 
to  finish.  Holes,  hi  this  way,  may  be  bcr^d  A3  nicely  as  they  can  be 
reamed. 

BORING  HOLES  WITH  BORING  ARBOK.-— A  boring  arbor  is  a  shaft 
^vith  a  set  in  it,  for  the  purpose  of  boring  holes  of  great  length,  and  is 
designed  to  be  used  in  a  lathe.  In  doing  ';his  properly,  you  nuist  first 
see  if  your  lathe  is  set  straight;  if  not,  adjust  it.  Having  Hone  this, 
put  the  piece  of  work  to  be  bored  in  the  carriage  of  your  lathe,  pass 
your  arbor  through  the  hole  to  be  bored,  and  put  it  on  th«s  centres  of 
your  lathe.  Having  done  this,  adjust  your  work  true  tf=  the  position 
flesired  by  measuring  from  the  point  of  the  tool,  continually  turning 
round  the  arbor  from  side  to  side  of  the  piece  to  bs  bofed,  while  you 
are  bolting  it  to  the  carriage,  and  measure  until  it  Is,  perfectly  true. 
Having  done  this,  bore  the  hole,  and  take  for  thft  Jast  chip  only  a. 
hundredth  of  an  inch.  This  makes  a  true  and  gmooth  hole.  It  is 
Impossible  to  make  a  hole  true  with  any  kind  of  u  tool  when  you  are 
cutting  a  large  chip,  for  the  tool  springs  BO  tha  c  tj)  dependence  can  b* 
placed  upon  it. 

To  MAKB  A  BORING  ARBOR  AND  TOOL  THA*  -ITTUL  NOT  CHAT- 
TER.— Boring  tools,  when  used  in  small  arbora,  f>re  always  liable  to 
rhatter  and  make  a  rough  hole.  To  prevent  tlrh,  the  tool  should  b» 
turned  in  a  lathe,  while  in  its  position  in  tba  f.rbovv  upon  the  circle  of 
the  size  of  the  hole  to  be  bored,  and  the  tearing  lengthwise  of  th» 
arbor,  should  be  only  as  wide  as  the  feed,  of  the  lathe;  for  if  the  bear- 
ing of  a  tool  is  on  the  face,  the  more  it  v/ill  chatter. 

To  STRAIGHTEN  SHAFTING. — Thte  tbould  be  done  by  centreing, 
then  put  it  into  a  lathe,  and  square  the  eradr*  up  with  what  is  called 
a  side  tool.  After  doing  this,  take  a  piece  of  chalk  and  try  it  in 
feveral  places,  to  find  out  where  the  worst  crooks  are  :  then,  if 
you  have  not  a  machine  for  springing  shafting,  spring  it  with  a 
lever  where  the  most  crook  is,  and,  continue  this  operation  till  tha 
•haft  is  straight 

TURNING  SHAFTING. — To  do  this  properly,  two  chips  should 
always  be  run  over  the  shaft,  foy  the  reason  that  it  saves  filing,  and 
leaves  the  shaft  truer  and  more  round,  and  on  shafts  thus  turned, 
the  time  saved  in  filing  more  than  compensates  for  the  time  lost  m 
turning.  Before  you  commence  vou  will  put  your  feed  belts  off 
o  ft  coaiM  feed ;  torn  off  QD»  *  sixty-fourth  of  an  iacfc 


MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS'   AC..  RECEIPTS       487 

larger  than  the  size  required  ;  having  turned  off  this  chip,  com 
nience  the  finishing  chip,  and  turn  it  small  enough  to  have  th« 
pully  wring  on  about  an  inch  without  filing.  This  will  leave  it 
••large  enough  to  file  and  finish.  If  there  aro  couplings  to  go  on  a 
shaft,  with  holes  smaller  than  the  holes  in  the  pulleys,  the  ends  of: 
the  shaft,  where  they  fit  on,  should  be  turued  down  to  a  sixty-fourth 
of  an  inch  of  the  size  required  before  any  part  of  the  shaft  ia 
•finished  ;  that  is,  every  part  of  a  shaft  should  be  turned  to  within 
a  sixty-fourth  of  an  inch  of  the  size  required  before  any  part 
if  it  has  the  finish-chip  taken  off.  The  reason  for  that  is  that  it 
leaves  every  part  of  the  shaft  perfectly  true,  which  would  not 
be  the  case  were  it  done  otherwise.  Having  done  this,  you  will 
file  the  shaft  so  that  the  pulleys  will  slide  on,  and  the  couplings  so 
that  they  will  drive  on  ;  polish  the  shaft  with  a  pair  of  polishing- 
clamps  and  some  emery  and  it  is  done. 

To  FORGE  A  TWIST  DRILL.— It  is  necessary  to  forge  a  flat  blade 
similar  to  a  flat  drill,  and  then  twist  this  blade  into  the  resem- 
blance required,  then,  with  a  light  hammer,  and  careful  blows,  ham- 
mer the  twisted  edges  so  that  they  will  be  thicker  than  the  central 
lire  of  the  tool.  This  will  give  greater  strength  and  a  better  drill, 
and,  to  cut  well,  the  central  line  or  cutting  point  must  be  made< 
quite  thin.  Be  careful  to  get  the  same  twist  at  the  point  of  the  drill 
as  upon  the  body  of  the  drill.  The  inexperienced  often  leave  the: 
point  straight  like  a  flat  drill. 

TO  COMPUTE  THE  NUMBER  OF  TEETH  REQUIRED  IN  A  TRAIN"  OF 

WHEELS  TO  PRODUCE  A  GIVEN  VELOCITY.  Rule. — Multiply  the 
number  of  teeth  in  the  driver  by  its  number  of  revolutions,  and  divide 
the  product  by  the  number  of  revolutions  of  each  pinion,  for  each 
driver  and  pinion.  For  speed  of  Wheel,  Pulleys,  &c.,  seepage  98. 

Example. — If  a  driver  in  a  train  of  three  wheels  has  90  teeth,  and 
makes  2  revolutions,  and  the  velocities  required  are  2,  10,  and  18, 
what  are  the  number  of  teeth  in  each  of  the  other  two. 

10:  90:  :  2: 18=teeth  in  2nd  wheel. 

18:  90:  :  2: 10=teeth  in  3rd  wheel. 

TO  COMPUTE    THE    DIAMETER  OF  A  WHEEL.    RuU. — Multiply  th« 

•umber  of  teeth  by  the  pitch,  and  divide  the  product  by  3,  1416. 

Example.— The  number  of  teeth  in  the  wheel  is  75,  and  the  pitch 
1,  675  ins :  what  is  the  diameter  of  it? 

75X1.6755 

=10  int. 

3.1416 

TO  COMPUTE  THE  TRUE  OR  CHORDIAI.,  PITCH.     Rule. — Divide  186 

by  the  number  of  teeth,  ascertain  the  sine  of  the  quotient,  and  multi- 
ply it  by  the  diameter  of  the  wheel. 

Example.— The  number  of  teeth  is  75,  and  the  diameter  40  inches; 
What  is  the  true  pitch? 
180 

=2°24,  and  sin.  of  2°24,=  04188,  which  X  40=1.6752  ins.         , 

75 

PAPER  FRICTION  PULLETS. — These  superior  mechanical  contri- 
vances are  made  by  cutting  pieces  of  pasteboard  into  a  circular  form, 
and  of  the  desired  diameter  of  the  pulley,  and  placing  them  in  layers 
«oe  on  the  top  of  another,  cementing  nroperly  with  a  good  coat  of  glot 


488       MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  <tc.,  RECEIPTS. 

between  each  layer,  pounding  or  pressing  them  together  as  cloee  as 
possible,  and  leaving  a  perforation  in  the  centre  of  each,  for  the  shaft. 
When  you  have  got  emough  of  these  layers  together  to  give  you  tha, 
proper  breadth  of  pulley,  allow  the  glue  to  harden,  then  turn  "it  off  to' 
»  smooth  finish  in  a  lathe.  Secure  each  side  of  the  pulley  with  a  good 
Btout  iron  flange  large  enough  to  cover  the  entire  diameter,  or  nearlj  f 
so,  and  with  proper  usage  it  will  last  a  long  time. 

ON  BELTING  AND  FRICTION. — Leather  belts  will  last  double  the 
usual  time  if  treated  with  castor  oil,  they  will  be  rat  proof,  they  will  . 
always  remain  flexible  and  will  not  crack.  A  belt  4  inches  wide  wil! 
te  equal  to  one  6  inches  wide  without  it  It  requires  about  24  hours 
to  penetrate  the  leather,  if  used  sooner  the  greasiness  will  cause  it  to 
slip.  A  leather  belt  should  have  a  speed  of  1300  ft.  per  miuute,  and 
not  more  than  1500  ft  or  it  will  not  last  long.  Leather  belts,  with 
grain  side  to  pulley  will  drive  35  per  cent,  more  than  the  flesh  side, 
because  it  is  less  porous,  thus  admitting  less  air  between  the  surfaces. 
Pulleys  covered  with  leather  with  evolve  full  50  per  cent,  more  power 
than  the  naked  pulley.  To  increase  the  power  of  rubber  belting,  - 
use  red  lead,  French  yellow  and  litharge,  equal  parts;  mix  with  boiled 
linseed  oil  and  japan  sufficient  to  make  it  dry  quick.  This  will  produce 
a  highly  polished  surface.  Experiments  without  lubricants  resulted 
in  showing  the  following  co-efficients.  Oak  upon  oak,  62;  wrought 
iron  on  oak,  49  to  G2;  cast  iron  on  oak,  65;  wrought  iron  on  cast,  19; 
cast  iron  on  cast,  16;  cast  iron  axles  on  lignum-vitae  bearings,  18; 
copper  on  oak,  62;  iron  on  elm,  25;  pear  tree  on  cast  iron,  44;  iron 
axles  on  lignumvitae  bearings  (with  oil),  11 ;  iron  axles  with  brass 
bearings  (with  oil),  .07.  A  belt  5  in.  wide,  velocity  1COO  ft.  per  min- 
ute, on  leather  covered  pulleys,  will  yield  5-horse  power;  double  the 
speed  and  it  will  evolve  double  the  power. 

METHYLATED  SPIRIT. — Methylated  spirit,  so  very  useful  in  tho 
arts,  is  an  inferior  kind  of  alcohol,  mixed  with  one-ninth  of  its  vol- 
ume of  pyroxylic  spirit,  or  wood  naphtha. 

ENGINEERS'  BELL  SIGNALS  IN  USE  ON  STEAMERS. — Go  ahead,  1 
stroke,  Back,  2  strokes,  Stop,  1  stroke,  Slowly,  2  short  strokes,  Full 
speed,  3  short  strokes,  Go  ahead  Slowly,  1  long  and  2  short  strokes, 
Sack  Slowly,  2  long  and  2  short  strokes,  Go  ahead  Full  Speed,  1  long 
and  3  short  strokes,  Back  Fast,  2  long  and  3  short  strokes,  Hurry,  3 
short  strokes  repeated. 

To  DYE  METALS. — Metals  can  be  dyed  any  color  by  dissolving  any 
of  the  aniline  dyes  in  methylated  spirit  and  adding  shellac.  This 
,  solution  must  be  painted  on  until  the  desired  shade  is  obtained.  If 
the  iron  has  been  previously  painted  white  so  much  the  better. 

NEW  SELF-LUBRICATING  ANTI-FRICTION  FOR  BEARINGS. — Take 
!equal  parts  of  asbestos  and  plumbago,  mix  them  thoroughly  and 
carefully  together,  then  add  sufficient  liquid  silicate  of  soda  or  potash 
to  reduce  the  whole  to  a  half  dry  paste.  This  paste  must  then  be 
submitted  to  the  action  of  a  hydraulic  or  other  press,  till  it  is  con- 
verted into  a  solid  mass,  which  is  afterwards  dried,  either  in  a  fur- 
nace or  by  exposure  to  the  air,  until  all  moisture  has  disappeared. 
The  bearings  may  either  be  turned  out  of  the  block  or  moulded  from 
the  composition  while  in  the  moist  state.  When  the  bearing  is  finish- 
ed it  is  steeped  in  hot  melted  paraffine  or  other  mineral  oil,  untii  all 
the  pores  of  the  composition  axe  filled  up. 


HACHIXISTS,    rNGIXEEES',   &C.,   KUCEIPTS.         489 

BTTBGLAR  ALARM. — During  the  present  time,  "when  tramps,  sneak 
ILieves,  audacious  burglars  and  desperadoes  are  prowling  around 
and  infesting  society,  it  may  not  be  amiss  to  quote  the  following 


•work  upon  hinges,  at  the  back  or  door  side  (same  as  a  box-lid).  t 
I  have  placed  under  the  front  edge  of  the  trap  two  common  spiral  • 
bed  springs ,  blocked  up  from  the  ground  sufficently  to  throw  front' 
edge  of  trap,  -which,  rests  upon  them,  about  1  in.  above  the  level 
of  the  flooring.  The  springs  of  course,  are  placed  about  6  in.  from 
each  front  corner,  along  front  edge,  so  as  to  equalize  the  strain  as 
much  as  possible.  The  following  is  easy.  In  the  place  where  "  New 
Subscriber"  would  fix  his  electric  bell,  let  him  fix  or  have  fixed  an  or- 
dinary bell  or  gong,  with  the  wire  carried  from  it,  in  the  way  best 
suited  to  the  house,  under  flooring  of  passage  to  the  trap,  beneath  the 
front  or  raised  edge  of  wliich  there  must  be  a  crank  that  the  spring- 
ing of  the  trap  shall  work  and  ring  the  bell,  which,  if  well  hung  at  a 
good  ringing  pitch,  will  awaken  the  soundest  sleeper  in  the  event  of 
a  thief  or  any  intruder  entering  the  house  at  improper  times,  or  for 
improper  purposes.  To  avoid  annoyance  in  the  day  time,  a  button 
sit  each  end  of  trap  would  fix  it  down  firmly,  and  at  night,  upon 
going  to  bed  or  when  locking  up,  it  could  be  released.  The  door-mat 
would  cover  the  entire  thing,  and  no  one  but  those  concerned  need 
ever  know  of  its  existence.  I  do  not  hesitate  to  say  that  not  one  in 
fifty  people,  or  even  a  hundred,  that  enter  my  sht>p  know  of  any- 
thing or  notice  anything  different  to  any  other  place  they  may  go  in- 
to, yet  it  has  been  in  use  for  seven  years.  I  fitted  it  myself,  though 
not  a  bell-hanger,  and  it  has  never  once  got  or.t  of  condition,  but  the 
"bell  will  often  give  fifteen  and  twenty  beats  with  one  person  treading 
en  the  mat." 

BLACK  VARNISH  FOR  IRON  WORK. — \sphaltum,  1  Ib. ;  lampblack, 
^  Ib. ;  resin,  £lb. ;  spirits  turpentine,  1  quart;  linseed  oil,  just  sufficient 
to  rub  up  the  lampblack  with  before  mixing  it  with  the  others.  Ap- 
ply with  a  camel's  hair  brush. 

To  FILE  A  HOLE  SQUARE. — To  file  a  hole  square,  it  is  necessary 
to  reverse  the  work  very  of  ten;  a  square  file  should  first  be  used, 
and  the  holes  finished  with  either  a  diamond-shaped  file  or  a 
lialf  round.  This  leaves  the  corners  square,  as  they  properly  should 
l>e. 

To  TURN  CITILLED  IRON. — At^  Lister's  Works,  Darlington,  Eng- 
land, some  articles  required  turning  in  the  lathe,  and  cast  steel  could 
Hot  be  made  hard  enough  to  cut  them.  One  man  proposed  cast  metal 
tools.  He  was  laughed  at,  of  course,  but  his  plan  had  to  be  tried. 
"Well,  cast  metal  tools  were  tried,  with  points  chilled,  and  they  cut 
j«vhen  cast  steel  tools  were  of  no  use.  The  article  was  turned  up  with 
jnetal  tools. 

DRILLING  HOLES  IN  CAST  IRON.— By  means  of  carbolic  acid  a* 
liole  £  of  an  inch  in  diameter  has  been  drilled  through  \  inch  thickness 
of  cast  iron,  with  a  common  carpenter's  brace-,  judge,  then,  what  oaa 
fce  done  by  using  the  acid  and  pressure  drill. 

HARDENING  WOOD  FOR  PULLEYS. — After  a  wooden  pulley  is  tem« 

«d  and  rubbed  smooth,  boil  it  for  about  eight  minutes  in  olive  oil; 

then  allow  it  to  dry,  and  it  will  become  almost  as  hard  as  copper. 

To  SOLDER  FERRULES  FOR  TOOL  HANDLES.—  Take  your  ferr 

Up  round  the  jointing  a  small  piece  of  brass  wire,  then  just  wet 


490          MACHINISTS,    ENGINEERS*,    AC.,    RECEIPTS." 

ferrule,  scatter  on  the  joining  ground  borax,  put  it  on  the  end  <W  t 
wire,  and  hold  it  in  the  fire  till  the  brass  fuses.  It  will  fill  up  *h* 
joining,  and  form  a  perfect  solder.  It  may  afterwards  be  turned  irr 
ihe  lathe. 

MAKING  DIES  FOR  SCREW-CUTTING.—  In  making  dies  for  screw- 
cutting,  they  should,  whenever  practicable,  be  lapped  with  a  taper 
tap,  as  they  cut  more  easily  and  wear  longer  than  those  which  are 
cut  straight,  and  then  tapered  off  to  make  the  screw  "  take." 

Very  fine  threaded  screws,  however,  cut  well  with  straight  dies. 
Small  dies,  or  dies  below  one-fourth  of  an  inch  in  size,  should  only^ 
have  three  lips  in  them.  Dies  from  one-fourth  to  one-half  should' 
have  four  lips  in  them.  Dies  from  three-fourths  to  one  inch  should 
have  six  lips  in  them  ;  and  dies  from  one  inch  to  one-and-a-haU 
ehould  have  seven  lips  in  them.  The  cuts  through  dies  should  be 
only  twice  the  depth  of  the  thread,  which  is  sufficient  to  make  them 
free  themselves  from  chips,  for  when  cut  too  deep  they  are  liable  to* 
break  on  the  face.  Harden  and  draw  to  a  straw  color. 

To  DIP  A  FLUTED  REAMER  PROPERLY.  —  Dip  it  perpendicularly 
to  a  short  distance  beyond  the  fluting  —  that  is  to  pay,  about  half  an 
inch  and  withdraw  and  return  it  several  times.  This  hardens  all  the 
Jips,  and  prevents  it  cracking  off  at  the  water's  edge,  which  is  the 
case  when  a  piece  of  steel  is  dipped  in  to  a  certain  depth,  and  allowed. 
to  cool  without  moving. 

ANTI-FRICTION  METAL.—  Copper,  4  Ibs.  ;.regulu9  of  antimony,  81 
Ibs.  ;  Banca  tin,-  96  Ibs.  2.  Gram  zinc,  7i  Ibs.  ;  purified  zinc,  7£  Ibs.  ; 
Antimony,  1  Ib.  3.  Zinc,  17  parts;  copper,  1  part;  antimony,  Imparts. 
This  possesses  unsurpassible  anti-friction  qualities,  and  does  not  re-- 

1  Ibs.  ;  antimony,  2  Ibs.  ;  copper,  1  Ib.  If  the  metal  be  too  hard,  it  : 
may  be  softened  by  adding  some  lead.  5.  The  best  alloy  for  journal- 
boxes  is  composed  of  copper,  24  Ibs.  ;  tin,  24  Ibs.  ;  and  antimony,  8> 
Ibs.  Melt  the  copper  first,  then  add  the  tin,  and  lastly  the  antimony. 
It  should  be  first  run  into  ingots,  then  melted,  and  cast  in  the  form 
required  for  the  boxes.  6.  Melt  in  a  crucible  1^  Ibs.  of  copper,  and, 
e  the  c 


opper  is  melting,  melt  in  a  ladle  25  Ibs.  of  tin  and  3  of  anti-  - 
mony,  nearly  red  hot,  pour  the  two  together,  and  stir  until  nearly 
rool.  This  makes  the  finest  kind  of  lining  metal.  7.  Very  cheap. 
\  sad,  100  Ibs.  ;  antimony,  15  Ibs.  This  costs  about  10  cents  per  Ib. 
8.  For  Searings  to  sustain  great  weights.—  Copper,  1  Ib.  ;  zinc,  $  oz.  j 
tin,  2^oz.  9.  Hard  Bearings  for  machinery.—  Copper,  1  Ib.  ;  tin,  2 
ozs.  10.  Very  Hard  ditto.—  Copper,  1  Ib.  ;  tin,  2$  ozs.  11.  Lining 
Metal  for  Boxes  of  Railway  Cars.—  Mix  tin,  24  Ibs.  ;  copper  4  Ibs.  ; 
mtimony,  8  Ibs.  ;  (for  a  hardening)  then  add  tin  72  Ibs.  12.  Lining 
Metal  for  Locomotives'  Axle  trees.—  Copper,  86.03.;.  tin,  13.97.13. 
Another,  French.—  Copper,  82  parts,  tin,  10  parts,  zinc,  8  parts.  14. 
Another,  (Stephenson's).—  Copper,  79  parts;  tin,  8  parts,  zinc,  5,parte, 
lead  8  parts.  15.  Another  (Belgian).—  Copper,  89.02.  parts,  tin,  2.44 
^arts,  zinc,  7.76  parts  iron,  0.78.  16.  Another  (English).—  Coppei,  73. 
16  parts,  tin,  9.49  parts,  zinc,  9.03  parts,  lead,  7.09  parts,  iron,  0.43 
parts.  17.  Another.  —  Copper,  90.06  parts,  tin,  3.56  parts,  zinc.  6.38.  of 
Jfickel  Anti-friction  Metal.—  A  late  improvement  in  the  manufacture* 
of  anti-friction  metal  is  the  introduction  of  a  small  percentage  oL 
Biekel  into  either  of  the  above,  or  any  other  anti-friction  compositionr 


MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  &c.,  RECEIPTS.       491 

COMPOSITION  FOR  CRUCIBLES. — 1.  Stourbridge  crucible  clay  4  parts, 
plumbago  3  pa^ts,  hard  coke  2  parts,  cement,"  consisting  of  "old  pot» 
ground  and  sifted,  1  part.  If  old  pots  are  not  to  be  had,  the  forego- 
ing must  be  burnt  hard,  ground  and  sifted.  The  carbon  clippings 
from  the  interior  of  gas  retorts  are  superior  to  the  best  ordinary  coke. 
Pulverize  the  whole  and  sift  through  a  g  inch  mesh  sieve,  temper  and, 
mix  with  plenty  of  clean  cold  water,  tread  with  the  bare  foot  to  the 
consistency  of  stiff  dough,  allow  it  to  stand  for  three  or  four  dayi 
covered  with  a  damp  cloth  to  permit  sweating  and  thorough  maturity, 
ihen  block  by  a  machine  or  by  hand.  When  completely  dry,  place  in 
the  kiln  and  anneal,  but  do  not  burn  hard.  2.  Another. — The  Birm- 
ingham soft,  tough  pot  consists  of  2  parts  of  the  best  Stourbridge  cru- 
cible  clay,  3  parts  plumbago,  and  1  part  cement  consisting  of  old  cru- 
cibles pulverized  and  sifted,  &c.,  as  above  described.  3,  Another. — 
Stourbridge  crucible  clay  2  parts,  cement  3  parts,  sift  through  a  j  inch 
mesh  sieve,  temper  as  above,  and  when  dry  place  in  the  kiln  and 
burn  hard.  4.  Another. — Stourbridge  best  crucible  clay,  3  parts  by 
measure ;  cement,  composed  of  old  worn  out  fire  brick,  2  parts ;  hard 
coke,  1  part;  sift,  temper  and  manipulate  as  above. 

CAST  IRON  PATTERNS  should  be  made  very  smooth,  then  slightly 
warmed,  and  waxed  all  over  with  the  best  beeswax. 

FACINGS,  SANDS,  &c.,  FOR  CASTINGS.— As  a  facing  for  loam  cast- 
ings use  fire  sand  3  parts,  Whitehead  sand  1  part;  mix.  For  pipe* 
and  small  cylinders  use  No.  1,  or  fine  sand,  facing  with  plumbago. 
Albany  or  Waterford  sand  is  excellent  for  fine  castings,  or  use  1  part 
of  sea  coal  to  8  or  10  of  Albany  sand ;  1  part  to  5  will  do  for  heavy 
castings.  To  ensure  very  smooth  castings,  mix  with  the  green  foun- 
dry sand  about  1-20  part  of  tar. 

To  PREVENT  HOLES  IN  CASTINGS. — In  casting  iron  on  iron  or 
steel  spindles,  the  moulds  are  cast  endwise ;  let  the  cast  metal  spindle 
be  an  inch  longer  on  the  uppermost  side  than  is  necessary  when  th» 
job  is  finished;  thus  the  air  holes,  if  any,  will  form  in  the  extra  inch 
of  length,  and  may  be  cut  off  in  the  lathe. 

To  CAST  CHILLED  IRON  TOOLS  FOR  CUTTING  CHILLED  IRON.— 
After  making  a  tool  of  the  required  form  out  of  wrought  iron,  cast 
the  chilled  part,  using  charcoal  iron  No.  5. 

DYSIOT. — The  new  alloy,  called  dysiot,  brought  into  the  market  by 
Rompel  &  Co.,  of  Homburgh,  has  been  analyzed  by  Von  Uhlenhuth, 
and  found  to  consist  of  copper,  62.30  parts;  lead,' 17.75;  tin,  10.42  ; 
srinc,  9.20,  with  traces  of  iron.  It  can  be  prepared  by  melting  together 
62  parts  of  copper,  18  of  lead,  10  of  tin,  and  10  of  zinc. 

EXCELLENT  ANTI-FRICTION. — Tin  50  parts,  antimony  5,  copper  1 

CHE/  >  BRASS.— Copper  1  lb.,  zinc  12  ozs. 

BRAZ\   •}  METAL.— Copper  1  lb..  spelter  8  ozs.,  with  a  little  load. 

TOUGH   "YPE  METAL.— Lead  100  Ibs.,  antimony  40,  tin  20. 

PLATINI  ?•  BRONZE,  Rust-Proof.— Nickel  100  parts,  tin  10,  plat* 
firm  1. 

MALLEAB   <  OR  ALUMINUM  BRONZE. — Copper  90,  tin  10. 
ALUMINUM  VLVER,  OF  FINE  LUSTER  AND  POLISH.— Copper  70 
parts,  nickel  23,    luminum  7. 

YELLOW  B»,  t  FOB  STEAM  ENOINBS.— Add  4i  to  9  ozg,  «ns  to 
teen  1U  of  copp 


C92      MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  &c.,  RECEIPTS. 

GOOD  BRASS  FOB  MACHINERY.'—!.  Copjj^r,  Slbs.,  tia2|ozsv  zlnf 

ioz.  2.  Tough  Brass. — Copper,  10  ozs.,  tin,  1^  ozs.,  zinc  l£  0/4 
Wheels  and  Valves.—  Copper,  90  Ibs.,  tin,  lOlbs.  4.  Brass,  very 
tenacious. — Copper,  88.9  parts,  tin,  8.3  parts,  zinc,  2.8  parts.  & 
Lathe  Bushes. — Copper,  80  parts,  tin  20  parts.  6.  Machinery  Bearings^ 
— Copper,  88  parts,  tin,  12  parts.  7.  Boxes  for  Engines  Runnin{ 
at  High  Speed.— Copper,  1  Ibs.,  tin,  1  Ib.  ;  add  spelter  1  Ib.  to  every 
40  Ibs.  of  the  mixture.  Use  steel  piston  rods  for  high  speed  and 
lignum  vitse  or  apple-tree  wood  for  shoes  or  gibls  on  the  cross-heads. 
Iron  for  cylinders  and  guides,  if  made  from  pig  iron  should  be  melted 
at  least  8  or  9  times  previous  to  use. 

BRONZE.— 1.  Copper,  83  parts;  zinc,  11  parts;  tin,  4  parts:  lead,  2 
parts;  mix.  2.  Copper,  14  parts;  melt  and  add  zinc,  6  parts;  tin,  4 
parts;  mix.  3.  Ancient  Bronze. — Copper,  100  parts;  lead  and  tin,  of 


Another. — Copper,  82£  parts;  tin,  5  parts;  zinc,  10i  parts;  lead,  2 
parts.  7.  Another.— Copper,  90  parts;  tin,  9  parts;  lead,  Ipart  8. 
Bronze  for  Medals.— Copper,  89  parts;  tin  8  parts;  zinc,  3  parts.  9. 
Bronze.— Copper,  7  Ibs. ;  zinc.  3  Ibs. ;  tin,  2  Ibs.  10.  Another.— Cop. 
per,  1  Ib. ;  zinc,  12  Ibs. ;  tin,  8  Ibs. 

SUPERIOR  BELL  METAL.—!.  Copper,  100 Ibs.; tin, 23 Ibs.  2.  Cop. 
per,  25  parts;  tin,  6  parts.  3.  Copper,  79  parts;  tin,  20  parts;  mix. 
4.  Copper,  78  parts; tin,  22  parts;  mix.  5.  Parisian  Bell  Metal.—  Cop- 
per, 72  parts;  tin,  26i  parts;  iron,  li  parts.  Used  for  the  bells  ot 
small  ornamental  clocks.  6.  Clock  Sell  Metal.— Copper,  75.19  parts; 
tin,  24.81  parts.  7.  Bell  Metal  for  Large  Bells.— Copper,  100  Ibs. ;  tin, 
from  20  to  25  Ibs.  8.  Bell  Metal  for  Small  Bells.— Copper,  3  Ibs. ;  tin. 
1  Ib.  9.  White  Metal  for  Table  Bells.— Copper,  2.06  parts;  tin,  97.3 j 
parts ;  bismuth,  0.63  parts. 

YELLOW  BRASS  (for  casting). — 1.  Copper,  61.6  parts;  zinc,  iJ5.3 
parts;  lead,  2.9  parts;  tin,  0.2 parts.  2.  Brass  ofJemappes. — Copper, 
616  parts  ;  zinc,  33.7  parts  ;  lead,  1.4  parts,  tin,  0.2  parts.  3.  Sheet 
ofStolberg,  near  Aix  la  Chapelle.— Copper,  64.8  parts;  zinc,  32.8 parts; 
lead,  2.0  parts;  tin,  0.4  parts.  4.  J)  'Arcets  Brass  for  Gilding.— Cop- 

rr,  63.70  parts;  zinc,  33.55  parts;  lead,  0.25  parts;  tin,  2.50  parts. 
Another.— Copper,  64.45  parts;  zinc,  32.44  parts;  lead,  2.86  parts; 
tin,  0.25  parts.  6.  Sheet  Brass  of  Romilly. — Copi>er,  70.1  parts;  zinc, 
29.9  parts.  7.  English  Brass  Wire.—  Copper,  70.29  parts;  zinc,  29.26 
parts;  lead,  0.28  parts;  tin,  0.17  parts.  8.  Angsbury  Brass  Wire. — 
Copper,  71.89  parts; zinc,  27.63  parts;  tin,  0.85  parts. 

BED  BRASS,  FOR  GILT  ARTICLES. — 1.  Copper,  82.0  parts  ;  zinc,  18.0 
parts;  lead,  1.5  parts:  tin,  3.0  parts.  2.  Another.— Copper,  82  parts  : 
zinc,  18  parts;  lead,  3  parts;  tin,  1  part  3  Another.  Copper,  82.3 
rarts;  zinc,  17.5  parts;  tin,  0.2  parts.  4.  French  Tombac  fot  Sword 
Handles.— Copper,  80  parts;  zinc,  17  parts ;  tin,  3  ports.  5  For 
Parisian  Ornaments.—Copper,  85  parts  ;  zinc,  15  parts  ;  tin,  a  trace 

6.  Used  for  German  Ornaments. — Copper,  85  3  prrts  ;  zinc,  14. 7  parts. 

7.  ChrysocJialk.— Copper,  90.0  parts;  zinc,  7.9  parts;  lead,  1.6  parts. 

8.  Red  Tombac  from  Paris.— Copper,  92  parts  ;  zinc,  8  parts. 
BRASS.— 1.  Yellow  Brass  for  Turning,  (common  article. )— Copper, 

SO  Iba.  zinc,  10  Iba.  lead,  4  ozs.    2.  Another  Brass  for  Turning. -•&>?• 


MACHINISTS,    ENGINEERS*,    AC.,   RECEIPTS.         49t 

»er,  32  Ibs.  zinc,  10 Ibs.  lead,  1  Ib.  3.  Red  Brass  free,  for  Turning.— 
Copper,  160  Ibs.  zinc,  50  Ibs.  lead,  10  Ibs.  autimpuy,  44  ozs.  4.  BeiL 
Red  Brass  forjlne  Castings.— Copper,  24  Ibs.  ziuc,  5  Ibs.  bismuth,  1 
oa,  5.  Red  Tombac. — Copper,  10  Ibs.  zinc,  1  Ib.  6.  Tom bac.—  Copper, 
16  Ibs.  tin,  1  Ib.  zinc,  1  Ib.  7.  Brass  for  Heavy  Castings. — Copper.  8 
to  7  parts ;  tin,  1  part ;  zinc,  1  part.  8.  Malleable  Brass.— Copper,  70.10i 
parts;  zinc,  29.90  parts.  9.  Superior  Malleable  Brass. — Copper,  60 
parts;  zinc,  40 parts.  10.  Brass.— Copper,  73 parts;  zinc,  27 parts.  11^ 
Copper,  65  parts;  zinc,  35  parts.  12.  Copper,  70  parts;  zinc,  3U 
parts.  13.  German  Brass. — Copper,  1  Ib.  zinc,  1  Ib.  14.  Watch- 
makers' Brass. — Copper,  1  part;  zinc,  2  parts.  15.  Brass  for  Wire.-~ 
Copper,  34  parts;  calamine,  56  parts.  16.  Brass,  for  Tubes. — Copper, 
2  parts;  zinc,  1  part.  17.  Brass  for  Heavy  Work. — Copper,  100  parts; 
tin,  15  parts;  zinc,  15  parts.  18.  Another.—  Copper,  112  parts;  tin,  13 
parts;  zinc,  1  part.  19.  Tombac  or  Red  Brass. — Copper,  8  parts ;  zinc. 
1  part.  20.  .Brass.— Copper,  3  parts;  melt,  then  add  zinc,  1  parti 
21.  Button-makers'  Fine  JBrass.  Brass,  8  parts;  zinc,  5  parts.  22. 
Buttonmakers'  Common  Brass. — Button  brass,  6  parts;  tin,  1  part; 
lead,  1  part;  mix.  23.  Mallet's  Brass. — Copper,  25.4;  zinc,  74.6;  used 
to  preserve  iron  from  oxydizing.  24.  Best  Brass  for  Clocks. — Rose* 
copper.  85  parts ;  zinc,  14  parts ;  lead,  1  part. 

To  CAST  BRASS  SOLID. — The  metal  should  not  be  run  any  hotter 
than  is  necessary  to  insure  sharp  castings.  The  most  probable  causa 
of  the  honey  combings  of  castings  is  that  the  air  cannot  get  out 
of  the  way  ;  and  there  ought  to  bo  proper  vents  made  for  it  from 
the  highest  parts  of  the  mould  ;  the  metal  should  be  run  in  near 
or  at  the  bottom  of  the  mold.  If  about  1  Ib.  of  lead  be  added  to  eve- 
ry 16  Ibs.  of  old  brass,  when  just  at  the  melting  point,  solid  good  bras- 
ses will  be  the  result.  In  melting  old  brass,  the  zinc,  or  lead,  con- 
tained in  it  (when  fluid)  oxydizes  freely,  consequently  the  propor- 
tions of  the  metal  are  altered,  and  require  an  addition  similar  to- 
the  above.  If  the  brass  has  not  been  re-cast  a  little  less  lead  will 
do,  but  if  re-cast  several  times  it  may  take  the  full  quantity. 

NEW  AND  BEAUTIFUL  ALLOYS.— Copper,  69.8  parts;  nickel,  19.8- 
parts ;  zinc,  5.5  parts ;  cadminum,  4.7  parts ;  used  for  spoons,  forks,  &c. 
Another.— Copper,  89.3  parts;  aluminum,  10.5  parts.  Oreide  resem- 
bling Gold.  Copper,  79.7  parts;  zinc,  83.05  parts;  nickel,  6.09  parti, 
with  a  trace  of  iron  and  tin. 

GOOD  BRITANNIA  METAL.— 1.  Tin,  150  Ibs. ;  copper  3  Ibs. ;  antimony, 
lOlbs.  2.  Britannia.  2d  Quality.— Tin,  140 Ibs.;  Copper,  3 Ibs.;  anti* 
aaony  9  Ibs.  3.  Britannia  Metal,  for  Casting.— Tin,  210  Ibs. ;  copper,  i 
Ibs. ;  antimony,  12  Ibs.  4.  Britannia  Metal  for  spinning. — Tin,  10(J 
Ibs.;  Britannia  hardening,  4  Ibs.;  antimony,  4  Ibs.  5.  Britannia 
Metal  for  Register*. — Tin,  140  Ibs. ;  hardening  8  Ibs. ;  antimony  8  Ibs. 
6.  Best  Britannia  for  spouts. — Tin  140  Ibs.;  copper,  3  Ibs.;  anti- 
mony, 6  Ibs.  7.  Best  Britanniafor  spoons. — Tin,  100  Ibs. ;  hardening- 
5  Ibs.;  antimony,  10  Ibs.  8.  Best  Britanniafor  Handles.— Tin,  140  Ibs.;1 
copper  2  Ibs. ;  antimony  5  Ibs.  9.  Best  Britanniafor  Lamps,  Pillars, 
and  Spouts.— Tin,  300  Ibs. ;  copper,  4  Ibs. ;  antimony  15  Ibs.  10.  For 
Casting.— Tin,  100  Ibs.;  hardening  5  Ibs.;  antimony,  5  ibs.  11.  Tin* 
62  parts;  lead,  18  parts;  brass  6" parts;  antimony,  5  parts;  mix.  12. 
Anotlier  Britannia.— Tin,  20  parts;  antimony,  4  parts;  bmss,  1  part; 
ttix.  13  Hardening  for  Britannia.— Brems,  4  parts ;  tin,  4  parts;  when 


MACHINISTS,  BLINKERS',  AC.,  RECEIPTS. 

fttsed,  add  bismuth,  4,  and  antimony,  4  parts.  Another  Hardening. 
—Antimony,  tin,  bismuth,  and  plate  brass  of  each  equal  parts.  Ad| 
this  mixture  to  melted  tin  until  it  acquires  the  proper  color  and  hard* 
Hess.  15.  Britannia. — Tin,  89.70  parts,  antimony  9.70  parts,  copper  0. 
30  parts,  zinc,  0.30  parts,  16.  Tin,  81.64  parts,  antimony,  16.51  parts, 
copper,  1.85  parts.  17.  Tin,  89.97  parts,  antimony  9. 12  parts,  copper, 
C.91  parts.  18.  Tin,  90.00  parts,  antimony,  10  parts.  19.  Tin  89.3(1 
|>arts,  antimony,  7.14  parts,  copper,  1.78  parts,  bismuth,  1.78  parts. 

1  GERMA.N  SILVER,  FIRST  QUALITY  FOR  CASTING.—!.  Copper  50  Ibs. 
line,  25  Ibs.  nickel,  25  Ibs.    2.  Second  Quality,  for  Casting. — Cop* 
per,  50  Ibs.  zinc,  20  Ibs.  best  pulverized  nickel,  10  Ibs.    3.  German 
Silver  for  Rolling.— Copper,  60  Ibs.  zinc,  20  Ibs.  nickel,  25  Ibs.    4. 
German  Silver  for  Bells,  and  other  Castings. — Copper  60  Ibs.   zinc, 
20  Ibs.  nickel,  20  Ibs.  lead,  3  ibs.  iron,  that  of  tin  plate  is  the  best, 

2  Ibs.    5.  German  Silver  for  Castings. — Lead,  3  parts,    nickel,  20 
parts,  zinc,  20  parts,  copper  60  parts,  mix.    6.  German  Silver  for 
Mailing. — Nickel,  5  parts,  zinc,  4  parts,  copper  12  parts,  mix.    7.  Cop- 
per, 40.  62  parts,  zinc,  43. 76  parts,  nickel,  15. 62  parts.    8.  Copper  41. 47 
parts,  zinc  26. 08  parts,  nickel,  32.  35  parts.    9.  Copper  55. 55  parts, 
zinc,  5.  55  parts,  nickel  38.  90  parts.    10.  Copper,  53.  40  parts,  zino 
29.  10  parts,  nickel  17.  50  parts.    11.  Alfenide. — Contain  a  trace  of 
iron,  copper,  59.  60  parts,  zinc,  30.  30  parts,  nickel,  Id  10  parts.    13. 
Fine  Silver  Colored  Metal— Tin  100  Ibs.  antimony,  81b3.  copper,  4 
Iba.  bismuth,  1  Ib.    13.   Fine  White  German  Silver.— Iron  1  part : 
nickel,  10  parts,  zinc,  10  parts,  copper,  20  parts  :  melt.    14.  Genuine 
German  Silver. — Iron  2^  parts,  nickel  31^  parts,  zinc  25^  parts,  cop- 
per, 40^  parts  :  melt.    15.  Bidery.— Copper,  48.48  parts ;  tiu,  6.60 
parts,  zinc,  33. 80  parts,  lead,  12.12  parts. 

SUNDRY  COMPOSITIONS. — 1.  Organ  Pipe  Metal  consists  of  lead  al- 
loyed with  about  half  its  quantity  of  tin  to  harden  it.  Lead,  100;  tin, 
S3  parts;  and  lead,  100  ;  tin,  20  parts,  answer  very  well.  The  mot- 
tled or  crystalline  appearance  so  much  admired  shows  an  abundance 
of  tin.  2.  Cannon  Metal. — Tin,  10  parts  ;  copper,  90  parts  ;  melt. 
3.  Alloy  for  Cymbals. — Copper,  80  parts  ;  tiu,  20  pavts.  4.  Chinese 
Gong  Metal— Copper,  78  parts  ;  tin,  22  parts.  C.  Cock  Metal— 
Copper,  20  Ibs.  ;  lead,  8  Ibs.  ;  litharge,  1  oz.  ;  antimony,  3  ozs.  6. 
Metal  for  taking  Impressions. — Lead,  3  Ibs.  ;  th\,  2  Ibs.  ;  bismuth,  5 
Ibs.  7.  Alloy  for  Gun  Mountings.— Copper,  »0  parts  ;  tiu,  3  parts. 
Sine,  17  parts.  8.  Pinchbeck.— Copper,  5  Iba.  ;  zinc,  1  Ib.  9.  Span* 

t  ish  Tutania.—Iror\.  or  steel,  8  ozs.  ;   antimony,  16  ozs.  ;  nitre,  S  ozs. 

•  lilelt  and  harden  8  ozs.  of  tin  with  1  oz.  of  the  above  compound.  10. 
Rivet  Metal— Copper,  32  ozs.  ;  tin,  2  ozs.  ;  ziuc.  1  oz.  11.  Chinese 
WJiite  Copper.— Copper,  40.4  ;  nickel,  31.6  ;  ziuc,  25.4  ;  and  iron,  2.6 
parts.  12.  Bath  Metal.— Brass,  32  parts;  zinc,  9  parts.  13.  Specu* 
lum  Metal — Copper,  6:  t;n,  2;  arsenic,  1  part.  Or  copper,  7;  zinc,  3; 
find  tiu,  4  parts.  14.  JEle^.trum. — Copper,  8,  nickel,  4,  zinc,  3^  parts. 
This  compound  is  unsurpassed  for  ease  of  workmanship  and  beauty 
of  appearance.  15.  Common  Pewter. — Tin,  4;  lead,  1  part.  AS. 
Best  Pewter.— Tin,  100,  antimony,  17  parts.  17  Queen's  Metal  -Tin, 
€);  antimony,  1;  bismuth,  1;  lead,  1  pa^*"  18.  Chantry's  Hard  Alloy.— 
Copper,  1  Ib.  ;  zinc,  2£  ozs. ;  tin,  2£  ozs>,  Razors  as  hard  as  tempered 
«teel  have  beon  made  from  this  alloj.  19.  Alloy  for  Mechanical 
instruments.— Copper,  1  Ib.  ;  tin,  I  oz.  20.  Rivet  Metal  for 


MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  &c.,  RECEIPTS.       49? 

Tm,  46  Ibs.  ;  copper,  1  Ib.  21.  Hard  White  Metal.— Sheet  brass,  32 
ozs.  ;  lead,  2  ozs.  ;  tin,  2  ozs.  ;  zinc,  1  oz.  22.  Fusible  Alloy,  melts 
in  Boiling  water. — Bismuth,  8  ozs.  ;  tin  3  ozs.  ;  lead,  5  ozs.  23. 
Fusible  Alloy  for  Silvering  Glass. — Tin,  6  ozs.  ;  lead,  10  ozs. ;  bis- 
muth,  21  ozs.  ;  mercury,  a  small  quantity.  24.  Hard  White  Metal 
for  Buttons.—  Brass,  1  Ib.  ;  zinc,  2  ozs.  ;  tin,  1  oz.  25.  Button  Mab- 

•  ;r's  Metal. — Copper,  43  parts;  zinc,  G7  parts.    26.  Another. — Copper,; 

'  32.22  parts,  tin.  2.78  parts,  zinc,  35  parts.  27.  Another.— Copper,  58. 
94  parts;  tin,  5.28  parts;  zinc,  35.78  parts.  28.  Metal  that  expands  in 
cooling. — Lead,  9;  antimony,  2;  bismuth,  1  part  This  metal  is  very 
useful  in  filling  small  defects  in  iron  castings,  &c.  29.  Albata  Metat' 
— Nickel,  3  to  4  parts;  copper,  20  parts;  zinc,  16  parts.  Used  for 
plated  goods.  30.  Birmingham  Platin. — Copper,  8  parts,  zinc,  5 
•parts.  31.  Imitation  Platinum. — Melt  together,  8  parts  brass,  5  parts 
of  zinc.  This  alloy  closely  resembles  platinum.  32.  Chinese  Silver. 
—Silver,  2.5;  copper,  65.24;  zinc  19.52;  cobalt  or  iron,  0.12 ;  nickel,  13. 
33.  Tutenag.—  Copper,  8;  zinc,  i»;  nickel,  8  parts.  34.  Prince's  Metal. 
—Copper,  3 parts;  zinc,  1  part.  35.  Another. — Brass,  8  parts,  zinc,  1 
part  36.  Another. — Zinc  and  copper  equal  parts.  Mis.  37.  Queen's 
Metal. — Lead,  1  part;  bismuth  1  part;  antimony,  1  part;  tin,  9  parts. — 
Mix,  38.  Another. — Tin,  9  parts;  bismuth  1  part;  lead,  2  parts;  anti- 
mony 1  part;  mix.  39.  Imitation  Gold. — Platina,  8  parts;  silver,  4 
parts;  copper,  12 parts,  melt.  40.  Imitation  Silver. -Block tin,  100 parts; 
antimony,  8  parts;  bismuth,  1  part;  copper,  4  parts;  melt.  41.  Spur- 
ious Silver  Leaf.— "I'm,  90.09  ;  zinc,  9.91  parts  ;  melt.  42.  Mirrors  of 
Reflecting  Telescope.  —Copper  100,  tin,  50  parts.  43.  White  Argentan 
— Copper,  8  parts;  nickel,  3 parts,  zinc,  35  parts.  This  beautiful  com- 
position is  in  imitation  of  silver.  44.  Yellow  Dipping  Metal. — Cop- 
per, any  desired  quantity  and  6  or  7  ozs.  of  zinc  to  every  Ib.  of  copper. 
45.  Shot  Metal.— Lead,  97.06  parts;  arsenic,  2. 94  parts.  Another.— Lead, 
39.60  parts ;  arsenic,  0.40  parts.  46.  White  Metal.— Tarts,  by  weight ;  tin, 
82;  lead,  18;  antimony,  5;  zinc,  1;  copper,  5.  47.  Hard  Pewter. — 
Helt  together,  12  Ibs  of  tin;  regulus  of  antimony,  1  Ib.  ;  copper,  4 
ozs.  48.  Common  Pewter. — Melt  in  a  crucible,  tin,  7  Ibs.  ;  when 
fused  throw  in  lead,  1  Ib.  ;  copper,  6  ozs.  ;  zinc,  2  ozs.  49.  British 
Plate. — Nickel,  5  tQ  6  parts ;  copper,  20  parts ;  zinc,  8  to  10  parts.  Used 
for  plated  goods.  50.  Composition  for  Strong  Pumps,  &c. — Copper,! 
Ib. ;  zinc,  \,  and  tin,  1^  ozs.  51.  Composition  for  Tootlied  Wheels. — Cop-* 
per,  1  Ib.  ;  brass,  2  ozs.  ;  tin,  2  ozs.  52.  Another. — Copper,  1  Ib.  ; 
brass,  2  ozs. ;  tin  lj  ozs.  53.  For  Turning  TFb?1^. — Copper,  1  Ib. ;  brass 
2  ozs.  ;  tin,  2  ozs.  54.  For  Nuts  of  coarse  Threads  and  Bearings. — 
Copper,  1  Ib.  ;  brass,  1^  ozs.  ;  tin,  2i  ozs.  55.  Pewtcrers  Temper.-^. 
Copper,  1  Ib.  ;  tin,  2  Ibs.  Used  to  ndd  iu  small  quantities  to  tin.  56. 
Alloy  for  Cylinders  of  Locomotives. — Copper,  88.63  parts;  tin,  2.38 
parts;  zinc,  6.99  parts.  57.  Metal  for  Sliding  Levers  of  Locomotives. 
—Copper,  85.25  parts;  tin,  12. 75  parts;  zinc,  2.00  parts.  58.  Another 
(Fenton f>).— Copper,  5.50  tin,  14.50;  zinc,  80  parts.  59.  Baron  Wet, 
terstedt's  Patent  Sheath^if/  for  Ships. — Consists  of  lead  with  from 
2  to  8  per  cent,  of  antimony,  about  3  per  cent,  is  the  usual  quantity. 
The  alloy  is  rolled  into  sheets.  60.  Muntz  Metal  for  Ships.  -Best 
selected  copper,  60  parts ;  best  zinc,  40  parts.  Melt  together  in  the 
usual  manner  and  roll  into  sheets  of  suitable  thickness,  This  corn- 
resists  oxidation  from  exposure  to  sea  water,  and  prevent* 


496 


MACHINISTS,    ENGINEERS  ,    AC.,    RECEIPTS. 


fee  adhesion  of  barnacles.  61.  Metal  for  Anatomical  Injections.— Ha, 
16.41  parts;  lead,  9.27  parts;  bismuth,  27.81  parts;  mercury,  41.41 
parts.  62.  Fusible  Metal  for  casts. — Bismuth,  8  parts;  lead,  5  parts; 
tan,  3  parts.  It  will  melt  at  200°  or  under  boiling  water.  For  mala 
casts  use  tin  onlv.  63.  Pot  Metal.— Copper,  40  Ibs.  ;  lead,  16  Ibs.  ; 
tin,  l^lbs.  64.  Metal  for  Models.— Tea  lead,  6  Ibs.  ;  tin.  5  Ib.  ;  anti- 
mony, f  Ib.  65.  Imitation  of  Silver.— Copper,  I  Ib.  ;  tin,  3ozs.  66, 
Von  libra's  Alloy  for  Mcdds.— Bismuth,  27.27  parts;  lead,  59.0S 
vparts  ;  tin,  13.46  parts.  If  the  cast  objects  be  bitten  with  diluted  ni- 
tric acid,  washed  with  water,  and  rubbed  with  a  woolen  rag,  the  ele« 
vated  spots  become  bright,  while  the  sunken  portions  are  dull 
and  the  castings  acquire  a  dark  gray  appearance  with  an  antique  lug" 
tre.  Without  biting  the  color  is  light  gray.  67.  Neio  Sheathing  Metal. 
—  This  alloy  is  made  by  melting  2^  parts  of  copper  in  one  crucible^ 
in  another,  9  parts  of  zinc,  87  of  lead,  1  part  of  mercury,  and  ^  part 
of  bismuth,  then  mix  the  contents  of  both  crucibles,  covering  the  sur- 
face with  charcoal  dust,  and  stirring  well  till  all  are  incorporated. 
The  mercury  in  this  alloy  protects  both  ihe  zinc  and  copper  from  the 
action  of  sea  water.  The  contents  of  the  crucible  are  run  into  ingota 
and  rolled  into  sheets.  68.  Spelter. — Natural  impure  zinc,  which  con* 
tains  a  portion  of  lead,  iron,  copper  and  a  little  manganese  and  plum* 
bago. 

IRON  MANUFACTURE.— Charcoal  138  bushels,  limestone  432  lbs.j 
and  ore  2612  Ibs.,  will  produce  1  ton  of  pig  iron.  In  England  temper* 
ature  of  hot  blast  is  600°,  density  of  blast  and  of  refining  furnace  2] 
to  3  Ibs.  per  square  inch.  Revolutions  of  puddling  rolls  60  pel 
minute  ;  rail  rolls,  100  :  rail  saw,  800. 

HORSE  POWER  (INDICATED)  REQUIRED  FOR  DIFFERENT  PROCESSES. 


Blast  Furnace 60 

Refining    "      26 

Puddling  Rolls  with  squeezers 
and  shears 80 


Railway  rolling  tram 250 

Small  bar  tram 6<T 

Double  rail  saw 13 

Straightening t 


One  pound  of  Anthracite  coal  in  a  cupola  furnace  .will  melt  from  5  to 
10  Ibs  of  cast  iron  :  8  bushels  of  bituminous  coal  will  melt  1  ton  of 
east  iron.  Small  coal  produces  about  |  of  the  effect  of  large  coal  of 
the  same  kind. 

To  REDUCE  OXIDES.— The  more  powerful  deoxidizing  agent  is  un- 
doubtedly coal  in  its  several  varieties,  and  the  gases  deriving  thero- 
from  during  combustion  in  the  furnace.  The  oxides  of  lead,  bismuth, 
antimony,  nickel,  cobalt,  copper,  and  iron  require  a  strong  red  heat  ia 
the  furnace,  whilst  the  oxides  of  manganese,  chromium,  tin,  and  zinc, 
do  not  lose  their  oxygen  until  heated  to  whiteness.  On  a  small  scale, 
the  reduction  of  oxides  is  generally  effected  by  mixing  charcoal,  to- 
gether with  the  oxide  to  be  reduced,  in  a  refractory  clay  crucible,  the 
charcoal  furnishing  the  carbon  necessary  to  the  proper  performance 
of  this  work.  Some  use  a  crucible  thickly  lined  with  charcoal,  put- 
ting in  the  oxide  on  the  top  of  the  charcoal.  It  is  necessarv,  however, 
•when  using  the  crucible  and  charcoal,  to  use  a  flux,  say  a  little  borax 
in  powder,  strewed  on  the  mixture  to  accelerate  the  reduction  of  th% 
The  borax  is  generally  th«  first  to  fuse,  and,  as  the  metal  ia 


MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  &c.,  RECEIPTS. 


tfiminated,  seems  to  purify  and  cleanse  it,  as  it  gathers  into  a  buttoji 
*t  the  bottom  of  the  crucible.  It  is  all  the  better  if  you  give  the  cruci- 
ble a  few  sharp  taps  when  you  take  it  off  the  fire. 

EFFECTS  OF  HEAT  ox  VARIOUS  BODIES. 


"    Silver    " 

1250 

"    '  bright  "                     ...  1860 

...  25-*8 

"      red  visible  by  day  1077 

3980 

"      white  2900 

OHBt              "               " 

3479 

759 

"       volatilizes                           680 

Reu  hot      "  in  twilight 

884 

Platinum  melts  3080 

2377 

Zinc  melts                                       74(V 

.  .  .    7*>0 

Highest  natural  temperature 

1900 

(Egvpt)                                   .     11T 

Greatest  natural  cold  (below 

..    951 

..     476 

"      artificial        "        "  106 

.  .  .     600 

Heat  of  human  blood  98 

jgteel              

2500 

Snow  and  Salt  equal  parts...        0 

Lead 

604 

Ice  melts                    32 

Tin  

421 

Water  in  vctcuo  boils  98 

Furnace  under  steam  boiler..  1100 

SHRINKAGE  OF  CASTINGS. 


Iron,  small  cylind's=l-16th  in.  per  ft 

"    Pipes =  £         "     "ft. 

"    Girders,  beams, 

ect =  J  in.  in  15  ins. 

"  Large  cylind- 
ers, the  con- 
traction of  di- 

l-16th  per  foot. 
l-12th  per  foot. 


ameter  at  top. 
Ditto  at  bottom.. 


Ditto,  in  length...  £   in   16   ins. 

Brass,  thin =  £  in  9  " 

Brass,  thick =|  in  10  " 

Zinc =5-I6ths  in  a  foot 

Lead =  5-16ths  "    " 

Copper =  3-16th8  "    " 

Bismuth =  5-32uds  "    " 


Green  sand  iron  castings  are  6  per  cent,  stronger  than  dry,  aiicf 
30  per  cent,  stronger  than  chilled,  but  when  the  castings  are  chilled 
and  annealed,  a  gain  of  115  per  cent,  is  attained  over  those  made  iu 
green  sand.  Chilling  the  under  side  of  cast  iron  very  materially  in- 
creases its  strength. 

To  REPAIR  CRACKED  BELLS. — The  discordant  tones  of  a  cracked 
bell  being  dufc  Co  the  jarring  of  the  rugged  uneven  edges  of  the  crack 
against  each  other,  the  best  remedy  that  can  be  applied  is  to  cut  a 
thin  slit  with  a  toothless  saw  driven  at  a  very  high  velocity,  gay  3  or 
4000  revolutions  per  minute,  in  such  a  manner  as  to  cut  away  the 
opposing  edges  of  the  fracture  whereever  they  come  in  contact.  This 
will  restore  the  original  tone  of  the  bell. 

To  GALVANIZE  GREY  IRON  CASTINGS. — Cleanse  the  articles  in  an 
ordinary  chaffing  mill,  which  consists  of  a  barrel  revolving  on  its  axis. 
containing  sand  ;  wrhen  the  sand  is  all  removed,  take  them  out  and 
heat  one  by  one,  plunging,  while  hot,  in  a  liquid  composed  as  follows: 
10  Ibs.  hydrochloric  acid  and  sufficient  sheet  zinc  to  make  a  saturated 
solution.  In  making  this  solution,  when  the  evolution  of  gas  has 
ceased,  add  muriate,  or  preferably  sulphate  of  ammonia  lib.,  and 
let  it  stand  till  dissolved.  "The  castings  should  be  so  hot  that  when 
dipped  in  this  solution,  and  instantly  removed,  they  will  immediate!/ 


{98         MACHINISTS,   ENGINEERS*,  AC.,  RECEIPTS. 

dry,  leaving  the  surface  crystallized  like  frost  work  on  a  window 
gkaue.  Next  plunge  them  while  hot,  but  perfectly  dry,  in  a  bath  of 
melted  zinc,  previously  skimming  the  oxide  on  the  surface  away,  and 
throwing  thereon  a  small  amount  of  powdered  sal  ammoniac.  If  th» 
articles  are  very  small,  inclose  them  in  a  wrought  iron  basket  on  a 
pole,  and  lower  them  into  the  metal.  When  this  is  done,  shake  off 
the  superfluous  metal,  and  cast  them  into  a  vessel  of  water  to  prevent ' 
them  adhering  when  the  zinc  solidifies. 

To  FIND  THE  SPEED  OF  A  CouNTER-SHAFT.-T-If  the  revolutions  of 
the  main  shaft  and  size  of  pulleys  are  given:  Multiply  the  revo- 
lutions of  the  main  shaft  by  the  diameter  in  inches  of  the  pulley,  and 
divide  by  the  diameter  in  inches  of  the  pulley  on  the  countershaft, 
the  quotient  will  be  the  number  of  revolutions. 

Example. — What  will  be  the  speed  of  a  counter-shaft  with  a  12  in. 
pulley  driven  by  a  30  in.  pulley  180  revolutions  per  minute:  1804- 
S0-f-12=450. 

To  FIND  THE  SIZE  OF  A  PULLEY  REQUIRED,  if  the  number  of  revo- 
Jntions  and  size  of  pulley  on  the  main  shaft  are  given:  Multiply  the 
diameter  in  inches  of  driving  pulley  by  the  revolutions  of  the  main 
shaft,  and  divide  by  the  speed  required;  the  quotient  will  be  the  di* 
ameter  in  niches  of  the  pulley. 

Example — What  will  be  the  diameter  of  a  pulley  to  make  a  coun- 
ter-shaft turn  450  revolutions  per  minute  driven  bv  a  30  inch  pul- 
ley 180  revolutions  per  minute  :  180-f-oO-f-450=12  in.  pulley. 

To  FIND  THE  SIZE  OF  A  PULLEY  FOR  A  MAIN  SHAFT,  if  the 
speed  of  shafts  and  diameter  of  pulley  on  the  counter-shaft  are 
given:  Multiply  the  diameter  in  inches  of  pulley  by  speed  of  the 
counter-shaft,  and  divide  by  the  revolutions  of  the  main  shaft;  the 
quotient  will  be  the  diameter  of  the  pulley. 

Example.— What  will  be  the  diameter  of  a  pulley  on  a  main  shaft, 
making  180  revolutions  per  minute,  to  drive  a  12  in.  450  revolutions 
t>er  minute :  450 X  12-^-180=30  inch  pulley. 

"  To  WELD  STEEL  AXLES.— To  insure  a  good  weld,  prepare  the  com- 
position described  on  page  270  for  welding  cast  steel.  Use  a  strong 
fire,  and  when  the  axle  is  brought  to  what  may  be  termed  a  bright 
red  heat,  apply  a  sufficiency  of  the  composition  and  return  it  to  the 
fire  until  the  heat  is  regained  once  more,  then  place  it  under  the 
hammer.  Be  careful  not  to  pu';  on  too  much  of  the  composition, 
otherwise  it  might  waste  in  the  fire,  and  by  its  affinity  for  metal  ob- 
struct the  tire  iron,  thereby  preventing  the  fire  from  receiving  the 
full  energy  of  the  blast,  and  thus  retarding  if  not  spoiling  the  nob. 

MILDEW  ON  SAILS  can  be  prevented  by  soaping  the  mildewed  parts 
and  then  rubbing  in  powdered  chalk.  The  growth  of  the  mildew 
fungus  can  be  prevented  by  steeping  the  canvas  in  an  aqueous  solu- 
tion of  corrosive  sublimate.  Another  way.  Slacked  lime  2  bushels, 
.draw  off  the  lime  water,  and  mix  k  with  120  gals,  water,  and  with 

To \IAKE  GUN  COTTON.— Take  dry  saltpetre,  |  oz. ;  strong  oil  vit- 
riol £  oz  Mix  in  a  tumbler,  add  20  grs.  of  dry  cotton  wool,  stir  with 
9.  glass  rod  5  minutes,  remove  the  cotton  and  wash  from  all  traces  oi 
thl  acid  in  4  or  5  waters;  then  carefully  dry  under  120°.  This  it 
£un  cotton. 


MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  Ac.,  RECEIPTS.    499 

To  KE^  WAGON  TIRES  ON  THE  WHEEL. — A  practical  mechanic 
fnggests  a  method  of  so  putting  tires  on  wagons  that  they  will  not 
get  loose  and  require  resetting.  He  says  he  ironed  a  wagon  some 

Ssars  ago  for  his  own  use,  and,  before  putting  on  the  tires,  he  tilled 
e  felloes  with  linseed  oil,  and  the  tires  have  worn  out  and  wer» 
jiever  loose.  This  method  is  as  follows :  He  used  a  long  cast  iron 
heater  made  for  the  purpose;  the  oil  is  brought  to  a  boiling  heat,  the 
wheel  is  placed  on  a  stick,  so  a?  to  hang  hi  the  oil,  each  felloe  an 
hour.  The  timber  should  be  dry,  as  green  timber  will  not  take  oil. 
Care  should  be  taken  that  the  oil  is  not  made  hotter  than  a  boiling; 
heat,  or  the  timber  will  be  burned.  Timber  rilled  with  oil  is  not  sus- 
ceptible  of  injury  by  water,  and  is  rendered  much  more  durable  by 
this  process. 

To  CHILL  CAST  IRON  YERY  HARD. — Use  a  liquid  made  as  follows: 
Soft  water,  10  gallons;  salt,  1  peck  ;  oil  vitriol,  A  pt. ;  saltpetre,  £  lb.; 
prussiate  of  potash,  £  lb. ;  cyanide  of  potash,  £  lb.  Heat  the  iron  a 
•cherry  red  and  dip  as  usual,"and  if  wanted  harder  repeat  the  process. 

ANOTHER  TO  HARDEN  CAST  IRON. — Salt,  2  Ibs. ;  saltpetre  £lb.; 
loche  alum,  J  lb. ;  ammonia,  4  ozs.;  salts  of  tartar,  4  ozs. ;  pulverize 
all  together  and  incorporate  thoroughly^  use  by  powdering  all  ove* 
the  iron  while  it  is  hot,  then  plunging  it  in  cold  water. 

FLUX  FOR  REDUCING  LEAD  ORE.— Red  argol,  6  parts;  nitre,  4  partsj 
fiuor  spar,  1  part;  grind  well  and  mix  thoroughly. 

VARNISH  FOR  SMOOTH  MOULDING  PATTERNS. — Alcohol,  1  gal.  j 
shellac  1  lb. ;  lamp  or  ivory  black,  sufficient  to  color  it. 

IRON  LUSTRE  is  obtained  by  dissolving  a  piece  of  zinc  with  muriatia 
»cid,  and  mixing  the  solution  with  spirit  of  tar,  and  applying  it  to  tl:a 
surface  of  the  iron. 

BLACK  HAVING  A  POLISH  FOR  IRON. — Pulverized  gum  asphaltum, 
2  Ibs. ;  gum  benzoin,  |  lb. ;  spirits  of  turpentine,  1  gal. ;  to  make  quick, 
keep  in  a  warm  place,  and  shake  often;  shade  to  suit  with  finely 
ground  ivory  black.  Apply  with  a  brush.  And  it  ought  to  be  used 
•on  iron  exposed  to  the  weather  as  well  as  on  inside  work  desiring  a 
nice  appearance  or  polish. 

VARNISH  FOR  IRON.— Asphaltum,  8  Ibs.:  melt  in  an  iron  kettle, 
»lowly  adding  boiled  linseed  oil,  5  gals. ;  litharge,  1  lb. ;  and  sulphate 
of  zinc,  ^  lb.  ;  continuing  to  boil  for  3  hours ;  then  add  dark  gura 
amber,  1£  Ibs. ;  and  continue  to  boil  2  hours  longer.  When  cool,  re- 
duce to  a  proper  consistence  to  apply  with  a  brush,  with  spirits  of 
turpentine 

To  SOFTEN  CAST  IRON  FOR  TURNING. — Steep  it  in  1  part  of  aqua- 
iortis  to  4  of  water,  and  let  it  remain  in  24  hours. 
,     CAST  IRON  ORNAMENTS  are  rendered  susceptible  of  being  finished 
Vith  a  scraper,  where  they  cannot  be  reached  with  files,  after  having 
the  folio  wing  liquid  applied  to  them: 

?  SCALING  CAST  IRON. — Vitriol,  1  part;  -water,  2  parts;  mix  and  lay 
on  the  diluted  vitriol  with  a  cloth  in  the  form  of  a  brush,  enough  to 
tvret  the  surface  well;  after  8  or  10  hours,  wash  off  with  water,  when 
the  hard,  scaly  surface  will  be  completely  removed. 

To  BREAK  UP  OLD  CANNON. — Old  cannon  and  massive  castings 
may  be  cut  in  two  by  a  continuous  stream  of  hot  molten  iron, 
which  wears  away  the  iron  as  a  stream  of  hot  water  would  eat 
into  a  mass  of  ico,  Or  the  gun  may  be  rolled  on  a  frame  to  the  mouth. 


3500      MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  &c.,  RECEIPTS. 

^f  a  furnace,  and  the  mnzzle  end  shoved  in  as  far  as  possible  amot** 
other  iron,  the  opening  filled  up  and  luted  around  the  gun,  the  end 
of  which  is  melted  off.  At  the  next  charge  shove  it  in  another  length, 
and  so  on  until  the  breech  is  disposed  of. 

Large  masses  of  cast  iron  may  be  broken  up  by  drilling  a  hole  hi  the 
the  most  solid  part,  filling  it  up  with  water,  fitting  a  steel  plug  very 
accurately  into  the  hole,  and  letting  the  drop  of  a  pile  driver  descend 
on  the  plug. 

AMAI^AM  FOB  MIRRORS. — 1.  Tin,  70  parts;  mercury,  30  parts;  2. 
(For  curbed  mirrors)  Tin,  80  parts  ;  mercury,  20  parts  ;  3.  Tin,  8.33 
Tarts  ;  l*ad,  8.34  parts  ;  bismuth,  8.33  parts  ;  mercury,  75  parts.  4. 
{For  sph  "rical  Mirrors)  Bismuth,  80  parts  ;  mercury,  26  parts. 

REFLECTOR  METAL.—!.  (Ditpplcr's)  Zinc,  20  parts;  silver,  80  parts; 
2.  Copper,  66.22  parts;  tin,  33.11  parts;  arsenic,  0.67  parts.  3.  (Coop- 
tr^s.)  Copper,  57.86  iparts  ;  tin,  27.28  parts  ;  zinc,  3.30  parts  ;  arsenic, 
1.66  par*s ;  platinum,  9.91  parts  ;  4.  Copper,  64  parts  ;  tin,  32.00 
farts  ;  arsenic,  4.00  parts.  5.  Copper,  82.18  parts  ;  lead,  9.22  parts  ; 
catimony,  8.60  parts.  6.  (Little's)  Copper,  69.01  parts ;  tin,  30.82 
parts  ;  zinc,  2.44  parts  ;  arsenic,  1.83  parts. 

METAL  FOR  GILT  WARES.—!.  Copper,  78.47  parts ;  tin,  2.87  parts ; 
zinc.  17.23  parts  ;  lead,  1.43  parts.  2.  Copper,  64.43  parts  ;  tin,  0.25 
farts  ;  zinc,  32.44  parts  ;  lead,  2.86  parts.  3.  Copper,  72.43  parts  ; 
tin,  1.87  parts  ;  zinc,  22.75  parts  ;  lead,  2.96  parts.  4.  Copper,  70.90- 
parts  ;  tin,  2.00  parts  ;  zinc,  24.05  parts  ;  lead,  3.05. 

AMALGAM  FOB  ELECTRICAL  MACHINES.—!.  Tin,  25  parts  ;  zinc, 
25  parts  ;  mercury,  50  parts.  2.  Tin,  11.11  parts  ;  zinc,  22.22  parts  ; 
mercury,  66.67  parts. 

TYPE  METAL. — 1.  For  smallest  and  most  brittle  types.— Lead,  & 
parts  ;  antimony,  1  part.  2.  For  small,  hard,  brittle  types. — Lead,  4 
parts ;  antimony,  1  part.  3.  For  types  of  medium  size. — Lead,  5- 
farts  ;  antimony,  1  part.  4.  For  large  types. — Lead,  7  parts  ;  anti- 
mony, 1  part.  5.  For  largest  and  softest  types. — Lead,  7  parts  ;  anti- 
mony, 1  part.  In  addition  to  lead  and  antimony,  type  metal  also  con- 
tains 4  to  8  per  cent,  of  tin,  and  sometimes  1  to  2  per  cent,  of  copper. 
6.  Stereotype  plates  are  made  of  lead,  20  parts  ;  antimony,  4  parts  ; 
tin,  1  part.  7.  Another  do. — Lead,  25  parts  ;  antimony,  4  parts  ;  tin,, 
1  part.  8.  Type  metal. — Lead,  4  parts;  antimony,  2  parts.  9.  Tough 
type  metal.— Lead,  100  parts  ;  antimony,  32  parts  ;  tin,  8  parts. 

DOWLAIS  IRON  WORKS,  (England.)  Furnaces.— Eight,  diameter  1ft 
to  18  feet,  1300  Tons  Forge  Iron  per  week  ;  discharging  44,000  cubic, 
ft  et  of  air  per  minute.  JSngine.  (noncondensing,)  Cylinder,  55  ins.  in 
d-am.  by  13  feet  stroke  of  piston.  Pressure  of  steam,  60  Ibs  per  square 
niich,  cut  off  at  ^  the  stroke  of  the  piston.  Valves,  120  ins.  in  area. 
Boilers.  Eight,  (Cylindrical  flue,  internal  furnace, )  7  feet  in  diam. 
and  42  feet,  hi  length ;  one  flue,  4  ft.  in  diam.  Grates,  288  square  feet, 
i'!y  wheel.  Diam.  22  feet,  weight,  25  tons.  Slowing  Cylinder,  144 
jia.  diam.  by  12  ft.  stroke  of  piston.  Revolutions,  20  per  minute. 
blast  3i  lba.Jber  square  inch,  Discharge  pipe,  diam.  5  ft.  and  420  feet 
iin  length.  Valves,  Exhaust,  56  square  feet,  delivery,  16  square  feet. 

To  ENAMEL  CAST  IRON  AND  HOLLOW  WARE. — 1.  Calcined  flints, 

5  parts  ;  Cornish  stone  or  composition,  two  parts  ;  litharge,  9  parts  ; 
borax,  6  parts  ;  argillaceous  earth,  1  part  ;  nitre1,  1  part  ;  cabc  of  tin. 

6  parts ;  purified  potash,  1  part.    2.  Calcined  flints,  8  parts ;  rea 


MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  *c.,  HECEIPTI.      501 

JMd,  8  parts  ;  borax,  6  parts  ;  calx  of  tin,  5  parts  ;  nitre,  1  part.  3 
Potters  composition,  12  parts  ;  borax,  8  parts ;  white  lead,  li 
parts;  nitre,  2  parts;  white  marble,  calcined  1  part;  purified  potash. 
2  parts  ;  calx  of  tin,  6  parts.  4.  Calcined  flints,  4  parts  ;  potters 
composition,  1  part ;  nitre,  2  parts  :  borax,  8  parts  ;  whito  marble, 
calcined,  1  part  ;  argillaceous  earth,  %  part  ;  calx  of  tin,  2  parts. 
Whichever  of  the  above  compositions  is  taken  must  be  finely  pow 
tiered,  mixed,  and  fused.  Tfie  vitreous  mass  is  to  be  ground  when 
cold,  sifted,  and  levigated  with  water  ;  it  is  then  made  into  a  pnp 
with  water  or  gum  water.  The  pap  is  smeared  or  brushed  over  tha 
interior  of  the  vessel,  dried,  and  fused  with  a  proper  heat  in  a  muffla 
Clean  the  vessels  perfectly  before  applying. 
RUSSIA  SHEET  IRON.— Russia  sheet  iron  is,  in  the  first  instance, 


a 

passing 

the  hot  sheet,  moistened  with  &  solution  of  wood-ashes,"  through 
polished  steel  rollers. 

LIQUID  BLACK  LEAD  POLISH. — Black  lead  pulverized  1  Ib.  ;  tur- 
pentine, 1  gill ;  water,  1  gill ;  sugar  1  oz. 

COPPERAS  DIP  FOB  CAST  IRON.— Dissolve  3  Ibs.  of  sulphate  of 
copper  and  add  2  fluid  ozs.  sulphuric  acid. 

ENAMELLED  CAST  IRON. — Clean  and  brighten  the  iron  beforo 
applying.  The  enamel  consists  of  two  coats — the  body  and  the  glaze. 
The  body  is  made  by  fusing  100  Ibs.  ground  flints,  75  Ibs.  of  borax, 
and  grinding  40  Ibs.  of  fa's  frit  with  5  Ibs.  of  potters'  clay,  in  water, 
*U  it  is  brought  to  the  eonsistence  of  a  pap.  A  coat  of  this  being 
applied  and  dried,  but  n  it  hard,  the  glaze-powder  is  sifted  over  it. 
This  consists  of  100  Ibs.  Cornish  stone  in  fine  powder,  117  Ibs.  of 
borax,  35  Ibs.  of  soda  ash,  35  Ibs.  of  nitre,  35  Ibs.  of  sifted  slacked 
lime,  13  Ibs.  of  white  sand,  and  50  pounds  of  pounded  white  gias*. 
These  are  all  iused  together  ;  the  frit  obtained  is  pulverized.  O.t 
this  powder,  45  Ibs.  are  mixed  with  1  Ib.  soda  ash,  in  hot  water,  and 
the  mixture  being  dried  in  a  stove,  is  the  glaze  powder.  After  sifting 
this  over  the  body-coat,  the  cast-iron  article  is  put  into  a  stove,  ke"  t 
at  a  temperature  of  about  212  °,  to  drv  it  hard,  after  which  it  is  set  in 
a  muffle-kiln,  to  fuse  it  into  a  glaze.  The  inside  of  pipes  is  enamelled 
(after  being  cleaned)  by  pouring  the  above  bodjr  composition  through 
them  while  the  pipe  is  being  turned  around  to  insure  an  equal  coat- 
ing ;  after  the  body  has  become  set,  the  glaze  pap  is  poured  in  in  lik« 
manner.  The  pipe  is  finally  fired  in  the  kiln. 

To  ENAMEL  COPPER  AND  OTHER  VESSELS. — Flint  glass,  6  parts  . 
borax,  3  parts  ;  red  lead,  1  part  ;  oxide  of  tin,  1  part.  Mix  all  to- 
gether, frit,  grind  into  powder,  make  into  a  thin  paste  with  water,  a]> 
ply  with  a  brusl  to  the  surface  of  the  vessels,  after  scaling  by  ner.t 
juid  cleaning  the:  n,  repeat  with  a  second  or  even  a  third  coat,  after 
%pards  dry,  and  lastly  fuse  on  by  heat  of  an  enamelled  kiln. 
)  EMERY  WHEEI^  FOR  POLISHING. — Coarse  emery  powder  is  mixed 
•With  about  half  its  weight  of  pulverized  Stourbridge  loam,  and  a  littla 
water  or  other  liauid  to  make  a  thick  paste  ;  this  is  pressed  into  a 
metallic  mould  by  means  of  a  screw-press,  and,  after  being  thorough"? 
dried,  is  baked  or  burned  in  a  muffle  at  a  temperature  above  a  red, 
tad  below  a  white  heat.  Thia  forms  an  artificial  emery  stone, 


602      MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  &c.,  RECEIPTS. 

cuts  very  greedily,  frith  very  little  wear  to  itself.    Unequalled  foe 
grinding  and  polishing  glass,  metals,  enamels,  stones,  &e. 

MOULDING  SAND  FOB  CASTING  BRASS  OR  IRON. — The  various  kind* 
of  good  moulding  sand  employed  in  foundries  for  casting  iron  or  brass, 
have  been  found  to  be  almost  uniform  chemical  composition,  varying 
in  grain,  or  the  aggregate  form  only.  It  contains  between  93  and  96 
parts  silex,  or  grains  of  sand,  and  from  4  to  6  parts  clay,  and  a  little 
oxide  of  iron,  in  each  100  parts.  Moulding  sand  which  contains  lime,  "* 
magnesia,  manganese  and  other  oxides  of  metal,  is  not  applicable, 
particular  for  the  casting  of  iron  or  brass.  Such  sand  is  either  too 
close,  will  not  stand  or  retain  its  form,  or  it  will  acuse  the  metal  to 
boil  through  its  closeness. 

REFINING  FLUXES,  FOR  METALS. — Deflagrate,  and  afterwards  pul- 
verize, 2  parts  of  nitre  and  1  part  of  tartar.  The  following  fluxes 
answer  very  well,  provided  the  ores  be  deprived  of  their  sulphur,  or 
if  they  contain  much  earthy  matter,  because,  in  the  latter  case,  they 
unite  with  them,  and  convert  them  into  a  thin  glass,  but,  if  any 
quantity  of  sulphur  remains,  their  fluxes  unite  with  it,  and  form  a. 
liver  of  sulphur,  which  has  the  power  of  destroying  a  portion  of  all 
the  metals,  consequently  the  assay  must  be,  under  such  circumstances, 
very  inaccurate.  Limestone,  fieldspar,  fluorspar,  quartz,  sand-slate, 
and  slags,  are  all  used  as  fluxes.  Iron  ores,  on  account  of  the  argilla- 
ceous earth  they  contain,  require  calcareous  additions;  and  the  copper 
ores,  rather  slags,  or  nitresceiit  stones,  than  calcareous  earth. 

BURNING  IRON  CASTINGS  TOGETHER. — The  usual  mode  is  by  imbed- 
ding the  castings  in  the  sand,  having  a  little  space  left  vacant  round 
about  the  joint  where  it  is  to  be  burned.  Two  gates  must  then  be 
provided,  one  lying  on  a  level  with  the  lower  side  of  this  space,  and 
the  other  raised  so  that  the  metal,  which  must  be  very  hot,  is  poured 
in  at  the  higher  one;  it  passes  round,  fills  up  the  space,  and  runs  off 
at  the  lower  gate.  A  constant  supply  of  metal  is  thus  kept  up,  till  ths 
parts  of  the  casting  are  supposed  to  be  on  the  eve  of  melting.  The 
lower  gate  is  then  closed,  and  the  supply  stopped.  When  cool,  and 
the  superfluous  metal  chipped  off,  it  ^forms  as  strong  a  joint  as  if  it 
had  been  original. 

CORNISH  REDUCING  FLUX. — Tartar  lOoza.,  nitre  3ozs.  and  6  drg. 
borax,  3  oz.  and  1  dr.  Mix  together. 

CRUCIBLES. — The  best  crucibles  are  made  from  pure  fire-clay,  mixedi 
with  finely-ground  cement  of  old  crucibles,  and  a  portion  of  black-lead' 
or  graphite;  some  pounded  coke  maybe  mixed  with  the  plumbago. 
The  clay  should  be  prepared  in  a  similar  way  as  for  making  pottery- 
ware;  the  vessels,  after  being  formed  must  be  slowly  dried,  and  then 
properly  bafced  in  the  kiln. 

BlacK-lead  crucibles  are  made  of  2  parts  graphite,  and  1  of  fire- 
clay, mixed  with  water  into  a  paste,  pressed  in  moulds,  and  well  dried, 
but  not  baked  hard  in  the  kiln.  This  compound  forms  excellent 
small  or  portable  furnaces. 

MALLEABLE  CAST  Iron.— Tfie  great  secret  of  this  sort  of  work  is  . 
the  antealing,  which  if  not  done  properly  the  castings  are  of  no  use 
nt  all.  The  best  mode  is  to  take  an  iron  pan,  say  one  foot  square; 
pot  in  a  layer  of  charcoal,  then  some  of  the  castings,  then  another 
layer.  When  the  pan  is  full  cover  it  over  with  some  sand,  to  keep  fh* 
charcoal  from  burning  away.  Put  on  an  old  piece  at  iron  for  *  lid  to 


MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  Ac.,  RECEIPTS.       503 

Coverall,  put  it  in  the  annealing  furnace,  and  get  the  heat  up  qurfct 
liow  and  gradually,  taking  care  not  to  get  the  heat  up  too  quick. 
After  you  have  got  it  to  the  proper  heat,  which  is  this,  the  castings 
must  be  red  hot  through ;  keep  it  at  this  heat  for  5  or  6  hours,  then  let 
your  fire  4ie  gradually  out,  or,  if  you  waujt  to  take  some  out  and  put 
more  in,  take  them  to  a  corner  and  bury  them,  pan  and  all, — let  them 
lie  there  till  properly  cooled.  Regarding  the  melting,  procure  BO* 
less  thai;  two  good  sorts  of  No.  2  pig  iron,  -which  you  may  mix  with. 
come  good  scrap  if  you  choose ;  the  casting,  melting,  and  moulding  are 
conducted  in  the  same  manner  as  common  cast-iron,  only  the  metal 
"being  hard,  when  casting,  you  have  to  make  properly  constructed 
runners  and  risers,  or  flow  gates,  if  tho  article  is  likely  to  sink,  lor 
yon  cannot  pump  it  well. 

JAPANNING  CASTINGS. — Clean  them  well  from  the  sand,  then  dip 
them  in  or  paint  them  over  with  good  boiled  linseed  oil ;  when 
moderately  dry,  heat  them  in  an  oven  to  such  a  temperature  as  will 
turn  the  oil  black,  without  burning.  The  stove  should  not  be  too  hot 
at  first,  and  the  heat  should  be  gradually  raised  to  avoid  blistering ; 
the  slower  the  change  in  the  oil  is  effected  the  better  will  be  tha 
result.  The  castings,  if  smooth  at  first,  will  receive  a  fine  black  and 
polished  surface  by  this  method. 

HARDENING  AXLETREES  AND  BOXES.— The  method  now  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  Murphy's  axletrees  is  to  use  wrought  iron  and 
•weld  two  pieces  of  steel  into  the  lower  side,  where  they  rest  upon  tha 
wheels  and  sustain  the  load.  The  work  is  heated  in  an  open  forgs 
fire,  in  the  ordinary  way,  and  when  it  is  removed,  a  mixture,  princi- 
pally prussiate  of  potash,  is  laid  upon  the  steel ;  the  axletree  is  then 
immediately  immersed  in  water,  and  additional  water  is  allowed  to 
fall  upon  it  from  a  cistern.  The  steel  is  considered  to  be  very  ma- 
terially hardened  by  the  treatment,  and  the  iron  around  the  same  is 
also  partially  hardened.  One  very  good  way  to  chill  axletree  boxes  is 
to  mould  from  wooden  patterns  on  sand,  and  cast  them  upon  an  iron 
core  which  has  the  effect  of  making  them  very  hard.  To  form  the 
annular  recess  for  oil,  a  ring  of  sand,  made  in  an  appropriate  core- 
"box,  is  slipped  upon  the  iron  mandrill,  and  is  left  behind  when  the 
atter  is  driven  out  of  the  casting. 

COMPOSITE  IRON  RAILINGS.— The  process  ty  which  this  light,  ele- 
gant and  cheap  fabric  is  manufactured,  is  as  follows  : — Rods  and  bars 
of  wrought-iron  are  cut  to  the  lengths  desired  for  the  pattern,  and 
subjected  to  a  process  called  crimping,  by  which  they  are  bent  to  th« 
desired  shape.  These  rods  are  then  laid  in  the  form  of  the  design, 
and  cast-iron  moulds  are  affixed  at  those  points  where  a  connection  ia 
desired  ;  the  moulds  are  then  filled  with  melted  metal,  and  immedi- 
ately you  have  a  complete  railing  of  beautiful  design.  Casting  in 
•  iron  moulds  has  this  great  advantage  over  the  old  sand  moulding,  it 
does  not  require  any  time  for  cooling,  as  the  metal  is  no  sooner  ruir 
,  than  the  moulds  may  be  removed  and  used  again  immediately  on 
'  another  section  of  the  work  ;  and  besides,  it  is  so  much  more  easily 
effected.  By  the  combination  of  wrought  and  cast-iron  in  this  pro- 
'  cess,  the  most  curious  and  complex  designs  may  be  produced  with, 
great  rapidity  and  cheapness. 

To  GALVANIZE  CAST  IRON  THROUGH.— To  50  Ibs.  melted  iron  add  1 
Ik  pulverized  pure  zinc.  Scatter  the  zinc  powder  well  over  the 


004      MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS",  &c.,  RECEIPTS. 

then  catch  the  melted  iron,  stir  it  up  -with  an  iron  rod  and  pout  a* 
once. 

To  OBTAIN  COMMERCIAL  ANTIMONY.— Fuse  together  100  parts  sul- 
yhuret  of  antimony,  40  parts  metallic  iron,  and  10  parts  dry  cruda 
sulphate  of  soda.  This  produces  from  GO  to  65  parts  of  antimony, 
Besides  the  scoriae  or  ash  which  is  also  valuable.  Metallic  Antimony. 
Mix  16  parts  sulphuret  of  antimony  and  6  parts  cream  of  tartar,  both 
*n  powder ;  put  the  mixture,  in  small  quantities  at  a  time,  into  a 
Tessel  heated  to  redness  ;  when  reaction  ceases,  fuse  the  mass  and 
ifter  15  minutes,  pour  it  out  and  separate  the  metal  from  the  slag. 
The  product  is  nearly  pure. 

HOLES  IK  MILLSTONES  are  filled  with  melted  alum,  mixing  burr 
fand  with  it.  If  the  hole  is  large,  put  some  pieces  of  burr  mill  stones 
jii  it  first,  and  pour  in  melted  alum.  These  pieces  of  block  should  be 
cut  exactly  to  fit.  There  should  be  small  joints,  and  fastened  with 
plaster  of  Paris.  These  holes  should  be  cut  at  least  4  inches  deep  ; 
there  is  then  no  danger  of  their  getting  loose. 

FITTING  A  NEW  BACK  ON  AN  OLD  MILLSTONE. — Block  your 
etone  up  with  a  block  of  wood,  having  its  face  down  until  it  lies  even, 
(solid,  and  perfectly  level ;  then  pick  and  scrape  off  all  the  old  plaster 
down  to  the  face  blocks,  so  that  none  remains  but  what  is  in  the  joints 
of  the  face  blocks  ;  then  wash  these  blocks,  and  keep  them  soaked 
with  water.  Keep  a  number  of  pieces  of  *>urr  blocks,  at  the  sama 
time,  soaked  with  water.  Take  a  pail  half  tilled  with  clean  water, 
and  mixed  with  2  tablespoonf  uls  of  glue  water,  boiled  and  dissolved  ; 
mix  in  with  your  hand  plaster  of  Paris  until  it  be  thick  enough  that 
it  will  not  run  ;  and,  breaking  all  the  lumps,  pour  this  on  the  stone, 
rubbing  it  with  your  hand  ;  the  stone  being  at  the  same  time  damped ; 
and  place  small  pieces  of  stone  all  o  ier  the  joints  of  the  face  blocks  ; 
you  then,  with  more  plaster,  mixed  jn  the  same  way  but  more  stiffC 
with  this  and  pieces  of  burr  stones,  build  walls  round  the  eye  ana 
verge  4  or  5  inches  high,  leaving  tlie  surface  uneven  and  the  eya 
larger,  as  it  will  be  brought  to  its  proper  size  by  the  last  operation. 
It  is  better  to  build  up  the  wall  of  the  running  stone  round  the  verge 
for  3  inches  without  any  spalls,  so  that  the  noles  may  be  cut  in  to 
balance  it.  If  you  wish  to  make  your  stone  heavier,  you  will  take 
email  pieces  of  iron,  perfectly  clean  and  free  from  grease,  and  lay 
them  evemy  all  around  the  stone  in  the  hollow  place  between  the 
two  walls  just  built ;  and,  with  plaster  mixed  a  little  thicker  than 
milk,  pour  in  under  and  through  all  the  crevices  in  the  iron  until  the 
surface  is  nearly  level  with  the  two  walls.  If  the  stones  do  not  re- 
ouire  additional  weight  added,  instead  of  iron,  use  pieces  of  stone 
the  sama  way,  leaving  the  surface  rough  and  uneven.  Again,  aa 
before,  tuild  walls  round  the  verge  of  the  stone,  and  round  the  eye  of 
the  stone,  until  they  are  within  2  inches  of  the  thickness  you  want 
your  stones  to  be,  the  wall  round  the  eye  ^eing  2  inches  higher  than 
that  round  the  verge,  and  filling  the  space  between  the  walls  with 
stones  ;  and  pouring  in  plaster  again,  make  it  nearly  level  with  the 
walls,  but  leaving  the  surface  rough  and  jagged,  to  make  the  next 
plaster  adhere  well  to  it.  Let  it  stand  until  the  back  is  dry  and 
perfectly  set,  when  you  raise  the  stone  upon  its  edge,  and,  with  a 
trowel,  plaster  round  the  edge  of  the  stone  neatly,  giving  it  a  taper  of 
toll  an  inch  from  the  lace  to  the  back  ol  the  stcue. 


MACHINISTS.  ENGINEERS',  &c..  RECEIPTS. 

frooncT  in  this  way,  lay  the  stone  down  on  the  cock-head  •,  it  being  in 
the  balance  ryne,  but  the  driver  off,  then  raise  the  spindle,  and 
.balance  the  stone  as  already  directed  before  putting  on  the  remainder 
of  the  back.  Then  have  a  tin  made  the  siz,o  of  the  eye,  and  to  reach 
from  the  balance  ryne  to  the  thickness  you  want  the  stone  to  be  at  th« 
1 J  eye.  This  tin  should  bo  exactly  fitted  to  its  place,  and  made  fast ;  then  fit 
( j,  hoop  of  wood  or  iron  round  the  verge,  having  the  upper  edge  of  the 
'<*l:*ekness  from  the  face  you  want  the  stone  to  be  at  the  verge,  and  equal 
»il  round.  This  hoop  should  be  greased;  and,  all  the  cracks  round  it, 
&nd  tie  tin  hi  the  eye,  being  stopped,  you  pour  thin  plaster  (with 
more  glue  water  than  in  previous  operations,  to  prevent  it  from  setting 
so  quickly,  and  to  give  time  to  finish  off  the  back  correctly)  until  it  be 
level  with  the  hoop  round  the  verge,  and  with  a  straight  edge,  one 
«iid  resting  on  the  hoop,  and  the  other  end  resting  on  the  tin  at  the 
eye ;  then,  by  moving  it  round,  and  working  the  plaster  with 
a  trowel,  make  the  surface  of  the  back  even  and  smooth  between 
these  two  points.  The  hoop  is  then  taken  off,  and  the  back  and  edges 
planed  smooth  ;  then  lower  the  spindle  until  your  runner  lies  solid. 
and  put  your  band  or  hoop  on,  it  being  first  miide  nearly  red  hot,  and 
taking  care  that  it  is  of  sufficient  size  not  to  require  too  much  driving  ; 
if  fitting  too  tightly,  it  may  loosen  the  back  in  driving  it  to  its  proper 
place ;  it  may  be  cooled  gently  by  pouring  water  on  it;  and,  when 
cool,  it  should  fit  tight. 

BALANCING  A  MILLSTONE.— First,  take  off  the  driver,  that  the 
etone  may  have  full  play  on  the  cock-head  ;  then  raise  the  spindle  so 
that  there  may  be  room  between  the  stone  to  see  the  balance.  Find  the 
heaviest  parts,  and  near  the  verge  lay  on  sufficient  weight  to  balance 
it  Cut  a  hole  in  the  back  of  the  stone,  as  deep  as  you  can  make  it 
and  as  near  the  verge  as  possible  that  the  binding  iron  hoop  of  the 
stone  may  keep  the  lead  in  its  place.  This  hole  should  be  wider  at 
the  bottom  than  the  top  in  order  to  retain  the  lead  when  the  stone  te 
in  motion,  and  into  this  the  melted  lead  should  be  poured  until  it 
brings  the  stone  completely  into  balance.  When  the  lead  is  cold, 
cover  over  with  mixed  plaster,  even  with  the  back  of  the  stone. 

COMPOSITION  TO  KEEP  MILLSTONES  CLEAN.— Hot  water,  1  gal ; 
borax,  2  os  ;  washing  soda,  £  Ib.  and  3  balls  of  the  size  of  a  hazel 
nut  each,  of  sal  prunel.  Mix  and  apply  it  to  the  burrs  with  a 
«crubbiii<£  brush.  When  grinding  garlic  wheat  it  is  not  necessary  to 
take  up  the  burrs  at  all.  It  is  sufficient  to  drop  through  the  eye  of 
the  buir  twice  per  day  one  of  the  above  described  balls  of  sal  prunel, 
and  that  will  keep  the  burrs  sharp  and  clean,  enabling  the  miller  at 
f  &11  seasons  to  use  the  No.  13  bolt,' to  make  finer  flour  and  in  greater 
(quantity  than  usual. 

)  MILL  DAMS.— When  building  a  dam,  you  should  select  the  most 
suitable  place.  If  you  can,  place  it  across  the  stream  near  a  rocky 
fcluif  so  that  the  end  of  the  dam  may  run  into  the  bluff.  This 
will  prevent  the  water  running  by  at  the  ends  of  the  dam.  Build 
your  dam  very  strong  ;  if  this  is  not  done,  they  are  breaking  up 
often,  causing  ruinous  expense  in  money  and  loss  of  time. 

FLOUR  MILL  MACHINERY.— For  each  pair  of  4  feet  stones,  with  an 
the  necessary  diessing  machinery,  etc.,  there  is  required  15  horses' 
jx>wei.  Stones,  4  ft.  diam.,  120  to  140  revolutions  per  minute. 
Pressing  Machines,  21  ins.  diam.,  450  to  500  revolutions  per 


$06      MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  &c.,  RECEIPTS. 

Elevator,  18  ins.  diam.,  40  revolutions  per  minute.    Creepers,  t. 

pitch,  75  revolutions  per  minute.  Screen,  16  ins.  diam.,  300  to  359 
revolutions  per  minute.  788  cubic  feet  of  water,  discharged  at  * 
velocity  of  1  foot  per  second,  are  necessary  to  grind  and  dress  a  bushel! 
of  wheat  per  hour=1.40  horses'  power  per  bushel.  2000  feet  pes^ 
minute  for  the  velocity  of  a  stone  4  feet  in  diam.  may  be  considered  a  . 
maximum  speed. 

ROCK  DAMS  are  incomparably  the  best  in  use,  if  there  is  plenty  of  >. 
material  at  hand  for  building,  and  a  rock  bottom  to  the  stream;  if 
there  is  not  a  rock  bottom  you  should  dig  a  trench  in  the  bottom,  deep 
enough,  so  that  the  water  cannot  undermine  it.  This  should  bo  tho 
same  as  if  you  were  building  the  foundation  of  a  large  building.  Tho 
wall  to  be  built  should  be  of  a  small  circular  form,  so  that  the  back  of 
the  circle  should  be  next  to  the  body  of  water,  which  may  by  its 
pressure  tighten  it.  To  secure  the  water  from  leaking  through  at  the 
ends  of  the  dam,  dig  a  ditch  deeper  than  the  bottom  of  the  river  ;  then 
fill  this  with  small  pieces  of  rock,  and  pour  in  cement.  This  cement 
is  made  of  hydraulic  cement,  and  is  made  of  one  part  of  cement  to 
five  parts  of  pure  sand.  It  will  effectually  stop  all  crevices.  A  reck 
dam  if  well  built  will  be  perfectly  tight.  Use  as  you  conveniently  can 
move  ;  building  this  wall  4  to  6  feet  thick,  according  to  the  length  of 
the  dam,  with  jam  or  buttressess  every  place  where  they  are  needed 
to  strengthen  it;  make  true  joints  to  these  rocks,  especially  on  the  enda 
so  that  they  may  join  close  together.  When  you  have  the  outside  walls 
laid  in  cement  for  every  layer  fill  the  middle  up  with  pieces  of  small 
rock,  pouring  in  your  grout,  so  that  there  may  not  be  a  crevice  but 
what  is  filled.  If  there  is  any  crevice  or  hole  left  open,  the  water  will 
"break  through,  wearing  it  larger  and  larger.  If  the  stream  is  wide  and 
large,  it  is  necessary  to  build  the  dam  in  two  sections,  which  should 
"be  divided,  by  a  waste  way,  necessary  for  the  waste,  or  surplus  water, 
to  run  over,  to  keep  the  head  in  its  proper  place  or  height.  Let  each 
section,  next  to  where  the  water  is  to  be  run  over,  be  abutments,  built 
to  strengthen  the  dam.  The  last  layer  of  rock,  on  the  top  where  the 
waste  wafer  runs  over,  should  project  5  or  6  inches  over  the  back  of 
the  dam  »o  that  the  water  may  not  undermine  it.  This  last  layer 
should  b-d  of  large  rocks  and  jointed  true  ;  then  laid  in  hydraulio 
cement,  in  proportion  of  1  of  cement  to  3  of  sand.  When  the  dam  is 
guilt,  the  front  should  be  tilled  up  "with,  coarse  gravel  or  clay  ;  tiiis  ia 
best  done  with  teams,  for  the  more  it  is  tramped  thd  more  durable  it 
becomes. 

FRAME-DAMS. — In  building  a  frame  dam,  commence  with  a  good 
foundation,  laying  the  first  sills  in  the  bottom,  of  sufficient  depth. 
They  should  be  large  square  timbers  that  will  last  in  the  water  with*/ 
out  rotting.  Where  there  is  a  soft  foundation,  the  bottom  should  first 
be  made  level ;  then  dig  trenches  for  the  mudsills,  about  7  or  8  feet 
apart,  lengthways  of  the  stream,  and  10  or  12  feet  long.  Into  these 
first  sills  other  sills  must  be  framed,  and  put  crosswise  of  the  stream, 
6  or  8  feet  apart,  to  reach  as  far  across  the  stream  as  neceysary.  Then 
two  outside  sills  should  be  piled  down  with  2-inch  plank  driven  down 
to  a  depth  of  4  or  5  feet.  If  this  can  be  done  conveniently,  they  are  to 
be  jointed  as  closely  as  possible.  It  would  be  better  to  line  with  some 
ftuff  1  inch  thick  :  then  with  posts  their  proper  length,  about  12  or  14 
taefatt  square,  -which  should  be  framed  into  the  uppermost  full,  in  both 


MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  &c.,  RECEIPTS.      507 

,  and  all  the  way  across  the  dam,  from  bank  to  bank,  at  a  distance 
Of  6  feet  apart.  Then,  with  braces  to  each  post,  to  extend  two-thirds 
of  the  length  of  the  post,  where  they  should  be  joined  together  with  a 
lock,  instead  of  a  mortise  and  tenon,  with  an  iron  bolt  I  or  l£  inches 
in  diameter,  going  through  botn,  and  tightened  with  a  screw  and  nut. 
'When  mortises  and  tenons  are  used,  they  often  become  rotten  and 
useless  in  a  few  years.  These  braces  should  be  set  at  an  angle  of  50 
•or  GO0  with  the  other  end  mortised  into  the  mud  sill.  These  braces  re- 
<mire  to  be  about  6  to  8  inches,  and  as  long  as  you  find  necessary  ;  be- 
ing covered  with  dirt  it  will  not  decay  for  a  long  time,  as  the  air  is 
excluded.  These  posts  should  be  capped  from  one  to  the  other,  plate 
fashion.  The  posts  should  be  lined  with  2  or  2|  Inch  plank  on  the  in- 
eide,  pinned  to  the  plank,  and  should,  in  the  middle,  be  filled  in  with 
dirt. 

^  If  the  stream  is  large  and  wide,  the  dam  should  be  built  in  two  sec- 
tions, which  shoold  be  divided  by  a  waste- way  for  the  surplus  water, 
•which  should  be  in  the  centre  of  the  dam,  and  sufficient  for  all  the 
•waste-water  to  run  over.  Let  each  section  of  the  dam  form  an  abut- 
ment next  to  the  waste-way,  placing  cells  or  sills  4  feet  apart  the 
length  of  the  waste- way  ;  in  each  of  these  sills,  posts  should  be  framed 
with  a  brace  for  the  sides.  These  rows  of  posts,  standing  "cross  the 
dam,  will  form  the  sectional  abutments  ;  the  middle  one  may  be  con* 
ctructed  by  being  lengthways  of  the  stream,  with  short  braces,  so  that 
they  will  not  be  in  the  way  of  drift-wood  passingdown  the  stream  ; 
it  being  necessary  for  strong  pieces  for  a  bridge.  Then  cover  the  sills 
with  an  apron  of  2-inch,  plank  joined  perfectly  straigb-t,  to  extend  30 
or  40  feet  below  the  dam,  to  prevent  undermining  of  the  dam.  The 
plants  wAich  are  used  for  the  purpose  of  lining  the  posts  which 
form  the  abutments  of  each  section  of  the  dam,  and  the  ends  of  the 
waste-way,  should  be  truly  pointed,  so  as  to  prevent  any  leakage. 
The  dam  being  built,  the  dirt  should  be  filled  in  with  teams,  as  the 
more  it  is  tramped  the  better.  Clay  or  coarse  gravel  is  the  best 
Then  place  your  gates  on  the  upper  side  of  the  waste-way,  the  size 
ttiat  is  necessary  to  a  level  with  low-water  mark  ;  which  gates  are  not 
to  be  raised  except  in  times  of  high  water,  as  the  proper  height  of  the 
mill-pond  should  be  regulated  by  boards  placed  over  the  gate  for  the 
desired  head,  as  the  water  should  be  allowed  pas?  at  all  times  freely 
over  them.  To  strengthen  the  dam,  if  you  think  necessary,  2-inch 
plank  maybe  used  in  lining  the  front  side  of  the  dam,  long  enough  t» 
reach  from  the  bottom  of  the  stream  (on  an  inclined  plane,  and  next 
to  the  body  of  water  to  the  top  of  the  dam,  and  filled  up  nearly  to 
the  top  of  the  dam  with  clay  or  gravel  well  trampled  down. 

BRUSH  OB  LOG  BAMS  are  very  of  ten  used  in  small,  muddy  streams 
When  the  bottom  of  the  stream  is  of  a  soft  nature,  take  u  f.at  boat 
•where  you  want  to  fix  your  dam,  and  drive  piles  the  whole  length  of  the 
stream,  about  3  or  4  feet  apart,  as  deep  as  you  can.  Take  young  oak 
saplings  pointed  at  the  end,  for  the  purpose.  If  you  can,  construct  a 
regular  pile-driver,  similar  to  those  in  use  for  making  trestle- work  on 
the  railways.  This  weight  may  be  pulled  up  by  horses  instead  of  a^ 
engine.  When  you  have  finished  driving  piles,  make  some  boxes  or 
troughs  of  2  or  3  inch  plank,  about  3  feet  wide  and  as  long  as  the 
plank  is.  Sink  these  in  the  water  the  length  of  the  dam,  close  to  the 
piles,  by  loading  them  with  rock,  until  they  are  at  the  bottom  ot  thr 


508         MACHINISTS,    ENQINEEBS',    AC.,    RECEIPTS. 

gtream,  filling  in  the  front  part  of  the  dam  with  dirt  and  brush,  netwly 
to  the  height  you  want  it.  This  kind  of  a  dam  will  last  a  long  tame. 

Whenever  there  is  a  small  break  in  the  dam  or  race,  cut  up  som» 
willows  and  brush,  put  them  hi  the  break  along  with  some  straw  and 
dirt,  and  ram  them  down  with  clay. 

In  regard  to  the  flume,  the  greatest  care  must  be  taken  to  insure 

•trength  and  durability  combined  with  tightness.    Every  step  taken 

in  its  construction  must  be  of  such  a  nature  as  to  unite  these  qualities 

'  in  the  highest  possible  degree,  otherwise  the  whole  is,  in  a  manner, 

labor  lost. 

BBONZING  COMPOSITIONS,  32  KINDS. — 1.  Silver  white  Bronzing  Paw* 
der. — Melt  together  1  oz.  each,  bismuth  and  tin,  tlieu  add  1  oz.  quick- 
eilver,  cool  and  powder.  2.  Gold  colored  Bronze  Powder. — Verdigris, 
8  ozs. ;  tutty  powder,  4  ozs. ;  borax  and  nitre,  of  each  2  ozs. ;  bichloride 
of  mercury,  \  oz. ;  make  into  a  paste  with  oil  and  fuse  them  together. 
Used  hi  japanning  a*  a  gold  color.  3.  Beautiful  Red  Bronze  Powder. 
— Sulphate  of  copper,  100  parts;  carbonate  of  soda,  60  parts;  apply 
heat  until  they  unite  into  a  mass.  4.  Acid  Bronze. — Cobalt,  4  Ibs. ; 
pulverize;  eii't  thro  ugh  a  fine  sieve;  put  in  a  stone  pot;  add  £  gaL 
nitric  acid,  a  little  at  a  time,  stirring  frequently  for  24  hours;  then  add 
about,  5  gals,  muriatic  acid,  or  until  the  work  comes  out  a  dark  brown. 
&  Alkali  Bronze. — Dissolve  5  Ibs.  nitrate  of  copper  in  3  gals,  of  water; 
and  5  Ibs.  pearlash;  add  1  or  2  pts.  potash  water;  then  add  from  2  to  3 
Ibs.  sal  ammoniac  or  until  the  work  comes  out  the  required  color.  6. 
Coating  Dip. — Sulphate  of  zinc,  8  Ibs. ;  oil  of  vitriol,  5  gals. :  aquafor- 
tis, |  gal.  To  use,  warm  up  scalding  hot.  7.  Q  u  ick  Bright  Inpping  Acid, 
for  Brass  ichich  has  been  Ormolued. — Sulphuric  acid,  1  gal. ;  nitric  acid, 
Igal.  8.  Dipping  Acid. — Sulphuric  acid,  12  Ibs. ;  nitric  acid,  1  pt. ;  nitre, 
4 Ibs. ;  soot,  2  handfuls;  brimstone,  2  ozs.;  pulverize  the  brimstone 
and  soak  it  in  water  1  hour,  add  the  nitric  acid  last  9.  Good  Dip- 
ping Acid  for  cast  Brass.— Sulphuric  acid,  1  qt. ;  nitre,  1  qt. ;  a  littb 
muriatic  acid  may  be  added  or  omitted.  10.  Ormolu  Dipping  Acid 
for  Sheet  -Brass.— Sulphuric  acid,  2  gals. ;  nitric  acid,  1  pt. ;  muriatic 
acid,  1  pt;  nitre,  12  Ibs. ;  put  in  the  muriatic  acid  last,  a  little  at  a  time, 
and  stirring  the  mixture  with  a  stick.  11.  Dipping  Acid. — Sulphuric 
acid,  4  gals. ;  nitric  acid,  2  gals. ;  saturated  solution  of  sulphate  of  irom 
1  pt. ;  solution  of  sulphate  of  copper,  1  qt.  12.  Ormolu  Dipping  Acid 
for  cast  Brass.— Sulphuric  acid,  Igal.;  sal  ammoniac,  1  oz. ;  sulphur  (ia 
flour)  1  oz. ;  blue  vitriol,  1  oz. ;  saturated  solution  of  zinc  in  nitm 
acid,  1  gal. ;  mixed  with  an  equal  quantity  of  sulphuric  acid.  13L 
Vinegar  Bronze  for  Brass. — Vinegar,  10  gals.;  blue  vitriol,  3  Ibs.; 
muriatic  acid  3  Ibs. ;  corrosive  sublimate,  4  ozs. :  sal  ammoniac,  2  Ibs. ; 
alum,  8  ozs.  14.  Antique  Bronze  Paint. — Sal  ammoniac,  1  oz. ;  cream 
of  tartar,  3  ozs. ;  common  salt,  6  pzg. ;  dissolve  in  1  pt.  hot  water;  then 
add  nitrate  of  copper,  2  ozs.;  dissolve  in  \  pt  water;  mix  well  and 
apply  it  to  the  article  in  a  damp  place  with  a  brush.  15.  Blue  Bronze, 
en  Copper. — Clean  and  polish  well,  then  cover  the  surface  with  a  fluid 
obtained  by  dissolving  verrnillion  in  a  warm  solution  of  sodium,  to 
which  some  caustic  potash  has  been  added.  16.  Bronze  Dip, — Sal 
ammoniac  1  oz. ;  salt  of  sorrel,  (biuoxolate  of  potash)  £  oz. ;  dissolved 
in  vinegar.  17.  Parisian  Bronze  Dip. — Sal  ammoniac,  ^  oz. ;  common 
salt,  £  oz.  j  spirits  at  hartshorn,  1  oz. ;  dissolved  in  an  English  qt.  of 
vinegar,  a  good  result  will  be  obtained  by  adding  £  oz.  sal  ammouiat 


.MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  &c.,  RECEIPTS.       39i 

ingtcad  of  spts.  of  hartshorn;  the  piece  of  metal  being  well  clear sd 
*  is  to  be  rubbed  with  one  of  these  solutions,  then  dried  by  friction  with. 
s  fresh  brush.  18.  Green  Dip. — Wine  vinegar,  2  qts. ;  verditer  green, 
2  ozs.;  sal  ammoniac  1  oz. ;  salt,  2  ozs. ;  alum,  ^  oz. ;  French  berries, 
$  ozs. ;  boil  the  ingredients  together.  19.  Aquafortis  Dip. — Nitric  acid^ 
8  ozs. ;  muriatic  acid,  1  qt. ;  sal  ammoniac,  2  ozs. ;  alum,  1  oz. ;  salt, 
2  ozs.  20.  Olive  Bronze  Dip  for  Brass. — Nitric  acid,  3  ozs. ;  muriatic 
^cid,  2  ozs. ;  add  titanium  or  palladium,  -when  the  metal  is  dissolved 
add  2  gals,  pure  soft  water  to  each  pt.  of  the  solution.  21.  Brown 
Bronze  Paint  for  Copper  Vessels. — Tinct.  of  steel,  4ozs. ;  spts.  of  nitra 

4  ozs. ;   blue  vitriol,  1  oz. ;  water,  ^  pt. ;  mix  in  a  bottle,  apply  it  with 
a  fine  brush,  the  vessel  being  full  of  boiling  water.  Varnish  after  the 
application  of  the  bronze.    22.  Bronze  for  all  kinds  of  Metal. — Muriate 
of  ammonia,  (sal  ammoniac)  4  drs. ;  oxalic  acid,  1  dr.;  vinegar,  1  pt; 
dissolve  the  oxalic  acid  first;  let  the  work  be  clean,  put  on  the  bronze 
with  a  brush,  repeating  the  operation  as  many  times  as  may  be 
necessary.    23.  Green  Bronze. — Dissolve  2  ozs.  nitrate  of  iron,  and  2 
ozs.  hyppsulphate  of  soda  in  1  pt  of  water;  immerse  the  article  until 
the  required  shade  is  obtained,  as  almost  any  shade  from  brown  to 
red  can  be  obtained  according  to  the  time  of  immersion,  then  well 
wash  with  water,   dry  and  brush.     24.    Pale  Deep   Olive   Green 
Bronze. — Perchloride  of  iron,  1  part ;  water,  2  parts.    Mix  and  immerse 
the  brass.    25.  Dark  Green. — Saturate  nitric  acid  with  copper  and  im- 
merse the  brass.    26.  Dead  Black  for  Brass  Work. — Rub  the  surface 
first  withtripoli,  then  wash  it  with  a  solution  of  1  part,  neutral  nitrate 
of  tin,  with  2  parts,  chloride  of  gold,  after  10  minutes  wipe  it  off  with 
a  wet  cloth.  27.  Best  Bronze  for  Brass. — Take  1  Ib.  of  nitric  acid,  and 
£  Ib.  of  white  arsenic,  put  them  into  an  earthen  vessel  and  then  proceed 
in  the  usual  manner.    28.  Another  Bronze  for  Brass. — 1  oz.  muriate 
of  ammonia,  ^  oz.  alum,  £  oz.  arsenic,  dissolve  together  in  1  pt.  of 
strong  vinegar.    29.  Black  Dip  for  Brass. — Hydrochloric  acid  (com- 
monly called  smoking  salts,)  12  Ibs.;  sulphate  of  iron,  1  Ib.;  and  pure 
white  arsenic  1  Ib.    This  dip  is  used  in  all  the  large  factories  in 
Birmingham,  but  the  dip  used  in  the  London  trade  is  2  ozs.  corrosive 
sublimate,  in  1  pt.  of  the  best  vinegar,  cork  both  air  tight  in  a  bottle, 
let  it  stand  24  hours ;  then  it  is  fit  for  use.    30-  Quick  Bright  Dip  fc^ 
Brass. — Use  strong  nitric  acid  in  sufficient  quantity,  dip  your  brass  in 
the  liquid  for  an  instant,  withdraw,  and  immediately  immerse  it  first 
%i  cold  water,  then  in  boiling  water,  for  a  short  time  only  in  each 
Jrth,  then  allow  it  to  dry,  repeat  the  process  if  necessary.    31.  Ap~ 
mication  of  Bronze  Powder. — The  proper  way  is  to  varnish  the  article 
Ind  then  dust  the  bronze  powder  over  it  after  the  varnish  is  partly 
dry.    32.  Black  color  for  Brass  Work. — Make  a  strong  solution  of 
citrate  of  silver,  in  one  dish  and  nitrate  of  copper,  in  another.    Mix 
fiie  two  together  and  plunge  in  the  brass.    Now  heat  the  brass  evenly 
till  the  required  degree  of  blackness  is  acquired.    Unrivalled  as  a 
Beautiful  color  on  optical  insrurnentg. 

|  GRAHAM'S  QUICK  BRONZING  LIQUIDS. — For  immediate  action  on 
^'Copper,  Brass,  or  Zinc. — 1.  Brown  or  Dark  Bronze  for  Copper, 
Brass,  or  Zinc. — Dissolve  5  drachms  nitrate  of  iron  in  1  pt.  water;  or, 

5  drs.  perchloride  of  iron  in  1  pt.  water.    A  black  may  also  be  ob- 
tained from  10  ozs.  muriate  of  arsenic  in  2  pts.  permuriate  of  iron, 
And  Ipt  water.    2.  Brown  or  Red  Bronzing  for  Brass. — Dissolve  IS 


MACHINISTS,    ENGINEEBS',    AC.,    KECEIPTa. 

-drs.  nitrate  of  iron,  and  16  drs.  hyposulphate  of  soda,  in  1  pt.  , 

•or,  1  dr.  nitric  acid  may  be  substituted  for  the  nitrate  of  iron.  3L* 
lied  Brown  Bronzing  for  Brass. — Dissolve  1  oz.  nitrate  of  copper,  an4 
1  oz.  oxalic  acid  in  1  pt.  water,  brought  to  the  boil  and  then  cooled, 
4.  Dark  Brown  Bronzing  for  Brass. — Mix  1  oz.  cyanide  of  potassium, 
»nd  4  drs.  nitric  acid,  with  1  pt  water.  5.  Red  Bronzing  for  Brass. 
Mix  30grs.  tersulphate  of  arsenic,  6  drs.  solution  of  pearlash,  and  If 
pt.  water.  6.  Orange  Bronzing  on  Brass.— Mix  1  dr.  potash  soluv' 
tionof  sulphur  with  1  pt.  water.  7.  Olive  Green  Bronze  for  Brass. — ; 
Dissolve  1  pt.  permuriate  of  iron  in  2  pts.  water.  8.  Slate-colored 
B ronzing  for  Brass. — Dissolve  2  drs.  gulphocyanide  of  potassium,  and 
5  drs.  perchloride  of  iron,  in  1  pt.  water.  9.  Steel  Grey  Bronzing  for 
Brass. — Mix  1  oz.  muriate  of  arsenic  with  1  pt.  water,  and  use  at  a 
heat  not  less  than  180°  Fahr.  10.  Bright  Red  Bronzing  for  Copper, 
Mix  2  drs.  sulphide  of  antimony,  and  1  oz.  pearlash  in  1  pt.  water. 
11.  Dark  Red  Bronze  for  Copper. — Dissolve  1  dr.  sulphur  and  1  oz. 
pearlash  in  1  pt  water.  12.  Copper  Colored  Bronzing  fw  Zinc.  Agi« 
tate  the  articles  in  a  solution  of  8  drs.  sulphate  of  copper,  and  8  drs. 
hyposulphate  of  soda  in  1  pt.  water. 

COPPER  PLATES  OB  RODS  may  be  covered  with  a  superficial  coat* 
Ing  of  brass  by  exposing  to  the  fumes  given  off  by  melted  zinc  at  a 
light  temperature.  The  coated  plates  or  rods  can  then  be  rolled  into 
thin  sheets,  or  drawn  into  wire. 

SOLUTION  OF  COPPER  OR  ZINC. — Dissolve  8  pzs.  (Troy)  cyanide  of 
potassium,  and  3  ozs.  cyanide  of  copper  or  zinc,  in  1  gal.  of  rain 
•water.  To  be  used  at  about  160°  F.,  with  a  compound  battery  of  3 
to  12  cells. 

BRASS  SOLUTION.— Dissolve  1  Ib.  (Troy)  cyanide  of  potassium,  2 
ozs.  cyanide  of  copper,  and  1  oz.  cyanide  of  zinc,  in  1  gal.  of  rain- 
water  ;  then  add  2  ozs.  of  muriate  of  ammonia.  To  be  used  at  160° 
:F.,  for  smooth  work,  with  a  compound  battery  of  from  3  to  12 
cells. 

BRASSING  IRON.— Iron  ornaments  are  covered  with  copier  or  brass, 
.by  properly  preparing  the  surface  so  as  to  remove  all  organic  matter 
•which  would  prevent  adhesion,  and  then  plunging  them  into  melted 
T^rass.  A  thin  coating  is  thus  spread  over  the  iron,  and  it  admits  of 
being  polished  or  burnished. 

ORMOLU  COLORING,  LACQUERS,  &c.— 18  KI^WS.— Ormolu  Color' 
ing.— I.  Alum,  30  parts;  nitrate  of  potassa,  30  parts;  red  ochre,  30 
parts;  sulphate  of  zinc,  8  parts;  common  salt,  1  part;  sulphate  of  iron, 
1  part.  It  is  applied  with  a  soft  brush.  The  articles  are  placed  over 
a  clear  charcoal  fire  until  the  salts,  melted  and  dried,  assume  a 
brown  aspect.  They  are  then  suddenly  cooled  in  nitric  acid  water 
containing  3  per  cent,  of  hydrochloric  acid,  afterwards,  washed  in 
abundance  of  water  and  dried  in  sawdust.  2.  To  Prepare  Brass 
Work  for  Ormolu  Dipping.— -If  the  work  is  oily,  boil  it  in  ley,  and  if  it  is 
finished  work,  filed  or  turned,  dip  it  in  old  acid,  and  it  is  then  ready 
to  be  ormolued,  but  if  it  is  unfinished  and  free  from  oil,  pickle  it  in 
strong  sulphuric  acid,  dip  in  pure  nitric  acid,  and  then  in  the  old  acid, 
after  which  it  will  be  ready  for  ormoluing.  3.  To  Repair  Old  Nitritt 
Acid  Ormolu  Dips. — If  the  work  after  dipping  appears  coarse  an4 
spotted,  add  vitriol  till  it  answers  the  purpose :  if  the  work  after  dip* 
ping  appears  too  smooth,  add  muriatic  acid  and  nitre  till  i ;  gives  tiit 


MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  AC.,  RECEIPTS.      511 

tight  appearance.  The  other  ormolu  dips  should  be  repaired  accord* 
.  fag  to  the  receipts,  putting  in  the  proper  ingredients  to  strengthen 
them.  They  should  not  be  allowed  to  settle,  but  should  be  stirred 
Often  while  using.  4.  Directions  for  making  Lacquer. — Mix  the  in- 
gredients, and  let  the  vessel  containing  them  stand  in  the  sun,  or  hit 
a  place  slightly  warmed,  3  or  4  days,  shaking  it  frequently  till  gum  is 
dissolved,  after  which  let  it  settle  from  24  to  48  hours,  when  the  clear 
liquor  may  be  poured  off  for  use.  Pulverized  glass  is  sometimes  used 
in  making  lacquer  to  carry  down  the  impurities.  5.  Lacquer  for  Dip* 
ped  Brass. — Alcohol,  (95  per  cent. )  2  gals. ;  seed  lac,  1  Ib. ;  gum  copal, 
1  oz. ;  English  saffron,  1  oz. ;  annatto,  1  oz.  6.  Lacquer  for  Bronzect 
£rass. — To  1  pt.  of  the  above  lacquer  add  gamboge,  1  oz.,  and,  aftei 
mixing  it,  add  an  equal  quantity  of  the  first  lacquer.  7.  Deep  Gold 
Colored  Lacquer. — Best  alcohol,  4  ozs. ;  Spanish  annatto,  8  ozs. ;  tur- 
meric, 2  drs. ;  shellac,  ^  oz. ;  red  sanders,  12  grs. ;  when  dissolved,  add 
«pts.  of  turpentine,  30  drops.  8.  Deep  Gold  Colored  Lacquer  for  Brass 
not  Dipped. — Alcohol,  4  gals. ;  turmeric,  3  Ibs. ;  gamboge,  3  ozs. ;  gum 
gandarac.  7  Ibs. ;  shellac,  1|  Ibs.;  turpentine  varnish,  1  pt.  9.  Goldl 
Colored  Lacquer,  for  Dipped  Brass. — Alcohol,  36  ozs. ;  seed  lac,  6  ozg. ; 
amber,  2  ozs. ;  gum  gutta,  2  ozs. ;  red  sandal  wood,  24  grs. ;  dragon's 
l)lood,60  grs. ;  oriental  saffron,  36  grs. ;  pulverized  glass,  4  ozs.  10, 
Gold  Lacquer,  for  Brass. — Seed  lac,  6  ozs. ;  amber  or  copal,  2  ozs. ;  best 
.alcohol,  4  gals. ;  pulverized  glass  4  ozs. ;  dragon's  blood,  40  grs. ;  ex- 
tract of  red  sandal  wood  obtained  by  water,  30  grs.  11.  Lacquer,  for 
Dipped  Brass.— Alcohol,  12  gals.  •,  seed  lac,  8  Ibs. ;  turmeric,  1  Ib.  to  a 
gal.  of  the  above  mixture;  Spanish  saffron,  4  ozs.  The  saffron  is  to 
be  added  for  bronzed  work.  12.  Good  Lacquer.— Alcohol,  8  ozs. ; 
gamboge,  1  oz. ;  shellac,  3  ozs. ;  annatto,  1  oz. ;  solution  of  3  ozs.  of 
•eed  lac  hi  1  pt.  alcohol.  Wlien  dissolved,  add  £  oz.  Venice  turpen- 
tine, £  oz.  dragon's  blood,  will  make  it  dark.  Keep  it  in  a  warm 
place  4  or  5  days.  13.  Pale  Lacquert  for  Tin  PZate.— -Best  alcohol,  8 
ozs. ;  turmeric,  4  drs. ;  hay  saffron,  2  scrs. ;  dragon's  blood,  4  scrs. ;  red 
panders,  1  scr.;  shellac,  1  oz. ;  gum  sandarac,  2  drs. ;  gum  mastic,  2 
drs. .  Canada  balsam.  2  drs. ;  when  dissolved,  add  spts.  turpentine, 
BO  drops.  14.  Red  Lacquer  for  Bratat. — Alcohol,  8  gals. ;  dragon's 
blood,  4  Ibs. ;  Spanish  annatto.  12  Ibs.  •  gum  &andarac,  13  Ibs. ;  tur- 
pentine, 1  gal.  15.  Pale  Lacquer,  for  Brass. — Alcohol,  2  gals. ;  capo 
aloes,  cut  small,  3  ozs. ;  pale  shellac,  1  Ib. ;  gamboge,  1  oz.  16.  Best 
*•  Lacquer,  for  Brass. — Alcohol,  4  gals.;  shellac,  2  Ibs.;  amber  gnm,  1 
.  Ib.  ;  copal,  20  ozs. ;  seed  lac,  3  Ibs. ;  saffron  to  color ;  pulverized 
*  glass,  8  ozs  17.  Color  for  Lacquer. — Alcohol.  1  qt. ;  annatto,  4 
ozs.  18.  Giluvr's  Pickle. — Alum  and  common  salt,  each,  1  oz. ;  nitre 
S  oz. ;  dissolved  in  water,  £  pt.  Used  to  impart  a  rich  yellow  color  to 
gold  surfaces.  It  is  best  largely  diluted  with  water. 

To  REDUCE  OXIDE  OF  ZINC.— The  oxide  may  be  put  in  quantities 
of  500  or  600  Ibs.  weight  into  a  large  pot  over  the  fire ;  pour  a  suffi- 
cient quantity  of  muriatic  acid  over  the  top,  to  act  as  a  flux,  and  the 
action  of  the  fire  will  melt  the  dross,  when  the  pure  metai  will  be 
found  at  the  bottom  of  the  pot. 

To  SEPARATE  TIN  FROM  LEAD.— If  the  lead  and  tin  are  hi  solu- 
tion, precipitate  the  former  by  sulphuric  acid,  and  the  latter  with  sul- 
phuretted hydrogen  gas.  In  an  alloy  the  lead  will  dissolve  In  nitria 
•tifi,  leaving  the  tiu  a*  an  oxide. 


012          MACHINISTS,   ENGINEERS',   AC.,  RECEIPTS. 

To  FROST  AND  CLOUD  SMALL  BRASS-WORK. — Scour  the 
thoroughly  with  strong  ley,  and  hold  the  work  against  a  circular 
•cratch-brush  of  fine  brass  wire,  secured  in  a  lathe  and  driven  at  a 
kigh  speed,  as  in  frosting  watch  plates,  see  page  326 ;  for  clouding 
brass  work,  see  page  515. 

CEMENT  FOR  BRASS  AND  WOOD. — The  best  cement  for  this  pur« 
pose  is  a  glue  composed  of  best  gelatine,  1  part;  glacial  acetic  acid,  1 
part,  boak  the  gelatine  in  cold  water  until  it  has  swollen  up  and  be- 
some  quite  soft.  Throw  away  the  water  and  dissolve  the  gelatine  iss. 
ihe  acetic  acid,  applying  gentle  heat  if  necessary. 

YELLOW  AND  LIGHT  KED  BRONZE. — 1.  Copper  bronze  powder,  i 
>jz. ;  mix  thoroughly  with  japanuer's  gold  size,  adding  turpentine 
during  its  use  sufficient  to  keep  it  at  the  consistency  of  cream.  Mix 
with  a  pallet  knife  on  glass  or  porcelain ;  if  made  too  thin  it  is  liable- 
to  be  removed  by  the  brush  as  last  as  put  on.  Apply  with  a  soft 
brush.  2.  A  gold  bronze  color  is  obtained  by  using  £  gold  bronze- 
and  ^  copper  bronze  powder,  or  other  beautiful  colors  may  be  obtained 
by  varying  the  mixtures.  &  A  Dark  Brown  Bronze  is  produced  by 
the  addition  of  burnt  umber  to  the  above  named  ingredients.  4.  A 
Dark  Green  Bronze  is  obtained  by  mixing  green  bronze  and  terra  verte. 
•7,-ith  gold  size,  adding  as  much  ivory  black  as  may  be  required  to  im- 
part the  depth  of  tint  required.  Finish  with  a  coat  of  fine  shellac  var- 
nish. 4.  For  a  Verde  Antique  shade,  apply  the  bronze  coat  as  above, 
varnish  with  shellac,  allow  it  to  get  firm  and  hard;  then  coat  the* 
depressed  parts  with  gold  size  thinned  with  turpentine.  Previous  to> 
drying,  dust  the  article  with  dry  paint,  of  li.crht  yellow  or  blue  color, 
and  gently  remove  all  that  can  be  easily  rubbcd'off  with  a  rag  moist- 
ened with  turpentine.  6.  Broicn  Bronze  for  Hardware. — Muriatic- 
acid,  2  Ibs. ;  iron  scales,  2  Ibs.;  arsenic,  2  oz.;  zinc  (a  solid  mass  to- 
be  kept  in  only  when  the  solution  is  in  use),  1  Ib.  4  oz.  Previous- 
to  immersion  in  the  bath,  cleanse  the  articles  thoroughly  in  acid 
pickle.  7.  Green  Bron>~?  on  Hardware. — Apply  a  varnish  composed 
of  ground  tin  or  bronze  powder  mixed  up  with"  honey  in  gum  water, 
then  wash  with  a  solution  of  vinegar,  1  pt;  spts.  hartshorn,  1  oz. ;  gal 
ammoniac,  ^  oz. ;  salt,  A  oz.  Place  the  articles  i?i  the  stm  for  a  dr.y  or 
two ;  then  give  them  another  coat,  8.  Black  Stain  on  .Bras*.— Water. 
80  parts;  hydrochloric  acid.  4  pails;  sulphuric  acid,  1  part  9.  An* 
other. — Hydrochloric  acid,  12  parts;  arsenic  by  weight,  4  parts;  apply 
brighten,  dry,  and  lacquer. 

MAGIC  POLISH  FOR  BRASS.— Add  to  sulphuric  acid  half  its  bulk  of 
pulverized  bichromate  of  potash;  dilute  with  an  equal  weight  ol 
water,  and  npply  well  to  the  brass,  swill  it  well  immediately  in  water, 
ipe  dry,  and  polish  with  pulverized  rotten  stone. 

To  BRONZE  POLISHED  STEEL. — Methylated  spirits,  1  pt. ;  gum 
aellac,  4  oz. :  gum  benzoin.  ^  oz.  Set  the  bottle  in  a  warm  places^ 
<ith  occasional  agitation.  Whon  dissolved,  decant  the  clear  part  foi 
ine  work,  and  strain  the  dregs  through  xmslin.  Now  take  4  oz. 
powdered  bronze  green,  varying  the  color  with  yellow  ochre,  red 
ochre,  and  lampblack,  as  may  be  desired.  Mix  the  bronze  powder 
with  the  above  varnish  in  quantities  to  suit,  and  apply  to  the  work 
after  previously  cleansing  and  warming  the  articles,  giving  them  * 
wcond  c»oat  and  touching  off  with  gold  powder  if  required,  previous  tt 


MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  &c.,  RECEIPTS.  SIS- 
DEAD  BLACK  FOB  THE  BRASS  WORK  OF  LENSES. — The  bras* 
work  must  be  made  quite  clean  and  the  following  preparation  applied 
with  a  camel' s-hair  pencil:  bichlorid  of  platinum,  4  drums:  nitrate  of 
silver,  1  grain;  water,  6  oz.  When  you  get  the  right  depth,  wash 
•with  clean  water,  dry,  and  finish  with  plumbago. 

To  SOLDER  GERMAN  SILVER. — Dissolve  granulated  zinc  in  spirits 
of  salts  in  an  earthen  vessel.  Cleanse  the  part  to  be  soldered,  and 
apply  the  spirits  of  salts.  Next  put  a  piece  of  pewter  solder  on  the 
joint  and  apply  the  blow-pipe  to  it.  Melt  German  silver,  1  part,  and 
Line  in  thin  sheets,  4  parts,  then  powder  it  for  solder. 

SILVERY  APPEARANCE  ON  IRON  WIRE.— Suspend  a  piece  of  zinc 
in  hydrochloric  acid,  and  immerse  the  wire  in  it.  Next,  place  it  in 
contact  with  a  strip  of  zinc,  in  a  bath  of  2  parts  of  tartaric  acid  dis- 
solved in  100  parts  of  water,  to  which  is  added  3  parts  cf  tin  salts  and 
3  parts  of  soda.  Let  it  remain  two  hours  in  the  bath;  then  brighten 
by  polishing  or  drawing  through  a  drawing  iron. 

PERMANENT  BRASSING  ON  IRON  WIRE. — Place  the  wire,  thor- 
oughly cleaned,  in  a  solution  of  sulphate  of  copper,  when  it  immedi- 
ately becomes  covered  with  a  thin  film  of  copper;  now  cover  with  a 
paste  of  pure  oxide  of  tin,  and  heat  hot  enough  to  fuse  the  copper. 

To  CLEAN  SMOOTH  TARNISHED  BRASS. — Use  a  saturated  solution 
of  oxalic  acid  in  water;  apply  with  a  stiff  roll  of  clean  flannel  briskly- 
used;  then  rinse  the  object  in  plenty  of  water  to  remove  the  acid. 
After  drying  with  a  warm  cloth,  polish  up  with  chamois-skin  and 
prepared  chalk  or  the  finest  whiting. 

To  CLEAN  EMBOSSED  OR  UNDERCUT  BRASS. — Boil  the  objects  in 
a  strong  solution  of  caustic  soda  or  ley,  and  immerse  them  in  a  mix- 
ture of  hydrochloric  acid,  6  parts;  water,  2  parts;  and  nitric  acid,  1 
part,  until  they  become  covered  with  a  dark  deposit.  Take  them 
from  the  mixture  and  remove  the  black  matter  with  .a  fine  scratch- 
brush  :  when  thus  cleansed,  swill  in  hot  water  and  dry  in  hot  saw 
dust.  A  fine  orange-yellow  tinge  may  be  given  to  the  brass  by  sub- 
stituting an  equivalent  weight  of  powdered  alum  for  the  nitric  acid 
in  the  solution. 

DEAD  APPEARANCE  ON  BRASS. — Immerse  the  objects  in  a  mix- 
ture of  nitric  aciu,  200  parts;  sulphuric  acid,  sp.  gr.  1.845,  100  parts; 
common  salt,  1  part;  sulphate  of  zinc,  2  parts.  Rinse  thoroughly; 
this  imparts  the  dead  appearance  styled  mat,  by  the  French.  For 
'arge  work  use  nitric  acid.  3  parts;  sulphuric  acid,  1  part;  water,! 
part;  sulphate  of  zinc,  £  part.  Repeat  dipping  and  rinsing  the  objects 
till  the  proper  color  is  brought  out. 

To  LACQUER  BRASS.  -For  flat  work,  cleanse  thoroughly  by  boil- 
?ng  the  articles  in  strong  potash  water;  if  you  wish  to  heighten  th» 
color  of  the  brass,  dip  it  in  hydrochloric  ac'id,  rinse  well  in  cold  and 
hot  water  alternately,  using  a  fine  brush  to  remove  any  blackness, 
nnd  dry  in  hot  sawdust,  burnishing  afterwards  If  desired.'  Place  th« 
work  on  an  iron  plate,  kept  at  a  low  heat,  and  pass  the  lacquer  regu- 
larly and  rapidly  over  *ho  surface  with  a  good  s'zed  fine  en mel' s-hair 
brush,  keeping  the  iron  plate  warm  until  the  work  is  dry  Small 
circida:  work,  after  being  well  cleansed,  and  burnished  if  need  be, 
unti  slightly  heated  in  a  stove  or  over  a  charcoal  fire,  should  have  the 
Incqner  thinly  and  evenly  applied  while  in  motion  in  the  lathe,  hold- 
in?  a  charcoal  brazier  under  the  work  for  a  short  time,  to  avoid  cool- 
lag  too  soon. 


MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  &c.,  RECEIPTS. 

CONTRAST  COLORS  FOR  PAINTING  MACHINERY. — 1.  Deep  blue  an<! 

f olden  brown;   2,    Black  and  warm  brown;  3,  Chocolate  and  light, 
lue;  4,  Violet  and  light  rose  color;  5,  Violet  and  pale  green;  6,  Deep' 
red  and  gray;  7,  Claret  and  buff;  8,  Maroon  and  warm  green;  9, 
chocolate  and  peagreen  ;  10,  Deep  blue  and  pink;  11,  Black  and  warm 
green ;  13,  Maroon  and  deep  blue. 

VARNISH  FOR  LOOM.  HARNESS. — Linseed  oil,  2  gals.;  gum  shellac, 
2^  Ibs. ;  red  lead,  1  Ib. ;  umber,  H  Ibs. ;  litharge,  2  Ibs. ;  sugar  of  lead, 
1$  Ibs.  Mix  and  thoroughly  incorporate  together. 

WATER-PROOFING  FOR  NETS  AND  FISHING  LINES. — Soak  the  nets 
•or  lines  in  a  mixture  of  2  parts  boiled  linseed  oil  and  1  part  gold  size; 
expose  to  the  air,  and  dry. 

WINTER  FISHING  ON  THE  WESTERN  LAKES. — A  small  portable 
house  is  erected  on  large  runners,  like  those  of  a  sled,  with  a  hole  cut 
in  the  centre  of  the  floor.  This  house  is  moved  to  any  desired  spot;  a 
liole  is  cut  in  the  ice,  so  as  to  be  directly  under  the  aperture  in  the 
"floor;  the  lines  are  dropped  through  the  hole,  and  the  fish  are  drawn 
in  while  the  fishermen  are  seated  by  a  warm  stove. 

PAINT  FOR  METALS,  PROOF  AGAINST  HOT  WATER.— Prepare  the 
metal  by  cleaning  it  with  turpentine,  ley,  or  benzine;  then  apply  two 
thin  coats  of  a  mixture  of  white  lead,  spts.  turpentine  and  carriage 
varnish,  and  follow  at  once  with  a  thick  coat  of  carriage  varnish  and 
-white  lead. 

DRAUGHTMEN'S  COLORS  FOR  MECHANICAL  DRAWING. — The  fol- 
lowing are  the  names  of  different  materials,  together  with  the  pig- 
ments used  to  represent  them:  1,  Redbrick,  Indian  red;  2,  Yellow 
•brick,  Indian  yellow  or  cadmium,  tinged  with  white;  3,  Wrought  iron, 
Prussian  blue  or  cobalt;  4,  Cast  iron,  Paine' s  gray  and  a  little  India 
ink,  or  Prussian  blue  and  India  ink ;  5,  Steel,  a  purple  color  by  the  ad- 
mixture of  crimson  lake  and  Prussian  blue ;  6,  win  metal  or  brass, 
•gamboge  or  yellow  cadmium ;  7,  Copper,  Indian  red  mixed  with  a  little 
lake;  8,  Wood,  burnt  umber;  9.,  Water,  broken,  irregular  straigl  t 
lines,  with  liquid  copperas;  10,  Stone  color,  Chinese  white  and  India 
ink,  tinted  with  yellow. 

TRACING  PAPER,  TO  STAND  WASHING. — Saturate  writing  paper  with 
benzine,  and  follow  at  once  with  a  slight  coat  of  the  following  varnish : 
Boiled  bleached  linseed  oil,  20  oz.,-  oxide  of  zinc.,  5  ozs. ;  lead  shav- 
ings, 1  oz. ;  Venice  turpentine,  |  oz.  Boil  all  for  8  hours,  cool,  and 
add  gum-copal  5  ozs.,  gum  sandarac  |  part. 

TRACING  PAPER. — Dissolve  castor  oil  in  strong  alcohol  and  apply 
the  mixture  to  the  paper  with  a  sponge.  The  alcohol  will  volatilize, 
leaving  the  paper  dry.  Proceed  to  finish  your  tracing,  and  then  yon 
may,  if  you  wish  to  do  so,  restore  the  paper  to  its  original  state,  by 
^mmersion  in  strong  alcohol,  thereby  absorbing  the  castor  oil  from 
the  paper. 

To  SOLDER  WITHOUT  HEAT. — Brass  filings,  2  oz.;  steel  filings,  2 
oz. ;  fluoric  acid,  £  oz.  Put  the  filings  in  the  acid,  and  apply  the 
solution  to  the  parts  to  be  soldered,  after  thoroughly  cleaning  the 
parts  in  contact;  then  dress  together.  Do  not  keep  the  fluoric  acid  in 
glass  bottles,  but  in  lead  or  earthen  vessels. 

EASY  SOLDERING  OF  BRASS. — Cut  a  piece  of  tin  foil  the  size  ol 
the  surface  to  be  soldered ;  then  pass  over  the  surface  a  solution  of 
sal  ammoniac  for  a  flux,  place  the  tin  foil  between  the  pieces,  and  ap* 
l    a  hot  iron  until  the  foil  is  melted. 


MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  &c.,  RECEIPTS.       515 

To  TIN  COPPER  AND  BRASS. — Boil  6  Ibs.  cream  of  tartar  and  4 
jals.  of  water  and  8  Ibs.  of  grain  tin  or  tin  shavings.  After  the  mate- 
rial has  boiled  a  sufficient  time,  the  articles  to  be  tinned  are  put 
therein  and  the  boiling  continued,  when  the  tin  is  precipitated  on  the 
goods  in  metallic  form. 

MIXTURE  FOR  SILVERING.—  Dissolve  2  ozs.  of  silver  with  3  grs.  of 
corrosive  sublimate;  add  tartaric  acid,  4  Ibs. ;  salt,  8  qts. 

To  SEPARATE  SILVER  FROM  COPPER.— Mix  sulphuric  acid,  1 
part;  nitric  acid,  1  part ;  water,  1  part;  boil  the  metal  in  the  mix- 
ture till  it  is  dissolved,  throw  in  a  little  salt  to  cause  the  silver  to  sub- 
side. 

To  WRITS  IN  SILVER.— Mix  1  oz.  of  the  finest  pewter  or  block  tin, 
*nd  2  ozs.  of  quicksilver  together  till  both  become  fluid,  then  grind  it 
v.  ith  gum  water,  and  write  with  it.  The  writing  will  then  look  as  if 
do:ie  with  silver. 

TINNIXQ  ACID,  FOR  BRASS  OR  ZINC.— Muriatic  acid,  1  qt. ;  zinc, 
t5  ozs.  To  a  solution  of  this,  add  water,  1  qt.  ;  sal-ammoniac.  2 
ors. 

To  CLEAN  AND  POLISH  BRASS.— Wash  with  alum  boiled  in  strong 
lye,  in  the  proportion  of  an  ounce  to  a  pint;  afterwards  rub  with 
strong  tripoli.  Not  to  be  used  on  gilt  or  lacquered  work. 

BRONZE  PAINT,  FOR  IRON  OR  BRASS. — Chrome  green,  2  Ibs.; 
ivory  black,  1  oz. ;  chrome  yellow,  1  oz. ;  good  japan,  1  gill;  grind  all 
together,  and  mix  with  linseed  oil. 

To  BRONZE  IRON  CASTINGS. — Cleanse  thoroughly,  and  afterwards 
immerse  in  a  solution  of  sulphate  of  copper,  when  the  castings  will 
acquire  a  coat  of  the  latter  metal.  They  must  be  then  washed  in 
water. 

REMOVING  ZINC  AND  IRON  FROM  PLUMBERS'  SOLDER. — Digest 
the  metal  in  grains  in  diluted  sulphuric  acid.  The  acid  will  dissolve 
the  zinc  first,  the  iron  next,  and  all  traces  of  these  metals  by  subse- 
quent washing. 

TINNING  CAST  IRON. — Pickle  your  castings  in  oil  of  vitriol;  then 
cover  or  immerse  them  in  muriate  of  zinc  (made  by  putting  a  suffi- 
cient quantity  of  zinc  in  some  spirit  of  salt) :  after  which  dip  it  in  a 
melted  bath  of  tin  or  solder. 

SILVERING  Br  HEAT. — Dissolve  1  oz.  silver  in  nitric  acid;  add  a 
ismali  quantity  of  salt;  then  wasli  it  and  add  sal-ammoniac,  or  6  ozs. 
of  salt  and  white  vitriol ;  also  £  oz.  corrosive  sublimate ;  rub  them 
together  till  they  form  a  paste ;  rub  the  piece  which  is  to  be  silvered 
•vrith  the  paste;  neat  it  till  the  silver  runs,  after  which  dip  it  in  a 
weak  vitriol  pickle  to  clean  it. 

ZINCING. — Copper  and  brass  vessels  may  be  covered  with  a  firmly 
adherent  layer  of  pure  zinc  by  boil  hi  g  them  in  contact  with  a  solution, 
pf  chloride  of  zinc,  pure  zinc  turnings  being  at  the  same  time  present 
jn  considerable  excess. 

To  CLOUD  METAL  WORK.— Metal  work  may  be  clouded  by  put- 
ting a  piece  of  fine  emery  paper  under  the  thumb  or  finger  and  work- 
ing it  over  a  surface  of  the  metal  with  a  spiral  motion. 

SILVERING  POWDER.— Nitrite  of  silver  and  common  salt,  of  each 
SO  g^a. ;  cream  tartar,  3^  drs. ;  pulverize  finelv  and  bottle  for  use 
Unequalled  for  polishing  copper  and  plated  goods. 

To  CLEAN  AND  POLISH  BBASS.— Oil  of  vitriol,  1  oz. ;  sweet  oil,  £ 


516       MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  <tc.,  RECEIPTS. 

gill;  pulverized  rotten  stone,  1  gill;  rain  -water,  l£  pts.;  mix  all 
and  snake  as  used.  Apply  with  a  rag  and  polish  -with  buckskin  off 
all  woolen.  Rotten  stone,  followed  by  Paris  white  and  rouge  is  very 
good  also. 

PASTE  FOR  CLEANING  METALS.— Take  oxalic  acid,  1  part;  rotten 
Ftone,  6  parts ;  mix  with  equal  parts  of  train  oil  and  spts.  turpentine 
to  a  paste. 

To  PREVENT  IRON  OR  STEEL  FROM  RUSTING.— Warm  your  iron 
or  steel  till  you  cannot  bear  your  hands  on.  it  without  burning  your- 
self, then  nib  it  with  new  and  clean  white  wax.  Put  it  again  to  tke 
fire  till  it  has  soaked  in  the  wax.  When  done  rub  it  over  with  a 
piece  of  serge.  This  prevents  the  metal  from  rusting  afterwards. 

BRONZING  LIQUIDS  FOR  TIN  CASTINGS.— Wash  them  over,  after 
"being  well  cleansed  and  wiped,  with  a  solution  of  1  part  of  sulphate 
of  iron,  and  1  of  sulphate  of  copper,  in  20  parts  of  water;  after- 
wards, with  a  solution  of  4  parts  verdigris  in  11  of  distilled  vinegar; 
leave  for  an  hour  to  dry  and  then  polish  with  a  soft  brush  and 
colcothar. 

FANCY  COLORS  ON  METALS. — 1.  Dissolve  4  ozs.  hypo-sulphite  of 
Foda,  1^  pts.  of  water,  and  then  add  a  solution  of  1  oz.  acetate  of  lead 
in  1  oz.  water.  Articles  to  be  colored  are  placed  in  the  mixture, 
Tvhich  is  then  gradually  heated  to  the  boiling  point.  This  will  give 
iron  the  color  of  blue  steel,  zinc  becomes  bronze,  and  copper  or  brasa 
"becomes,  successively,  yellowish,  red,  scarlet,  deep  blue,  light  blue, 
bluish  white,  and  finally  white,  with  a  tinge  of  rose.  2.  By  replac* 
ing  the  acetate  of  lead*  in  the  solution  by  sulphate  of  copper,  brass 
"becomes,  first,  of  a  fine  rosy  tint,  then  green,  and  lastly,  of  an  irri- 
descent  brown  color. 

COATING  IRON  CASTINGS  WITH  GOLD  OR  SILVER. — The  articles- 
to  be  gilded  are  well  cleaned  and  boiled  in  a  porcelain  vessel,  to- 
gether with  12  parts  of  mercury,  1  of  zinc,  2  of  iron  vitriol,  l£  of  mu- 
riatic acid  of  1.2  specific  gravity,  and  12  parts  of  water ;  in  a  short 
time  a  layer  of  mercury  will  deposit  upon  the  iron,  and  upon  this  the 
gold  amalgam  may  be  uniformly  distributed.  Iron  to  be  silvered  is 
first  provided  with  a  coating  of  copper,  upon  vrhich  the  silver  Lj  ap- 
plied either  by  means  of  amalgam  or  silver  leaf. 

BRUNSWICK  BLACK  FOR  GRATES,  &c.— Asphaltum,  5  Ibs. ;  melt,, 
and  add  boiled  oil,  2  Ibs. ;  spirits  of  turpentine,  1  gal.  Mix. 

BRONZE  PAINT  FOR  IRON. — Ivory  black,  1  oz  ;  chrome  yellow,  1 
oz. ;  chrome  green,  2  Ibs. ;  mix  with  raw  linseed  oil,  adding  a  little 
japan  to  dry  it,  and  you  have  a  very  nice  bronze  green.  If  desired, 
gold  bronze  may  be  put  on  the  prominent  parts,  as  on  the  tips  or 
edges  of  an  iron  railing  where  the  paint  is  not  quite  dry,  using  a  piece 
*f  velvet  or  plush  to  rub  on  the  bronze. 

TINNING  IRON. — Cleanse  the  metal  to  be  tinned,  and  rub  with  a 
coarse  cloth,  previously  dipped  in  hydrochloric  acid  (muriatic  acid,), 
/and  then  rub  on  French  putty  with  the  same  cloth.  French  putty  is 
3  juade  by  mixing  tin  filings  with  mercury. 

TINNING.— 1.  Plates  or  vessels  of  brass  or  copper  boiled  with  a 
solution  of  stannate  of  potassa,  mixed  with  turnings  of  tin,  become, 
in  the  course  of  a  few  minutes,  covered  with  a  firmly  attached  layer 
of  pure  tin.  2.  A  similar  effect  is  produced  by  boiling  the  article* 
with  tin-filings  and  caustic  alkali,  or  cream  of  tartar.  In  the  above* 


MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  &c.,  RECEIPTS.      517 

^r ay,  chemical  vessels  made  of  copper  or  brass  may  be  easily  and 
perfectly  tinned. 

TINNING  PROCESS. — Articles  to  be  tinned  are  first  covered 


•with  diluted  sulphuric  acid,  and,  when  quite  clean,  are  placed  in  warm 
water,  then  dipped  in  a  solution  of  muriatic  acid,  copper,  and  zinc, 
and  then  plunged  into  a  tin  bath  to  which  a  small  quantity  of  zinc 
has  been  added.  When  the  tinning  is  finished,  the  articles  are  taken] 
out,  and  plunged  into  boiling  water.  The  operation  is  completed  b]r 
placing  them  In  a  very  warm  sand-bath.  This  last  process  softens  tho 
iron. 

To  RECOVER  THE  TIN  FROM  OLD  BRITANNIA. — Melt  the  metal,  and 
while  hot  sprinkle  sulphur  over  it  ;  and  stir  it  up  for  a  short  time, 
this  burns  the  other  metals  out  of  the  tin,  which  may  then  be  used 
for  any  purpose  desired. 

KUSTITIEN'S  METAL  FOR  TINNING. — Malleable  iron,  1  lb.,  heat 
to  whiteness ;  add  5  ozs.  regulus  of  antimony,  and  Molucca  tin, 
24  Ibs. 

GALVANIZING  IRON. — The  iron  plates  are  first  immersed  in  a 
cleansing  bath  of  equal  parts  of  sulphuric  or  muriatic  acid  and  water 
used  warm;  they  are  then  scrubbed  with  emery  or  sand,  to  cleau 
them  thoroughly  and  detach  all  scales  if  any  are  left;  after  whicli 
they  are  immersed  in  a  "  preparing  bath  "  of  equal  parts  of  saturated 
solutions  of  chloride  of  zinc  and  chloride  of  ammonium,  from  which 
bath  they  are  directly  transferred  to  the  fluid  "metallic  bath,"  con- 
sisting, by  weight  of  G40  Ibs.  zinc  to  10G  Ibs.  of  mercury,  to  which  aro 
added  from  5  to  6  ozs.  of  sodium.  As  soon  as  the  iron  has  attained 
the  temperature  of  this  hot  fluid  bath,  which  is  680°  Fahr.,  it  nay  be  re- 
moved, and  will  then  be  found  thoroughly  coated  with  zinc.  A  little 
tallow  on  the  surface  of  the  metallic  bath  will  prevent  oxidation. 

PREVENTING  OF  RUST.— Cast  iron  is  best  preserved  by  rubbing  it 
idth  blacklead.  For  polished  work,  varnish  with  wax  dissolved  in 
benzine,  or  add  a  little  olive  oil  to  copal  varnish  and  thin  with  spts. 
turpentine.  To  remove  deep-seated  rust,  use  benzine,  and  polish  off 
with  fine  emery,  ortise  tripoli,  2  parts;  powdered  sulphur,  1  part. 
Apply  with  soft  leather.  Emery  and  oil  is  also  very  good. 

To  PURIFY  ZINC. — Pure  zinc  may  be  obtained  by  precipitating  its 
eulphate  by  an  alkali,  mixing  the  oxide  thus  produced  with  charcoal 
powdered,  and  exposing  the  mixture  to  a  bright  red  heat  in  a  covered 
crucible  in  which  the  pure  metal  will  be  found  as  a  button  at  the 
bottom  when  cold. 

TRANSPARENT  BLUE  FOR  IRON  OR  STEEI,. — Demar  varnish,  &gal.t 
ine  ground  Prussian  blue,  ^  oz. ;  mix  thoroughly.  Makes  a  splendia 
appearance.  Excellent  for  bluing  watch-hands. 

LEAD  SHOT  are  cast  by  letting  the  metal  run  through  a  narrow 
elit  into  a  species  of  colander  at  the  top  of  a  lofty  tower;  the  metal 
escapes  in  drops,  which,  for  the  most  part,  assume  the  spherical  form 
before  they  reach  the  tank  of  water  into  which  they  fall  at  the  foot 
of  the  tower,  and  this  prevents  their  being  bruised.  They  are  af- 
ierwards  riddled  or  sifted  for  eize,  and  afterwards  churned  in  a  bar- 
rel with  black  lead. 

BLACK  BRONZE  ON  IRON  OR  STEEL. — The  following  mixtures  ar» 
employed :  liquid  No.  1.  A  mixture  of.  bichloride  of  mercury  and  sal-am- 
tooniac.  No.  2,  A  mixture  of  perdiloride  of  iron,  sulphate  of  copper, 


518      MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS'   &c.,  RECEIPTS. 

nitric  acid,  alcohol  and  -water.    No.  3.  Perchloride  and  protocblorid* 
of  mercury  mixed  with  nitric  acid,  alcohol  and  water.    No.  4. 


metal  with  a  clean  rag,  and  repeat  this  operation  after  each  applica- 
tion of  these  liquids.  Now  apply  several  coats  of  No.  2,  and  also  of 
No.  3,  with  a  full  sponge;  then,  after  drying  for  ten  minutes,  throw  the 
pieces  of  metal  into  water  heated  near  the  boiling  point;  let  them  re- 
main in  the  water  from  5  to  10  minutes,  according  to  their  size.  JLfter 
being  cleaned,  cover  again  with  several  coatings  of  No.  3,  afterwards 
•with  a  strong  coating  of  No.  4;  then  again  immerse  in  the  bath  of 
liot  water.  Remove  from  the  bath  dry,  and  wipe  tLe  pieces  with 
carded  cotton  dipped  in  liquid  No.  3,  diluted  each  time  with  an  in- 
creased quantity  of  water;  then  rub  and  wipe  them  with  a  little  oliva 
oil ;  again  immerse  in  a  water  bath  heated  to  140°  Fahr.,  remove  them, 
rub  briskly  with  a  woolen  rag,  and  lastly,  with  oil.  Unequalled  for* 
producing  a  beautiful  glossy  black  on  gun-barrels,  steel,  iron,  &c. 

PAINT  FOR  SHEET  IKON  SMOKE  PIPE. — Good  varnish,  \  gallon \ 
"boiled  linseed  oil  £  gallon ;  add  red  lead  sufficient  to  bring  to  the  con- 
sistency of  common  paint.  Apply  with  a  brush.  Applicable  to  any 
kind  of  iron  work  exposed  to  the  weather. 

To  COPPER  THE  SURFACE  OF  IRON,  STEEL,  OR  IRON  WIRE.— 
Have  the  article  perfectly  clean,  then  wash  with  the  following  solu- 
tion, and  it  presents  at  once  a  coppered  surface.  Rain  water,  3  lbs.p 
tailphate  of  copper,  1  Ib. 

To  JOIN  BROKEN  LEAD  PIPES  DURING  PRESSURE  OF  WATER. — 
It  frequently  happens  that  lead  pipes  get  cut  or  damaged  when  the 
water  is  running  at  a  high  pressure,  causing  much  trouble  to  make 
repairs,  especially  if  the  water  cannot  be  easily  turned  off.  In  this, 
case  plug  both  ends  of  the  pipe  at  the  break,  place  a  small  pile  of  bro- 
lien  ice  and  salt  around  them.  In  a  few  minutes  the  water  in  the 
pipe  will  freeze  ;  next,  withdraw  the  plugs  and  insert  a  new  piece  of 
pipe ;  solder  perfectly,  thaw  the  ice,  and  it  will  be  all  right 

To  REPAIR  SMALL  LEAKS  IN  LEAD  PIPES. — Place  the  point  of  a, 
dull  nail  over  the  leak,  give  it  a  gentle  tap  with  a  hammer  and  the- 
flow  will  cease. 

To  PREVENT  CORROSION  IN  LEAD  PIPES. — Pass  a  strong  so- 
lution of  sulphide  of  potassium  and  sodium  through  the  inside  of  the 
prpe  at  a  temperature  of  212°,  and  allow  it  to  remain  about  10  or  15- 
minutes.  It  converts  the  inside  of  the  pipe  into  an  insoluble  sulphide 
of  lead  and  prevents  corrosion. 

To  BEND  COPPER  OR  BRASS  TUBES. — Run  melted  lead  or  resin 
into  your  pipe  till  full,  and  you  may  then  bend  it  gradually  into  any 
desired  shape  ;  the  pipe  may  then  be  heated  and  the  lead  or  resirt 
xnelted  and  run  out. 

To  JOIN  LEAD  PLATES.— The  joints  of  lead  plates  for  some  pur- 
poses are  made  as  follows  :  The  edges  are  brought  together,  ham- 
mered down  into  a  sort  of  channel  cut  of  wood  and  secured  with  a- 
few  tacks.  The  hollow  is  then  scraped  clean  with  a  scraper,  rubbed 
over  with  candle  grease,  and  a  stream  of  hot  lead  is  poured  into  it,  ther 
surface  being  afterwards  smoothed  with  a  red  hot  plumber's  iron. 

To  Joix  LEAD  PIPES.— Widen  out  the  end  of  one  pipe  with  a  ta- 


MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  &c.,  RECEIPTS.        51 9 

por  wood  rift,  and  scrape  it  elean  inside  ;  scrape  the  end  of  the  other 
ipe  outside  a  little  tapered,  aud  insert  it  hi  the  former  :  then  solder 
at  with  common  lead  solder  as  before  described  ;  or,  if  it  requires. 
to  be  strong,  rub  a  little  tallow  over,  and  cover  the  joint  with  .1. 
ball  of  melted  lead,  holding  a  cloth  (2  or  3  plies  of  greased  bedtick) 
on  the  under  side  ;  and  smoothing  over  with  it  and  the  plumber  & 
iron. 

TINNING  INTERIOR  OF  LEAD  PIPES. — This  invention  consists  in 
applying  a  flux  of  grease  or  muriate  of  zinc  or  any  other  flux  that  will 
protect  the  lead  from  oxidation,  and  insure  a  perfect  coating  of  tin, 
when  the  tin  is  poured  through  the  pipe  or  the  pipe  dipped  into  the 
Lath  of  tin  ;  after  the  lead  pipe  has  been  made,  place  the  same  in  & 
vertical  or  nearly  vertical  position,  and  pass  down  through  the  same  a. 
strong  cord,  to  which  a  weight  is  attached  to  draw  the  cord  through 
the  pipe ;  and  at  or  near  the  other  end  of  the  cord,  a  sponge  or  piece  of 
other  porous  or  elastic  material,  is  attached  of  a  size  to  fill  the  pipe, 
and  of  any  desired  length,  say  6  inches  more  or  less.  The  sponge  or 
porous  wad  being  saturated  with  the  flux,  is  drawn  through  the  pipe, 
and  by  its  length  ensures  the  covering  ot  the  entire  inside  surface  of 
the  inside  of  the  pipes  with  the  flux,  so  that  the  melted  tin,  sub- 
.  .gequently  applied,  will  adhere  to  all  parts  with  uniformity  and  firm- 


To  PREVENT  LEAD  EXPLODING. —Many  mechanics  have  had  their 
patience  sorely  tried  when  pouring  melted  lead  around  a  damp  or  wet 

-  joint  to  find  it  explode,  blow  out,  or  scatter  from  the  effects  of  steam, 
generated  by  the  heat  of  the  lead.    The  whole  trouble  may  be  stopped 
fcy  putting  a  piece  of  resin  the  size  of  the  end  of  a  man's  thumb  into 
the  ladle  and  allowing  it  to  melt  before  pouring.    Simple  as  the  secret 
is,  many  have  paid  $20  for  the  privilege  of  knowing  it. 

TABULAR  VIEW  OF  THE  PROCESSES  OF  SOLDERING. — Hard  solder* 

~  ing.    The  hard  solders  most  commonly  used  are  the  spelter  solders, 

and  silver  solders.    The  general  fiux  is  borax,  marked  A  on  the- 

table,  and  the  modes  of  heating  are  the  naked  fire,  the  furnace  01 

muffle,  and  the  blow  pipe,  marked  a,  6,  g,  applicable  to  nearly  all 

metals  less  fusible  than  the  solders  ;  the  modes  of  treatment  are 

nearly  similar  throughout.    Note. — The  examples  commence  with. 

the  solders  (the  least  fusible   first)  followed  by  the  metals  for 

|  •which  they  are  commonly  employed.    Fine  gold,  laminated  and 

'.   cut  into  shreds,  is  used  as  the  solder  for  Doming  chemical  vessels 

made  of  platinum.    Silver  is  by  many  considered  as  much  the  best 

-  Bolder  for  German  silver,  for  silver  solders,  gee  Jewellers'  attoy* 
Copper  cut  in  shreds,  is  sometimes  similarly  used  for  iron.    Gold 

-  folders    laminated    are    used    for  gold   alloys,  see  333  and   338. 
Spelter  solders,  granulated  whilst  hot,  are  used  for  iron,  copper, 
"brass,  gun  metals,  German  silver,  &c.,  see  below.     Silver  solders 
laminated,  are  employed  for  all  silver  works  and  for  common  gold 

\  *rork,  also  for  German  silver,  gilding  metals,  iron,  steel,  brass,  gun 
metal,  &c.,  when  greater  neatness  is  required  than  is  obtained  from, 
spelter  solder. 

White  or  button  solders,  granulated,  are  employed  for  the  white 
alloys  called  button  metals;  they  were  introduced  as  cheap  substi- 
tutes for  silver  solder.  Hard  Soldering. — Applicable  to  nearly  all 
the  metal* ;  the  modes  of  treatment  are  very  different.  The  soft  *el* 


320       MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  &c.,  RECEIPTS. 

4er  mostly  used  is  two  parts  tin  and  one  of  lead;  sometimes,  front 
motives  cf  economy,  much  more  lead  is  employed,  and  1^  tin  to  1  lead 
ia  the  most  fusible  of  the  group,  unless  bismuth  is  used.    The  fluxes  i 
B  to  G,  and  the  modes  of  heating,  a  to  it  are  all  used  with  the  sofHv 
solders. 

Note. — The  examples  commence  with  the  metals  to  be  soldered. 
i  Thus  in  the  list,  zinc,  8,  c,  /,  imnlies,  that  zinc  is  soldered  with  No.  8 
/alloy,  by  the  aid  of  the  muriate  or  chloride  of  zinc  ,  and  the  copper 
bit.  Lead,  4  to  8,  F,  d,  e,  implies  that  lead  is  soldered  with  alloys 
varying  from  No.  4  to  8,  and  that  it  is  fluxed  with  tallow,  the  heat 
l>eiD£  applied  by  pouring  on  melted  solder,  and  the  subsequent  use 
of  the  heated  iron,  not  tinned;  but  in  general  one  only  of  the  modes 
of  leating  is  selected,  according  to  circumstances.  Iron,  cast-iron 
and  steel,  8,  B,  D,  if  thick,  heated  by  a,  6,  or  c,  and  also  by  g.  Tinned 
iron.  8,  G,  D,/.  Gold  and  silver  are  soldered  with  pure  tin,  or  elsa 
with  8,  E,  a,  g,  or  h.  Copper  and  many  of  its  alloys,  namely  brass, 
cilding  metal,  gun  metal,  &c.,  8,  B,  C,  D;  when  thick,  heated  by  a, 
l>,  c,  e,  or  17,  when  thin,  by  /,.or  g.  Speculum  metal,  8,  B,  C,  D,  tho 
heat  should  be  cautiously  applied ;  the  sand  bath  ia  perhaps  the  best 
mode.  Zinc,  8,  C,/.  Lead  and  lead  pipes,  or  ordinary  plumber's 
work,  4  to  8  F,  d,OT  e.  Lead  and  tin  pipes,  8,  D,  and  G,  mixed,  g,  and 
also/  Britannia  metal,  C,  A-*,  g.  Pewters,  the  solders  must  vary  ia 
fusibility  according  to  tae  fusibility  of  the  metal,  generally  G,  and  i, 
are  used,  sometimes,  also  G,  and  g  or/.  Lead  is  united  without  sol- 
der by  pouring  on  red  hot  lead,  and  employing  a  red  hot  iron,  d.  e. 
Iron  and  brass  are  sometimes  burned,  or  united  by  partial  fusion,  by 
pouring  very  hot  metal  over  or  around  them. 

ALLOYS  AND  THEIR  MELTING  HEATS.  FLUXES. 

^o.  1         1  Tin  25  Lead  258  Fahr.    A.  Borax. 


2  1  "  10  "  541 

3  1  "  5  "  511 

4  1  "  3  "  482 

5  1  "  2  "  441 

6  1  "  1  "  370 

7  1J  "  1  "  334 

8  2  "  1  "  340 

9  3  "  1  "  356 

10  4  "  1  "  365 

11  5  "  1  «  378 

12  6  "  1  "  381 


B.  Sal-am,  or  mur,  of  amm. 

C.  Muriate  or  chlor.  of  zinc. 

D.  Common  resin. 

E.  Venice  turpentine. 

F.  Tallow. 

G.  Gailipoli  oil,    or  common 

[sweet  oil. 
MODES  OP  APPLYING  HEAT. 

a.  Naked  fire. 

b.  Hollow  furnace  or  muffle. 

c.  Immersion  in  melted  solder. 
13     4  Lead  4  Tin  1  Bismuth  320  Fahr.   d.  Melted  solder  or  metal 

poured  on. 

-  14     3     "     3    "    1        "        310     "       e.  Heated  iron,  not  tin'd. 
16     2     "     2    "    1        "        292     "      /.  Heated     copper    tool, 

tinned. 

16  1     "     1    "    1        "        254     "       g.  Blow  Pipe  fiame. 

17  2     "     1    "   2        "        236     "       h.  Flame  alone,  generally 

alchohol. 

18  3     "     5    "    2        "        202     "       i.  Stream  of  heated  air. 
CHEAP  MOSQUITO  BAB. — Drop  a  small  quantity  of  petroleum  or 

•kerosene  oil  on  a  piece  of  cotton,  squeeze  out  the  excess  as  much  aa 
|K>8gible,  then  rub  the  cotton  over  the  face,  hands,  &c.,  and  these  pea- 
insects  will  not  alight  where  the  scent  has  been  left. 


MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  &c.,  RECEIPTS.       521 

SOLDERS  32  KINDS.— 1.  Plumbers'  solder.— Lead,  2  parts;  tin,  t 
part.  2.  Tinmen's  solder.— Lead,  1  part;  tin,  1  part.  Zinc  solder. 
—Tin,  1  part ;  lead,  1  to  2  parts.  4.  Pewter  solder.— -Lead,  1  part ;, 
bismuth,  1  to  2  parts.  5  Spelter  solder.— Equal  parts  copper  and  zinc. . 
6.  Pewtcrcrs'  soft  solder. — Bismuth,  2  ;  lead,  4  ;  tin,  3  parts.  7.  An~\ 
vthcr.— Bismuth,  1 :  lead,  1 ;  tin,  2  parts.  8.  Another  pewter  solder.; 
—Tin,  2  parts  ;  lead,  1  part.  9.  Glazier's  Solder— Tin,  3  parts  ;  lead, 
1  part.  10.  Solder  for  Copper. — Copper,  10  parts  ;  zinc,  9  parts.  11. 


parts.  14.  Brass  solder,  White.— Copper,  57.41  parts;  tin,  14. 60 parts; 
zinc,  27.99  parts.  15.  Another  Solder  for  Copper. — Tin,  2  parts ; 
lead,  1  part.  When  the  copper  is  thick,  heat  it  by  a  naked  fire  ;  it 
thin,  use  a  tinned  copper  tool.  Use  muriate  or  chloride  of  zinc,  as  a 
tiiix.  The  same  solder  will  do  for  iron,  cast  iron,  or  steel;  if  the 

S'.eceg  are  thick,  heat  by  a  naked  fire,  or  immerse  in  the  solder.  16. 
lack  Solder.— Copper,  2  ;  zinc,  3  ;  tin,  2  parts.  17.  Another.—  Sheet 
brass,  20  Ibs.  ;  tin,  6  Ibs.  ;  zinc,  1  Ib.  18.  Cold  Brazing  without  Fire 
or  Lamp. — Fluoric  acid,  1  oz. ;  oxy  muriatic  acid,  1  oz. ;  mix  hi  a  lead 
bottle.  Put  a  chalk  mark  each  side  where  you  want  to  braze.  This 
mixture  will  keep  about  6  months  in  one  bottle.  19.  Cold  Soldering 
without  Fire  or  Lamp. — Bismuth,  £  oz.  ;  quicksilver,  |  oz.  ;  block  tin 
filings,  1  oz.  ;  spirits  salts,  1  oz.  ;  all  mixed  together.  20.  To  Solder 
Iron  to  Steel  or  cither  to  Brass. — Tin,  3  parts ;  copper,  39£  parts ; 
zinc,  7£  parts.  When  applied  in  a  molten  state  it  will  firmly  unito 
nietals'first  named  to  each  other.  21.  Plumbers'  Solder. — Bismuth,  1; 
lead,  5;  tin,  3  parts;  is  a  first  class  composition.  22.  White  Solder  for 
raised  Britannia  Ware. — Tin,  100  Ibs.  ;  hardening,  8  Ibs. ;  antimony, 
$  Ibs.  23.  Hardening  for  Britannia.— (To  be  mixed  separately  from  the 
cither  ingredients).  Copper,  2  Ibs.  ;  tin,  1  Ib.  24.  Best  soft  solder  for 
•cast  Britannia  Ware.— Tin,  8  Ibs.  ;  lead,  5  Ibs.  25.  Bismuth  solder. 

Tin,  1  ;  lead,  3  ;  bismuth,  3  parts.  26.  Solder  for  Brass  that  will 
stand  Hammering. — Brass,  78.26  parts  ;  zinc,  17.41  parts ;  silver,  4. 
-33  parts  ;  add  a  little  chloride  of  potassium  to  your  borax  for  a  flux. 
27  Solder  for  Steel  Joints.— Silver,  19  parts  ;  copper,  1  part  ;  brass, 
•2  parts.  Melt  all  together.  28.  Hard  Solder.— Copper,  2  parts ;  zinc,  1 
part.  Melt  together.  29.  Solder  for  Brass.— Copper,  2  parts  ;  zinc, 
1  part  ;  with  borax.  30.  Solder  for  Copper.— Brass,  6  parts  ;  zinc,  1 
part ;  tin,  1  part  ;  melt  all  together  well,  and  pour  out  to  cool.  31. 
Solder  for  Platina.—Gold  with  borax.  32.  Solder  for  Iron.—Th9 
test  solder  for  iron  ia  good  tough  brass  with  a  little  borax. 

N.  B.  In  soldering,  the  surfaces  to  be  joined  are  made  perfectly 
clean  and  smooth,  and  then  covered  with  sal  ammoniac,  resin  or  other 
Hux,  the  solder  is  then  applied,  being  melted  on  and  smoothed  over 
by  a  tinned  soldering  iron. 

SOLDERING  FLUID. — Take  2  oz.  muriatic  acid;  add  zinc  till  bubbles 
•cease  to  rise;  add  £  teaspoonful  of  sal-ammoniac. 

BLACK  VARNISH  FOR  COAL  BUCKETS.— Asphaltum,  1  Ib. ;  lamp* 
"black,  £  Ib. ;  reein,  £  Ib. ;  spirits  of  turpentine,  1  qt.  Dissolve  the 
Asphaltum  and  resin  in  the  turpentine,  then  rub  up  the  lamp-black 
with  linseed  oil,  only  sufficient  to  form  a  paste,  and  TP*X  with  tbt 
Dthscr.  Apply  with  a  brush. 


522 


MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  &c.,  RECEIPTS. 


SIZES  OF  TIN- WARE  OF  DIFFERENT  KINDS. 

(For  Diameters.  &c.  of  Circles  see  Tables. ) 


Diam. 
of  bot. 

Diam. 
of  top. 

Heig'fc 

inches 
4 

inches 
«i 

inches 

"3 

it 

°5 

1 

~* 

"              "                                                                       ^     nt« 

01      / 

«i 

1  '} 

iil 

111 

1^ 

5 

Mntc 

<)} 

1-1 

^i 

-                        10    nt< 

11 

111 

!iX 

Q 

V>3 

2nfe 

ft 

j.w4 

3nfaa 

K3 

9! 

............    i   pt 

1 

,,f 

of 

7i 

7§ 

K* 

Ql 

K£ 

of 

«VT 

TAILS  AND  DISH  KETTLES    -    -    -    -    14   qts. 
10    qts. 
-    -    -    -      6    qts. 
-    -    -    -      2    qts. 

9^ 

? 

p>3 

i'2 
13 

1 

9l 

9 

$ 

f      2   gal. 
l^gaL 

llBASuaES  for  Druggists,  Beer,  &c.         j2  ga£ 
1     pt 

•      i4  Pf' 
1   gal. 

|gal 

IkLaAsuRES  of  other  forms.    -    -    -         1     qt. 
1     pt. 
4     Pt. 

i4 

4 

4 

3| 

4 

oX 

23 

1 

8f 

P 
? 

P 

TIN  CANS.— SIZE  or  SHEET,  FOB  FROM  1  TO  100  GALLONS. 


J'or  1   gallon,    7  by  20  inches. 
10  by  28 


For  25  gallons,  30  by  56  inches. 


40 
60 
75 
100 


36  by  63 
40  by  70 
40  by  84 
40  by  98 


6       "        12  by  40 

6        "        14  by  40 

10      "        20  by  42 

15      "        30  by  42 
,  This  includes  all  the  laps,  seams,  &c.,  which  will  be  found  sufficiently 
Correct  for  all  practical  purposes. 

PATENT  LUBRICATING  OIL.  —  Water,  1  gal.  ;  clean  tallow,  3  Ibs.; 
palm  oil,  10  Ibs.  ;  common  soda,  £  Ib.  Heat  the  mixture  to  about 
210°  Fahr.  ;  stir  well  until  it  cools  down  to  70°  Fahr.  ,  when  it  is  fit 


UCHINISTS,    ENGINE^*?'.    AC.,    RECEIPTS.          523 
Explanation  of  Diagrams  for  Sheet  Metal  Workers,  &<% 


RIGHT-ANGLED  ELBOW. — Fig.  1. — Strike  out  fife  length  and  depth 
of  the  elbow  as  shown  in  the  above  diagram,  drawing  semicircles  at 
the  end  as  exhibited  above.  Then  draw  seven  horizontal  lines  as 
shown  extending  along  the  small  figures.  Divide  the  circumference  or 
length  into  16  equal  parts  by  drawing  15  vertical  lines  as  in  diagram. 
Now  draw  a  line  from  h  to  k  and  d ;  directly  opposite  draw  another 
line  along  the  letters  v  r  p ;  for  the  top  sweep  set  the  compasses  on 
the  fourth  line  from  the  bottom,  and  sweep  two  of  the  spaces ;  and 
do  the  same  at  the  corner.  On  space  for  the  two  remaining  sweeps 
get  the  compasses  so  as  to  intersect  in  the  three  corners  ^f  the  space* 
designated  by  the  small  cross  marks.  The  drawic^  doei,  .tot  include 
seams  or  laps,  these  must  be  added. 

ELBOWS  FOR  GUTTERS  FOR  EAVES  OF  ROOFS. — .t^ave  troughs  pos- 
sess a  form  resembling  the  undivided  half  of  a  pipe  divided  length- 
ways, therefore  by  describing  one  half  of  one  end  of  the  elbow  of  a 
pipe  whose  size  is  equal  to  the  size  of  the  gutter  at  the  top,  you  have 
the  requisite  pattern;  extra  allowance  to  be  made  for  bead. 

BRONZING  GAS  FITTINGS. — Boil  the  work  in  a  strong  ley,  and 
ecour  it  free  from  all  grease  or  old  lacquer.  Pickle  it  in  dilute  nitric 
acid  until  quite  clean,  and  then  dip  it  into  strong  nitric  acid  to  make 
it  bright,  swilling  it  in  the  water  immediately  after.  Sometimes  this 
latter  dipping  in  strong  acid  requires  to  be  repeated  two  or  three  times, 
"but  the  work  must  always  be  rinsed  immediately  after  dipping. 
Bind  it  very  loosely  round  with  iron  wire,  and  let  it  stand  for  a  f e\r 
minutes  in  the  water  you  have  used  for  swilling.  This  will  de- 
posit a  layer  of  copper  on  the  work.  Again  wash  well,  dry  in  box- 
wood dust,  and  brush  over  with  equal  parts  of  blacklead  and  Bag- 
nail's  red  bronze. 

To  SEPARATE  GOLD  FROM  SILVER — The  alloy  is  to  be  melted  and 
poured  from  a  height  into  a  vessel  of  cold  water,  to  which  rotary  mo- 
tion ie  communicated.  By  this  means  the  alloy  is  reduced  to  a  finely  * 
granulated  condition.  The  metallic  substance  is  then  treated  witk 
nitric  acid  and  gently  heated.  Nitrate  of  silver  is  produced,  which 
can  be  reduced  by  any  of  the  ordinary  methods ;  while  metallic  gold 
lemains  as  a  black  mud,  which  must  be  washed  and  melted.— Scien- 
tific American. 

To  TJ*  COPPER  STEW  DISHES,  fcc.—Wwh.  th«  surface  of  the  arti- 


524      MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  &c.,  RECEIPTS. 

cle  to  be  tinned  with  sulphuric  acid,  and  ri\o  the  surface  well,  go  a» 
to  ha v 2  it  smooth  and  free  of  blackness  caused  by  the  acid;  thea 
sprinkle  calcined  and  finely  pulverized  sal-ammoniac  upon  the  sur- 
face, holding  it  over  a  fire,"  when  it  will  be  sufficiently  hot  to  melt  a* 
bear  of  solder  which  is  to  be  rubbed  over  the  surface.    Any  copper r 
dish  or  vessel  may  be  tinned  in  this  way.  i 

'    PARKER'S  COPPER  HARDENING  process  consists  in  introducing  ant 
itdmixture  of  a  minute  quantity  of  phosphorus  into  the  metal. 


To  STRIKE  OUT  COMMON  FLARING  VESSELS,  CONES,  &c.—Fi<j.  $.—,  -. 
Form  a  right  angled  paralellogram  H  K  D  V,  H  K  equal  to  the  cir« 
tfumference  of  the  wide  end  of  "the  diagram,  and  N  P  equal  to  its  cir- 
cumference at  the  indicated  points,  K  D  being  the  elevation ;  draw 
the  right  lines  H  N  R  and  K  P  R;  from  R  as  a  basis  lay  out  arcs  from 
H'to  Kand  N  P,  calculating  proper  allowance  for  backs.  To  STRIKB 
OUT  A  Cozra.— Form  a  paralellogram  as  in  the  diagram;  the  space 
from  II  to  K  equivalent  to  the  diameter  of  the  cone;  K  to  D  equiva- 
lent to  the  elevation;  next  draw  lines  from  H  and  K  to  the  centra 


MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  &c.,  RECEIPTS.      625 

of  fie  line  D  Y,  and  fi3in  this  as  a  base  or  centre  describe  a  segment 
of  a  circle  from  H  to  K. 

FLUX  FOR  WELDING  COPPER.— Boracic  acid,  2  parts  ;  phosphate 
of  soda,  1  part;  mix.  This  welding  powder  should  be  strewn  over  the 
rein-face  of  copper  at  a  red  heat;  the  pieces  should  then  be  heated  up 
to  a  full  cherry  red,  or  yellow  heat,  and  brought  immediately  under 
the  hammer.  Heat  the  copper  at  a  flame,  or  gas  jet,  where  it  will 
mot  touch  charcoal  or  solid  carbon. 


To  STRIKE  OFT  A  CIRCULAR  ELBOW.— Figs.  3  and  4.— Layout  two 
'curved  lines  F  land  G  D  to  suit  the  desired  length  of  elbow;  the 
space  from  F  to  G  equivalent  to  the  intended  diameter  of  the  pipe  ; 
lay  off  the  circles  F  D,  G  I  into  as  many  divisions  as  youdesire ;  con- 
struct the  paralellogram,  Fig.  *  the  length  equivalent  to  the  diame- 
ter of  the  pipe  you  are  making  he  width  equal  to  C  B  in  Fig.  3;  lay 
off  a  segment  of  a  circle  equivalent  in  diameter  to  the  pipe,  touching 
the  point  H ;  divide  the  segment  into  any  desired  number  of  equal 
(divisions;  draw  lines  across  the  dots  parallel  to  V  V;  open  the  com- 
jnasses  1J  times  the  diameter  of  the  pipe,  and  describe  the  line  from 
jv  to  the  intersection  of  the.lines  P  P  and  R  R,  draw  .curvilinear  linea 
to  the  crossings  of  the  othera-lines  to  the  'point  H,  this  will  t urnisli 
Jone  side  of  a  section. 


'526       MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  &c.,  RECEIPTS. 

To  STRIKE  OUT  OVALS,  OVAL,  SLASDSG  VESSELS,  &c.—  Fig.  5.— * 
Construct  the  paralellogram  H  K  D  V;  H  K  equivalent  to  the  long 
.and  K  D  to  correspond  to  the  short  diameter;  divide  it  into  four  equal 
parts  bv  drawing  the  lines  P  R  and  N  N;  mark  the  point  L  one-third 
the  distance  from  N  tc  O ;  then  describe  the  arcs  I  SI,  I  S  t,  and  from 
the  line  N  N  describe  the  segment  INI.  To  describe  an  egg-shaped 
<.vaJ  with  ends  oi  unequal  magnitude,  construct  the  frustrum  of ;  a 
,cone  that  wili  embrace  the  oval  and  proceed  as  in  n  ig.  5.  LQ  btriKQ 


*>ut  an  oval  Flaring  Vessel  in  four  subdivisions,  find  the  circumference 
of  the  arcs  1  S  1  arid  INI  for  the  bottom  of  the  pieces;  forma  paral- 
•ellogram  the  length  of  which  shall  be  equal  to  the  circumference  of 
the  top  of  either  division,  and  operate  as  in  Fig.  2.  The  same  allow- 
ance must  be  accorded  for  flare  on  the  side  parts  as  on  the  ends, 
-allowing  for  burrs  and  locks. 

GOLD  LACQUER  FOB  TIN — TRANSPARENT,  ALL  COLORS.  —Alcohol 
In  a  flask,  1  pt. ;  add  gum-shellac,  2  ozs. ;  turmeric.  1  oz. ;  red  sand- 
•ers,  1£  ozs.  Set  the  flask  in  a  warm  place,  shake  frequently  for  12 
hours  or  more,  then  strain  oft  the  liquor,  rinse  the  bottle,  and  return 
it,  corking  tightly  for  use.  When  this  varnish  is  used,  it  must  be  ap- 
plied to  the  work  freely  and  flowing,  and  the  articles  should  be  hot 
•when  applied.  One  or  more  coats  may  be  laid  on,  as  the  color  is  re- 
quired more  or  less  light  or  deep,  If  any  of  it  should  become  thick 
iroin  evaporation,  at  any  time.,  thin  it  with  alcohol.  And  by  the  fol- 
lowing modifications,  all  the  various  colors  are  obtained :  1.  RoseColor. 
Proceed  as  above,  substituting  1  oz  of  finely  ground  best  lake  in  place-  . 
of  the  turmeric.  2.  Blue.  The  blue  is  inadeVy  substituting  pulverised 
Prussian  blae,  1  oz.,  in  place  ol  the  turmeric.  3.  Pw^ple.  Add  a  little 
-of  the  bine  tx>  the.  first.  4  Green.  Add  a  little  oi  the  rose  to  the  first. 

CRACKEL-   STOVES  —Equal  parts  of  wood  ashea  and  salt;  mix 
to  a  paste  With  water  ;  with  th-ia  fii!  the  cracka. 


MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  &c.,  RECEIPTS.         527 

To  DESCRIBE  A  HEART.— Fig.  6.— Draw  the  straight  line  H  D  K 

equal  to  the  breadth  of  the 
heart;  layoff  the  segments 
H  D  and  D  K,  then  with  the 
dividers  extended  from  H 
to  K,  describe  the  arcs  H  K 
andKV. 

To  find  the  circumference 
of  a  circle,  the  diameter  be- 
ing known,  multiply  the  di- 
ameter by  3.141(3,  and  to 
find  the  diameter  of  a  circle, 
the  circumference  being 
known,  divide  the  circum- 
ference by  3.141G. 

To  STRIKE  OUT  OVAL 
WASH  BOILER  COVERS. — 
Fig,  7.— Describe  the  line 
V  R  equal  in  extension  to 
half  the  length  of  the  boiler ; 
from  the  central  point  D  lay 
off  the  circle  M  R  N,  equiva- 
lent in  diameter  to  tho 
Breadth  of  the  boiler  outside  the -wire  around  the  rim;  describe  tho 
line  H  K  so  as  to  cross  the  line  V  R  in  the  manner  shown  in  diagram ; 
make  V  S  three-eighths  of  an  inch  high  more  or  less  as  you  desire  it 
for  the  pitch  of  the  cover;  place  the  corner  of  the  measuring  square 
on  the  line  H  K,  laying  the  flat  part  touching  the  point  S;  then  de- 
scribe the  lines  H  N,  H  S,  S  K  and  K  M,  which,  with  the  proper  al- 
lowance for  locks  and  edges,  completes  the  cover. 

JAPANNERS'  GOLD  SIZE.— Gum  ammoniac,  1  Ib. ;  boiled  oil,  8  ozs. ; 
spirits  turpentine,  12  ozs.  Melt  the  gum,  then  add  the  oil,  and  lastly 
spirits  turpentine. 

JAPANNING. — Nearly  30  formula  for  varnishes  "will  be  found  on 
•page  283,  among  them  Japanners  Copal  Varnish,  and  this,  together 
"with  oil,  alcohol,  shellac,  or  any  other  transparent  varnish,  admits  of 
l>ein°:  mixed  with  coloring  matter  to  produce  different  shades.  1. 
For  Scarlet.  Ground  vermilion  may  be  used,  but  being  so  glaring  it 
is  not  beautiful  unless  covered  over  with  rose-pink,  or  lake,  which, 
have  a  good  effect  when  thus  used.  2.  Bright  Crimson.  Use  saff- 
flower  or  Indian  lake  dissolved  in  alcohol;  in  place  of  this  lake  car- 
mine may  be  used,  as  it  is  more  common.  3.  Yellow.  Turmeric  dis-  ' 
solved  in  spirits  of  wine,  strained  through  a  cloth,  and  mixed  with 
pure  seedlac  varnish,  makes  a  good  yellow  japan;  saffron  will  answ- 
er applied  in  the  same  way.  and  chrome  yellow  is  excellent.  Dutch 
pink  forms  a  cheap  yellow  japan  ground.  If  dragon's  blood  be  added 
to  th»  yellow  japan,  a  most  beautiful  and  rich  salmon-colored  varnish 
is  the  result,  varied  according  to  the  quantity  of  the  ingredient  used. 
4.  Orange.  Use  yellow  mixed  with  vermilion  or  carmine,  just  as  a 
tright  or  inferior  color  is  desired.  5.  Purple.  Add  to  the  varnish  a 
mixture  of  lake  and  Prussian  blue,  or  carmine,  or  for  an  inferior 
-color,  vermilion.  6.  Blue.  Use  bright  Prussian  blue  ;  it  may  b« 
dixed  with  shellac  varnish  and  brought  to  a  polishing  state  by  8  or  4 


528          MACHINISTS,    ENGINEERS'1 


RECEIPTS. 


coats  of  rarnish  of  seedlac ;  mix  with  the  purest'  varnish  when  a  light 
blue  is  desired.  7.  Black.  Prussian  blue  1  oz.,  asphaltum  2  ozs., 
spirits  turpentine  1  pint ;  melt  the  asphaltum  in  the  turpentine,  rub 
up  the  blue  -with  a  little  of  it;  mix  a.  d  strain,  then  add  the  whole 
to  2  pints  of  the  Tarnish.  8.  Green.  Mix  equal  parts  of  the  blue  and 
yellow  together,  then  mix  with  the  Tarnish  until  the  color  suits  the 
fancy.  9.  Pink.  Mix  a  little  of  the  blue  to  more  in  quantity  of  the 
led  and  then  tidd  to  the  Tarnish  till  it  suits.  10.  White.  One  white 
ground  is  made  by  the  following  composition:  white  flake  or  lead 
Trashed  over  and  ground  up  with  a  sixth  of  its  weight  of  starch,  then 
<3ried  and  raided  with  the  finest  gum,  ground  up  in  parts  of  1  oz. 
*um  to  ^  oz.  of  rectified  turpentine  mixed  and  ground  well  together. 
This  is  to  be  finely  laid  on  the  article  to  be  japanned,  dried  and  then 
varnished  with  5  or  6  coats  of  the  following :  2  ozs.  of  the  whitest 
geed-lac  to  3  ozs.  of  eum-anime  reduced  to  a  fine  powder  and  dis* 
solved  in  1  qt.  alcohol.  For  a  softer  varnish  than  this,  a  little  turpeiK 
tine  should  be  added  and  less  of  the  gum. 


To  STRIKE  OUT  CAN  TOPS  AND  BEVEL  COVERS  FOR  VESSELS.— « 
•Fi(j.  8.— Describe  the  circle  K  K  K  for  the  size  of  the  can  or  coverj 
al-ow  the  space  between  K  K  K  and  D  D  D  for  edges  to  the  same, 
and  the  distance  between  V  V  V  and  D  D  D  foi  the  flare;  span  thf 


'MACHINISTS,   ENGINEERS',    AC.,  RECEIPTS. 

dhiders  from  R  to  K  and  divide  the  curvilinear  line  V  T  V  Into  six 
equal  divisions;  cut  out  the  pieces  H  H  H,  D  D  D  leaving  edges  for 
locks  parallel  to  H  V.  For  the  opening  in  the  can  head  or  top,  describe 
the  curvilinear  line  H  H  H  equal  in  magnitude  to  the  circumference 
of  the  opening.  To  have  your  can  tops  one-third  pitch,  span  the  di- 
viders two-thirds  of  the  diameter  of  the  can:  lay  out  a  circle  and  u&» 


two-thirds  of  it.  «For  one-quarter  pitch,  span  the  dividers  three- 
fourths  of  the  diameter  of  the  can,  lay  out  a  cu^le  and  use  three* 
quarters  of  it  For  one-half  pitch,  lay  off  the  circle  twice  the  diame* 
ter  of  the  can  and  u.«e  ha  If  of  it.  Remember  to  grant  full  allowance 
lor  locks  on.y. 

DIFFERENT  STYLES  OF  .T'IUKG. — To  file  a  surfi^e  true,  it  is  neces- 
sary on  commencing,  to  squeeze  the  file  tightly  between  the  third  and 
fourth  fingers  and  palm  of  your  hand  until  you  become  used  to  it 
Tour  position  in  filing  should  be  half  left  face  to  your  work,  with, 
the  middle  of  your  right  foot  fifteen  inches  behind  your  left  heel ; 
»nd  to  file  your  work  true  or  square,  it  is  necessary  to  reverse  your 
trork  often,  as  by  this  means  you  are  enabled  to  see'the  whole  surface 
you  are  filing,  and  see  while  filing  whether  you  are  filing  true  or  not. 
When,  however,  your  work  is  so  ho* -ry  that  you  cannot  reverse  it 
you  had  better  file  first  to  the  right  and  then  to  the  left,  as  by  this 
means  you  can  plainly  see  the  file  marks,  and  this  again  assists  yow 
fa  filing  true. 

To  CRYSTALLIZE  TIN.— Sulphuric  acid,  4  ozs. ;  soft  water,  2  to  3 
•  >zs.,  according  to  strength  of  the  acid ;  salt  l£  ozs,  Mix,  Heat  the 
Sin  hot  over  a  stove,  then  with  a  sponge  apply  the  mixture,  then 
<fc"ash  off  directly  with  clean  water.  Dry  the  tin,  and  varnish  with 
demar  varnish 

COMPRESSION  OF  AN  INDIA-RUBBER  BUFFER  OF  'I^TREK  INCHE* 
STROKE.— 1  ton,  1.3  inches.     1^  tons,  12  inches.     2  tons,  2 
I  tous,  2|  inches,    5  tons,  2|  inches.    10  tons, 

34 


•"530  MACHINISTS,    ENGINEERS*,   &C.,   RECEIPT3, 

To  STRIKE  A  SET  OF  PATTERNS  FOR  THE  E^ELOP?,  OF  A  Coi*E.  — 
Fig.  9. — Lay  off  the  lines  H  N  aud  KK ;  the  gpace  from  II  (,^  51.  corres- 
ponding to  the  circumference 
of  the  cone  at  the  largest  end; 
II  N  equal  to  the  sloping 
height;  from  N  as  a  basis  de- 
scribe the  segments  II  K,  D  D,l 
V  V,  R  R,  and  P  P;  each  of  the 
parts  between  these  segments 
will  compose  a  section  of  the 
covering  if  allowance  bo  maclo 
for  the  laps.  To  lay  cff  tho 
frustrum  of  a  cone,  gee  1'ij.  2. , 

2o  Jwd  the  Area  of  a  (Jircl:, 
multiply  the  circumference  ty 
one-fourth  the  diameter.  il> 
find  the  Area  of  a  Sec' ton  cf  a 
Circle,  multiply  the  length  of 
the  arc  by  half  the  length  cf 
the  radius. 

To  STRIKE  OUT  STRAIN:: 
BUCKET  AXD  COFFEE  PC? 
LIPS  (Eastern  Style}.— Fig.  10.— Describe  the  triangle  H  K  D,  II  K 
equivalent  to  the  slanting  height;  from  D  lay  out  the  section  II  K; 

describe  sections  of  ci-clcj 
from  K  to  D  and  H  to  D  ac- 
cording to  the  dimensions  ol 
the  vessel.  In  coffee  pcto, 
the  section  extending  from 
H  to  K  should  be  regulated 
according  to  the  style  ^ 
•which  it  is  to  be  constructed. 
In  describing  TrA-KETTLn 
AJTD  TEA-POT  SPOUTS,  pro- 
ceed as  in  Figs.  1  and  4,  ma."> 
ing  the  breadth  of  the  paral- 
eliogram  commensurate  oi 
equal  to  the  angle  you  desira 
to  cut,  and  the  length  eqr.iv* 
alent  to  the  circumference  of 
the  spout. 

To  STRIKE  OUT  LTm  FOR 
MEASURES,  £c.— Lry  out  a 
circle  the  dimensions  of  the 
tor)  of  the  vessel;  describe  & 
me  through  the  centre  of  the  circle  and  divide  it  into  four  equal  see-- 
tions;  span  the  compasses  on  the  line  one  quarter  the  distunes  from 
the  end,  and  describe  a  semi-circle  touching  the  opposite  end  of  the 
line;  pass  the  compasses  the  breadth  of  the  "ip  lorirod,  ^nd  lay  out 
i  s;-/c  until  it  approaches  the  ser-^circ1-.  vhi^^i  /'ill  allow  the  de- 
lip.    The  annexed  Sector  '.  <*-^ea^-^  •-  *'i  /ie  aiechamcg  to 


MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  AC.,  RECEIPTS.       53f 


AD  JUSTING  LOCOMOTIVE  VALVES. — A  correspondent  of  the  Scien- 
tific American  gives  the  following  method  of  setting  slide  valves  of 
locomotives  : — Make  a  steel  tram,  about  5^  in.  long,  with  two  points 
at  the  right  angles  with  the  straight  bar^"  one  point  to  be  2|  in.  in 
length,  and  the  other  1$  in.  Both  points  are  to  be  snarp.  Take  a 
centre  punch,  and  make  a  centre-mark  on  the  top  of  the  steam-chest 

eicking-box ;  then  take  a  strip  of  tin  and  put  it  in  the  steam-port, 
raw  the  valves  slowly  back  until  you  can  just  move  the  tin  be- 
tween the  edge  of  the  valves  and  the  edge  of  the  steam-port  (which 
is   now   closed  except  as  ta  tlio  thickness   of  the  strips  of  tin. ) 
Take   the  tram,  place  the  short  point  in  the  centre-mark  on  tlio 
packing-box  ;   then  make  a    scratch   on   the  valve  stem,  and  go 
through  with  the  same  process  with  the  opposite  pteam-port.     Novr 
you  have  marks  on  the  valve-stem  just  where  the  valve  begins  to  open. 
'The  valve-stem  must  next  be  got  into  radius  (as  we  tonn  it),  which 
1s  to  show  the  proper  length  for  the  valve-stem.    It  is  done  thus  : 
Cover  the  steam-ports  equally  with  the  valve,  put  the  centre  of  the 
lock  shaft  and  the  rocker  pin  at  a  right  angle  with  the  bore  of  tl:o 
cylinder:  and  when  the  valve-stem  is  adjusted  to  this,  it  is  of  the 
proper  length  and  should  not  be  altered,    to  ad  just  the  valves  in  for- 
ward motion,  hook  the  reverse  lever  in  the  forward  notch,  take  the 
dead  points  for    centres,  and  alter  the    eccentric  _  rods  until  the 
A  spaces  are  equal  on  the  valve-stem,  which  is  determined  by  the  use 
*  of  the  tram.    Take  the  forward  centres  and  give  1-lCth.  lead  to  the 
valve,  for  either  passenger  or  freight  engines.   By  adopting  this  plan 
the  engine  will  reverse  her  action  promptly.  Hook  the  reverse  lever 
in  the  back  motion,  and  repeat  as  above.     U  the  job  is  to  be  done 
;  quickly  and  the  eccentrics  are  in  the  proper  position,  it  fan  be  done 
by  the  travel,  in  this  way  :  Move  the  engine  slowly  forward  with 
steam,  take  the  tram,  and  trace  the  movement  of  the  vaK-e  on  the 
jjvalve-fitem  until  the  stern  stops;  then  trace  the  return  movement 
f  until  that  stops.     Take  a  pair  of  dividers  and  measure  each  distance 
'  from  the  valve  mark  on  the  stem  to  the  extreme  of  the  travel  Ifoe 
(or  where  the  valve  stopped).     Alter  eccentric  rods  until  the  pnaces 
are  equal.     By  these  means  you  do  not  require  to  take  the  steam 
chest  covers  off. 


032  FACTS  FOR  GAS  COMPANIES  AND  CONSUMERS. 

FACTS  FOB  GAS  COMPANIES  AND  CONSUMERS. — The  following; 
different  volumes  of  gas  have  been  obtained  from  various  kinds  of 
coal.  Cannel  coal,  15,000  cubic  ft;  Wigan  cannel,  15,426;  Boghead 
•unnel,-  13,334;  Cape  Breton  "  COAV  Bay,"  etc.,  9,500;  Pictou  and  Sid- 
ney, 8000;  English,  mean,  11,000;  Newcastle  from  9,500  to  10,000; 
i'ittsburg,  9,520,  Scotch,  from  10,300  to  15,000;  Wallsend,  12,000,  Vir- 
ginia, 8,960;  Western,  9,500.  Pine  Avood  Avill  evolve  11,000  cubic  ft. 
•erton.  Rosin  15,600.  Oil  and 'grease  23,000  cubic  it.  Each  retort 
-hould  produce  about  600  cubic  ft.  of  gas  in  5  hours,  Avith  a  charge  of 
l£  cwt.  of  coal,  or  2800  cubic  feet  in  24  hours.  One  ton  of  coal  should 
j.Toduce  about  9000  cubic  ft.  of  gas,  1  chaldron  of  coke  and  about  II 
zals.  of  tar,  and  9  of  ammoniacal  liquor.  Dry  purifiers  require  1 
hush,  of  lime  to  10,000  cubic  ft.  of  gas,  and  wet  purifiers  an  admix- 
ture of  water,  48  bushels,  and  lime,  1  bushel  for  each  10,000  cubic  ft. 
of  gas.  One  per  cent,  of  carbonic  acid  in  gas  diminishes  its  illumin- 
ating power  one-tenth.  Defective  burners  should  be  changed  with- 
•  >ut  delay,  as  all  smoking,  roaring,  irregular,  ragged,  and  pronged 
! lames  cafased  a  great  Avaste  of  gas  with  deficient  light ;  a  smoky 
J'ame  indicates  loss  of  gas  as  well  as  loss  of  light.  One  good  ga* 
'ight  is  better  economy  than  a  number  of  small  ones.  The  standard 
•>f  (/as  burning  is  a  15  hole  Argand  lamp,  interior  diameter  '44  ins. ^ 
"hinmey  7  ins.  high,  consuming  5  cubic  ft.  per  hour,  evolving  a  light 
,rora  common  coal  gas  of  from  10  to  12  sperm  candles  of  6  to  the 
pound,  with  cannel  coal  from  20  to  24  candles,  and  Avith  Pennsyl- 
vania coal  from  14  to  16  candles  The  adA^antage  gained  by  employ- 
1  ug  a  30-hole  argand  instead  of  wi\e  standard  is  a  greater  production 
of  light,  the  increase  being  from  20  to  30  per  cent.,  for  if  the  standard 
.•onsumes  5  ft  per  aour,  and  evolves  the  light  of  12  candles,  the  30- 
hole  burner,  consuming  I  ft.  per  hour,  Avill  give  the  light  of  22  cau- 
dles. An  Argand  burner  Avith  two  chimneys,  one  within  the  other, 
\vith  air  space  between  in  Avhich  the  air  becomes  heated  during  its 
downward  movement  towards  the  flame,  for  nn  equal  amount  of 
'iglit,  causes  a  saving  of  gas  equal  to  33  per  cent. ,  and  for  an  equal 
consumption  of  gas,  the  gain  in  light  is  equal  at  62  per  cent 

Burners  are  made  so  as  to  produce  all  shapes  of  flame,  and  are  of 
difierent  materials,  lava,  iron,  steel,  porcelain,  steatite,  brass,  plati- 
num lined,  etc.  The  bore  from  which  the  flame  of  the  gas  issues 
rihoiild  be  arranged,  as  regards  its  width,  for  the  quality  of  the  gas 
consumed,  cannel  coal  gas  for  instance,  being  proA'ided  with  narroAver 
openings  than  those  for  common  coal  gas.  "We  have  single  jet  burn- 
ers, double  jet  burners,  bat's  wing,  fishtail,  cockspur,  and  other 
varieties ;  also  Argand  burners  of  various  sizes,  bored  with  6  to  30  or 
48  holes,  or  as  in  the  Dumas  burner,  a  slit  instead  of  a  hole.  The 
best  gas  burners  are  made  of  laA-a,  and  the  kind  known  as  fishtail 
burners  consume  from  4  to  5  ft.  of  common  coal  gas  per  hour;  large-; 
burners  require  from  6  to  10  cubic  ft.  per  hour,  in  proportion  to  size  ;( 
sheltered  lights  consume  about  4  cubic  ft.  per  hour,  out  door  lights 
about  5  cubic  ft. ;  street  lamps  in  cities  consume  from  3  to  5  cubic  ft. 
per  hour,  according  to  size  of  burner  used.  A  13  candle-gas,  con- 
sumed in  an  Argand  burner,  evolves  an  illuminating  power  of  13  ca»- 
dles  ;  if  burnt  in  a  bat  wing  or  fish-tail  burner  the  same  gas  Avill  pro- 
dn~9  only  the  illuminating  power  of  9  caodles.  The  deficiency  of 
lig'-tls  caused  by  an  admixture  of  atmospheric  air  mingling  la 
witli  the  thin  jets  of  gas; increasing  the  heat,  but  dissipating  the 


FACT3   FOR   GAS   COMPANIES   AND    CONSUMERS. 

and  imparting  a  blue  tinge  to  the  flame.  Bat-wing  burners  are  the 
best  adapted  for  all  out-door  lights.  Whenever  economy  in  gas  «iid 
i;ood  light  are  main  objects,  the  larger  kind  of  bat- wing  burners  are 
preferable  ;  a  bat-wing  burner  consuming  3£  ft.  of  gas  per  hour 
yields  only  the  light  of  6  candles,  whereas  a  burner  consuming  G  it 
per  hour  evolves  a  light  equal  to  15^  candles,  the  pressure  being  4- 
lOths  of  an  inch  at  the  point  of  ignition.  Nearly  the  same  results  are 
obtained  by  the  use  of  the  fishtail  burner.  The  carcel  burner,  with 
a  perforated  disc  at  the  lower  part,  and  two  orifices  at  the  uppers 
where  the  flames  unite  and  spread  into  one,  each  side  of  this  united 
flame  being  supported  by  two  curved  levers  or  arms,  is  said  to  be 
equal  if  not  superior  to  the  Argand  or  fishtail  burners  in  the  power 
of  evolving  a  soft,  steady,  mellow  light. 

Loss  TO  THE  DIFFUSION  OF  GAS  LIGHT  BY  GLASS  GLOBES. — 
Clear  glass,  12  per  cent. ;  glass  globe  engraved  with  ornaments,  24  per 
cent,;  half  ground  globe,  35  per  cent. ;  globe  obscured  all  over,  40  per 
cent. ;  opal  globe,  GO  per  cent. ;  painted  opal  globe,  G4  per  cent.  Xo 
glasses  of  any  kind  are  ever  used  with  the  bat-wing  burner  owing  to 
the  widely  extended  flame,  but  for  fish-tail  burners  they  are  in  com- 
mon use.  Globes  as  usually  made,  are  of  faulty  construction  and 
cause  needless  obscurity  and  a  great  loss  of  tight  The  Trud^au 
globe,  invented  and  patented  by  Mr.  Trudeau,  of  Ottawa,  Canada,  is 
constructed  on  correct  scientific  principles,  with  spacious  and  roomy 
apertures,  which  tend  to  promote  a  low  temperature  in  the  glass. 
thus  preventing  4V>,kcfcure  from  the  heat,  and  the  accumulation  ~>f 
smoke  and  dust.  The  burner  being  properly  adjusted,  the  height  of  tne 
globe  being  low,  and  the  openings  wide,  the  gas  is  easily  ignited,  and 
burns  at  an  exceedingly  low  pressure,  with  a  clear,  steady  flame,  with- 
out flickering,  and  diffuses  a  flood  of  soft,  brilliant  light,  whicn  for  qu:  n- 
tity  and  quality  is  really  surprising  to  one  accustomed  to  the  old  fashion- 
ed globes.  If  1  per  cent,  of  air  is  mixed  with  gas,  the  illuminating  power 
is  diminished  about  6  per  cent. ;  if  one-fifth  of  air  be  mixed  with  four- 
fifths  of  gas,  no  serviceable  light  can  be  derived  from  the  mixture. 
The  greatest  light  and  least  heat  is  produced  when  the  gas  is  not  ex» 
posed  to  too  great  a  current  of  outside  air,  and  the  most  heat  and 
least  light  is  evolved  by  permeating  the  gas  largely  with  external  pir; 
in  every  case  an  insufficiency  of  air  supply  will  cause  smoke  and  ob- 
scurity OK  light  witb.  any  kind  of  burner.  Large  burners  under  a  low 
pressure  produce  a  greater  amount  of  light  than  small  burners  uncer 
a  high  pressure,  each  kind  consuming  equal  quantities  of  gas  in  a 
given  tirae,  and  a  greater  volume  of  light  is  emitted  from  a  large 
"burner  than  from  two  small  ones  consuming  the  same  quantity  of  gas 
as  the  or.e  large.  All  burners,  no  matter  what  the  size  may  be,  re- 
quire a  certain  quantity  of  gas  to  produce  the  largest  amount  of  light, 
which  is  as  much  lost  through  the  use  of  too  little  gas  as  by  the  use  of 
a  surplus. 

EXPLOSION  OF  GAS. — Seven  parts  of  air  and  one  of  pas  is  considered 
to  be  the  most  dangerous  compound,  but  much  depends  on  the  purity, 
&c..  of  the  gas.  Compounds  of  less  than  3  of  air  to  1  of  gas,  or  abova 
11  of  air  to  1  of  gas,  will  not  explode.  Gas  unmixed  with  oxygen  or 
atmospheric  air,  extinguishes  flame,  and  while  in  this  state  cannot  rx- 
plode.  The  terrific  gas  explosion  during  the  summer  of  1870  in  Cin- 
cinnati, was  caused  by  a  lighted  pipe  belonging  to  a  laborer  employed 
*n  the  top  of  the  gas  holder;  the  heat  generated  by  ti*s  flash 


FACTS   FOR   GAS    COMPANIES    AND    CONSUMERS. 

was  nearly  2,500°,  or  about  the  temperature  of  melted  steel;  on» 
party  at  the  distance  of  half  a  mile  from  the  explosion  compared 
his  experience  to  the  inhalation  of  a  stream  of  hot  air  from  a  furnace; 
the  time  occupied  by  the  explosion  was  about  the  3rd  part  of  a  second. 
Au explosive  mixture  of  gas,  ichile  underpressure,  will  only  ignite  at 
the  exterior  orifice  of  the  pipe  or  holder ;  but  if  the  pressure  is  removed* 
the  flame  penetrates  to  the  interior,  and  explosion  ensues.  On  per- 
reiviug  the  odor  of  escaping  gas,  instant  action  should  be  taken  to  de- 
tect and  stop  the  leak,  but  there  is  great  temerity  in  applying  a  light 
in  such  cases;  the  best  way  is  to  turn  off  the  gas  for  3  or  4  hours,  and 
r.liow  it  full  time  to  dissipate  into  the  open  air  through  the  doors,  win- 
dows, &c.,  before  using  flame  in  any  form.  If  a  light  is  required  at 
the  open  end  of  a  pipe  while  making  a  new  connection,  gas-fitters 
thould  in  every  case  turn  the  outlet  tap  off,  or  disconnect  the  outlet 
union  of  the  meter,  in  order  to  avoid  the  hazard  of  exploding  the  me- 
ter. 

PRESSURE. — According  to  Mr.  Has  well,  "  The  pressure  with  which 
gas  is  forced  through  pipes  should  seldom  exceed  2^  inches  at  the 
work?,  or  the  leakage,  will  exceed  the  advantages  to  be  obtained  from 
increased  pressure.  When  pipes  are  laid  at  an  inclination  either 
above  or  below  the  horizon,  a  correction  will  have  to  be  made  in  esti- 
mating the  supply,  by  adding  or  deducting  1-100  of  an  inch  from  tha 
initial  pressure  for  every  foot  of  rise  o;  iall  In  the  length  of  the  pipe. 
By  experiment  30,000  cubic  feet  of  g;.*,  sp.  gr.  '42  were  discharged 
n  an  hour  through  6  inches  in  diameter,  and  22.5  feet  in  length, 
and  852  cubic  feet,  specific  gravity  *398  were  discharged  under  a  head 
r>t  3  his.  of  water,  through  a  main  4  ins.  in  diam.  and  6  miles  u> 
length.  Loss  of  volume  of  discharge  by  friction,  in  a  pipe  6  ins. 
iliam.  and  1  mile  in  length,  is  (  stimated  at  95  per  cent.  In  distilling 
T>Q  Ibs.  of  coal  the  volume  of  gas  produced  in  cubic  feet  when  tha 
ilistillation  waa  effected  in  3  hours  was  41.3,  in  7  hours  37.5,  in  20  hours 
1>3.5,  and  in  25  hours  31.7."  The  expiration  of  the  breath  from  tho 
lungs  in  the  gentlest  manner,  is  about  equal  to  the  proper  pressure  for 
the  most  favorable  consumption  of  gas,  while  a  slight  blowing  fore* 
Is  equal  to  the  highest  pressure  in  the  mains  of  gas  companies;  th* 
first  example  is  about  equivalent  to  two  or  three-tenths  pressure,  and 
the  second  to  from  3  to  5  ins.  pressure. 

The  orifices  of  gas  burners  should  be  well  proportioned,  not  too 
email,  to  require  increased  pressure  to  expel  the  gas,  thus  seriously 
curtailing  the  light,  as  shown  by  the  following  experiments  with  4 
Argands,  all  of  one  size,  each  having  15  holes,  but  the  orifice  of  eacb 
graduated  so  that  only  5  cubic  feet  of  gas  per  hour  could  pass  under 
tha  respective  pressnres  here  intimated: — 

Gas  issuing  icith  Pressure  in  tenths  of  inches. 
l-10th  yielded  the  light  of  12  candles. 
5-10ths        "  "         6 

10-10ths        "  "         2^      " 

40-10ths        "  "        1-6      " 

On  the  other  hand,  if  the  orifice  of  an  Argand  burner  is  too  large 
the  flame  will  smoke  offensively  and  thus  entail  waste  and  loss.  Grade 
the  size  of  the  orifice  by  the  quality  of  the  gas  to  be  consumed ;  for 
yoor  gas  the  holes  may 'be  large;  for  good  gas,  smaller  holes  may  be 
used.  In  everj  case  be  careful  to  effect  a  correct  adjustment  in  order 
to  obtain  the  best  rosulu. 


FACTS    FOR    GAS    COMPANIES    AND    CONSUMERS.   53$ 


TOLTTMES   OF   GAS    DISCHARGED    PER    HOUR  UNDER  A  PRESSCMJI 
OF  HALF  AN  INCH  OF  WATER— SPECIFIC  GRAVITY  OF  GAs-*2. 


Diam.  oJ 
opening 

Ins. 

g 

DlAMET 

Volume 
p.  hour. 

Volume. 

Cubic  ft. 
80 
321 

ER   AND   ] 
4 

Diam- 
eter.    L 

Diam.  of 
op'ning. 

Volume. 

Diam.  of 
op'ning. 

Volume. 

Diam.  of 
op'ning. 

Volume. 

Ins. 

i* 

LENGT 
3F  GAS 

ength. 

TI 
T 

v< 

p- 

Cubic 

72 
128 

OF   G^ 

o  BRA 
>lume 
hour. 

ft. 
3 
1 

Lg] 

xc 

D] 

e 

Ins 
li, 
I1/ 

~>IPES 
H  Pll 

am- 

ter. 

. 

i 

TO 
•KS. 

Lei 

Cub 
If 

at 

TRA 
—Di 

gth. 

eft. 
25 
10 

NSM 

•.  Ur 
Voh 
p.  h( 

Ii 
1 
5 

FT  r 

e. 
no€ 

>ur. 

is. 

Va 

IVEN 

Dian 

eter 

C 

^S 
i- 

ubie  ft. 

288.5 
46,150 

'oLinvt* 

Length. 

Cub.  ft. 
50 
250 
500 
700 

Ins. 
4. 
1. 

1.97 
2.65 

Feet. 
100 
200 
600 
1000 

Cub.  ft. 
1,000 
1,500 
2,000 
2,000 

Ina. 
3.16 
3.87 
5.32 
6.33 

Feet. 
1.000 
1,000 
2,000 
4,000 

Cub.  ft. 
2,000 
6,000 
6,000 
8,000 

Ins. 
7. 
7.75 
9.21 
8.95 

Feet. 
6,000 
1,000 
2,000 
1,000. 

To  DETERMINE  THE  SIZE  OF  GAS  PIPE  REQUIRED— LONDON  RULE — 
For  200  lights,  2  inch  tube;  120  lights,  iy2  inch;  70  lights,  1V4  inch;  6C 
lights,  1  inch;  25  lights,  %  inch;  12  lights,  %  inch;  6  lights,  %  inch;  2 
lights,  x/4  inch. 

DIAMETER  AND  EXTREME  LENGTH  OF  TUBING  AND  NUMBER  OF  BURN*- 
ERS  ALLOWED— AMERICAN  STANDARD. 


Diam. 
of 
tube. 

Feet 
in 
length 

No.  of 
burn- 
ers. 

Capac- 
ity of 
met'rs. 

No.  of 
burn- 
ers. 

Diam. 
of  tub- 
ing. 

L'ngth 
in 
feet. 

No.  ol 
burn- 
ers. 

Capac- 
ity of 
met'rs 

No.ot 
burn- 
ers. 

y. 

6 

1 

Slights. 

6 

1 

70 

35 

45  li'ts 

90 

J9 

20 

3 

5     " 

10 

l\/. 

100 

60 

60    " 

120- 

i% 

30 

6 

10    " 

20 

li? 

150 

100 

100    " 

200> 

f% 

40 

12 

20    " 

40 

2 

200 

200 

zj. 

50 

20 

30    " 

60 

DlAMETEK   AND   LENGTH  OF  PlPE  FROM   THE  MAIN,   TOGETHER  WITtt 

THE  NUMBER  OF  LIGHTS  ALLOWED  IN  THE  GAS  SERVICE 

FOR  LAMPS. 

Dis-    j 

Dis- 

Dis- 

No. of 
.  lamps. 

tance     Diam- 
f  rom     eter  of 
main  in    pipe, 
feet. 

No.  of 
lamps. 

tance 
from 
main  in 
feet. 

Diam- 
eter of 
pipe. 

No.  of 
lamps. 

tance 
from 
main 
in  ft. 

Diam- 
eter  of 
pipe. 

2 

40             »/, 

10 

100 

% 

25 

180 

W 

4 

40            yt 

15 

130 

I 

30 

200 

I1/ 

6 

60             % 

20 

150 

I1/* 

... 

In  experiments  conducted  by  Mr.  Pattinson,  analytical  chemist 
.Newcastle,  one  burner  he  tested  gave  light  equivalent 'to  17f  candles: 
while,  with  the  same  quantitv  of  gas,  some  burners  gave  only  3f, 
•others  5£,  6,  8,  and  9i  candle  light. 

(    As  to  the  quality  of  illuminating  gas,  the  English  law  enacts  that 
sucli  gas  shall,  with  respect  to  its  purity,  be  so  far  free  from  am- 
lonia  and  sulphuretted  hydrogen  that  it  shall  not  discolor  either 
turmeric  paper,  or  paper  imbued  with  acetate  or  carbonate  of  lead. 
"» these  tests  are  exposed  to  a  current  of  gas,  issuing  for  one 


53t>   FACTS   FOR    GAS    COMPANIES   AND    CONSx/MERS. 

<ftte  under  a  pressure  of  five-tenths  of  an  inch  of  -water,  and  shall  no! 
icontain  more  than  20  grains  of  sulphur  in  any  fdrm  in  100  cubic  ft.  of 
Sfas."  The  following  enumeration  shows  the  illuminating  power  of 
the  common  gas  used  in  var.ous  cities  and  towns  in  Great  Britain,  as 
determined  by  Prof.  Frankland,  in  accordance  with  the  Government 
.standard:  London,  12  candles,  Liverpool,  22,  Manchester,  22,  Car- 
lisle, 16,  Birmingham,  15,  Edinburgh,  28,  Glasgow,  28,  Hawick,  30, 
*  Aberdeen,  35,  Inverness,  25,  Greenock,  28.5,  Paisley,  30.3.  In  Berlin, 
3*  is  15.5,  Paris,  12.3,  Vienna,  9;  aud  in  the  United  States  it  varies 
from  12  to  18  candles,  computing  by  the  English  standard.  Gas 
manufactured  from  cannel  coal  emits  a  light  the  standard  of  which  is 
•qual  to  20  candles.  '  1V  *"*  gas,  in  London,  is  usually  supplied  to  tfce 
public  buildings  and  the  ^  _  Jdences  of  the  wealthy.  London  has  now 
|l876)  5,000  miles  of  gas  mains,  54,000  street  lamps,  which  burn 
3,000,000  cubic  feet  of  gas  each  night ;  on  the  lighting  of  the  lampi 
and  other  lights  the  deoxydation  of  the  atmosphere  caused  thereby  iff 
'equivalent  to  the  addition  of  500,000  inhabitants  to  the  population. 

The  illuminating  value  of  gas  is  enormously  enhanced  by  causing 
it,  after  it  has  parsed  through  the  meter,  to  enter  a  Carbonizer  or 
Carbureter,  containing  gasoline,  or  other  light  oil,  where  it  becomes 
•saturated  and  enriched  by  the  absorption  of  the  carbonaceous  fumes 
and  vapors  generated  from  the  oil  previous  to  emission  into  the  ser- 
vice pipes  of  the  building.  The  apparatus  ought  to  be  of  sufficient 
(size,  and  should,  in  its  construction  and  location,  combine  every 
available  appliance  to  ensure  safety,  strength,  simplicity,  and  ease  of 
management,  while  presenting  the  largest  possible  surface  for  the 
proper  evaporation  of  its  contents.  The  economy  of  this  carbureted 
gas  is  such  that  a  two-foot  burner  emits  the  light  of  five  feet  of  com- 
mon gas,  while  the  direct  saving  effected  on  the  consumption  of  the 
latter,  varies,  according  to  the  quality  of  the  gas  used,  from  33  to  43 
per  cent.  Hydrogen,  an  essential  component  of  coal  gas,  is  the 
lightest  substance  in  nature,  being  15  times  lighter  than  air,  and  12,000 
times  lighter  than  water,  and  requires  for  perfect  combustion,  8 
*mes  its  weight,  or  half  its  volume  of  oxygen  ;  in  its  passage  through 
rthe  carbureter  above  described,  it  is  simply  the  medium  or  vehicle  to 
•transmit  the  particles  of  vaporized  carbon  from  the  generator  to  the 
burner,  where  on  ignition  it  attracts  to  itself  a  sufficient  portion  of 
the  surrounding  oxygen,  etc.,  to  effect  illumination.  When  12  lights 
with  5  foot  burners  are  required  to  furnish  the  desired  light  from 
common  gas,  6  lights,  with  3  foot  burners  and  carbureted  gas,  is 
found  to  be  all  sufficient  for  the  same  purpose. 

Gasoline  being  almost  a  pure  carbon,  may  be  transmitted  In  the 
vaporized  form  in  combination  with  the  coal  gas,  direct  from  the  gas 
'works  to  the  consumer.  The  Superintendent  of  the  West  Pittsburg, 
Pa,,  Gas  Works,  reports  a  product  of  603,600  cubic  feet  of  20  candle 
gas  from  TObbls.  benzine,  72  gravity,  costing  $1.75  per  bbl.,  being  a 
result  of  8,022  feet  per  bbl.,  at  a  cost,  including  material,  labor,  fuel, 
etc.,  of  about  32  cents,  per  1000  cubic  feet.  Crude  petroleum  and 
heavy  oil  from  the  refineries,  including  gasoline,  benzine,  etc.,  were 
:all  tested  and  used  with  the  greatest  ease,  the  vaporizing  or  carbon- 
izing process  being  produced  by  means  of  superheated  or  other  steam 
passing  through  a  coil  of  pipe  inside  a  tank  or  still  containing  the  oiL 
ftoportions  used  were:  14  candle  gas,  50  per  cent  oil  gas,  SO  per  cent 
jwr,  15  per  cent  It  is  worthy  pf  note  that  the  unusually  large  per* 


FACTS   FOR    GAS    COMPANIES   AND    CONSUMERS.    53? 

tentage  of  air  did  net  perceptibly  diminish  the  illuminating  power  at 
the  compound,  used  with  common  coal  gas,  15  per  cent,  of  air  would 
have  produced  great  obscurity  in  the  resultant  light. 

Owing  to  the  cheapness  of  petroleum  and  its  products,  several 
towns  have  commenced  its  exclusive  use  for  the  production  of  illu-j 
minating  gas,  and  find  it  much  cheaper  and  better  every  way  thau] 
'jthe  gas  produced  from  coal.  In  Pittsburg,  Pa.,  and  elsewhere,  sev". 
eral  enterprising  firms  have  taken  a  notable  step  in  utilizing  natural 
ga*,  which  is  conveyed  in  some  instances  many  miles  through  pipes 
from  the  wells,  and  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  iron,  for  illumina- 
tion, the  generation  of  steam  power,  etc.  The  gas,  manufactured  in 
nature's  alembic,  is  most  probably  generated  by  the  action  of  subter- 
ranean heat  operating  on  an  ocean  of  volatile  carbonaceous  matter  at 
»  great  depth  in  the  earth,  from  which  it  frequently  issues  with  ter- 
rific noise  and  irresistable  force  on  the  penetration  of  the  crust  by 
drilling  or  otherwise. 

Gas  machines  for  generating  gas  from  gasoline  are  now  in  exte»' 
sive  use  for  lighting  factories,  dwellings,  offices,  etc.  A  good  illus- 
tration of  a  most  meritorious  invention  of  this  class  can  be  seen  on  the 
next  page.  The  gas  made  by  this  machine,  known  as  carburetted  air 
gas,  is  obtained  by  the  impulsion  of  common  air,  by  means  of  an  air- 
pump,  into  a  carbureter  containing  gasoline.  In  this  receptacle  the 
air  becomes  saturated  and  impregnated  with  the  carbonaceous  vapors 
from  the  gasoline,  and,  impelled  by  the  action  of  the  air-pump,  it 
transmits  its  burden  to  the  burners  through  the  service  pipes  of  the 
building,  yielding  a  beautiful,  rich,  bright  flame,  conceded  to  be  fully 
equal  to  that  evolved  by  the  best  coal  gas,  being  free  from  sulphur- 
ous compounds  and  other  impunities.  Nearly  one  thousand  of  these 
machines  are  now  in  successful  operation  in  the  United  States,  Can- 
ada, etc.,  and  the  saving  effected  by  them  is  almost  incredible.  The 
proprietors  of  the  National  Drover's  Hotel,  cor.  100th  Street  and 
3d  Avenue,  New  York,  certify  that  their  gas  bill  for  one  year,  with  a 
200  light  Gas  Machine,  was  only  £550,  the  light  obtained  being  every 
way  more  desirable,  and  far  superior  to  that  formerly  supplied  by 
Ihe  "  city  gas  "  at  an  annual  cost  of  nearly  $1,400. 
DIAMETER  AND  EXTREME  LENGTH  OF  PIPE  AND  NUMBER  OF 

BURNERS  ALLOWED  FOR  CARBURETTED  GAS,  SERVED  BY  GAS 

MACHINE.     (Gilbert  &  Barker). 

Greatest  number  of  feet  Size  of  pipe.  Grwtest  number  of  bumei» 

to  be  run.  to  be  supplied. 

20  feet  .        .        .        .     §  inch.        ...         2 
30    J         ...          5    "...  4 

50    "....;"  ...         15 

^      70    "...         1    "...  25 

100    "    ....     li  "  ...         40 

150    "        .        .        .         If"        .        .        .  70 

200    "    ....    2~  "  ...       140 

300    "...         2J  "...  225 

400    ".        .        .        .    3    "  .        .        .300 

50e    "...         4    "...  500 

As  to  the  quality  ol  carburetted  air  gas  it  possesses  an  illuminating 
power  of  from  16  to  20  candles,  being  nearly  equal  to  cannel  gas,  and 
is  characterized  by  perfect  combustion,  ease  of  lighting,  large  voluin« 
<rf  flame,  and  perfect  combination. 


GAS    MACHINE. 


GAS    METERS,    AC. 


533 


CLASSIFICATION   OF   HYDROCARBONS. —  The  grade  usually  ac- 

.fceptedby  distillers  stands  as  follows  :    All  above  88°  of  Baume's 

hydrometer  is  styled  chimogene,  from  88°  to  70°  gasoline,  from  703 

to  60°  naphtha,  from  60°  to  5Q°  benzine,  from  50°  to  35°  kerosene. 

irom  35°  to  28°  lubricating  oil. 

Ox  GAS  METERS— In  distinguishing  between  dry  and  wet  meters,  the 
construction  of  the  former  is  briefly  as  follows :  In  a  gas-light  me- 
tallic box  are  placed  2  or  3  bellows  like  vessels,  which  instead  of  being 
inflated  by  air,  are  inflated  by  the  gas  entering  from  the  service  pipes. 
When  inflated  to  some  extent  an  arrangement  of  springs  and  levers, 
forces  the  gas  out  of  the  bellows  again  into  the  exit-pipe  leading  to 
the  burners.  The  cubic  capacity  of  the  chambers  (as  the  bellows  like  ar- 
rangements are  called),  having  been  accurately  adjusted,  the  move- 
ments of  their  walls  is  communicated  to  wheel-work,  which  being 
connected  with  dials,  indicate  in  tens,  hundreds  and  thousands,  tha 
consumption  of  gas  in  cubic  i'eet. 


FIG.  1.  FIG.  1. 

Dry  meters  are  preferred  on  account  as  well  of  not  being  liable  ta 
.be  affected  by  frost  as  of  not  causing  the  sudden  extinguishing  of  the 
'^as-light  for  want  of  water  as  may  occur  with  wet  meters.  Wet 
meters  are  constructed  upon  a  plan  devised  in  1817,  by  Clegg.  and  im- 
proved by  Crossley,  and  others.  Figs.  1,  2,  3  and  4,  are  drawings  of 
this  kind  of  meter,  which  consists  in  the  first  place  of  an  outer  cylin- 
drical box  of  cast  iron,  closed  on  all  sides.  In  this  box  is  placed  a. 
drum  of  pure  block-tin,  divided  into  4  compartments,  bearing  upon  a 
bell-metal  axis,  and  immersed  for  rather  more  than  half  its  circum- 
ference in  water.  By  the  pressure  of  the  gas,  and  the  ensuing,  de- 
pression of  the  water,  the  drum  revolves,  each  of  its  compartments 
becoming  alternately  filled  with  and  emptied  of  gas.  On  the  axis  of 
the  drum  is  an  endless  screw,  which  by  mechanical  means  is  connected 
with  the  wheel-work  of  the  dials.  The  drum  is  very  accurately  adjusted, 
so  that  at  every  complete  revolution  a  certain  cubic  quantity  of  gas. 
passes  through  and  is  registered,  fig.  I  exhibits  the  apparatus  with 


540  ON    GAS    METERS,    AC. 

the  front  plate  removed;  Fig.  2  shows  the  side  of  the  meter;  Fig.  3  it 
sectional  plan;  and  Fig.  4  is  a  section  through  the  box ;  a  is  the  box 
a  the  drum,  b  its  axis,  c  the  endle«? t^crew;  bearing  in  the  wheel  d,  and 
carrying  by  means  of  e  the  movement  of  the  drum  on  to  the  wheel- work 
of  the  dials;/  g  is  the  inlet  pipe  for  the  gas,  which  flows  into  the  valve 
box,  h  and  passing  by  the  valve,  i  (kept  open  as  long  as  the  meter 
contains  sufficient  water  for  action),  flows  through  the  bent  tube,  It 
into  the  bulged  cover  of  the  drum,  or  technically  antechamber 


FIG.  3  FIG.  4. 

and  thence  into  the  several  compartments  of  the  drum,  Hence  the 
3as  enters  the  space  n,  to  which  is  fitted  the  outlet  pipe,  o  i  is  the 
valve;  p  the  float;  q  the  funnel  tube  for  filling  the  meter  with  water; 
•T  the  waste  water  cistern ;  s  the  plug  by  which  the  waste  water  may  be 
run  off.  As  long  as  no  gas  burners  are  in  use,  the  meter  connected 
with  them  is  inactive;  but  when  the  gas  is  burnt  the  drum  rotates,  and 
by  its  communication  with  the  wheel- work  registers  the  quantity  of 
gas  consumed.  Instead  of  filling  wet  meters  with  water,  they  may 
be  filled  with  glycerine,  which  does  not  freeze  nor  evaporate,  and 
they  should  be  set  perfectly  level. 

WATER  GAS. — The  manufacture  of  water  gas  essentially  consists 
in  forcing  steam  through  iron  or  fire  clay  retorts  filled  with  red-hot? 
charcoal  or  coke.  The  steam  is  decomposed,  yielding  a  mixture  of 
Hydrogen,  carbonic  oxide,  and  carbonic  acid  gases,  with  a  small  quan- 
tity of  marsh-gas.  The  purified  gas,  consisting  essentially  of  carbonic? 
'  oxide  and  hydrogen,  is,  although  not  luminous  when  burnt  by  itself 
suitable  for  illuminating  purposes  under  the  following  conditions: 
1.  By  placing  on  the  burners  small  platinum  cylinders  which,  by  be* 
coming  white-hot,  yield  a  strong  light— Gengembre's  and  Gillard's 
plan.  2.  By  impregnating  the  gas  with  vapors  of  hydro-carbons,  as 
above  •  described,  the  original  idea  being  due  to  Jobard  (1832),  of 
Brussels. 

GAS  WELLS. — Although  these  remarkable  wells  are  quite  numerous 
in  Pennsylvania,  they  are  by  no  means  confined  to  that  locality.  In 
the  neighborhood  of  Fredonia,  New  York,  a  native  permanent  source 
•i  gas  exists,  which  having  been  accidentally  discovered  by  th* 


GAS    LIGHTING,    GAS    ENGINES,    &C.  541 

pulling  down  of  a  mill  situated  on  the  banks  of  the  river  Canadaway, 
lias  been,  by  boring  the  bituminous  limestone,  enlarged,  and  a  gas- 
holder  constructed.  The  native  gas  now  serves  the  purpose  of  illumi- 
nating the  locality.  In  the  Szlatina  salt  mine,  in  Hungary,  illuminat- 
ing gas  is  constantly  evolved,  at  a  depth  of  90  metres,  in  great  quan- 
tities, and  subserves  the  purpose  of  lighting  up  the  mine.  The  Rev. 
)>Ir.  Imbert,  who,  as  a  missionary,  has  travelled  through  China,  states 
that  in  the  province  of  Szu  Tchhouan,  Where  many  bore-holes  for  rock 
salt  have  been  made  to  the  depth  of  about  1500  to  1600  feet,  gas  is 


permanently  emitted  and  conveyed  in  bamboo  tubes  to  places  where- 
it  is  used  for  lighting  and  heating  purposes,  more  especially  the  heat- 
ing of  salt-pans  in  which  the  brine  is  evaporated.  In  Central  Asia, 
and  near  the  Caspian  Sea,  there  are,  at  several  localities,  so-called 
infernal  fires,  which  are  due  to  the  constant  evolution  of  gas  from 
the  soil.  Similar  phenomena  exist  at  Arbela,  in  Central  Asia,  at 
Chitta-Gong,  in  Bengal,  and  other  places. 

About  1786,  Earl  Dundonald  made  experiments  on  gas  lighting  at 
Culross  Abbey;  but  it  should  be  observed  regarding  these  experiments- 
that  they  were  made  with  the  view  of  obtaining  tar,  the  gas  evolved 
l>y  the  distillation  of  the  coals  being  regarded  as  a  curiosity.  The 
real  inventor  of  practical  gaslighting  is  William  Murdoch,  who,-  in 
ITi'i',  lit  his  shops  at  Redruth,  Cornwall,  with  gas  obtained  from  coals. 
The  first  more  extensive  gas-work  wras  established  in  1802,  by  Mur- 
dock,  at  the  Soho  Foundry,  ne:  r  Birmingham,  the  property  of  the 
celebrated  lioultnn  &  Watt.  In  1803  he  illuminated  two  cotton  mills 
in  Manchester  the  same  way. 

GAS  ENGINES. — In  Lenoir's  gas  engine,  now  much  employed  in. 
France,  the  source  of  power  is  the  expansion  arising  from  the  explo- 
sion of  gas.  Air  and  gas  are  admitted  to  a  cylinder  in  the  proportion 
of  11  to  1;  a  spark  from  a  galvanic  battery  is  sent  through  it;  the 
spark  explodes  the  mixture,  and  the  expansion  consequent  on  this 
explosion  drives  a  piston  to  the  other  end  of  the  cylinder.  Mechanism 
does  all  the  rest;  opens  a  slide  valve  to  permit  exit  to  the  exploded 
mixture,  drives  the  piston  back  by  the  momentum  of  a  fly-wheel,  opens 
tubes  for  the  admission  of  new  air  and  gas,  establishes  connection* 
again  with  the  battery,  and  prepares  for  a  renewal  of  the  action,  and 
BO  on  continuously.  These  engines  are  costly  in  the  first  instance, 
and  many  precautions  are  necessary  to  prevent  them  being  overheated ; 
but  they^  require  no  fireman,  and  are  rather  cheaper  to  work  than 
steam-engines ;  consequently  they  are  much  employed  for  2  to  4  horse- 
power purposes. 

PRODUCTS  OF  A  CORD  OF  PITCH  PINE  OBTAINED  BY  DISTIL- 
LATION.— Charcoal,  50  bushels;  Illuminating  Gas.  about  1000  cubic 
feet;  Illuminating  Oil  and  Tar,  50  gals. ;  Rosin  1£  bbls. ;  Pi/roliyneo'tt* 
Acid,  100  gals. ;  Spirits  Turpentine,  20  gals. ;  Tar,  1  bbl. ;  Wood  Spirit, 
.5  gals. — Hasicell. 

To  MEND  IRON  RETORTS.— Fire  clay  15  Ibs.,  saleratus.  1  lb.,  with 
water  sufficient  to  make  a  thick  paste.  Apply  to  the  broken  part  of 
the  retort  while  at  a  good  working  heat,  then  cover  it  with  fine  coal 
dust,  and  charge  the  retort  for  working. 

To  STOP  LEAKS  IN  CLAY  RETORTS  W^HEN  AT  WORKING  HEAT  :— 
Five  parts  fire  clay,  2  parts  white  sand,  1  part  of  borax  pressed  ancr 
ground.  Mix  the  whole  together  with  as  much  water  as  may  be  ne- 


342       MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  &c.,  RECEIPTS. 


«ssary  to  bring  it  to  the  consistence  of  putty.  Roll  it  in  the  hands  t»" 
a  proper  length  and  apply  it  over  the  crack,  pressing  it  with  a  long 
epatula  into  the  crack. 

To  REMOVE  DEPOSIT  OP  CARBON  FROM  CLAY  RETORTS. — Leave 
the  retort  uncharged  for  48  hours,  or  as  long  as  can  be  spared.    Put 
the  lid  on  the  mouth-piece  so  as  to  be  closed  at  top,  and  open  two  or 
three  inches  at  the  bottom.    Take  out  the  stopper  from  stand  pipe,  * 
BO  as  to  allow  a  current  of  air  to  pass  through  the  retorl  and  oxydize  j 
the  carbon  ;  use  no  bar.     Put  in  a  charge  of  coal  after  the  retort  hag  * 
lain  idle  the  number  of  hours  required,  and  when  it  is  withdrawn  the 
carbon  comes  with  it. 

To  PREVENT  GAS  METERS  FROM  FREEZING.— Half  a  pint  of  good 
glycerine 'is  said  to  prevent  the  freezing  of  1  gal.  water,  though  at 
least  double  the  proportion  is  preferable  in  the  country,  whatever 
the  temperature  in  the  winter  may  happen  to  be. 


10,000 


1.00-0. 


100  EACH. 


How  To  READ  THE  GAS  METER.  The  figures  on  the  index  at  the 
sight  hand  denote  even  hundreds.  "When  the  hand  completes  the 
«|itire  circle  it  denotes  ten  hundred,  and  is  registered  by  the  hand  in 
the  centre  circle,  pointing  to  one — each  figure  in  the  centre  circle 
being  a  thousand,  this  entire  circle  being  ten  thousand  ;  and  is  re- 
gistered on  the  index  of  the  left  hand  circle  by  the  hand,  there  de- 
noting by  each  figure,  ten  thousand. 

The  quantity  of  gas  which  passes  through  the  meter,  is  ascertained 
toy  reading  from  the  index  at  the  time  the  amount  is  required  to  bfc 
known,  and  deducting  therefrom  the  quantity  shown  by  the  index  afc 
a  previous  observation. 

If  the  whole  is  registered  by  the  hands  on  the  three  circles  above. 
it  indicates 49.900 

Amount  at  previous  observation,  as  shown  by  the  dotted 
lines 42.500 

Shows  amount  which  passed  through  since  last  taken  off 7.400 

The  register  at  all  times  shows  the  quantity  that  has  passed  through 
gince  the  meter  was  first  set,  by  deducting  from  which  the  amount 
that  has  been  paid  for  (without  any  regard. to  the  time  when,) 
shows  that  the  difference  remains  unpaid. 

To  PURIFY  GAS.— The  purifier  is  to  be  filled  with  milk  of  lime, 
made  by  mixing  1  part  of  slaked  lime  with  25  parts  of  water.  A  very 
rreat  improvement  in  the  purification  of  gas  has  been  effected  by 
Sir.  Statter,  of  England,  by  the  employment  of  hydrated  clay  aloiisf 
with  the  lime  employed  for  this  purpose,  Hydrated  «lay  unites  witk 


MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  AC.,  EECEIPTS.       545 

$h«  ammonia  of  the  gas  as  with  a  base,  and,  at  the  same  time  with  its 
Bulphuret  of  carbon  as  an  acid,  and  thus  removes  both  of  these  nox- 
ious impurities  from  the  gas  exposed  to  its  influence.  It  assists  also, 
in  conjunction  -with  the  lime,  in  removing  tarry  vapor  and  other 
impurities  from  the  gas.  The  illuminating  power  of  the  gas  is  posi- 
tively increased  by  the  clay  purification  from  22  to  33£  per  cent. 
Latterly,  use  is  made  of  hydrated  sesquioxide  of  iron  for  purifying  gas. 

To  AVOID  WASTE  OF  GAS. — Turn  the  gas  partly  off  at  the  meter  ; 
much  gas  is  burned  to  waste  by  too  great  pressure  in  certain  localities. 
In  buildings  of  any  size  a  good  regulator  will  soon  pay  for  itself.  To 
stop  the  leakage  of  gas.  Turn  off  the  gas  back  of  the  meter  ;  then 
take  out  (a  screw  driver  is  all  the  tool  required)  the  plug.  Next  light 
a  wax,  sperm,  or  parafflne  candle,  and  drop  the  melted  wax,  sperm, 
or  parafflne  upon  the  surface  of  the  plug,  till  it  is  covered  with  a  thin 
layer.  Next,  screw  in  the  tap,  and  in  nine  cases  out  of  ten  the  leak 
-will  be  stopped,  and  remain  stopped. 

To  REMEDY  SCATTERING  SHOT  GUNS. — The  only  remedy  known 
to  gunsmiths  is  by  choke-boring,  that  is,  boring  from  the  breech  of 
the  gun,    so  as  to  have  a,  gradual  taper  towards  the  muzzle.  This 
method  of  boring  greatly  improves  the  shooting  qualities  of  the  gun, 
^as  the  charge  concentrates  at  the  muzzle.    Large  shot  are  more  apt  to 
scatter  than  fine,  but  this  depends  on  the  bore  of  the  gun.     A  larga    ; 
bored  gun  does  not  shoot  fine  shot  so  well  as  medium.    A  small 
lx)red  gun  throws  fine  shot  with  greater  force  than  a  large  bored    • 
«one.    As  a  general  thing,  a  small  bored  gun  is  not  adapted  to  large 
rshot,  as  it  does  not  chamber  them  well.    The  length  of  gun  also  de-    ' 
rpends  on  the  size  of  bore — 28  or  30  inches  for  a  gun  of  from  10  to  14 
:gauge;  30  to  34,  of  guns  from  8  to  10  ;  26  to  28,  of  guns  of  15  to    ; 
18  gauge. 

BRONZING  FLUID  FOR  GUNS. — Nitric  acid,  sp.  gr.  1.2  parts; nitric  • 
•ether,  alcohol,  muriate  of  iron,  each  1  part;  mix,  then  add  sulphate  i 
^of  copper,  2  parts,  dissolved  in  water,  10  parts.  i 

BLUING  ON  REVOLVERS  AND  GUN  BARRELS  is  performed  by  • 
^simply  heating  the  piece  to  be  blued  in  powdered  charcoal  over  a  fire  • 
Tintil  the  desired  color  is  obtained,  ; 

FINE  BLUE  FINISH  FOR  GUN  BARRELS.— Apply  nitric  acid  and  let  , 
:it  eat  into  the  iron  a  little  ;  then  the  latter  will  be  covered  with  a 
thin  film  of  oxide.  Clean  the  barrel,  oil  and  burnish.  A  very  fine  ; 
.appearance  is  given  to  gun  barrels  by  treating  them  with  dilute  ; 
nitric  acid  and  vinegar,  to  which  has  been  added  sulphate  of  < 
copper.  The  metallic  copper  is  deposited  irregularly  over  the  iron  ' 
surface  ;  wash,  oil  and  rub  with  a  hard  brush. 

BROWNING  FOR  GUN  BARRELS.— Spirits  of  nitre,  1  Ib. ;  alcohol,  I  ' 
.lb. ;  corrosive  sublimate,  1  oz. ;  mix  in  a  bottle,  and  cork  for  use.  ; 
Directions:  polish  the  barrel  perfect;  then  rub  it  with  quick  lime  • 
with  a  cloth,  which  removes  grease  and  dirt;  now  apply  the  brown-  ] 
ing  fluid  with  a  clean  white  cloth,  apply  one  coat,  and  set  it  hi  a  warm  ' 
•dark  place  for  from  10  to  20  hours,  until  a  red  rust  forms  on  it;  then  " 
.card  it  down  with  a  gunmaker's  card,  and  rub  off  with  a  clean  cloth.  ? 
.Repeat  the  process  if  you  wish  a  dark  shade. 

BROWNING  FOR  TWIST  BARRELS.— Spirits  of  nitre,  f  oz. ;  tincture 
•of  steel,  |  oz. ;  or  use  the  unmedicated  tincture  of  iron  if  the  tincture 
«af  ateel  cannot  be  obtained ;  black  bruu«toi&e,  £oz.;  blue  vitriol,  | 


544       MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  AC.,  RECEIPTS. 

oz. ;  corrosive  sublimate,  J  oz. ;  nitric  acid,  1  dram;  copperas,  J  ox.; 
mix  with  1£  pints  rain  water,  and  bottle  for  use.  This  is  to  be  ap- 
plied the  same  as  the  first ;  it  causes  the  twist  of  the  barrel 
to  be  visible  after  application,  a  quality  which  the  other  liquid  doei 
not  possess. 

BROWNING  CO>IPOSITION  FOB  GUN  BARRELS.—!.  Blue  vitriol,  4 
oz. ;  tincture  of  muriate  of  iron,  2  oz. ;  water,  1  qt. ;  dissolve,  and  add 
aquafortis  and  sweet  spirits  of  nitre,  of  each,  1  oz.  2.  Blue  vitriol 
and  sweet  spirits  of  nitre,  of  each  1  oz. ;  aquafortis,  \  oz. ;  water,  1 
pint.  To  be  used  in  the  same  manner  as  previously  described  in  thig 
•work. 

VARNISH  AND  POLISH  FOR  GUN  STOCKS.— Gum  shellac,  10  ozs.j 
gum  sandarac,  1  oz. ;  Venice  turpentine,  1  dr. ;  98  per  cent,  alcohol, 
1  gal. ;  shake  the  jug  occasionally  for  a  day  or  two,  and  it  is  ready 
for  use.  Apply  a  few  coats  of  this  to  your  gun  stocks,  polish  by  rub- 
bing smooth,  and  your  work  is  complete. 

BORING  GUN  BARRELS.— Take  a  piece  Ox  rod,  cast  steel,  |  inch 
smaller  than  the  interior  of  the  barrel,  and  a  few  inches  longer,  beat 
one  end  up  something  larger  than  the  size  of  the  bore,  then  turn  or 
file  it  in  the  shape  of  an  egg,  leaving  the  swell,  or  centreing  part 
l-20th  of  an  inch  large?  than  the  bore.  With  a  saw  file,  cut  longi- 
tudinal cuts,  £  inch  apart,  laying  them  tha  same  angle  as  a  rose  bit 
countersink,  taking  care  not  to  injure  the  periphery  of  the  tool; 
harden  and  temper  to  straw  color. 

DAMASCUS  TWIST  AND  STUB-TWIST  GUN-BARRELS.— The  twisted 
barrels  are  made  out  of  long  ribbands  of  iron,  wound  spirally  around 
a  mandril,  and  welded  on  their  edges  by  jumping  them  on  the  ground, 
or  rather  on  an  anvil  embedded  therein.  The  plain  stub  barrels  are- 
made  in  this  manner,  from  iron  manufactured  from  a  bundle  of  stub- 
nails,  welded  together,  and  drawn  out  into  ribbands,  to  insure  the 
possession  of  a  ^material  most  thoroughly  and  intimately  worked- 
The  Damascus  barrels  are  made  from  a  mixture  of  stub-nails  and 
clippings  of  stesi  in  given  proportions,  puddled  together,  made  into  a 
bloom,  and  subsequently  passed  through  all  the  stages  of  the,  manu- 
facture of  iron,  in  order  to  obtain  an  iron  that  shall  be  of  an  unequal 
quality  and  hardness,  and  therefore  display  different  colors  and 
markings  when  oxidized  or  browned.  Other  twisted  barrels  are 
made  in  the  like  manner,  except  that  the  bars  to  form  the  ribbands 
are  twisted  whilst  red  hot,  like  ropes,  some  to  the  right,  others  to  tha 
left,  and  which  are  sometimes  laminated  together  for  greater  divers- 
ity. They  are  subsequently  again  drawn  into  the  ribbands  and. 
•vround  upon  the  mandril,  and  frequently  two  or  three  differently  pre- 
pared pieces  are  placed  side  by  side  to  form  the  complex  and  orna- 
mental figures  for  the  barrels  of  fowling-pieces,  described  as  stub" 
twist,  wire-twist,  Damascus-twist,  &c.  Sometimes  Damascus  gun- 
barrels  are  formed  by  arranging  twenty-five  thin  bars  of  iron  and 
niild  steel  in  alternate  layers,  welding  the  whole  together,  drawing 
it  down  small,  twisting  it  like  a  rope,  and  again  welding  three  such 
ropes,  for  the  formation  of  the  ribband,  which  is  then  spirally  twisted 
to  form  a  barrel,  that  exhibits,  when  finished  and  acted  upon  by 
acids,  a  diversified,  laminated  appearance,  resembling,  when  prop- 
erly managed,  an  ostrich  feather. 

DAMASKEENING.— This  is  the  art,  now  in  a  great  measure  lost,  of 


MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  AC.,  RECEIPTS. 

producing  a  watered  or  wavy  appearance  on  the  steel  sword-bladet,. 
armour.  %c.,  or  of  inlaying  and  eiicr  listing  steel  with  gold  and  silver, 
originally  practised  at  bainascus.  Various  methods-  of  damaskeen- 
ing were  practised,  but  the  most  common  seem  to  have  been  those  ot 
welding  trwo  different  kinds  of  steel,  or  steel  and  iron,  together,  or  of 
cutting  lines  on  the  surface  of  the  steel  and  filling  them  with  gold  or 
silver,  which  was  either  fotced  into  the  incised  lines  aud  brought  to*, 
level  with  the  surface  of  the  steel,  or  remained  in  relief  above  it) 
When  the  former  method  was  used,  a  light  pattern,  generally  in  manjl 
lines,  was  produced  on  a  dark  ground,  or  vice  versa,  and  the  junction 
of  the  metals  caused  the  pattern  to  run  through  the  entire  thick- 
ness of  the  blade,  so  that  it  could  not  be  obliterated  even  by  grind- 
ing. 

ON  WOOD  Curs  AND  NEW  WOOD  TYPES.—  Wood  cuts  should  never 
e  washed  with  lye  or  water,  benzine  or  camphene  only  should  b« 
used.  Large  wood  letters  when  new  should  be  soaked  in  a  mixture 
of  turpentine  and  thin  boiled  linseed  oil  over  night,  and  taken  out  of 
the  bath  in  the  morning,  and  then  wiped  clean.  Let  them  stand 
awhile  to  absorb  what  oil,  etc.,  may  not  have  been  removed  by 
wiping,  then  ink  them  well.  After  they  stand  a  few  hours  wash  them 
•with  benzine. 

PRINTERS'  ROLLERS.  —  No.  1.  Black  Composition,  very  durable  and 
elastic.  Genuine  Irish  or  Buffalo  glue  10.^  Ibs.,  black  sugar  cane,  or 
best  maple  molasses,  1  gal.,  purified  India  rubber  shavings,  1  lb., 
Carolina  tar,  2  ozs.,  glycerine,  12  ozs.,  strong  vinegar.  4  ozs.  Soak 
the  glue  over  night  and  drain  in  the  morning  by  means  of  a  covered 
colander.  Boil  molasses  and  skim  for  20  minutes.  Add  the  rubber 
•havings  and  stir  until  it  combines  with  the  molasses,  add  the  glue 
and  boil  6  or  7  minutes,  and  pour.  If  purified  rubber  cannot  be  pro- 
cared  add  1£  Ibs.  more  glue  and  4  ozs.  more  glycerine.  No.  1  glue,  2 
Ibs.  ;  Baeder's  glue  2  Ibs.  ;  best  sugar  house  molasses,  1  grj.  ;  ely« 
cerine,  i  pt  For  Winter  use,  reduce  each  glue  £  to-§  of  a  lb.  Soak 
the  glues  wrapped  up  separately  in  woolen  cloths  about  three  hours. 
Boil  the  molasses  45  or  50  minutes,  skimming  thoroughly.  Then  add 
the  glues  drained  of  superfluous  water.  Boil  the  whole  for  15  or  20 
minutes,  add  the  glycerine,  boil  and  stir  3  to  5  minutes  then  pour  off. 
Jfo.  3.  Strong  Middle  Weather  Rollers.  Temp.  60°  to  70°  Fahr. 
Coopers  best  'glue,  8i  Ibs.:  extra  syrup,  2  gals.  ;  glycerine,  1  pt  ; 
Venice  turpentine,  2  ozs.  Steep  the  glue  in  rain  water  until  pliant, 
and  drain  it  well.  Then  melt  it  over  a  moderate  fire,  but  do  not 
u  cook  it."  This  will  take  from  15  to  25  minutes.  Next  put  in  the 
§yrup,  and  boil  J  of  an  hour,  stirring  it  occasionally  and  skimming  off 
impurities  arising  to  the  surface.  Add  the  glycerine  and  turpentine 
ft  few  minutes  before  removing  from  the  fire,  and  pour  slowly. 
Slightly  reduce  or  increase  the  glue  as  the  weather  becomes  colder  or 
warmer 

SILVERING  SOLUTION  TOR  ELECTROTYPE  PLATES.—  Nitrate  of, 
•silver  2  drs.  ;  distilled  water,  37  drs.  Dissolve,  and  add  sal  ammon-1 
iac,  1  dr.  ;  hydrophosphite  of  soda  4  drs.  ;  precipitated  chalk.  4  drs. 
Agitate  the  preparation  occasionally  for  12  hours,  whan  it  will  b« 


for  use.    Apply  with  a  fine  sponge. 
PRINTING  ov  GLASS.—  A  Frenchman,  named  Wilbaux,  has  taken  out 
patent  to  use  an  elastip  type  for  printing  on  glass,,  with  fluorapas 

#6  __  ^ 


546         MACHINISTS,    ENGINEERS',    AC.,    RECEIPTS. 

rendered  adhesive  by  some  such  material  as  mucilage  or  printer/ 
ink  ;  sulphuric  acid  of  suitable  temperature  is  then  allowed  to  act  on  , 
that  portion  of  the  glass.    The  hydrofluoric  acid  generated  in  this  ' 
way  would  etch  the  glass  on  the  places  printed  on.    When  completed, 
the  whole  is  washed  off  with  warm  water  and  lye. 

LIQUID  FOB  BRIGHTENING  COMMON.  QUALITIES  OP  BLACK  OB 
COLORED  INKS. — Demar  varnish,  1  oz.  ;  balsam  fir,  \  oz.  ;  oil  ber- 
gamot,  25  drops  ;  balsam  of  copaiba,  35  drops  ;  creosote,  10  drops  : 
copal  varnish,  50  drops.  Use  in  small  quantities.  The  whites  of 
ifresh  eggs  are  also  brighteners  of  colored  inks,  but  they  must  be  ap- 
plied a  little  at  a  time,  as  they  dry  very  hard,  and  are  apt  to  take 
«way  the  suction  of  rollers  if  used  for  any  extended  period. 

GOOD  REDUCING  DRYER. — Brown's  (genuine)  Japan.  Use  in  small 
•quantities.  Hardening  Gloss  For  Inks.— Gum  Arabic  dissolved  hi 
alcohol  or  a  weak  dilution  of  oxalic  acid.  Use  in  small  quantities, 
•and  mix  with  the  ink  as  the  latter  is  consumed. 

To  GIVE  DARK  INKS  A  BRONZE  OR  CHANGEABLE  HUE.— Dissolve 
1£  Ibs.  gum  shellac  in  1  gaL  65  per  cent  alcohol  or  cologne  spirits  for 
24  hours.  Then  add  14  ozs.  aniline  red.  Let  it  stand  a  few  hours 
longer,  when  it  will  be  ready  for  use.  Add  this  to  good  blue,  black, 
or  other  dark  ink,  as  needed  in  quantities  to  suit,  when  if  carefully 
<lone  they  will  be  found  to  have  a  rich  bronze  or  changeable  hue. 

QUICK  DRYER  FOR  INKS  USED  ON  BOOKBINDERS'  CASES.— Bees- 
wax, 1  oz.,  gum  arabic  (dissolved  in  sufficient  acetic  acid  to  make  a 
tnin  mucilage),  £  oz.,  Brown  Japan,  £  oz.  Incorporate  with  1  Ib.  of 
good  Cut  ink.  To  Renew  a  Hard  Roller. — Wash  the  roller  carefully 
with  lye  covei  the  surface  with  a  thin  layer  of  molasses  and  lay  if 
aside  till  the  next  morning,  then  wash  it  with  water,  and  let  it  hand 
till  dry  enough  for  using. 

SAVAGE'S  PRINTING  INK.— Pure  balsam  of  copaiba,  9  ozs. ;  lamp- 
black, 3  ozs. ;  indigo  and  Prussian  blue,  each  5  drams;  Indian  red,  £ 
oz. ;  yellow  soap,  3  ozs.  Mix,  and  grind  to  the  utmost  smoothness. 

PRINTING  INK. — Set  on  a  fire  in  a  large  iron  pot  12  gals,  of  clear 
linseed  oil,  boil,  and  stir  until  it  smokes,  then  ignite  it,  remove  it  from 
the  fire  and  let  it  burn  until  a  sample  will  draw  into  strings  between 
the  fingers.  Put  the  lead  on  to  extinguish  the  flame,  then  add  1  Ib. 
of  resin  to  each  qt.  of  oil;  dissolve,  and  add  gradually  in  slices  1|  Ibs. 
of  soap;  heat  the  pot  until  the  solution  is  complete,  when  the  varnish 
ia  ready.  Two  sorts  are  kept,  one  thick,  and  the  other  thin,  so  as  to 
Tniir  when  required;  the  difference  is  caused  in  the  boiling  and  firing 
-  "~  '  '  '  ""  '  '  •'  '  a  thin  is 


/pe  very 
black  ink, 

.  mix  together  mineral  lampblack,  8  Ibs. ;  vegetable  black,  7  Ibs. ;  in- 
digo and  Prussian  blue  of  each  5  ozs.  Indian  red,  2  ozs. ;  grind  this 
•with  sufficient  varnish,  gradually  adding  as  the  grinding  goes  on. 
For  colored  ink  use  colored  pigments,  according  to  the  required  shade. 
GUM  FOR  BACKING  LABELS. — Mix  pure  dextrine  with  boiling 
water  until  it  assumes  the  consistency  of  ordinary  mucilage.  Apply 
with  a  full  bodied,  evenly  made  camel  s  hair  brush.  The  paper  should 
not  be  too  thin  or  unsized.  It  will  dry  quickly  and  adhere  when 
•lightly  wet. 
..  FKOF.  BOTTGES'S  PORTABLE  INK.— Make  the  strongest  possible 


MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  &c.,  RECEIPTS.       547, 

•olution  of  aniline  black  in  water  or  alcohol,  and  soak  thick  unsized 
paper  thoroughly  to  iinbibe  mixture,  and  then  dry  Put  in  a  botttls 
and  add  water  as  required. 

COLORING  AND  SIZING  OF  PAPER.— Paper  is  adulterated  with  plan- 
ter of  Paris,  sometimes  to  the  extent  of  30  per  cent.,  to  increase  the 
weight.  Brown  paper  is  mixed  with  ochre  and  clay,  the  manufac- 
turers say,  to  give  it  a  nice  brown  color,  but  doubtless,  the  true  reason, 
is,  to  make  it  heavier.  White  soap,  glue,  starch,  and  dissolved  resin 
with  a  few  pounds  of  alum,  form  a  good  size  for  printing  paper  to  mix 
with  the  pulp.  Four  or  five  pounds  oxide  of  cobalt  (smalts),  give  a 
"beautiful  blue  tinge  to  fine  writing  paper,  when  added  to  100  Ibs.  of 
the  rags.  Writing  paper  is  sized  by  being  dipped  5  or  6  sheets  at  a 
time  into  a  composition  made  from  skins  and  other  animal  substances, 
^  large  pile  of  it  being  afterwards  pressed  to  force  out  the  superfluity, 
although  machines  now  exist  making  fine  writing  paper,  sized  with 
.gelatine,  dried,  and  cut  into  sheets,  at  the  rate  of  60  feet  a  minute  in 
length,  and  70  inches  wide.  Almost  any  desired  shade  may  be  im- 
parted to  paper  by  the  use  of  several  of  the  coloring  pigments  mention- 
•ed  on  page  132.  'it  requires  great  skill  and  judgment  to  rightly  pro- 
portion the  various  ingredients  for  coloring  the  pulp. 

To  PULP  STRAW  FOB  PAPER  MAKING. — The  straw  is  placed  in  a 
boiler,  with  a  large  quantity  of  strong  alkali,  and  with  a  pressure  of 
«team  equal  to  from  120  to  150  pounds  per  square  inch,  the  extreme 
lieat  being  attained  hi  superheating  the  steam  after  it  leaves  the 
boiler,  by  passing  it  through  a  coiled  pipe  over  a  fire,  and  thus  the 
silica  is  destroyed,  and  the  straw  softened  to  pulp,  which,  after  being 
ireed  from  the  alkali  by  working  it  in  cold  water,  is  subsequently 
"bleached  and  beaten  in  the  ordinary  rag  machine. 

To  TRANSFER  PICTURES  FRO.I  PAPER  TO  WOOD  FOR  RE-EN- 
•GRAVING. — Soak  the  print  in  a  saturated  solution  of  alcohol  and  white 
caustic  potash  to  softe^  the  ink,  then  transfer  to  the  block  under  rol- 
ler pressure. 

To  TRANSFER  PRINTS,  &c.— Take  of  gum  sandarac,  4  pzs. ;  mastic, 
1  oz. ;  Venice  turpentine,  1  oz. ;  alcohol,  15  ozs.  Digest  in  a  bottle, 
frequently  shaking,  and  it  is  ready  for  use.  Directions:  use,  if  poa- 
eible,  good  plate  glass  of  the  size  of  the  picture  to  be  transferred,  ga 
over  it  with  the  above  varnish,  beginning  at  one  side,  press  down  the 
-picture  firmly  and  evenly  as  you  proceed,  so  that  no  air  can  possibly 
lodge  between;  put  aside,  and  let  dry  perfectly,  then  moisten  the 
paper  cautiously  with  water,  and  remove  it  piecemeal  by  rubbing 
••arefully  with  the  fingers;  if  managed  nicely,  a  complete  transfer 
of  the  picture  to  the  glass  will  be  effected. 

PAPER  FOR  DRAUGHTSMEN,  &c. — Powdered  tragacanth,  1  part; 
crater,  10  parts;  dissolve  and  strain  through  clean  gauze;  then  lay  it 
smoothly  upon  the  paper  previously  stretched  upon  a  board.  Thia 
paper  will  take  either  oil  or  water  colors. 

To  APPLY  DECALCOMINE  PICTURES.— Varnish  the  pictures  care- 
fully with  the  prepared  varnish  (which  can  be  obtained  with  the  pic- 
tures), with  an  ornamenting  pencil,  being  careful  not  to  get  the  var- 
nish on  the  white  paper.  In  a  few  minutes  the  picture  will  be  ready 
to  lay  on  the  panel,  and  the  paper  can  be  removed  by  wetting  it,  and 
when  thoroughly  dry,  it  should  be  varnished  like  an  oil  painting.  Be 
particular  to  purchase  only  these  transfer  pictures  which  are  covered 


C48      MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  AC.,  RECEIPTS. 

with  a  gold  leaf  on  the  back,  for  they  will  show  plainly  on  any 
colored  surface,  while  the  plain  pictures  are  used  only  on  white  of 
light  ground, 

ENGRAVING  ON  WOOD. — In  order  to  make  this  subject  rightly  un» 
derstood  we  will  state  that  the  log  of  box  is  cut  into  transverse  slices, 
1  inch  in  depth,  in  order  that  the  face  of  the  cut  may  be  on  a 
level  with  the  surface  of  the  printers'  type,  and  receive  the  same 
amount  of  pressure;  the  block  is  then  allowed  to  dry,  the  longer  thf 
tetter,  as  it  prevents  accidents  by  warping  and  splitting,  which  some* 
times  happens  after  the  cut  is  executed,  if  too  green.  The  slice  is  ul- 
timately trimmed  into  a  square  block,  and  if  the  cut  is  large,  it  is  made 
in  various  pieces  and  strongly  clamped  and  scoured  together.  The 
\ippersurfaceofthewood  is  carefully  prepared,  so  that  no  inequal- 
ities may  appear  upon  it,  and  it  is  then  consigned  to  the  draughts- 
man to  receive  the  drawing.  He  covers  the  surface  with  a  light  coat 
of  flake  white  mixed  with  weak  gum  water,  and  the  thinner  the  coat 
the  better  for  the  engraver.  The  French  draughtsmen  use  an  abun- 
dance of  flake  white,  but  this  is  liable  to  make  the  drawing  rub  out  uii' 
der  the  engraver's  hands,  or  deceive  him  as  to  the  depth  of  line  he  is 
cutting  in  the  wood.  The  old  drawings  of  the  era  of  Durer  seem  to  * 
have  been  carefully  drawn  with  pen  and  ink  on  the  wood;  but  the* 
modern  drawing  being  very  finely  drawn  with  the  pencil  or  silver 
point  is  obliterated  easily,  and  there  is  no  mode  of  "setting"  01 
gecuring  it.  To  obviate  this  danger  the  wood  engraver  covers  th<» 
block  wi*h  paper,  and  tears  out  a  small  piece  to  work  through,  oc- 
casionally removing  the  paper  to  study  the  general  effect.  It  is  no?* 
hi*  busmesF  to  produce  in  relief  the  whole  of  the  drawing  ;  with  & 
great  variety  of  *oolshe  cuts  away  the  spaces,  however  minute,  be- 
tween each  of  ''he  pencil  lines,  and  should  there  be  tints  wanted  on 
the  drawing  to  represent  sky  and  water,  he  cuts  such  parts  of  th* 
block  into  a  series  of  close  Hues,  which  will,  as  near  as  he  can  judge,, 
print  the  same  gradation  of  tint;  should  he  find  he  hos  not  done  sc 
completely,  he  can  re-enter  each  line  with  a  broader  tool,  cutting. 
away  a  small  shaving,  Mi  us  reducing  their  width  and  consequently 
their  color.  Should  he  wak^  some  fatal  error  that  cannot  otherwise 
be  rectified,  he  can  cut  out  the*  part  hi  the  wood,  and  wedge  a  plug  oi 
fresh  Avood  in  the  place,  whan  that  part  of  the  block  can  be  re-en-* 
graved.  An  error  of  this  kinu'  is.  a  wood-cut  is  a  very  troublesome 
thing;  in  copper  engraving  it  is  scarcely  any  trouble,  a  blow  with  a 
fcammer  on  the  back  will  obliterate  tue  erroi  on  the  face,  and  product 
ft  new  surface,  but  in  wood  the  surface  is  cut  en  ;i  rely  away  except 
where  the  lines  occur,  and  it  is  necessary  ^o  cct  iv  deep  enough  not  to 
touch  the  paper,  as  it  is  squeezed  through  tne  press  upon  the  lines  i* 
printing.  To  aid  the  general  effect  of  a  cut,  it  is  sometimes  usual  U 
lower  the  surface  of  the  block  before  the  engraving  is  executed,  hi  such 
parts  as  should  appear  light  and  delicate;  they  thus  receive  a  meu 
touch  of  the  paper  in  the  press,  the  darker  parts  receiving  the  whole 
pressure  and  coming  out  with  double  brilliancy.  When  careful  print* 
ing  is  bestowed  on  cuts  it  is  sometimes  usual  to  insure  this  good  effect 
by  laying  thin  pieces  of  card  or  paper  on  the  tympan,  of  the  shapf 
Heeded,  to  secure  pressure  on  the  dark  parts  only. 

DIB  SINKING.— When  a  die  is  required  for  a  coin  or  medala.  tbf 
engraver  takes  a  piece  of  soft  steel  of  suitable  duueiuiona,  geiMxaU| 


MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  &c.,  RECEIPTS. 

B  or  4  inches  in  length,  and  about  an  inch  greater  in  diameter  than 
the  coin  or  other  article  required,  on  this  he  hollows  out  the  exact 
form  of  the  desired  impression  by  cutting  away  the  steel  by  degrees, 
with  small,  well-tempered,  case-hardened  tools.  As  soon  as  this  work 
is  thoroughly  accomplished  the  steel  is  hardened  by  being  heated  red 
hot  in  a  crucible  with  charcoal  and  oil  or  bone-dust,  and  then  plunged 
into  cold  water.  When  a  great  number  of  coins  of  one  sort  are  re- 
quired, the  original  die  is  termed  the  matrix,  and  copies  are  mad« 
from  it  by  taking  impressions  from  it  in  soft  steel,  which  is  in  relief  , 
and  is  called  the  puncheon,  and  from  which,  when  it  has  been  hard-^ 
ened,  other  dies  are  produced  by  pressure,  exactly  similar  to  th« 
matrix,  and  in  intaglio,  which  are  case-hardened  in  their  turn  befora 
they  are  fit  to  transmit  an  impression  to  any  metal  used  for  money. 
The  metal  used  for  our  coinage,  whether  gold,  silver,  copper,  or 
bronze,  is  stamped  in  a  cold  and  solid  state ;  but  medals  and  casts  can 
lilso  be  produced  by  a  method  called  casting  en  cliche,  in  which  the 
metal  is  used  in  a  soft  state.  For  this  purpose  an  alloy  is  used,  con- 
sisting of  %  lead,  %  tin,  and  %  bismuth,  which  fuses  readily  at  the 
boiling  point,  212°  Fan.  When  the  metal  is  soft,  resembling  paste  in 
consistency,  the  die  is  placed  upon  it,  and  the  impression  produced  by 
&  smart  blow  from  a  mallet ;  the  surface  of  the  metal  sets  instantly, 
from  coming  into  contact  with  the  cold  die,  and  thus  readily  retains 
the  form  that  has  been  given  to  it.  Copies  of  medals  may  be  readily 
made  in  this  way,  but  each  face  will  be  obtained  in  a  separate  piece, 
and  these  must  be  joined  to  give  representations  of  the  coin  in  a  com- 
plete form.  Ornamental  work  is  produced  in  thin  metal  for  gas  fit- 
ting, cornices,  parts  of  cruet-stands,  trays,  &c.,  by  means  of  a  pair  of 
dies,  on  one  of  which  the  pattern  is  formed  in  relief,  and  on  the  other 
in  intaglio,  the  metal  being  placed  between  them,  and  brought  into 
the  desired  shape  by  pressure.  Dies  are  also  made  in  metal  for  form- 
ing articles  in  gutta-percha  and  leather,  and  producing  embossed 
figures  on  the  cloth  covers  of  books,  as  well  as  on  cardboard, 
paper,  <fec. 

STEELPLATE  ENGRAVING. — As  regards  stoelplate  engraving,  it  has 
proved  immensely  superior  to  the  old  copper  plate  system.  A  soft 
•teel  plate  is  first  engraved  with  the  required  suoject  in  the  most  fin- 
ished style  of  art  either  by  hand  or  mechanically,  or  the  two  com- 
bined, and  the  plate  is  then  hardened ;  a  softened  steel  cylinder  ia 
then  Dolled  over  the  hardened  plate,  with  great  pressure  by  powerful 
machinery,  until  the  engraved  impression  appears  in  relief, — the  hol- 
low lines  of  the  original  becoming  ridges  upon  the  cylinder,  the  roller 
is  re-converted  to  the  condition  of  ordinary  steel,  and  hardened,  after 
which  it  serves  for  returning  the  impression  to  any  number  of  decar- 
wonized  plates,  every  one  of  which  becomes  absolutely  a  counterpart 
of  the  original,  and  every  plate,  when  hardened,  would  yield  the; 
enormous  number  of  150,000  impressions,  without  any  perceptible 
difference  between  the  first  and  the  last.  In  one  instance,  from  one 
engraving  of  the  Queen's  head  on  the  postage  stamp,  over  b',000  plates 
were  produced  from  the  original,  and  plates  for  bank-note  printing 
fcre  multiplied  in  the  same  way.  Great  caution  must  be  used  in  the 
Various  processes  of  annealing  and  hardening,  as  only  slight  care- 
lessness would  result  in  ruining  the  most  costly  plates.  The  method 
in  uae  in  the  Bank  of  England  is  as  follows ;  the  work  to  be  hardened 


550       MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  &c.,  RECEIPTS. 

is  enclosed  in  a  wrought-iron  box  with  a  loose  cover,  a  false  bottom, 
and  with  three  ears  projecting  from  its  surface  about  midway ;  th& 
steel  is  surrounded  on  all  sides  with  carbon  from  leather,  driven  in 
hard,  and  the  cover  and  bottom  are  carefully  luted  with  moist  clay ; 
1  thus  prepared,  the  case  is  placed  in  the  vertical  position,  in  a  bridge 
fixed  across  a  great  tub,  which  is  then  filled  with  water  almost  t& 
touch  the  flat  bottom  of  the  case ;  the  latter  is  now  heated  in  the 
furnace  as  quickly  as  will  allow  the  uniform  penetration  of  the  heat. 
When  sufficiently  hot,  it  is  removed  to  its  place  in  the  hardening  tub, 
the  cover  of  the  iron  box  is  removed,  and  the  neck  or  gudgeon  of 
the  cylinder  is  grasped  beneath  the  surface  of  the  carbon,  with  a  long 

r'r  of  tongs,  upon  which  a  couplet  is  dropped  to  secure  the  grasp. 
only  remains  for  the  individual  to  hold  the  tongs  with  a  glove 
whilst  a  smart  tap  of  the  hammer  is  given  to  their  extremity ;  this 
knocks  out  the  false  bottom  of  the  case  and  the  cylinder,  and  the 
tongs  prevent  the  cylinder  from  falling  on  its  side,  and  thus  injuring 
its  delicate  but  still  hot  surface.  For  square  plates,  a  suitable  frame 
is  attached  by  four  slight  claws,  and  it  is  the  frame  which  is  seized 
by  the  tongs ;  the  latter  are  sometimes  held  by  a  chain  which  re- 
moves the  risk  of  accident  to  the  individual.  The  steel  comes  out  of 
the  water  as  smooth  to  the  touch  as  at  first,  and  mottled  with  all  the 
tints  of  case-hardened  gunlocks. 

WRITING  INSCRIPTIONS  ON  METALS.— Take  I  Ib.  of  nitric  acid  and 
1  oz.  of  muriatic  acid.  Mix,  shake  well  together,  and  it  is  ready  for 
use.  Cover  the  place  you  wish  to  mark  with  melted  beeswax  ;  when, 
cold,  write  your  inscription  plainly  in  the  wax  clear  to  the  metal  with 
a  sharp  instrument ;  then  apply  the  mixed  acids  with  a  feather,  care- 
fully filling  each  letter.  Let  it  remain  from  1  to  10  minutes,  accord- 
ing to  appearance  desired ;  then  throw  on  water,  which  stops  th» 
process,  and  remove  the  wax. 

ETCHING  FLUIDS.—  For  copper.— Aquafortis,  2  ozs. ;  water,  5  ozs. 
For  steeL—  Iodine,  1  oz. ;  iron  filings,  #  dr.  ;  water,  4  ozs.  Digest  till 
the  iron  is  dissolved.  For  fine  touches. — Dissolve  4  parts  each  of  ver- 
digris, sea  salt,  and  sal-ammoniac,  in  8  parts  vinegar,  add  16  parts 
water ;  boil  for  a  minute,  and  let  it  cool. 

ENGRAVERS'  BORDER  WAX.— Beeswax,  1  part;  pitch,  2  parts;, 
tallow,  1  part.  Mix.  Engravers'  cement. — Rosin,  1  part ;  brick  dustr 
1  part.  Mix  with  heat. 

MOULDS  AND  DIES. — Copper,  zinc,  and  silver  in  equal  proportions; 
melt  together  under  a  coat  of  powdered  charcoal,  and  mould  into  th« 
form  you  desire.  Bring  them  to  nearly  a  white  heat,  and  lay  on  tha 
thing  you  would  take  the  impression  of,  press  with  sufficient  force, 
and  you  will  get  a  perfect  and  beautiful  impression. 

CAST  ENGRAVINGS.— Take  the  engraved  plate  you  wish  to  copy 
and  arrange  a  support  of  suitable  materials  round  it,  then  pour  ou 
it  the  following  alloy  in  a  state  of  perfect  fusion :  tin,  1  part ;  lead,  64 
parts;  antimony,  12  parts.  These  "cast  plates  "  may  be  worked  off 
on  a  common  printing  press,  and  offer  a  ready  mode  of  procuring 
cheap  copies  of  the  works  of  pur  celebrated  artists. 

BLACK  STENCIL  INK. — Triturate  together,  1  pt.  pine  soot  and  2  pts. 
Prussian  blue  with  a  little  glycerine,  then  add  3  pts.  gum  arabic  and 
•ufficient  glycerine  to  form  a  thin  paste. 

INDELIBLE  STENCIL  INKS.    1    Varnish,  such  as  is  used  for  ordj* 


MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  &c.,  RECEIPTS*       551 

nary  printing  ink,  1  Ib. ;  black  sulphuret  of  mercury,  1  Ib. ;  nitrate  of 
silver,  1  oz. ;  sulphate  of  iron,  1  oz. ;  lampblack,  2  tablaspoonfuls. 
Grind  all  well  together;  thin  with  spts.  turpentine  as  desired.  2. 
Sulphate  of  manganese,  2  parts ;  lampblack,  1  part;  sugar,  4  parts  ;al* 
in  fine  powder  and  triturated  to  a  paste  in  a  little  water.  Permanent 
Red. — Vermilion,  4  parts;  sulphate  of  iron,  1  part;  drying  oil  to  mix. 
Any  other  color  will  answer  besides  red. 

BLUB  RULING  INK. — Good  vitriol,  4  ozs. ;  indigo,  1  oz. ;  pulverize 
the  indigo,  add  it  to  the  vitriol,  let  it  stand  exposed  to  the  air  for  6 
days,  or  until  dissolved;  then  fill  the  pots  with  chalk,  add  fresh  gall, . 
J  gill,  boiling  it  before  use.  ' 

BLACK  RULING  INK. — Take  good  black  ink,  and  add  gall  as  for 
blue;  do  not  cork  it,  as  it  prevents  it  from  turning  black.  See  If? 
different  inks  on  page  215. 

To  PRINT  A  PICTURE  FROM  THE  PRINT  ITSELF.— The  page  or 
picture  is  soaked  in  a  solution,  first  of  potassa,  and  then  of  tartaric  ! 
acid.  This  produces  a  perfect  diffusion  of  crystals  of  bitartarate  of 
potassa  through  the  texture  of  the  uuprinted  part  of  the  paper.  As 
this  salt  resists  oil,  the  ink  roller  may  now  be  passed  over  the  sur- 
face, without  transferring  any  part  of  its  contents  except  to  the 
printed  part. 

To  CLEAN  OLD  OIL-PAINTINGS. — Dissolve  a  small  quantity  of  salt 
in  stale  urine;  dip  a  woollen  cloth  in  the  mixture,  and  rub  the  paint 
ings  over  with  it  till  they  are  clean;  then  wash  them  with  a  spong* 
and  clean  water;  dry  them  gradually,  and  rub  them  over  with  a  clean 
cloth.  Should  the  dirt  not  be  easily  removed  by  the  above  prepara 
tion,  add  a  small  quantity  of  soft  soap.  Be  very  careful  not  to  rub 
the  paintings  too  hard. 

To  RENEW  OLD  OiL-PAnrrnrGS.— The  blackened  lights  of  old  pic- 
tures may  be  instantly  restored  to  their  original  hue  by  touching  them 
with  deutoxide  of  hydrogen  diluted  with  six  or  eight  times  its  weight 
of  water.  The  part  must  be  afterwards  washed  with  a  clean  sponge 
and  water. 

MAGIC  PAPER.— Take  lard  oil,  or  sweet  oil,  mixed  to  the  consist- 
ence of  cream,  with  either  of  the  f ollowing  paints,  the  color  of  which 
is  desired:  Prussian  blue,  lampblack,  Venetian  red,  or  chrome  green, 
cither  of  which  should  be  rubbed  with  a  knife  on  a  plate  or  stone  un- 
til smooth.  Use  rather  thin  but  firm  paper;  put  on  with  a  sponge. 
and  wipe  off  as  dry  as  convenient;  then  lay  them  between  uncolored 
paper,  or  between  newspapers,  and  press  by  laying  books  or  some 
other  flat  substance  upon  them  until  the  surplus  oil  is  absorbed,  when 
it  is  ready  for  use. 

RUBBER  HAND  STAMPS. — Set  up  the  desired  name  and  address  in 
common  type,  oil  the  type  and  place  a  guard  about  £  inch  high  around 
the  form  ;  now  mix  plaster  of  Paris  to  the  proper  consistence,  pour  in 
and  allow  it  to  set.  Have  your  vulcanized  rubber  all  ready,  as  made 
in  long  strips  3  inches  wide  and  |  of  an  inch  thick,  cut  off  the' 
size  of  the  intended  stamp,  remove  the  plaster  cast  from  the  type,  and 
place  both  the  cast  and  the  rubber  in  a  screw  press,  applying  sufficient 
teat  to  thoroughly  soften  the  rubber,  then  turn  down  the  screw  hard 
and  let  it  remain  until  the  rubber  receives  tne  exact  impression  of  the 
cast  and  becomes  cold,  when  it  is  removed,  neatly  trimmed  with  a 
sharp  knife,  and  cemented  to  the  handle  ready  for  use. 


552      MACHINISTS,  ENGINEER',  &c.,  RECEIPTS. 


other  burnisher  rub  it  lengthwise  to  make  it  smooth;  now  wet  the 
glass  with  the  tongue  (as  saliva  is  the  best  sticking  substance),  or  if 
the  glass  is  very  large,  use  a  weak  solution  of  gum  arable,  or  the 
white  of  an  egg  in  half  a  pint  of  water,  and  lay  on  the  foil,  rubbing 
It  down  to  the  glass  with  a  bit  of  cloth,  then  also  with  the  burnisher: 
the  more  it  is  burnished  the  better  it  will  look;  now  mark  the  width 
on  the  foil  which  is  to  be  the  height  of  the  lette  r,  and  put  on  a  straight 
edge,  and  hold  it  firmly  to  the  foil,  and  with  a  sharp  knife  cut  the 
foil,  and  take  off  the  superfluous  edges ;  then  either  lay  out  the  let- 
ters on  the  back  of  the  foil  (so  they  shall  read  correctly  on  the  front) 
by  your  own  judgment,  or  by  means  of  pattern  letters,  which  can  be 
purchased  for  that  purpose:  cut  with  the  knife,  carefully  holding 
down  the  pattern  or  straight  edge,  whichever  you  use ;  then  rub 
down  the  edge  of  all  the  letters  with  the  back  of  the  knife,  or  edge  of 
the  burnisher,  which  prevents  the  black  paint  or  iapan,  which  you 
next  put  over  the  back  of  the  plate  from  getting  under  the  foil;  hav- 
ing put  a  line  above  and  one  below  the  name,  or  a  border  around  the 
plate  or  not,  as  you  bargain  for  the  job.  The  japan  is  made  by  dis- 
solving asphaltum  in  just  enough  turpentine  to  cut  it;  apply  with  a 
brush,  as  other  paint,  over  the  back  of  the  letters,  and  over  the  glass 
forming  a  background.  This  is  used  on  the  iron  plate  of  the  frame 
also,  putting  it  on  when  the  plate  is  a  little  hot,  and  as  goon  as  it  cools, 
it  is  dry.  A  little  lampblack  may  be  rubbed  into  it  if  you  desire  it 
any  blacker  than  it  is  without  it. 

RELIABLE  FoB.MUi.j3  FOB  PHOTOGRAPHERS.— No.  1.  Silver  Bath  for 
Albumen  Paper,  for  Summer  use. — Crystal  nitrate  of  silver,  40  grains  ; 
nitrate  of  ammonia,  35  grains  ;  filtered  rain  water,  1  oz.  ;  saturated 
solution  bicarbonate  of  soda,  about  8  or  10  drops,  or  enough  to  make 
the  bath  slightly  alkaline.  No.  2.  For  winter  use.  Nitrate  of  silver 
2i  ozs.  ;  nitrate  of  soda  2  ozs.  ;  glycerine  3  ozs.  ;  pure  water  40  ozs. 
Make  it  a  little  alkaline  with  aquas  ammonia.  No.  3.  Another  Silver 
Bath.  Silver,  from  40  to  45  grs.  (according  to  temperature  ;)  nitrate 
of  ammonia,  20  grs.  ;  distilled  or  ice  water,  1  oz.  Float  45  seconds  to 
1  minute.  No.  4.  Sal  Soda  Toning  Bath.  Distilled  or  melted  ice 
water  64  ozs.  ;  acid  solution  chloride  of  gold,  (4  grs.  to  theoz.)!  oz.  ; 
saturated  solution  of  sal  soda,  i  oz.  Make  it  a  full  half  hour  befora 
you  wish  to  use  it,  and  during  the  cold  weather  use  the  water  slightly 
warm.  No.  5.  Chloride  of  Lime  Bath.  Water,  40  ozs.  ;  chloride  of 
lime,  5  grams  ;  chloride  of  gold,  4  grs.  No.  6.  Bicarbonate  of  Soda 
Bath.  Chloride  of  gold  solution  (1  gr.  to  the  oz.  of  water, )  1  oz. ;  luke 
••warm  water,  16  ozs.  ;  bicarbonate  ot  soda,  (saturated  solution,)  10 
minims.  Make  up  fresh  every  time  you  prepare  to  tone.  Make  half 
an  hour  before  using.  Precipitate  the  gold  m  the  old  solutions  with 
protosulphate  of  iron.  No.  7  Fixing  Bath.  Hyposulphite  of  soda, 
I  part  to  8  of  water,  and  if  the  paper  blisters  in  the  washing,  soap  the 
prints  for  5  minutes  in  a  solution  of  common  salt.  No.  8.  Bath  for 

Salting  the  Paper.    Pure  rainwater,  60  ozs.  ;  chloride  of  ammoniuip 

360  grs.  ;  gelatine,  120  grs. 

PHOTOGRAPH  PAINTING  rw  OIL  COLORS.- -Torre  FOB  THU  FIRS* 
.— FLJSSH.— White  and  Light  £ed.— White,  Naples  yellow, 


MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  &c.,  BECTEIPTS.       558 

mnd  vermilion.  White,  vermilion,  and  light  red.  Gray,  Pearly, 
tend  Half  Tints.— White,  vermilion,  and  black.  White  and  terro 
Terde.  White,  black,  Indian  red,  and  raw  umber.  Deep  Shades. — 
.Light  red  and  raw  umber. — Indian  red,  lake  and  black.  Carnations.  • 
— White  and  Indian  red  (powerful  color).  White  and  rose  madder.  ' 
White  and  lake.  R\T&.— Light  Hair.— White  and  yellow  ochre.  '. 
White  and  Roman  ochre.  White  and  Vandyke  brown  for  the  dark  v 
parts.  White  and  raw  umber  for  the  dark  parts.  Dark  Bi  own  Hair. 
—Raw  and  burnt  umber.  White  and  raw  umber.  White  and  Van« 
dyke  brown.  TINTS  FOB  THE  SECOND  AND  THIRD  PAINTING.  High 
lights.  White  and  Naples  yellow.  Carnations.  Rose  madder  and 
•white.  Indian  red,  rose,  madder,  and  white.  Green  Tints.— White 
and  ultramarine,  with  any  of  the  yellows.  White  and  terre  verte, 
"with  the  addition  of  a  little  raw  umber.  The  above  green  tints  may 
"be  converted  into  green  grays.  Gray  Tints. — Ultramarine,  light  red, 
and  white.  Indian  red,  lake,  black  and  white.  White,  ultramarine. 
Indian  red,  and  raw  umber.  Piuple  Tints. — Any  of  the  lakes  or  red 
madders,  with  ultramarine  and  white.  Powerful  Shadow  Tints.  In- 
dian red.  purple  lake,  and  black.  Indian  red,  raw  umber,  and  black. 
Strong  Glazing  Colors. — Light  red  and  lake.  Brown  madder.  Van- 
dyke brown,  Indian  red,  and  lake  asphaltum.  DRAPERIES. — BACK 
GROUND  COLORS.— Pearly.— White,  vermilion,  and  blue.  White, 
vermilion,  and  black.  White  and  black.  Gray.— White,  Venetian 
Ted  and  black.  Yellow.  Yellow  ochre  and  white.  Olive.— Yellow 
ochre,  terre  verte,  and  umber.  Stone.— Raw  umber  and  yellow. 
Black,  white,  and  raw  umber.  Sky.— French  blue  and  white.  French 
l>lue,  vermilion,  and  white.  Edges  of  Clouds. — Yellow  ochre  and 
•white.  Clouds. — Indian  red,  lake,  and  white.  Brown  madder,  French 
blue,  and  white. 

PHOTOGRAPH  WATER  COLORS.— FLESH  TINTS.  No.  1.  Fair  Com- 
vlexion. — Light  red,  a  little  carmine  or  vermilion,  and  Indian  yellow. 
Be  careful  in  using  the  latter,  and.  in  the  flesh  tints  of  very  fair  chil- 
dren, allow  the  vermilion  to  predominate  ;  carnations,  rose  madder, 
and,  if  the  face  be  full  of  color,  add  a  little  vermilion  to  it.  2.  Mid- 
dling Complexion.— Much  the  same  as  No.  1,  saving  that  the  light  red 
must  be  in  excess  over  the  other  colors — carnations,  rose  madder,  and 
Lake.  3  Dark  Complexion.— Light  red  and  Indian  yellow,  or  light 
Ted  and  Roman  ochre,  and,  if  the  complexion  be  generally  ruddy,  you 
may  add  a  little  Indian  red,  but  it  must  be  sparingly  used,  as  it  is  a 
powerful  color,  and  likely  to  impart  a  purple  tone  to  the  flesh.  Car- 
aations  chiefly  lake,  but  if  the  complexion  be  warm,  lake  and  a  little 
yellow.  The  carnations  for  children's  portraits  are  rose  madder  and 
vermilion,  inclining  more  to  the  latter  tint.  Aged  persons  have  rose 
madder,  and  a  little  cobalt  to  give  a  cold  appearance  to  the  color  in 
their  cheeks  and  lips.  These  tints,  Nos.  1,  2,  and  3,  are  indispensable 
as  general  washes,  for  the  purpose  of  receiving  the  other  colors, 
jrhich  are  to  be  worked  over  them  to  bring  up  the  complexion  to  the 
life.  Uncolored  photographic  portraits  vary  so  much  in  tone,  that  th« 
ibeginner  will,  perhaps,  find  some  difficulty  in  mixing  up  the  tints  for 
the  washes.  He  must  note  that  the  wai-m-toned  ones  do  not  require 
•o  much  Indian  yellow  as  the  cold  ones  do. 

KEROSENE  OR  CARBON  OIL  MANUFACTURE. — Petroleum,  or  rock 
oil,  t»  a  liauid  substance,  of  a  dark  color,  exuding  from  tbe  earth  and  ' 


554        MACHINISTS,    ENGINEERS*,   AC.,  RECEIPTS.- 

containing  certain  liquid  and  solid  hydrocarbons  such  as  benzole,  dl 
tenzine,  kerosene,  paraffine,  asphaltum,  &c.,  in  a  state  of  solution^ 
iu  different  proportions.  It  differs  greatly  in  composition,  some  sam- 
ples containing  solid  parafflne  and  benzole  in  large  quantities,  while 
others  do  not.  Petroleum  is  separated  from  its  different  products  by" 
careful  distillation  at  different  temperatures.  The  crude  material  is 
first  heated  in  a  retort  to  a  temperature  of  about  10^°  Fah.  This 
aauses  a  light  oil  of  a  strong  odor  to  pass  over  into  the  condenser. 
The 'residue  is  then  distilled  at  about  120°  to  160°,  the  result  being; 
burning  oil.  When  this  is  distilled  off,  steam  is  forced  into  the  retort 
and  a  heavy  oil,  fit  for  lubricating  purposes,  comes  over,  a  black,, 
tarry  mass  being  left  behind.  The  light  oil  is  now  used  for  mineral 
turpentine,  and  as  a  grease  solvent.  It  is  often  of  a  dark  color,  which 
is  easily  removed  by  agitation,  first  with  sulphuric  acid  and  afterwards, 
with  soda-ley  and  water.  In  many  instances  this  light  oil  (benzine) 
is  sold  for  illuminating  purposes  under  the  name  of  Sunlight  Oil, 
Combination  Burning  Fluid,  Lightning  oil,  &c.  I  knew  a  gentle- 
man in  Philadelphia  who  paid  one  man  over  $3000  for  the  receipt  for 
making,  together  with  the  sole  right  to  manufacture,  vend  and  sell, 
a.  compound  of  this  kind  in  that  city.  The  curious,  or  those  interest- 
ed, will  find  tho  receipt  under  the  name  of  the  "  Northern  Light "  un- 
der the  Grocer's  Department  in  this  work.  Truth  requires  me  to 
etate  that  this  article  requires  to  be  handled  with  great  caution  when 
used  for  lighting  purposes — many  lamentable  accidents  having  re- 
united from  a  careless  use  of  it.  The  heavy  lubricating  oil,  when 
cooled  down  to  30°  Fah.,  often  yields  paraffine  in  large  quantities, 
which  is  separated  by  straining  and  pressure.  The  asphaltum  may  be 
used  for  pavements,  or  mixed  with  grease  as  a  lubricant  for  heavy 
machinery.  The  most  important  product  is,  however,  the  burning 
oil,  which  is  now  used  as  a  cheap  and  efficient  illuminating  agent 
in  nearly  every  household  in  this  country.  An  average  sample  of  pe- 
troleum contains,  according  to  W.  B.  Tegetmeier,  20  per  cent,  of  ben- 
zine or  mineral  turps,  55  per  cent,  of  burning  oil,  22  per  cent  of 
lubricating  oil,  and  8  per  cent,  of  carbonaceous  and  tarry  matter. 

To  DEODORIZE  BENZINE.— Shake  repeatedly  with  plumbateof  soda 
(oxide  of  lead  dissolved  in  caustic  soda),  and  rectify.  The  following 
plan  is  said  to  be  better.  Shake  repeatedly  with  fresh  portions  of 
metallic  quicksilver  ;  let  it  stand  for  2  days,  and  rectify. 

To  PURIFY  PETROLEUM  OR  KEROSENE  OIL.— The  distillate  or 
crude  burning  oil  is  converted  into  ordinary  burning  oil  by  being 
placed  into  a  tank  when  it  is  violently  agitated  bv  forcing  air  through 
it,  and  while  thus  agitated,  1J  to  2  per  cent,  sulphuric  acid  is  added, 
after  which  the  agitation  is  continued  15  or  30  minutes.  The  oil  i* 
theiji  allowed  to  settle,  when  the  acid  and  impurities  are  removed, 
and  any  acid  remaining  in  the  oil  is  neutralized.  It  is  then  taken  to 
shallow  bleaching  tanks,  where  it  is  exposed  to  light  and  air,  and  al- 
lowed to  settle.  It  is  next  heated  by  means  of  a  coil  of  steam  pipe 
running  through  it,  to  expel  all  gaseous  vapors  which  will  ignite  at 
a  temperature  below  110°  Fahr.  The  oil  is  now  called  afire  test  oil, 
and  is  ready  to  be  barreled  and  sent  to  market.  Kerosene  oil  is  de- 
colorized, by  stirring  it  up  with  1  or  2  per  cent,  of  oil  of  vitriol,  which 
will  carbonize  the  colloring  matter,  then  with  some  milk  of  lime  9r 
gome  other  caustie  alkali,  settling,  and  re-distilling. 


^MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  &c.,  RECEIPTS.       555 

To  BLEACH  FIXFD  OILS.— Shake  strongly  for  some  minutes,  300 
parts  of  the  oil  with  40  parts  water  containing  1  part  permangate  of  potas- 
ea ;  allow  the  mixture  to  stand  in  a  warm  place  for  some  hours,  and  then 
filter.  This  renders  the  oil  colorless.  To  purify  oil.  Into  1000  parts 
by  weight  of  oil,  put  a  mixture  of  0  parts  solution  of  ammonia  and  (3 
parts  water,  agitate  the  barrel  well  until  the  alkali  is  perfectly  mixed, 
which  may  be  done  in  15  minutes.  The  barrel  is  then  sealed  hermet- 
ically, and  after  3  days'  repose,  the  oil  is  decanted  and  filtered.  The 
residue  is  used  for  the  manufacture  of  soap.  To  Clarify  Coal  Oil. 
— Place  in  a  close  vessel  100  Ibs.  crude  coal  oil,  25  qts.  water,  1  Ib. 
chloride  of  lime,  1  Ib.  soda,  and  £  Ib.  oxide  of  manganese.  The  mix- 
ture is  violently  agitated,  and  allowed  to  rest  for  24  hours  when  th» 
clear  oil  is  decanted  and  distilled.  The  100  Ibs.  coal  oil  are  to  be 
mixed  with  25  Ibs.  resin  oil ;  this  is  one  of  the  principal  points  in  the 
manipulation;  it  removes  the  gummy  parts  from  the  oil,  and  render* 
them  inodorous.  The  distillation  spoken  of  may  terminate  the  pro- 
cess, or  the  oils  may  be  distilled  before  they  are  defecated  and  preci- 
pitated. 

OIL  FOR  FINE  MECHANISM. — Oil  for  fine  mechanism  can  be  pre- 
pared by  putting  zinc  and  lead  shavings,  in  equal  parts,  into  good 
Florence  olive  oil,  and  placing  in  a  cool  place  until  the  oil  become* 
colorless.  Unequalled  for  sewing  machines,  &c. 

To  MAKE  LINSEED  AND  COTTON  SEED  OILS. — In  making  linseed 
oil  guite  a  variety  of  machinery  is  used,  more  or  less  expensive  ac- 
cording to  the  enterprise  and  capital  of  the  manufacturer.  The  seed 
is  first  passed  through  iron  rollers,  to  be  crushed  or  ground,  one  o£ 
the  rollers  is  made  to  revolve  more  rapidly  than  the  other,  which  sub- 
jects each  seed  to  a  pulling,  as  well  as  to  a  crushing  process.  The 
meal  is  taken  from  the  miU  to  the  "  chasers,"  when  it  is  subjected  t*x 
another  crushing  process,  more  severe  than  the  first.  The  chasers- 
are  two  large  circular  stones  about  5  feet  diameter,  and  18  inches 
thick,  rolling  upon  a  third  stone  in  the  manner  of  an  old-fashioned; 
oark  or  cider  mill.  These  heavy  stones  start  the  oil  from  the  seed, 
ind  to  keep  it  from  adhering  to  the  chasers  it  is  moistened  with  water. 
The  meal  is  next  put  into  an  iron  cylinder,  which  is  kept  revolving: 
over  a  fire  until  the  water  is  evaporated.  Much  of  the  skill  of  making: 
oil  depends  upon  this  heating  process.  It  must  not  be  scorched,  and 
yet  it  must  be  brought  up  to  a  high  temperature,  so  that  it  will  readi- 
Iv  give  out  its  oil.  The  presses  are  of  various  structure,  gome  of 
them  are  patented,  and  others  not  open  to  public  inspection.  In  one, 
the  vats  or  hoops  holding  about  2  bushels  each,  were  placed  opposite 
each  other  against  two,immense  beams  or  uprights,  made  fast  in  tke- 
loundations  of  the  building.  The  followers  were  forced  down  upon 
the  meal  by  2  large  levers  worked  by  hydraulic  power.  The  meal  is- 
kept  under  pressure  about  an  hour,  and  the  two  presses  work  up« 
about  92  bushels  of  seed  every  24  hours,  the  mill  being  kept  running 
night  and  day.  The  product  is  not  far  from  2  gals,  of  oil  from  a* 
bushel  of  seed,  a  little  more  or  less,  according  to  the  qualitv  of  tha 
eeed  and  the  skill  in  pressing.  The  cakes,  as  taken  from  the  press, 
sae  generally  sold  by  the  ton  without  grinding,  and  are  generally  ex- 
ported in  this  form,  but  when  there  is  a  market  in  the  vicinity  of  tha 
mill,  the  cakes  are  put  under  the  chasers,  ground  into  meal,  bagged 
«ind  gei*i  to  the  feed  stores.  The  price  of  the  cake  h  from  $30  to  $4&' 


566         MACHINISTS,    ENGUPJERS',    AC.,    RECEIPTS. 

per  ton ;  ground  into  meal  it  retails  at  about  $2  per  ICO  Ibs.  The  vro* 
cess  of  making  the  cotton  seed  oil  and  cake  is  nearly  the  same.  Tht 
seed  of  the  upland  cotton  is  surrounded  with  a  husk,  to  which  the  cot- 
ton adheres.  It  is  surrounded  with  a  soft  down  a^.ter  it  leaves  the 
gin,  and  in  this  condition  it  is  purchased  from  the  planter.  The  seed 
makes  better  oil  and  better  meal  when  it  is  deprived  of  this  hull  and 
down.  The  yield  of  oil  is  about  90  gallons  per  100  bushels  of  the  Sea 
Island,  or  2  gals,  to  50  Ibs.  of  the  hulled  cotton  seed. 

To  MAKE  COAL  OIL. — Break  the  coal  or  shale  into  small  pieces 
and  put  from  10  to  1G  cwt.  in  an  iron  retort,  heated  to  a  dull  red  color- 
Lute  the  retort  door  and  keep  up  the  retort  for  21  hours.  By  this 
process  a  vapor  is  thrown  off  which  passes  through  ranges  of  cisterns 
until  it  condenses,  when  it  is  run  into  cisterns.  This  crude  oil,  when 
refined  and  purified,  is  sold  as  parafflne  oil,  and  solid  paraffine  fo3? 
making  candles  is  made  from  it. 

NEAT'S  FOOT  OIL.— After  the  hair  and  hoofs  have  been  removed 
from  the  feet  of  oxen,  they  yield,  when  boiled  with  water,  a  peculiar 
fatty  matter,  which  is  known  as  Neat's  Foot  Oil ;  after  standing,  it 
deposits  some  solid  fat,  which  is  separated  by  filtration;  the  oil  then 
does  not  congeal  at  32°,  and  is  not  liable  to  become  rancid.  It  is  often 
mixed  with  other  oils.  This  oil  is  used  for  various  purposes, 
such  as  narness  dressing,  oiling  tower  clocks,  &c.  Tallow  Oil. — The 
oil  is  obtained  from  tallow  by  pressure.  The  tallow  is  melted,  and 
•when  separated  from  the  ordinary  impurities  by  subsidence,  is  poured 
into  vessels  and  allowed  to  cool  slowly  to  about  80°,  when  the  stearine 
separates  hi  granules,  which  may  be  separated  from  the  liquid  part  by 
straining  through  flannel,  and  is  then  pressed,  when  it  yields  a  fresh 
portion  of  liquid  oil.  It  is  used  hi  soap  manufacture,  &c.  Lard  oil  is 
obtained  from  hog's  lard  by  pressure,  when  the  liquid  part  separates, 
while  the  lard  itself  becomes  much  harder.  According  to  Braconet, 
lard  yields  0.62  of  its  weight  of  this  oil,  which  is  nearly  colorless.  It 
is  employed  for  greasing  wool,  and  other  purposes. 

ECONOMIC  LUBRICATORS.— 1.  India  rubber,  4  Ibs. ;  dissolved  in 
apts.  turpentine;  common  soda,  10 Ibs.;  glue,  1  lb.;  water.  10  gals.; 
oil,  10  gals.  Dissolve  the  soda  and  glue  in  the  water  by  heat,  thea 
add  the  oil,  and  lastly  the  dissolved  rubber.  2.  To  Lessen  Friction  in 
Machinery. — Grind  together  black  lead  with  4  times  its  weight  of 
lard  or  tallow.  Camphor  is  sometimes  added,  7  Ibs.  to  the  hundred 
weight.  3.  Anti-Friction  Grease.— Tallow,  100  Ibs.;  palm  oil,  70  Ibs.; 
boil  together,  when  cooled  to  80°,  strain  through  a  sieve,  and  mix 
with  28  Ibs.  soda,  and  Ifc  gals,  water.  For  winter  take  25  Ibs.  more 
oil  in  place  of  the  tallow.  4.  Booth's  Railway  Axle  Grease.— Water, 
1  gal. ;  clean  tallow,  3  Ibs. ;  palm  oil,  (5  Ibs. ;  common  soda,  ^  lb. ;  or 
tallow  2  Ibs. ;  palm  oilplO  Ibs.  Heat  to  about  212°,  and  stir  well  until 
it  cools  to  70°.  5.  Drill  Lubricator.-^- For  wrought  iron,  use  1  lb. 
soft  soap  mixed  with  1  gal.  of  boiling  water.  It  insures  good  work 
;«nd  clean  cutting. 

To  REMEDY  SLIP  OP  DRIVING  BELTS.— Dab  on  a  little  of  the 
sticky  oil  which  oozes  away  from  the  bearings  of  machinery. 

BLASTING  POWDEKS. — Reduce  separately  to  powder,  2  parts  chlorate 
of  potassa  and  1  part  red  sulphuret  of  arsenic  ;  mix  very  lightly  to- 
gether, or  powder  separately,  5  parts  chlorate  of  potassa ;  2  parts 
red  eolphnret  of  arsenic,  and  1  part  ferrocyanide  of  potassium 


'MACHINISTS.   EXGINEEKS',   &C.,   RECEIPTS.        557 

(prnssiate  of  potassa) ;  mix  carefully,  or,  mix  carefully  as  before, 
after  having  separately  reduced  to  powder  equal  parts  chlorate  of  po« 
tassa  and  lerrocyanide  potassium.  These  possess  eight  times  the  ex- 
plosive force  of  gunpowder  and  must  be  used  with  the  greatest  cau- 
tion. i/1 

BLASTING  ROCKS,  &c.— In  small  blasts,  1  Ib.  of  powder  will  loosea, 
about  4^  tons.  In  large  blasts,  1  Ib.  of  po\yder  will  loosen  about  2}j 
tons  ;  60  or  60  Ibs.  of  powder,  enclosed  in  a  resisting  bag  hung  or| 
propped  up  against  a  gate  or  barrier,  will  demolish  any  ordinary  con- 
struction. One  man  can  bore,  with  a  bit  1  inch  in  diameter,  from. 
50  to  60  inches  per  day  of  10  hours  iu  granite,  or  300  to  400  ius.  per 
day  in  limestone,  Two  strikers  and  a  holder  cau  bore  with  a  bit  £ 
ius.  in  diameter  10  feet  per  day  in  rock  of  medium  hardness. 

To  MAKE  DUALIN.— Dualin  is  made  from  paper  stock,  saturated 
with  nitrate  of  potassium  and  dried  in  a  furnace.  Then  ground  and 
mixed  with  nitro-glycerine.  Component  parts  of  nitro-glycerirte. 
To  4£  Ibs.  concentrated  sulphuric-aoid  and  2^  Ibs.  of  concentrated 
nitric  acid,  add  1  Ib.  of  glycerine. 

LABOR  ON  EMBANKMENTS. — Single  horse  and  cart.  A  horse> 
vith  a  loaded  dirt  cart  employed  in  excavation  and  embankment,  will 
make  100  lineal  feet,  or  200  feet  in  the  distance  per  minute,  whila 
moving.  The  time  lost  in  loading,  dumping,  awaiting,  etc,=4  min- 
utes per  load.  A  medium,  laborer  will  load  with  a  cart  in  10  hours, 
of  the  following  earths ;  measured  in  the  bank  :  Gravely  earth  10. 
Loam  12,  and  Sandy  earthl±  cubic  yards;  carts  are  loaded  as  follows: 
descending  hauling,  £  of  a  cubic  yard  in  bank;  Level  hauling  2-T 
of  a  cubic  yard  iiibank;  Ascending  hauling,  %  of  a  cubic  yard  in  bank, 
Loosening,  &c.  In  loam,  a  three-horse  plow  will  loosen  from  250  to 
800  cubic  yards  per  day  of  10  hours.  The  cost  of  loosening  earth  to 
be  loaded  will  be  from  1  to  8  cents  per  cubic  yard,  when  wages  are 
105  cents  per  day.  The  cost  of  trimming  and  bossing  is  about  2  cents 
net  cubic  yard.  Scaring.  A  scoop  load  will  measure  1-10  of  a  cu- 
bic yard,  measured  in  excavation.  The  time  lost  in  loading,  unload* 
ing  and  trimming,  per  load,  is  lj  minutes.  The  time  lost  for  every  70 
feet  of  distance,  from  excavation  to  bank,  and  returning  is  1  minute. 
In  Double  Scooping,  the  time  lost  in  Ion  ding,  turning,  &c.,  will  be  1 
minute ;  and  in  Single  Scooping,  it  will  be  1£  minutes.  (Ellwood 
Morris. 

HAULING  STONE. — A  cart  drawn  by  horsea  over  an  ordinary  road 
•will  travel  1.1  miles  per  hour  of  tip.  A4-horse  team  will  haul  from 
25  to  36  cubic  feet  of  lime  stone  at  each  load.  The  time  expended  in 
loading,  unloading,  &c.,  including  delays,  averages  35  minutes  per  trip. 
The  cost  of  loading  and  unloading  a  cart,  using  a  horse  cram  at  tho 

?uarry,  and  unloading  by  hand,  when  labor  is  $1.25  per  day,  and  a  horse 
5  cents,  is  25  cents  per  perch=24.75  cubic  feet    The  work  done  by 
an  animal  is  greatest  when  the  velocity  with  vhich  he  moves  is  £  of  the 
greatest  with  which  he  can  move  when  not  impeded,  and  ihe  force 
men  exerted  .45  of  the  utmost  force  the  animal  can  exert  at  a  dead  pull. 
HAY. — 270  cubic  feet  of  new  meadow  hay,  and  216  and  243  from 
?iarge  or  old  etackg,  will  weigh  a  ton,  297  to  324  cubic  feet  of  dry 
clover  weigh  a  ton. 

ICE.— To  compute  the  number  of  tons  an  ice-honse  will  contain,  caA* 
the  number  of  cubic  feet  in  an  ice-house,  and  divide 


358         MACHINISTS,    ENGINEERS  ,   AC.,   RECEIPTS.' 

this  gives  the  numberof  tons  the  Ice-house  wilTcontaui  it  if  is  cloedy 

EARTH  DIGGING. — Number  of  cubic  feet  of  earth  in  a  ton.  Loosa 
earth  24  ;  coarse  sand  18.6.  Clay  18.6.  Earth  with  gravel  U.S.  Clay 
^rith  gravel,  14.4.  Common  soil  15.6.  The  volume  of  earth  and  sand 
in  bank  exceeds  that  in  embankment  in  the  following  proportions  ; 
eandl-7,  clay  1-9,  grave.1  1-11,  and  the  volume  of  rh:k  in  embank- 
ments quarried  in  large  fragments  exceeds  that  iu  bank  fully  ona 
lialf. 

WEIGHT  OF  EAKTH,  ROCK,  &c.— A  cubic  yard  of  sand  or  ground 
•weighs  about  30  cwt. ;  mud,  25  cwt.  ;  marl,  26  cwv.  ;  clay,  31  cwt : 
chalk,  36  cwt.  ;  sandstone,  39  cwt.  ;  shale,  40  cwt  ;  quartz,  41  cwt ; 
granite,  42  cwt  ;  trap,  42  cwt. ;  slate,  43  cwt 

To  DETERMINE  WEIGHT  OF  LIVE  CATTLE.— Mea«nre  in  inches  the 
girth  around  the  breast,  just  behind  the  shoulder  blade,  and  tho 
length  of  the  back  from  the  tail  to  the  fore  part  of  the  shoulder  blade. 
Multiply  the  girth  by  the  length,  and  divide  by  144.  If  the  girth  is 
less  than  3  feet,  multiply  the  quotient  by  11.  If  between  3  and  5  feet, 
multiply  by  16.  If  between  5  and  7  feet,  multiply  by  23.  If  between 
/  and  9  feet,  multiply  by  31.  If  the  animal  is  lean,  deduct  1-20  from 
the  result,  or  take  the  girth  and  length  in  feet,  multiply  the  square  of 


a  near  approximation  to  the  net  weight 

GAUGING  STREAMS. — Multiply  the  square  root  of  the  cube  of  the 
height  in  niches  of  the  water  on  the  sill  of  the  weir  or  gauge  by  the 
constant  17.13,  which  will  give  the  number  of  gallons  per  minute. 
If  the  water  has  any  initial  velocity  it  must  be  determined  by  experi- 
ment, and  in  that  case  multiply  the  square  of  the  height  by  the  square 
of  the  velocity,  and  by  0.8 ;  to  the  product  add  the  cube  of  the 
ieight,  extract  the  square  root  of  the  sum,  and  multiply  by  17.13  as 
before. 

STOWAGE  OF  COALS.— The  following  information  will  be  valuable 
to  many  coal  dealers  and  consumers  who  may  be  in  doubt  as  to  the 
capacity^  of  their  coal  bins.  A  box  4  feet  long,  3  ft.,  5  in.,  wide,  and 
2  ft,  8  in.,  deep,  has  a  capacity  of  36^  cubic  fe^t,  and  will  contain 
2000  Ibs.,  or  one  ton  of  Beaver  Meadow  or  Lehigh  (American)  coaL 
The  spaces  occupied  by  one  ton  of  the  undermentioned  English  coals, 
economic  weight  are:— Has  well's  Wallsend,  45 '25  cubic  feet.  North 
Percy,  Hartley  (Newcastle)  46'96  cubic  feet.  Balcarras  Arley  (Lan- 
cashire) 44*35  cubic  feet.  Cannel  (Wigan,  Lancashire)  46'37  cubio 
feet.  Duffryn  (Welsh)  42'09  cubic  feet.  Pontypooi  (Welsh)  40'22 
cubic  feet.  Hence,  a  shed  16  feet  high,  20  feet  broad,  and  30  feet  long, 
Trill  hold  over  212  tons  of  Haswell's  Wallsend  (Newcastle)  coals, 
about  207  tons  of  Canuel,  and  228  of  Duffryn.  The  average  space 
occupied  by  one  ton  of  Newcastle  coal,  economic  weight,  is  44  cubic 
ieet,  that  of  one  ton  of  Lancashire  coal,  44^  cubic  feet,  a»d  that  of  1 
ton  of  Welsh  coal,  41  cubic  feet.  Therefore  a  shed  of  the  abovs 
dimensions,  would,  on  the  average,  hold  217  tons  of  Newcastle  coal, 
S16  of  Lancashire,  and  23*  of  Welsh.  From  the  above  data,  any  in- 
tending purchaser  can  easily  calculate  the  capacity  e.f  his  coal  bins, 
sheds,  &c.,  and  in  many  cases  secure  a  good  bargain  by  laying  in  -i 
Sarge  stock  when  coalc  are  cheap. 


MACHINISTS    AND    ENGINEERS*    DEPARTMENT.       559 

COMPOSITION  TACKS  FOB  MUNTZ  METAL  ON  SHIPS.— Copper 87 
parts,  zinc  4  parts,  tin  9  parts. 

BESULTS   OF  J.   H.    CHBEVERS*    EXPERIMENTS   WITH   VULCANTZEU 
RUBBER  BELTING  AND   LEATHER,    DITTO. 

Rubber.  Leather. 


Lbs. 

"Belt  slipped  on  Iron  pulley  at    90 
"  "        Leather     ki        128 

'"  "        Rubber     "        183 


Lbd. 

Belt  slipped  on  Iron  pulley  at   48* 
"  "        Leather    "         64 

"  "        Rubber    "       128 


Deductions  from  the  above :  Rubber  belts  for  equivalent  resistances 
with  leather  belts,  may  be  reduced  respectively  46, 50  and  30  per  cent 

Vulcanized  Rubber  belting  has  greater  endurance  than  leather,  its 
resistance  to  slipping  being  from  50  to  84  per  cent,  greater. 

MILL  FOR  SPINNING  WOOL  AND  WEAVING  MERINOS. — Nineteen 
machines  to  prepare  the  combed  wool,  having  together  350  rollers ;  16 
mules  with  3,400  spindles:  one  winding  machine  of  60  rollers  to  pro- 
-pare  the  warp;  2  warping  machines ;  2  self-acting  feeders ;  100-power 
looms;  2  lathes  for  wood  and  iron,  and  one  pump  require  in  all 30 
horsepower.  Produce:  13,600  cops  of  woolen  thread,  of  45  cops  to 
the  pound,  each  measuring  32  yards.  The  looms  make  115  revolu- 
tions per  minute,  and  produce  daily  4  pieces  of  double  width  merino 
of  68  yards  each,  and  4  pieces  of  simple  merino  of  1.2  to  1.4  yard 
•broadband  each  88  yards  long. 

COTTON  FACTORY.— Condensing  Engine,  Cylinder,  37  in.  diam. 
.Stroke  of  piston,  1  ft.  Volume  of  piston  space,  53.6  cubic  ft.  Average 
pressure  of  steam,  16.73  Ibs.  per  square  inch.  Revolutions,  17  per 
minute.  'Friction  of  Engine  and  Shafting,  (indicated)  4.75  Ibs.  per 
«q.  inch  of  piston.  Indicated  Horses  power,  125.  Total  power=l. 
Available,  deducting  iriction=717. 

(The  foregoing  has  reference  to  an  English  mill,  for  driving  22,060  Hand 
nnule  spindles,  with  preparation,  and  260  looms,  with  common  sizing.) 

REMARKS. — Each  additional  horse's  power  will  drive  305  Band* 
mule  spindles,  ic it 'h  preparation, 
or  230  self-acting 
*>r  104  throstle 
.or  10.5  looms  with  common  sizing. 

Including  preparation : 

1  throstle  spindle=3  hand-mule,  or  2.25  self-acting  spindles. 
1  self-acting  spindle— 1.2  hand-mule  spindles. 
Exclusive  of  preparation,  taking  only  the  spindle: 
«  1  throstle  spindle=3.5  hand-mule,  or  2.56  self-acting  spindles. 

1  self-acting  spindle=1.375  hand-mule  spindles. 

The  throstles  are  the  common,  spinning  34  twist  for  power  loom 
weaving ;  the  spindles  revolve  4,000  times  per  minute.  The  self- 
acting  mules  are.one  half  spinning  36's  weft,  spindles  revolving  4, 800; 
the  other  half  spinning  36's  twist,  spindles  revolving  5,200.  The 
hand-mules  spinning  about  equal  quantities  of  36's  weft  and  twist. 
Weft  spindies  4,700,  and  twist  spindles  5,000  rev.  per  minute.  Aver- 
age breadth  of  looms  37  ins.  (weaving  37  ins.  cloth),  making  123 
picks  per  minute.  All  common  calicoes  about  60  reed,  Stockport 
<jount,  and  68  picks  to  the  inch.  No  power  consumed  by  the  sizing. 
When  the  yarn  is  dressed  instead  of  sized,  one  horse's  power  canuot 


560       MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  «tc.,  RECEIPTS. 

drive  BO  many  looms,  as  the  dressing  machine  will  absorb  from  17  ttt 
.14  of  the  power. 

SIZE  FOK  DRESSING  COTTON  YARN  on  WARPS. — Flour  280  Ibs  ;  tal- 
low 1  Ib.  ;  add  £  to  2  per  cent,  of  the  amount  of  flour  employed  of 
paraffine.  The  parafflne  may  be  made  to  replace  the  whole,  or  apart 
of  the  tallow  employed. 

BEAUTIFUL,  SIZING  FOR  LINEN. — Crystallized  carbonate  of  soda,  1. 
"  part ;  white  wax,  4  to  6  parts  ;  gtearine  4  to  G  parts  ;  pure  white  soa-p, 
( 4  to  6  parts  ;  fine  Paris  white  or  carbonate  of  magnesia  20  parts  ;  po- 
tato starch,  40  parts  ;  fine  wheat  starch,  100 parts  ;  boil  with  sufficient 
•water  to  form  1GOO  parts  altogether,  adding,  if  desired,  some  ultra- 
marine to  counteract  the  yellow  tint  of  the  linen.  The  linen  is  starched 
with  this  preparation,  afterwards  steamed  and  dried,  then  sprinkled 
with  soap-water  and  placed  in  the  stamping  mill,  afterwards  steamed. 
and  calendered. 

THE  MARINER'S  COMPA.SS. — The  needle  or  magnet  is  said  to  point 
always  to  the  north,  and  as  a  'natter  of  course  the  other  points,  as 
east,  west,  &c.,  are  easily  found  by  the  needle  pointing  north  and 
south.  In  certain  parts  of  the  world,  however,  the  needle  docs  not 
point  to  the  north,  but  is  drawn  considerably  to  the  right  or  left  of 
true  north.  This  is  called  the  variation  of  the  compass,  and  must 
be  known  accurately  by  the  navigator  in  order  to  correct  and  steer 
the  right  course.  For  instance  in  crossing  the  Atlantic  Ocean, 
the  variation  of  the  compass  amounts  in  sailing  vessels  to  2\  or  2f 
points  westerly,  and  the  course  steered  must  be  corrected  according- 
ly. Say  that  you  wish  to  make  a  due  east  course,  you  must  pteer 
2i  or  2£  points  south  of  that  or  to  the  right  hand  in  order  to  make  a 
direct  course. 

Off  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  in  the  South  Atlantic  Ocean,  strange 
enough,  the  variation  of  the  compass  in  ships  bound  to  India  or  Aus- 
tralia is  2|  points  easterly,  and  in  order  to  make  it  due  east  course  it  is 
necessary  to  steer  2^  to  the  north  or  left  of  her  course,  while  again  to- 
wards the  equator  or  centre  of  the  globe  there  is  hardly  any  percept- 
ible variation  of  the  compass  at  all.  The  way  of  finding  out  ho\v 
much  the  compass  varies  in  different  parts  of  the  world,  is  by  obser- 
vations of  the  sun  taken  with  the  compass,  and  the  difference  be- 
tween the  true  and  magnetic  or  compass  bearing  is  the  variation, 
which  must  be  applied  as  a  correction  to  the  course  gteered.^  W« 
have,  howeyer,  in  iron  ships  or  steamers  what  is  called  the  deviation, 
of  the  compass  to  attend  to  besides  the  variation.  This  is  the  local 
attraction  caused  by  the  iron,  and  must  be  carefully  understood  be- 
fore steamers  or  iron  ships  attempt  to  go  to  sea.  As  in  steamers  of 
the  Allan  or  Canard  line,  each  vessel  before  proceeding  on  her  first 
vpyage  must  be  carefully  swung,  and  magnets  fixed  to  the  deck,  be- 
-  eides  small  chains  placed  on  each  side  of  the  compasses  in  boxes,  io 
order  to  counteract  the  attraction  of  the  iron.  Thus  the  compasses* 
,«re  so  nicely  balanced  with  the  magnets  and  iron,  that  it  is  rare  in* 
deed  .it  this  day  that  they  get  out  of  order  on  a  trans- Atlantic  passage. 
The  consequences  to  either  steamer  or  sailing  ship  whose  compasses 
are  astr*>y  would  be  terrible  to  contemplate,  even  if  it  were  but  one- 
half  point,  on  dark  winter  nights  approaching  the  land.  These  diflV; 
culties  are  now  happily  obviated  by  the  discoveries  of  modern  science^ 
•ad  tbeir  application  in  correcting  the  compass  at  sea. 


MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  AC.,   RECEIPTS.      561 


HEAT  OF  WATEK  rv  STEAM  BOILERS,  WARMING  OF  JCJDTLXHNG«,  &d 
—The  following  table  shows  the  temperature  of  water  by  Fahrenheit's 
and  Centigrade  scales  of  measurements,  allowing  I4.6,lbs.  persquareincHto 
atmosphere  : — 


Pressure  of 

Steam  in 

Atmospheres, 


1 
1.5 

2 

2.5 

3 

3.5 

4 

4.5 

6 

5.5 

6 

6.5 

7 

7.5 


Tempera- 
ture. 


F. 

212°  100 


181. 
367 
374  1190. 


112.2 


Tempera- 
ture. 


F. 


13)381' 
14387 


151393 
8  16  398 

17404 
518409 
5  19  414 
8  20  418 

1  21  423 

2  22  427 
23431   1221.2 
24436    224.4 


121.2 

128. 

125. 

140. 

145. 

148. 

W3. 

156. 

160. 

163.124436 

166.2  25  439 

169.4  30  457 


C. 

155.° 

157.7 

200.5 

203.1 

206. 

209.4 

212.2 

214.4 

217.2 

219.4 


2  351473 
2  40|487 
2  45  491 
1  50  511 


226.1 

236.1 

245.1 

252.7 

255. 

206. 1 


YALUE  or  FUEL. — The  evaporative  power  of  Coke  in  the  furnaca 
of  a  steam  boiler,  and  under  pressure,  is  from  7^  to  9  Ibs.  of  fresh 
water  per  Ib.  of  coke  ;  that  of  charcoal  b\  Ibs.  of  fresh  water  per  11* 
The  evaporative  power  of  1  cubic  foot  ot  pine  wood  is  equal  to  that  of 
1  cubic  foot  of  fresh  water  ;  or,  in 
the  furnace  of  a  steam  boiler,  and 
under  pressure,  it  is  4|  Ibs.  fresh 
water  for  1  Ib.  of  wood.  One  cord  ^. 
of  hardwood  and  1  cord  of  soft  f 
wood,  such  as  the  general  average  j 
in  Canada,  is  equal  in  evaporative  * 
effects  to  2000  Ibs.  of  anthracite  1 
coal.  One  cord  of  the  kind  of 
wood  used  by  American  river 
steamers  in  the  West,  is  equal  to 
32  bushels  (960  Ibs.)  of  Pittsburg 

•soal ;  9  cords  cotton,  ash  and  cypress  wood  are  equal  to  7  cords  yellow 
pine.  The  densest  woods  give  the  greatest  heat,  as  charcoal  gene- 
rate? more  heat  than  flame.  The  evaporative  power  of  peat  in  tha 
furnace  of  a  steam  boiler,  and  under  pressure,  is  3^  to  5  Ibs  of  fresh, 
water  fcr  every  l.b.  of  fuel.  Bituminous  coal  is  13  per  cent,  mere  ef- 
fective than  ?otce  to?  equal  weights,  and  in  Englanc?  th-s  effects  ar9 
alike  for  equal  costs.  In  an  experiment  uiider  a  pressure  of  30  Jbs.  .t 
B>.pine  wood  evaporated  3.5  to  4.75  Ibs.  water.  1  "r>.  Lehigh  ooa*, 
7.25  to  8.75  Ibe.  Tbe  least  consumption,  of  coal  yet  attained  5  i 

8^ 


RETURN  FLUE  BOILER. 


562       MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  &c.,  RECEIPTS. 

per  indicated  horse-power.  It  usually  varies  in  different  engines  from 
2  to  8  Ibs..  Railway  experiments  demonstrate  1  ton  of  Cumberland 
coal,  (2240  Ibs.)  to  be  equal  in  evaporating  effect  to  1.25  tons  of  an- 
thracite coal,  and  1  ton  of  anthracite  to  be  equal  to  1.75  cords  pine 
trood;  also  that  2000  Ibs.  Lacka wanna  coal  are  equal  to  4500  Ibs.  best 
pine  wood.  Much  depends  on  the  kind  of  boiler  used.  The  Return  • 
J<lue  Boiler  gives  very  good  results  in  economizing  heat.  See  diagram 
above. 

SPECIFIC  GRAVITY.— Is  the  density  of  <he  matter  of  which  any ' 
l)ody  is  composed,  compared  with  the  density  of  another  body  as- 
sumed as  the  standard,  or  1000.  This  standard  is  pure  distilled  water 
lor  liquids  and  solids,  and  atmospheric  air  for  gaseous  bodies  and 
vapors.  Thus  as  gold  is  19,  and  silver  10  times  heavier  than  water, 
those  numbers  19,  and  10  are  said  to  represent  the  specific  gjravity  of 
gold  and  silver.  The  heaviest  known  substance  is  iridium,. used  for 
pointing  gold  pens ;  its  specific  gravity  is  23.  The  lightest  of  all  liquids 
lias  a  specific  gravity  of  0.6,  it  is  called  chimogene,  and  is  made  from 
petroleum,  it  is  exceedingly  volatile  and  combustible,  being  in  fact 
a  liquefied  gas.  Carbonic  acid  gas  or  choke  damp  is  500  times  lighter 
than  water,  common  air  800,  street  gas  about  2000,  and  pure  hydro- 
gen the  lightest  of  all  substances,  12,000  times.  The  heaviest  substance 
has  thus  23+12,000,  or  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  million  times  more 
weight  than  an  equal  bulk  of  the  lightest; and  the  substance  of  which 
comets  consist,  has  by  astronomers  been  proved  to  be  even  peveral 
thousand  times  lighter  than  hydrogen  gas. 

APPROVED  FRICTION  MATCHES. — About  the  best  known  prepara- 
tion for  friction  matches  consists  of  gum  arabic,  16  parts  by  weight ; 
phosphorus,  9  parts  ;  nitre,  14  parts;  peroxyde  of  manganese,  in 
powder,  16  parts.  The  gum  is  first  made  into  a  mucilage  with  water, 
then  the  manganese,  then  the  phosphorus,  and  the  whole  is  heated 
to  about  130°"Fah.  When  the  phosphorus  is  melted  the  nitre  is  ad- 
ded, and  the  whole  is  thoroughly  stirred  until  the  mass  is  a  uniform 
paste.  The  wooden  matches  prepared  first  with  sulphur,  are  then 
dipped  in  this  and  afterward  dried  in  the  air.  Friction  papers,  for 
carrying  in  the  pocket,  may  be  made  in  the  same  manner,  and  by 
adding  some  gum.  benzoin  to  the  mucilage  they  will  have  an  agree- 
able order  when  ignited. 

IMPROVED  COLORED  FIRES.— White.— Saltpetre,  2  parts;  sulphur, 
2  parts;  antimony,  2  parts.  Red.  Nitrate  of  strontia,  20  parts; 
chlorate  of  potash,  5  parts;  sulphur,  6i  parts ;  charcoal,  1  part.  Blue. 
Chlorate  of  potash,  9  parts;  sulphur  3" parts;  carbonate  of  copper,  3 
parts.  Yellow.—  Nitrate  of  soda,  24  parts;  antimony,  8  parts,  sul- 
phur, 6  parts;  charcoal,  Ipart.  Green. — Nitrate  of  baryta,  26  parts; 
chlorate  of  potash,  18  parts;  sulphur,  10  parts,  Violet.— Nitrate  of 
gtrontia,  4  parts ;  chlorate  of  potash,  9  parts;  sulphur,  5  parts;  car- 
'boivate  of  copper,  1  part;  calomel,  1  part. 

To  RE-CO VER  HAMMERS  IN  PIANOS.— Get  felt  of  graduated  thick-^ 
nees,  cut  it  in  strips  the  exact  width,  touch  only  the  two  ends  with 
glue,  not  the  part  striking  the  strings.  Hold  in  place  with  springs  of 
narrow  hoop  iron. 

WATER. — Fresh  Water. — The  component  parts  by  weight  and 
measure  is.  Oxygen,  88.9  by  weight,  and  1  by  measure,  Hydrogen  f 
11.1  by  weight,  and  2  by  measure.  One  cubic  inch  of  distilled  water 
at  its  maximum  density  of  39°.  83,  the  barometer  at  30  inches,  weighs 


MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  AC.,  RECEIPTS. 

3B2.6937  grs.  A  cubic  foot  weighs  62.5  Ibs.  Rated  by  the  British 
Imperial  standard,  a  cubic  ft.  of  water  at  62°  weighs  998.224  ozs., 
35.84  cubic  ft.  of  water  weigh  1  ton,  39.14  cubic  ft.  of  ice  weigh 
Iton.  Sea- Water.  1  cubic  ft.  weighs  64.3126  Ibs. ;  34.84  cubic  i't. 
weigh  1  ton  and  contains  from  4  to  5|  ozs.  of  salt  per  gal.  varying  in 
different  parts  of  the  globe ;  carbonic  acid,  62  parts  in  every  1000  of 
water.  The  saline  matter  in  the  Dead  Sea  is  21.722  parts  in  every 
100.  Dr.  Scoresby's  observations  of  the  height  of  waves  in  the 
^North  Atlantic  Ocean  record  24  ft,  30  ft.,  the  highest  43  ft.,  and  the 
mean  18  ft  in  western  gales.  French  observers  in  the  Bay  of  Biscay 
state  a  height  of  wave  of  36  ft. ;  Captain  Wilkes  writes  of  36  ft  in  the 
Pacific  and  Sir  J.  Ross  of  22  i't.  in  the  South  Atlantic.  Heights  of 
waves  in  northwest  gales  off  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  have  been  com- 
puted at  40  ft.,  those  off  Cape  Horn  at  32  ft.,  in  the  Mediterranean 
Sea  at  15  ft.,  and  in  the  German  Ocean  at  14  ft.,  but  in  the  British 
waters  they  are  only  found  to  average  8  to  9  ft.  The  velocity  of 
•ocean  storm  waves  was  observed  by  Dr.  Scoresby  in  the  North 
Atlantic  to  be  about  32  miles  per  hour  ;  Capt.  Wilkes  records  it  at 
23^  miles  in  the  Pacific,  and  French  mariners  in  the  Bay  of  Bis- 
cay at  60  miles  an  hour.  Dr.  Scoresby  has  estimated  the  distance 
between  or  breadth  of  his  Atlantic  storm  waves  at  about  600  feet 
from  crest  to  crest  which  is  only  about  half  of  that  stated  by  some 
ethers,  and  Dr.  S.  states  that  the  waves  of  30  ft.  height  move  at 
the  rate  of  32  miles  per  hour.  The  mean  force  of  the  Atlantic 
-waves  for  the  summer  months  is  over  600  Ibs.  per  sq.  ft.,  during 
winter  2086  Ibs.  During  a  severe  gale  6383  Ibs.  per  square  ft.  has 
been  noted.  Corrosive  effects  of  Sea-Water  on  Metals,  per  square 
foot.  Steel  39  grs.,  iron  38,  copper  9,  zinc  8,  galvanized  iron  1.6, 
tin  2. 

BKAZIXG  CAST  IRON. — There  are  two  ways  of  joining  cast  iron. 

1.  Fit  the  broken  pieces  exactly  together  in  moulding  sand  and  pour 
melted  iron  over  the  parts  to  be  joined.    When  cold  chip  off  the 
superfluous  metal  and  you  will  have  a  joint  scarcely  to  be  detected. 

2.  Well  tin  the  t>arts  to  be  joined,  fit  together  in  sand  as  above,  and 
pour  melted  brass  over  them. 

MACINTOSH  CLOTH.— The  material  is  merely  two  layers  of  cotton 
cemented  with  liquid  India  rubber;  but  the  junction  is  so  well  effect- 
ed that  the  three  become,  to  all  intents  and  purposes,  one.  The  stout 
and  well-woven  cloth  is  coiled  upon  a  horizontal  beam  like  the  yard 
beam  of  a  loom  ;  and  from  this  it  is  stret2hed  out  in  a  tight  state  and 
a  nearly  horizontal  direction  ;  a  layer  of  liquid  or  rather  paste-like 
solution  is  applied  with  a  spatula,' to  a  considerable  thickness,  and 
the  cloth  is  drawn  under  a  knife  edge  which  scrapes  the  solution  and 
diffuses  it  equally  over  every  part  of  the  cloth,  which  may  be 
SO  or  40  yards  long.  The  cloth  is  then  extended  out  on  a  horizontal 
framework  to  dry;  and  when  dried  a  second  coating  is  applied  in  the 
came  way,  and  a"  third  or  fourth  coat  if  necessary  Two  pieces,  thus 
coated,  are  next  placed  face  to  face  with  great  care  to  prevent  creasing; 
or  distortion  ;  and  being  placed  between  two  wooden  rollers,  they  are 
eo  thoroughly  pressed  as  to  unite  durably  and  permanently.  Cloth, 
thus  cemented  and  doubled  and  dried,  may  be  cut  and  made  into 


564         MACHINISTS,    ENGINEERS',    &C.,    RECEIPTS. 

garments  which  will  bear  many  a  rough  trial,  and  many  a  deluginfc 
before  rain  or  water  can  penetrate. 

To  PETRIFY  WOOD— Gurn  salt,  rock  alum,  white  vinegar,  chalk 
2nd  pebbles  powder,  of  each  an  equal  quantity.  Mix  well  together. 
]  f,  after  the  ebullition  is  over,  you  throw  into  this  liquid  any  wood  or 
porous  substance,  it  will  petrify  it. 

To  CONSTRUCT  AN  ^£OLIAN  HARP. — Make  a  box  with  the  top,  bot- 
tom, and  sides  of  thin  wood,  and  the  ends  1^  inch  beech,  form  it 
t'.ie  same  length  as  the  width  of  the  window"  in  which  it  is  to  be 

1  laced.    The  box  should  be  3  or  4  inches  deep,  and  6  or  7  inches 
wide.    In  the  top  of  the  box,  which  acts  as  a  sounding  board, 
riake  3  circular  holes  about  2  inches  in  diameter,  and  an  equal 
distance  apart.     Glue  across  the  sounding  board,  about  2^  inches 
from  each  end,  2  pieces  of  hard  wood  £  inch  thick,  ana  ^  inch 
high,  to  serve  as  bridges.    You  must  now  procure  from  any  musi- 
cal instrument  maker  twelve  steel  pegs  similar  to  those  of  a  piano- 
forte, and  12  small  brass  pins.    Insert  them  in  the  following  man- 
ner into  the  beech  :  first  commence  with  a  brass  pin,  then  insert  a 
steel  peg,  and  so  on,  placing  them  alternately  ^  in.  apart  to  the 
number  of  twelve.    Now  for  the  other  end,  which  you  must  com- 
luence  with  a  steel  peg,  exactly  opposite  the  brass  pin  at  the  other 
end,  then  a  brass  phi,  and  so  on,  alternately,  to  the  number  of  12 ;  by 
tliis  arrangement  you  have  a  steel  peg  and  a  brass  pin  always  oppo- 
site each  other,  which  is  done  so  that  the  pressure  of  the  strings  on 
the  instrument  shall  be  uniform.    Now  string  the  instrument  witii  12 
first  violin  strings,  making  a  loop  at  one  end  of  each  string,  which 
pat  over  the  brass  pins,  and  wind  the  other  ends  round  the  oppo» 
fite  steel  pegs.    Tune  them  in  unison,  but  do  not  draw  them  tiglit. 
To  increase  the  current  of  air,  a  thin  board  may  be  placed  about 

2  inches  above  the  strings,  supported  at  each  end  by  2  pieces  of 
wood.    Place  the  instrument  in  a  partly  opened  window,  and  to 
increase  the  draft,  open  the  opposite  door. 

To  CONSTRUCT  A  METRONOME. — Take  a  cheap  clock  movement 
and  substitute  for  the  pendulum  a  wire  with  a  gliding  weight,  marl;- 
ing  the  wire  with  a  file  at  the  different  points  of  graduation.  Used  to 
indicate  the  proper  time  in  music. 

To  BEND  GLASS  TUBES.— Held  the  tube  in  the  upper  part  of  the 
flame  of  a  spirit-lamp,  revolving  it  slowly  between  the  fingers  :  when 
red  hot  it  may  be  easily  bent  into  any  desired  shape.  To  soften  larga 
t:;bes  a  lamp  with  a  double  current  of  air  should  be  used,  as  it  gives 
a  much  stronger  heat  than  the  simple  lamp. 

BLACK  LEAD  PENCILS.— The  best  pencils  are  made  by  grinding 
the  black  lead  into  a  fine  impalpable  powder,  then  forming  it  into 
Llocks  by  compression  without  any  cementing  substance,  and  finally 
eawing  it  up  into  the. square  prisms,  which,  when  placed  in  grooves  in 
v  ood,  form  the  black  lead  pencils  of  commerce.  The  color  can  be 
graduated  to  any  desired  tinge  by  the  intermixture  of  very  finely 
ground  clay.  By  the  process  of  Prof.  Brodie,  the  most  intractable 
graphite  may  be  reduced  to  the  finest  powder  with  great  ease.  The= 
r.ineral  is  coarsely  powdered  and  mixed  with  l-15th  of  chlorate  of 
f  otasji,  to  which  mixture  is  added  twice  its  weight  of  sulphuric  acid. 
C!il('  ic  acid  is  disengaged,  and,  after  the  mass  has  cooled,  ij;  is  vrell 
wa«  td,  dried,  and  heated  to  redness.  During  the  latter  operation, 


MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  AC.,  RECEIPT!. 

Cw  black  lead  swells  and  becomes  reduced  to  so  fine  a  powder  that 
It  will  swim  upon  water,  a  little  fluoride  of  sodium  is  used  to  dissolve 
the  silicious  impurities.  The  finest  quality  is  found  near  Burrowdaie 
in  Cumberland,  England.  It  is  nearly  pure  carbon,  and  perfectly 
free  from  grit  It  is  used  principally  in  the  manufacture  of  lead  pen- 
cils, the  coarser  quality  being  used,  when  ground,  for  polishing  iron 
'work,  glazing  gunpowder,  as  a  lubricator  for  machinery,  compounded 
with  four  times  its  weight  of  lard  or  tallcw,  and  in  the  manufacture  of 
•rucibles  for  melting  metals,  as  it  is  very  intractable  in  an  intense 
beat. 

PHILLIP'S  FIRE  ANNIHILATOR. — Consists  of  a  case  "  containing 
•water,  within  which  is  a  smaller  case  containing  chlorate  of  potash 
and  sugar.  Dipped  in  the  latter  is  a  small  tubo  containing  sulphuric 
acid;  when  this  tube  is  broken  the  chlorate  of  potash  and  sugar  be- 
come ignited,  throwing  off  large  quantities  of  mixed  gases  which  are 
non-supporters  of  combustion;  the  action  is  maintained  by  the  water 
in  the  outer  case  becoming  heated.  The  gases  are  conveyed  to  the 
fire  by  means  of  a  flexible  tube  fitted  with  a  proper  nozzle  and  stop- 
cock. I  have  seen  still  another  kind  constructed  of  copper  in  quite 
an  elegant  style,  fitted  with  shoulder  straps,  &c.,  for  easy  transporta- 
tion, in  which  the  gases  were  generated  by  means  of  chemicals  on  the 
principle  of  what  may  be  seen  every  day  in  the  effervescence  of  car- 
wonic  acid  gas  from  the  intermixture  of  seidlitz  powders  in  water. 
The  chemicals  being  introduced  from  white  and  blue  paper  packages 
into  the  water  contained  in  the  copper  case. 

MANUFACTURE  OP  CORN  STARCH. — Watt's  Patent. — The  corn  is 
steeped  in  water,  ranging  in  temperature  from  70°  to  140°  Fah., 
ior  about  a  week,  changing  the  water  at  least  once  in  24  hours.  A 
certain  amount  of  acid  fermentation  is  thus  produced,  causing  tho 
starch  and  refuse  of  the  corn  to  be  easily  separated  afterwards. 
The  swollen  corn  is  ground  in  a  current  of  clear  soft  water,  and 
the  pulp  passed  through  sieves,  with  the  water  into  vats.  In  thestf 
fcie  etarcn  gradually  settles  to  the  bottom,  the  clear  water  10  then 
run  off  by  a  tap,  and  the  starch  gathered  and  dried  in  a  proper 
apartment  for  the  purpose. 

REFINING  OF  SUGAR.— Both  cane  and  beet-rool;  sugar  are  refinrd 
on  the  same  principle,  by  mixture  with  limewater,  boiling  witu 
animal  charcoal,  and  filtration  through  twilled  cotton.  In  some 
establishments  bullock's  blood  is  used  to  aid  in  the  clarifying. 
The  albumen  of  the  serum  becomes  coagulated  on  the  application 
of  heat,  forming  a  network,  which  rises  to  the  top  of  the  liquor, 
carrying  with  it  a  great  part  of  the  impurities.  The  reddish  iyrup 
obtained  by  the  first  filtration  is  next  passed  through  filters  into 
large  vate,  twelve  or  fourteen  feet  deep,  upon  which  are  laid  coarse 
ticking,  coarsely  ground  animal  charcoal,  and  a  second  layer  of 
ticking.  The  syrup  is  allowed  to  flow  over  the  surface  of  the  filter, 
and  runs  slowly  through  the  charcoal,  coming  out  perfectly 
^colorless.  The  concentrated  syrup  is  then  boiled  in  vaeiu.',  by  means 
of  which  *wo  important  results  are  arrived  at.  The  viscid  liquid 
would  boil  in  air  at  230°  Fah.,  at  which  temperature  a  quantity  c* 
ancrystallizable  sugar  would  be  formed.  By  performing  the  ope- 
aation  in  a  vacuum-pan  the  boiling  point  is  brought  down  to  150° 
or  IfiO0.  BO  formation  of  unerystallizable  au^or  takes  plaoo.  and 


566      MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  &c.,  RECEIPTS. 

a  great  saving  in  fuel  is  effected.  "When  the  concentration  reaehfl* 
a  certain  point,  the  syrup  is  transferred  to  a  vessel  heated  by  steam 
to  170°,  and  forcibly  agitated  with  wooden  be?ters,  until  it  forms 
tMck  and  granular.  From  the  heating-vats  it  is  transferred  into 
inverted  conical  moulds  of  the  well-known  shape,  at  the  bottom  of 
each  of  whick  is  a  movable  plug.  The  syrup  is  well  stirred  to 
prevent  the  formation  of  air-bubbles,  and  then  left  at  rest  for  several" 
tours,  at  the  end  of  which  time  the  plug  is  removed,  and  the 
uacrystallized  syrup  runs  out.  The  loaves  are  further  freed  from, 
all  colored  matter  by  a  portion  of  perfectly  colorless  syrnp  being 
run  through  them.  They  are  then  dried  in  a  stove  and  finished 
for  market  by  being  turned  in  a  lathe.  Crushed  or  granulated  suf/ar 
is  made  by  causing  the  granular  syrup  to  revolve  in  a  perforated 
<lrurn,  by  which  means  the  uncrystallizable  portion  is  separatea 
irora  the  crystals  by  centrifugal  force. 

BUTTON  MAJSTJFACTURE. — Metal  buttons  are  formed  of  an  inferior 
hind  of  brass,  pe\\  i,er,  or  other  metallic  compositions.  For  button 
rietal,  see  a  variety  of  alloys  on  pages  291  and  292.  Buttons  with 
£ -hanks  are  usually  made  of  these  compositions,  which  is  supplied 
to  the  manufacturers  in  sheets  of  the  required  thickness.  By  mean* 
of  fly  presses  and  punches,  circular  disks  called  blanks,  are  cut  out 
of  these  sheets.  This  is  mostly  performed  by  females,  who  can 
furnish  about  30  blanks  per  minute,  or  12  gross  per  hour.  Hand 
punching  is  the  general  mode  of  cutting  out  blanks,  but  more- 
complicated  machines,  which  cut  out  8  or  10  Ranks  at  a  time,  are 
!u  use.  After  being  punched,  the  edges  of  the  blanks  are  very 
sharp,  and  require  to  be  smoothed  and  rounded.  Their  surfaces 
are  then  planished  on  the  face  by  placing  them  separately  in  a  dte 
under  a  small  stamp,  and  allowing  them  to  receive  a  small  blow 
from  a  polished  steel  hammer.  In  this  state  they  are  ready  to 
receive  the  shanks  or  small  metal  loops  by  which  they  are  attached 
to  the  dress.  They  are  made  by  a  machine  in  which  a  coil  of  wire 
is  gradually  advanced  towards  a  pair  of  shears  which  cuts  off  short 
pieces.  A  metal  finger  then  presses  against  the  middle  of  each 
piece,  first  bending  it  and  then  pressing  it  into  a  vice,  when  it  i» 
Compressed  so  as  to  form  a  loop  ;  a  hammer  then  strikes  the  two- 
ends,  spreading  them  into  a  flat  surface,  and  the  shank  is  pushed 
out  of  the  machine  ready  for  use.  The  shanks  are  attached  to  the 
blanks  by  women,  with  iron  wire,  solder  and  rosin.  They  are  them 
put  into  an  oven,  and  when  firmly  united,  form  plain  buttons.  If 
n  crest  or  inscription  is  wanted,  it  is  placed  in  a  die  and  stamped. 
Buttons  are  gilded  by  gold  amalgam,  by  being  put  into  an  earthen 
pan  with  the  proper  quantity  of  gold  to  cover  them,  amalgamated 
with  mercury  in  the  following  manner  :  the  gold  is  put  into  an 
iron  ladle  in  thin  strips,  and  a  small  quantity  of  mercury,  say  1 
part  of  mercury  to  8  of  gold,  added  to  it,  the  ladle  is  held  over»i 
the  fire  till  the  gold  and  mercury  are  perfectly  imited.  This  amaW  ' 
fram  being  put  into  the  pan  with  the  buttons,  as  much  aquafortis, 
diluted  with  water,  as  will  wet  them  all  over,  is  thrown  in,  ana 
they  are  stirred  up  with  a  brush  till  the  acid,  by  its  affinity  to  the 
copper  in  the  buttons,  carries  the  amalgam  to  every  part  of  their 
surface,  giving  it  the  appearance  of  silver  ;  this  done,  the  acid  i«. 
washed  away  with  clean  water.  This  is  called  the  quicking  pro- 


MACHINISTS*    ENGINEERS*,    AC.,    RECEIPTS.          567 

cess.  In  drying  off,  the  pan  of  buttons  is  heated  by  a  charcoal  fire 
expelling  the  mercury  in  the  form  of  a  vapor,  which,  under  the 
improved  system,  is  conducted  into  on  oblong  iron  flue  or  gallery, 
gently  sloped  downwards,  having  at  its  end  a  small  vertical  tuba 
dipped  into  a  water  cistern,  for  condensing  the  mercury,  and  a 
large  vertical  pipe  for  promoting  the  draught  of  the  products  of 
the  combustion.  The  gold  thus  deposited  in  an  exceedingly  thin 
film  upon  the  buttons,  presents  a  d.;i]l  yellow  color,  and  must  no\< 
've  burnished  ;  this  is  effected  by  a  piece  of  hematites,  or  bloodstone, 
fixe*?  on  a  handle  and  applied  to  the  bn+ton,  as  it  revolves  in  tha 
lathe. 

To  RENDER  WOOD  INDESTRUCTIBLE.— bobbins'  Process.  The 
apparatus  used  consists  of  a  retort  or  still,  which  can  be  made  of  any 
size  or  iorm,  in  which  resin,  coal  tar,  or  other  oleaginous  substances, 
together  with  water,  are  placed  hi  order  to  subject  them  to  the  heat. 
Tire  being  applied  beneath  the  retort  containing  the  coal  tar,  &c., 
oleaginous  vapor  commences  to  rise,  and  passes  out  through  a  con- 
necting pipe  into  a  large  iron  tank  or  chamber  (which  can  also  be 
built  of  any  size),  containing  tbe  timber,  &c.,  to  be  operated  upon.  Tho 
heat  acts  at  once  upon  the  wood,  causing  the  sap  to  flow  from  every 
pore,  which,  rising  in  the  form  of  steam,  condenses  on  the  body  of 
the  chamber,  and  discharges  through  an  escape  pipe  in  the  lower  part. 
In  this  process  a  temperature  of  212°  to  250°  Fahr.  is  sufficient  to- 
remove  the  surface  moisture  from  the  wood;  but  after  this  the  tem- 
perature should  be  raised  to  300°  or  more,  in  order  to  completely 
saturate  and  permeate  the  body  of  the  wood  with  the  antiseptic  vapcra 
and  heavier  products  of  the  distillation.  The  hot  vapor  coagulates  tha 
nlbumen  of  the  wood,  and  opens  the  pores,  so  that  a  large  portion  of 
the  oily  product  or  creosote  is  admitted^  the  contraction  resulting: 
from  the  cooling  process  hermetically  seals  them,  and  decay  seems  to 
be  almost  impossible.  There  is  a  man-hole  in  the  retort,  used  to> 
change  or  clean  out  the  contents;  and  the  wood  chamber  is  furnished 
with  doors  made  perfectly  tight.  The  whole  operation  is  completed 
in  less  than  one  hour,  rendering  the  wood  proof  against  rot,  parasites, 
and  the  attacks  of  the  Teredo  navilis  or  naval  worm.  German  Stone 
Coating  for  Wood. — Chalk,  40  parts;  resin,  50  parts;,  linseed  oil  4- 
parts;  melt  together.  To  this  add  1  part  of  oxide  of  copper,  afterward* 
1  part  of  sulphuric  acid ;  add  this  last  carefully;  apply  with  a  brusb. 

IRON  TUBE  MANUFACTURE.— In  the  present  method  of  manufac- 
turing the  patent  welded  tube,  the  end  of  the  skelp  is  bent  to  the. 
circular  form,  its  entire  length  is  raised  to  the  welding  heat  in  an  ap- 
propriate furnace,  and  as  it  leaves  the  furnace  almost  at  the  point  of 
fusion,  it  is  dragged  bv  the  chain  of  a  draw-bench,  after  the  man- 
ner of  wire,  though  a  pair  of  tongs  with  two  bell-shaped  jaws;  tbeso 
are  opened  at  the  time  of  introducing  the  end  of  a  skelp,  which  is 
welded  without  the  agency  of  a  mandril.  By  this  ingenious  arrange- 
ment wrought  iron  tubes  may  be  made  from  the  diameter  of  6  inches  * 
internally  and  about  1-8  to  3-8  of  an  inch  thick,  to  as  small  as  1-4  of 
an  inch  diameter  and  1-10  bore,  and  so  admirable  is  the  joining  effected 
in  those  of  the  best  description  that  they  will  withstand  the  greatest 
pressure  of  water,  steam,  or  gas  to  which  they  have  been  subjected,  and 
they  admit  of  being  bent  both  in  the  heated  and  cold  state,  almost 
with  impunity.  Sometimes  the  tubes  are  made  one  upon  the  othez 


568      MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  AC.,  RECEIPTS. 

when  great  thickness  is  required ;  but  those  stout  pipes,  and  those  large* 
than.  3  inches,  are  but  seldom  required.  The  wrought  iron  tubes  of 
hydrostatic  presses  which  measure  about  i  an  inch  internally,  and  £  to 
§  of  an  inch  thick  in  the  metal,  are  frequently  subjected  to  a  pressure 
»f  /our  tons  on  each  square  inch. 

,  BBASS  TUBES.— Brass  or  other  tubes  are  formed  of  rolled  metal 
which,  is  cut  to  the  desired  width  by  means  of  revolving  discs:  in  th» 
Jarge  sizes  of  tubes,  the  metal  is  partially  curved  in  its  length  by 
aneans  of  a  pair  of  rolls,  when  in  this  condition  it  is  passed  through  » 
steel  bole  or  a  die,  a  plug  beiii<j  held  in  such  a  position  as  allows  th« 
metal  to  pass  between  it  and  the  interior  of  the  hole.  Oil  is  used  to 
lubricate  the  metal,  the  motion  is  communicated  by  power,  the  draw- 
ing apparatus  being  a  pair  of  huge  nippers,  whicn  nolds  the  brass, 
and  id  attached  to  a  chain  and  revolves  round  a  windlass  or  cylinder. 
The  tube  in  its  unsoldered  state  is  annealed,  bound  round  at  intervals 
of  a  few  inches  with  iron  wire,  and  solder  and  bor*.*  applied  along  the 
seam.  The  operation  of  soldering  is  completed  by  passing  the  tubes 
through  an  air  stove,  heated  with  "'  cokes  or  "  breezes"  which  melts 
the  solder,  and  unites  the  two  eyes  of  the  metal,  and  forms  a  perfect 
feibe;  it  is  then  immersed  in  a  solution  of  sulphuric  acid,  to  remove 
acaly  deposits  on  its  surface,  the  wire  and  extra  solder  having  been 
foeviously  removed;  it  is  then  drawn  through  a  "finishing  hola 
(late"  when  the  tube  is  completed.  Mandril  drawn  tubes  are  drawn 
upon  a  rery  accurately  turned  steel  mandril,  by  this  means  the  in- 
ternal diameter  is  rendered  smooth.  The  tubes  drawn  by  this  pro- 
cess are  well  adapted  for  telescopes,  syringes,  small  pump  cylinders, 
4kc.  The  brass  tubes  for  the  boilers  of  locomotive  engines  are  now 
made  by  casting  and  drawing  without  being  soldered,  and  some  of 
Uiem  are  drawn  taper  in  their  thickness.  Tubes  from  1-10  inch  in- 
ternal diameter  and  8  or  ten  inches  long,  up  to  those  of  two  or  three 
inches  diameter  and  4  or  5  feet  long,  are  drawn  vertically  by  means 
of  3,  strong  chain  wound  on  a  barrel  by  wheels  and  pinions,  as  in 
a  crane.  In  Donkin's  tube  drawing  machine,  which  is  applicable  to 
making  tubes,  or  rather  cylinders,  for  paper-making  and  other  ma- 
chinery, as  large  as  2G|  inches  diameter,  and  6£  feet  long,  a  vertical 
•crew  is  used,  the  nut  of  which  is  turned  round  by  toothed  wheels 
drrpen  by  six  men  at  a  windlass.  The  fluted  tubes  of  pencil  cases  are 
drznra  through  oramental  plates,  with  elevations  and  depressions 
TOrrssponding  to  the  impressions  left  on  the  tube. 

LEAJ>  PEPB,  is  made  oy  forcing  lead,  while  heated  to  a  plastic  state, 
Dver  au  annular  mandril  or  die  to  form,  the  core,  by  means  of  hy- 
draulic pressure. 

CUTLEKY  MANUFACTURE.— There  are  three  kinds  of  steel  employed 
in  manufacture  of  different  articles  of  cutlery,  common  steel,  shear 
(Bteel,  and  cast  steel.  All  edge  tools  which  require  to  be  tenacious 
•without  being  very  hard,  are  made  of  shear  steel.  The  best  scissors, 
jazors,  penknives,  &c.,  are  made  from  cast  steel,  which  is  able  to 
take  a  very  fine  polish,  common  steel  is  only  used  in  making  cheap 
articles  of  cutlery.  In  making  good  table-knives,  shear  steel  and; 
east  steel  are  generally  preferred.  In  the  ordinary  method  of  mak- 
ing knives,  the  blades  are  cut  out  of  a  sheet  of  steel,  and  the  backs, 
ahonlders  and  tangs  of  wrought  iron,  are  attached  to  the  steel 
tflidm  by  welding  at  the  forge.  The  knife  is  then  ground  to  th* 


MACHINISTS,    ENGINEERS/   AC.,   RECEIPTS. 

proper  shape,  and  the  blade  polished  and  hardened.  The  fork 
manufacture  is  a  distinct  branch  of  industry,  and  the  manufacturers  / 
of  table  knives  generally  buy  their  forks  from  the  fork  makers 
ready  to  be  put  into  their  handles.  In  making  table  knives,  two 
men  are  generally  employed  ;  one  is  called  the  foreman,  or  maker, 
,  and  the  other  the  striker.  Pen  knives  are  usually  forged  by  a  single 
hand,  with  hammer  and  anvil  simply  ;  they  are  hardened  by  heating 
^the  blades  red-hot,  and  dipping  them  into  water  up  to  the  shoulder. 
Razors  are  also  hardened  in  the  same  manner.  The  grinding  and 
polishing  of  cutlery  are  generally  performed  by  machinery,  the  busi- 
ness of  the  grinders  is  divided  into  grinding,  glazing  and  polishing. 
Grinding  is  performed  upon  stones  of  various  dimensions.  Those  ar- 
flil ' 


with  leather,  or  an  alloy  of  lead  and  tin  ;  it  is  fixed  on  an  axis  like  a 
grindstone.  The  polishing  process  is  the  last,  and  is  performed  on  a 
similar  piece  of  wood  covered  with  buff  leather.  Only  articles  of 
cast  steel  which  have  been  hardened  and  tempered  are  subjected 
to  this  operation. 

ON  NEEDLE  MANTJFACTURE,  TEMPERING,  &c. — This  small  but  im- 
portant implement  has  to  go  through  the  hands  of  about  1-0  work- 
men during  the  process  of  manufacture.  The  steel  wire,  being  drawn 
to  the  proper  size,  is  submitted  to  various  tests  to  ascertain  its  qual- 
ity, and  is  then  cut  into  proper  lengths  by  shears,  which,  by  striking 
21  blows  in  a  minute,  cut  in  10  hours  fully  400,000  ends  of  steel  wire, 
which  produce  about  800,000  needles.  These  are  passed  on  for  fur- 
ther manipulation  to  other  workmen,  who  straighten  and  point  the 
pieces  of  wire.  After  pointing  they  are  cut  in  two,  so  as  to  form  two 
separate  needles  of  equal  lergth  and  quality.  For  each  different  size 
a  small  copper  plate  is  employed.  It  is  nearly  square,  and  has  a 
turned-up  edge  on  two  of  its  sides,  the  one  is  intended  to  receive  all 
the  points,  while  the  other  resists  the  pressure  of  the  shears.  On 
this  plate  a  certain  number  of  wires  are  put  with  their  points  in  con- 
tact with  the  border,  and  they  are  cut  together  flush  with  the  plate, 
by  means  of  a  small  pair  of  shears  moved  by  the  knee  of  the  work- 
man. These  even  wires  are  now  taken  to  the  head-flattener.  This 
workman,  seated  over  a  table  with  a  block  of  steel  before  him  about 
3  inches  cube,  takes  up  from  20  to  25  needles  between  his  finger  and 
thumb,  spreading  them  out  like  a  faji,  with  the  points  under  th« 
thumb,  he  lays  the  heads  on  the  steel  block,  and,  with  a  small  flat- 
faced  hammer  strikes  a  few  successive  blows  upon  them  so  as  to 
flatten  them  in  an  instant.  The  heads,  having  become  hardened  by 
hammering,  are  now  annealed  by  heating  and  slow  cooling,  and  ara 
handed  to  the  piercer,  generally  a  child,  who  forms  the  eye  in  a 
second  by  laying  the  head  upon  a  block  of  steel,  and  by  driving  a 
small  punch  through  one  side  with  a  smart  tap  of  the  hammer,  and 
then  exactly  opposite  on  the  other.  The  eyes  are  then  trimmed  by 
driving  the  punch  through  them  again  on  a  lump  of  lead  and,  after 
laying  the  needle  with  the  punch  sticking  through  it,  upon  the  block 
of  steel,  hammering  the  head  on  the  sides,  which  causes  it  to  take 
the  form  of  the  punch.  Tne  next  operator  makes  the  groove  at  tha 
tye  and  rounds  the  head,  which  he  does  with  a  small  file.  The 


570       MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  &c.,  RECEIPTS 

needles,  "being  thus  prepared,  are  thrown  by  the  workmen  pell-mell 
into  a  sort  of  drum  or  box,  in  which  they  are  made  to  arrange  them- 
selves in  parallel  lines  by  means  of  a  few  dexterous  shakes  of  the 
workman's  arm.  They  are  now  ready  to  be  tempered,  for  which 
mirpose  they  are  ranged  on  sheet-iron  plates,  about  30  Ibs.  weight  at 
a  time,  containing  from  250,000  to  500,000  needles,  and  are  placed  ha  a; 
proper  furnace,  where  they  are  heated  to  a  bright  redness  for  thej 
larger  needles,  and  to  a  less  intense  degree  for  the  smaller  ;  they  are  i 
then  removed,  and  inverted  suddenly  over  a  bath  of  cold  water  iu 
such  a  way  that  all  the  needles  may  be  immersed  at  the  same  time, 
yet  separate  from  each  other.  This  has  the  effect  of  making  them 
vsry  hard  and  brittle.  The  water  being  run  off,  the  needles  are  re- 
moved for  further  operations.  Some  manufacturers  heat  the  needles 
by  means  of  immersion  in  melted  lead,  others  throw  them  into  a  pun. 
along  with  a  quantity  of  grease,  which,  being  placed  on  the  fire,  the' 
oily  matter  soon  ignites,  and  after  it  burns  out,  the  needles  are  found 
to  be  in  the  proper  temper  ;  those  which  are  twisted  hi  the  tempering 
being  afterwards  straightened  by  the  hammer  on  the  anvil. 

Polishing  is  the  next  and  most  expensive  and  prolonged  operation. 
This  is  effected  on  bundles  containing  500,000  needles  intermixed  witl* 
quartzoze  sand,  and  a  little  rape-seed  oil.  Thirty  of  those  bundle* 
are  exposed  to  the  vibratory  pressure  of  wooden  tables, ^  which  maka 
about  20  horizontal  double  movements  per  minute, '  causing  tho 
"bundles  to  run  over  2  feet  each  time,  or  800  feet  per  hour.  This 
agitation  is  kept  up  about  18  or  20  hours,  causing  such  a  move- 
ment and  attrition  as  to  polish  the  needles  in  the  bags  or  bundles. 
They  are  then  removed  from  the  packets  into  wooden  bowls  and 
mixed  with  sawdust  to  remove  the  grease  and  other  impurities, 
placed  in  a  cask,  which  is  turned  by  a  winch  ;  more  sawdust  is 
introduced  as  required,  and  the  turning  is  continued  until  the 
aeedles  become  clean  and  bright.  They  are  then  winnowed  by  a 
Ian  to  clean  them  from  the  sawdust  and  refuse  matter,  and  are- 
subsequently  arranged  in  regular  order  on  a  small,  somewhat  con- 
cave, iron  tray.  The  operation  of  making  up  the  rolls  or  bags, 
polishing,  winnowing  and  arranging  them,  have  to  be  repeated  tea 
times  on  the  best  needles.  It  is  found  that  emery  powder  mixed 
with  quartz  and  mica  or  pounded  granite  is  preferable  to  anything 
else  for  polishing  needles  by  friction  in  the  bags  at  the  first,  emery 
mixed  with  olive  oil,  from  the  second  to  the  seventh  operation, 
putty,  or  oxide  of  tin  for  the  eighth  and  ninth,  putty  with  very  little 
oil  for  the  tenth,  and  ^astly  bran  to  give  a  finish.  In  this  mode  of 
operating,  the  needles  are  scoured  in  a  copper  cask  studded  in  the= 
interior  with  raised  points  to  increase  the  friction  and  a  quantity  of 
hot  soap  suds  is  introduced  occasionally  to  keep  them  clean.  The 
cask  must  be  slowly  turned  upon  its  axis  for  fear  of  injuring  the 
mass  of  needles  it  contains.  They  are  finally  dried  in  the  wooden 
cask  by  attrition  with  saw  dust,  then  wiped  with  a  linen  rag  or 
soft  leather — the  damaged  ones  being  thrown  aside.  The  sorting/ 
js  performed  in  dry  apartments,  where  all  the  points  are  first  laid 
the  same  way,  and  the  needles  arranged  in  the  order  of  their  polish 
with  great  rapidity.  The  workman  places  2000  or  3000  needles 
in  an  iron  ring  two  inches  in  diameter,  and  sets  all  their  heads  in 
one  plane,  then,  on  looking  carefully  at  their  points,  he  easily  r»-  \ 

t 


MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  AC.,  RECEIPTS.      571 

augnizes  the  broken  ones  and  removes  them  with  an  instrument 
adapted  for  the  purpose.  These  defective  needles  pass  into  the 
hands  of  the  pointer  in  order  to  be  ground  again,  when  they  form 
articles  of  inferior  value.  Those  needles  bent  in  the  polishing  must 
now  be  straightened,  and  the  whole  are  finally  arranged  by  the 
tact  of  the  finger  and  thumb  of  the  sorter,  and  weighed  out  into 
quantities  for  packing  into  blue  papers.  The  bluer  puts  the  final 
touch  to  them  by  taking  25  needles  at  a  time  between  his  fore-finger 
and  thumb,  and  pressing  their  points  against  a  small  hone-stone 
of  compact  micaceous  schist,  quadrangular  in  form,  mounted  in  a 
smal!  lathe,  turning  them  briskly  round,  giving  the  points  a  bluish 
cast,  while  he  polishes  and  improves  them. 

ON  FILE  MANUFACTURE Files  are  made  of  bars  of  steel,  rendered 

doubly  hard  by  a  process  called  double  conversion,  drawn  the  re- 
quired size  at  the  tilt  hammer,  and  then  shaped,  the  square  and  flat 
ones  by  the  hammer  and  common  anvil  only,  but  those  of  round, 
half-round,  and  three-angled  forms,  by  means  of  bosses  and  dies  mado 
in  the  above  shapes,  which  fit  into  a  groove  left  for  them  in  the  anvil. 
The  steel  blanks  having  been  thus  formed,  are  next  annealed,  or 
softened,  to  render  them  capable  of  being  cut,  by  placing  a  number 
of  them  together  in  a  brick  oven,  rendered  air-tight  by  filling  up  all 
the  interstices  with  sand  (to  prevent  the  oxidation  of  the  steel,  to 
which  it  id  very  liable,  il  &ir  be  admitted,)  and  then  making  a  fire 
play  as  equally  as  possible  all  round  until  they  are  red  hot,  when  the 
neat  is  discontinued,  and  the  steel  allowed  to  cool  gradually  before  it  is 
uncovered.  The  surface  to  contain  the  teeth  is  now  rendered  as- 
smooth  as  possible  by  grinding  or  filing;  the  teeth  are  then  cut  with  a 
carefully  ground  chisel,  each  incision  being  made  separately.  The 
next  and  last  process,  that  of  hardening,  is  performed  in  various  ways 
by  different  makers,  the  ordinary  method,  however,  is  to  cover  the 
files  with  a  kind  of  composition  or  protecting  varnish  to  prevent  oxi- 
dation and  scalding  of  the  steel  when  heated;  and,  lastly,  they  are 
plunged  in  cold,  fresh  water  to  cool  them  as  quickly  as  possible.  Some 
file-makers  coat  their  files,  before  tempering,  with  a  composition  of 
cow-dung,  or  pig-flour,  which  not  only  protects  the  sharp  angles  of 
the  cuttings  from  the  action  of  .the  fire,  but  f urnishes  a  highly  azotized 
substance,  which  conduces  greatly  to  still  further  harden  and  steelify 
the  finished  work.  I  know  several  file  manufacturers  who  make  use 
of  a  bath  of  melted  lead  for  tempering  purposes.  The  files  are  first 
coated  with  a  greasy  composition  to  prevent  any  oxide  adhering,  then 
introduced  for  a  short  time  into  melted  lead,  or  the  "  metallic  bath" 
as  it  is  called,  and  then  plunged  into  the  tempering  liquid.  The  meHn 
ed  lead  may  be  kept  covered  with  charcoal,  or  other  suitable  ingredi- 
ents, to  prevent  oxidation.  In  some  manufactories  a  charcoal  fire  is 
kept  burning  on  the  surface  of  the  melted  lead. 

PEN  MAKING. — Pens  should  be  made  of  the  best  steel  that  can  be 
got,  as  peculiar  elasticity  is  required  in  them,  which  could  not  be  ob-  vl 
tamed  if  poor  steel  were  used.    The  steel  is  cut  into  slips  some  3  feet ,' 
long  and  4  inches  broad;  these  slips  are  then  plunged  into  a  pickle  of 
diluted  sulphuric  acid  so  as  to  remove  the  scales  from  the  surface  ; 
next  it  is  passed  between  heavy  rollers  by  which  it  is  reduced  to  the 
thickness  required,  and  made  fit  to  undergo  the  first  process  in  pen 
^Baking.    This  is  performed  1,7  a  gu2»  who,  seated  at  a 


572      MACHINISTS    ENGINEERS',  &c. 

press  provided  with  a  bed  and  corresponding  punch,  speedily  cuts  out 
the  blank,  which  is  perfectly  flat  The  next  step  is  to  perforate  th* 
hole  which  terminates  the  slit,  and  to  remove  any  superfluous  steel 
which  mteht  interfere  with  the  elasticity  of  the  pen.  The  embryo 
pens  are  then  annealed  in  a  muffle,  and  the  maker's  name  stamped 
upon  them.  Tlfce  pens  are  next  transferred  to  another  class  of  work- 
men, who,  by  means  of  a  press,  either  make  the  pens  concave,  if  they1" 
are  merely  to  be  nibs,  or,  if  they  are  to  be  barrel  pens,  they  roll  the 
barrel  together.  The  next  process  is  termed  the  hardening,  and  con- 
sists in  placing  a  number  of  pens  in  an  iron  box  which  is  introduced 
into  a  muffle.  After  they  become  of  a  deep  red  heat  they  are  plung- 
ed into  a  tank  of  oil,  and,  when  they  get  cool,  the  adhering  oil  is  re-  , 
moved  by  agitation  in  circular  tin  barrels ;  tempering  is  the  next  step, 
by  heating  to  the  necessary  elasticity  in  a  warm  bath  of  oil;  and,  fin- 
ally, the  whole  number  of  pens  are  placed  in  a  revolving  cylinder 
along  with  sand,  ground  crucible,  and  other  cutting  substances,  whicli 
tends  to  brighten  them  up  to  the  natural  color  of  the  steel ;  next  the 
nib  is  ground  down  finely,  with  great  rapidity,  by  a  girl,  who  picks  it 
up  with  a  pair  of  pliers,  and,  with  a  single  touch  on  an  emery  wheel, 
perfects  it  at  once.  The  slit  is  now  made  by  means  of  a  press.  A 
chisel,  or  wedge,  with  a  flat  side,  is  affixed  to  the  bed  of  the  press, 
and  the  descending  screw  has  a  corresponding  chisel-cutter,  which 
passing  down  with  the  greatest  accuracy  on  the  pen,  which  had  been 
placed  on  the  chisel  affixed  to  the  bed,  and  the  slit  is  made  and  the 
pen  complete.  They  are  next  colored  brown  or  blue,  by  placing  them 
in  a  revolving  metal  cylinder,  under  which  is  a  charcoal  stove,  and, 
by  watching  narrowly  the  different  gradation  of  color,  the  requisite 
tint  is  speedily  attained;  a  brilliant  polish  is  subsequently  imparted 
by  immersing  the  pens  in  lac  dissolved  in  naphtha ;  they  are  then 
dried,  counted,  selected  and  placed  into  boxes  for  sale. 

GOLD  PENS. — Gold  pens  are  made  much  in  the  same  manner  as 
steel,  with  this  important  difference,  that,  as  they  cannot  be  tempered 
in  the  same  way  that  steel  is,  the  necessary  elasticity  is  imparted  to 
them  by  hammering,  and  by  rubbing  them  with  a  small  hard  stone 
and  water,  instead  of  the  tempering,  &c.,  in  oil.  As  gold  is  too  spit 
of  itself  to  make  a  durable  pen,  it  is  found  necessary  to  attach  a  min- 
ute portion  of  an  alloy  of  irridium  and  osmium,  by  soldering  to  the 
tips.  This  mnkes  an  extremely  hard  and  durable  point. 

TINNING  S^IALL  ARTICLES. — Dissolve  as  much  zinc  scraps  in  mu- 
riatic acid  as  it  will  take  up,  let  it  settle,  then  decant  the  clear,  and 
it  is  ready  for  use.  Next  prepare  a  suitable  iron  vessel,  get  it  over 
the  fire,  put  your  tin  therein,  and  melt  it,  and  put  as  much  mutton 
or  beef  tallow  as  will  cover  the  tin  about  £  inch  thick.  This  prevents 
the  oxidation  of  the  metal;  but  be  very  careful  that  the  tallow  does 
not  catch  fire.  The  iron,  or  any  other  metal  to  be  tinned,  must  bal 
well  cleaned,  either  with  scraping,  filing,  polishing  with  sand,  or  im- 
mersion in  diluted  vitriol.  Proceed  to  wet  the  articles  in  the  zinc  so- 
lution, then  carefully  immerse  them  in  the  tallow  and  melted  tin;  in  a 
very  short  time  they  will  become  perfectly  tinned,  when  they  may  be 
taken  out. 

To  TIN  IRON  WIKE. — Clean  the  wire  thoroughly  in  a  pickle  mad* 


of  sulphuric  acid  nnd  water  (acid,  1  part,  water,  2  parts x  cover  it  with 
i  solution  oi  muriate  of  zinc,  and  dip  in  melted 


tiu. 


MACHINISTS  AND  ENGINEERS'  DEPARTMENT. 


57* 


MODERN  OCEAN  STEAMSHIP. 

In  its  wonderful  design,  vast  power,  and  nice  adaptation  to  successfully 
encounter  the  most  tremendous  forces  in  nature,  the  modern  ocean  steam- 
ship is  justly  entitled  to  rank  as  the  proudest  achievement  of  man  in  the  line 
of  modern  engineering.  For  the  M'>d«llln<l  of  Ve^ds.  see  page  429. 

Engineers  of  steamships  have  found  that  the  best  lubricants  are  glycerine* 
for  the  cylinders  and  castor-oil  for  the  bearings.  When  castor-oil  is  used, 
the  main  bearings  seldom  become  heated.  Only  the  best  glycerine  can  be 
employed  with  advantage ;  but  when  it  is  of  a  high  grade,  the  results  leave- 
little  to  be  desired. 

COMPARATIVE  WEIGHT  OP  IRON  AND  WOOD  HULLS.— An  iron  huU 
weighs  nearly  45  per  cent,  less  than  a  wood  hull.  The  weight  of  hull  of  a 
vessel  with  an  iron  frame  and  oak  planking,  compared  with  a  hull  entirely 
of  wood,  is  as  8  to  15. 

LUBRICANT  FOB  TURNING  TOOLS. — It  is  said  that  Bteel  annealed  to  a  straw  color  can 
he  easily  turned  by  using  a  mixture  of  petroleum  and  turpentine  as  a  lubricant.  Alloyi 
which  resisted  the  best  tempered  tools  have  been  turned  by  the  use  of  petroleum  alone. 

PLANER  TOOLS. — For  common  planinfj,  use  a  half  pide  tool  stout  and  short,  and\ 
with  the  point  turned  u:>,  like  a  common  diamond  point;  for  planing  under,  as 
in  slide  rests,  <fec.,  use  to  jls  sharpened  up  to  a  point,  with  the  bharp  end  turned  up 
with  a  taper  from  trie  point  to  the  thick  part  of  about  2  inches.  For  squaring  up,  use 
a  round  p  nnt  tool,  cutting  from  the  side. 

THB  UNITED  STATES  GOVERNMENT  TEMPERING  SECBET.— The  following  proeesa 
fA  mixtures,  patented  by  G-arman  and  Siegfried,  and  owned  by  the  Steel  Refining 
fid  Tempering  Co.,  of  Boston,  Mass.,  cost  the  U.  8.  Government  $10,000  for  the 
fight  of  using  in  their  shops,  and  i-»  said  to  impart  extraordinary  hardness  and 
durability  to  the  poorest  kinds  of  steel.  Siegfried's  specification  reads  as  follows : 
"  I  first  heat  the  steel  to  a  cherry  red  in  a  clean  smith's  fire,  and  then  cover  the  steel 
with  chloride  of  sodium  (common  salt),  purifying  the  fire  also  by  throwing  in  salt. 
I  work  the  steel  ia  this  condition,  and  while  subjected  to  this  treatment,  until  it  i* 
.brought  into  nearly  'ts  finished  f  >rm.  I  then  substitute  for  the  salt  a  compound 
composed  of  the  follo-.ving  ingre  Hents.  and  in  about  the  following  proportions :  One 
'part  by  weight  of  each  of  the  foUo-vin?  substan^s  :  chloride  of  sodium  (s-alt),  Milj.hate 
of  capper,  sal-ammoniac,  and  sal-sida,  together  with  %  part  by  weight  of  pure 
nitrate  of  potassa  (saltpetre),  eaid  ingredients  being  pulverized  and  mixed:  I  niter- 
nately  heat  the  steel  and  treit  it  by  covering  with  this  mixture  and  hammering  it 
until  it  is  thoroughly  reflned  and  brought  into  its  finished  form.  I  then  return  it  to 
the  ftre  and  heat  »t  slowly  to  a  cherry  red.  and  then  plunge  it  into  a  bath  composed 
of  ttoe  following  ingredients,  in  substantially  the  following  proportions  for  the 
required  quantity :  of  rain  water.  1  gal.,  alum,  sal-eoda,  sulphate  of  copper,  of  each  1% 
ozs.;  of  nitrate  of  potassa  (saltpetre),  1  oz.,  and  of  chloride  of  sodium  (wJt), 
6  oas.  These  quantities  and  proportions  are  stated  as  being  what  I  r  gard  &*  practically 
the  bent  but  it  is  manifest  that  they  may  be  slightly  changed  without  departing  front 
the  principles  of  my  invention/' 


674  MACHINISTS, 


,    *C.,    RECKIFW 


OLIVER  EVANS,  THE  WATT  OF  AMERICA. 
Inventor  of  the  High- Pressure  Steam  Engine. 

ftt  1793,  Oliver  Evans,  a  native  of  Newport,  Delaware,  invented  the  Hlgfc- 
^WBssure  Engine,  and  in  1804  he  constructed  an  engine  in  Philadelphia,  working 
on  the  high-pressure  system,  and  placed  it  on  a  large  scow  mounted  on  wheels, 
«s  shown  in  the  following  cut.  Although  the  whole  weight  was  equal  to  200 
barrels  of  flour,  yet  his  small  engine  propelled  it  up  Market  street  and  round  the 
circuit  to  the  Water  Works,  where  it  was  launched  into  the  Schuylkill.  A  paddle- 
wheel  was  then  applied  to  its  stern,  and  it  thus  sailed  down  that  river  to  the 
Delaware,  a  distance  of  16  miles,  in  the  presence  of  thousands  of  spectators. 

In  milling  appliances,  he  invented  the  erain  elevator,  the  conveyer,  the  drill, 
the  descender,  and  the  kopper-box,  besides  other  labor-saving  inventions  of  great 
utility  to  the  miller,  He  also  wrote  the  "  Young  Steam  Engineer's  Guide,"  and 
ahigmly  valuable  work  entitled  "The  Young  Millwright's  Guide."  Although 
equally"  deserving  of  fame,  he  failed  to  reap  the  substantial  honors  accorded  t» 
Watt  in  England. 

PAPIER  MACHE,  is  used  for  fancy  articles,  such  as  the  covers  for  albums,  lnte> 
stands,  blotting  books,  paper  knives,  etc.,  as  well  as  for  the  cells  of  galvanic 
batteries.  It  is  obtained  from  old  paper  made  into  a  pulp  with  a  solution  of  lime, 
and  gum  or  starch,  pressed  into  the  form  required,  coated  with  linseed  oil,  baked 
at  a  high  temperature,  and  finally  varnished.  The  pnlp  is  sometimes  mixed  witk 
•lay,  sand,  chalk,  etc.,  and  other  kinds  are  made  of  a  paste  of  pulp  and  lim*, 
»nd  used  for  ornamenting  wood,  inlaying,  etc. 


JtTANS*    LOCOMOTIVE,    SUNDRY   ITEMS.  575 


PRIMING  POWDER  FOR  PERCUSSION  CAPS. — Reduce  40  parts  of 
•gunpowder  to  very  fine  dust;  mix  to  a  thin  paste  with  water,  next  add 
chlorate  of  potassa,  21  parts,  previously  reduced  to  a  very  fine  powder; 
make  the  paste  rather  thin  and  deposit  a  small  drop  at  the  bottom 
of  the  cap.  The  mixture  is  liable  to  explode  if  incautiously  handled. 

BALLOON  VARNISH. — Melt  India  rubber  in  small  pieces  with  it» 
weight  of  linseed  oil,  and  thin  with  spirits  turpentine. 

ARTIFICIAL  CORAL. — Yellow  resin,  4  parts;  vermilion,  Ipart;  melt 
very  fine  for  ornamental  work,  &c. 

GOLD  BEATER'S  SKIN  is  prepared  by  extending  the  peritoneal 
membranes  of  caecum,  washing  them  first  with  plain  water,  then  with 
a  solution  of  alum  and  lastly  witli  a  solution  of  isinglass  and  spices. 

HOME-MADE  MICROSCOPE.— Remove  the  bottom  from  a  common 
pill  box  and  insert  a  piece  of  window  glass,  paint  the  inside  black,  and 
make  a  small  eye  hole  in  the  lid.  In  this  hole  insert  a  single  drop  of 
Canada  balsam  and  allow  it  to  cool.  It  possesses  magnifying  power. 

To  REMOVE  TIN  FROM  COPPER  VESSELS,  immerse  the  article  in 
-a  solution  of  blue  vitriol.  To  remove  tin  from  plates  without  acid, 
toil  the  scrap  tin  with  soda  ley  in  presence  of  litharge. 

SOUND. — In  dry  air  at  82°  sound  travels  1,142  ft.  per  second,  or 
about  775  miles  per  hour;  in  water,  4,900  ft.  per  second;  in  iron, 
17,500  ft. ;  in  copper,  10,378  ft. ;  and  in  wood  from  12  to  16,000  ft.  per 
second.  In  water,  a  bell  heard  at  45,000  ft.,  could  be  heard  in  the  air 
out  of  the  water  but  656  ft.  In  a  balloon  the  barking  of  dogs  can  be 
heard  on  the  ground  at  an  elevation  of  4  miles.  Divers  on  the  wreck 
of  the  Hussar  frigate,  100  ft.  under  water,  at  Hell  Gate,  near  New 
York,  heard  the  paddle  wheels  of  distant  steamers  hours  before  they 
hove  in  sight.  The  report  of  a  rifle  on  a  still  day  may  be  heard  at 
£,300  yds. ;  a  military  band  at  5,200  yds.  The  fire  of  the  English  on 
landing  in  Egypt  was  distinctly  heard  130  miles.  Dr.  Jamieson  says 
he  heard,  during  calm  weather,  every  word  of  a  sermon  at  a  distance 
of  2  miles.  The  bell  of  Notre  Dame,  Montreal,  Que..  weighs  28.560 
Ibs. ;  that  of  the  City  Hall,  N.  Y.,  22,300  Ibs.;  of  St.  Paul's,  London, 
11,470;  "  Big  Ben,'v  Westminster,  30,350;  "  Great  Tom."  of  Oxford, 
18,000;  St.  Peter's,  Rome,  18,607;  Rouen,  France,  40,000;  St.  Ivan's, 
Moscow,  127,830;  one  unhung  at  Moscow,  440,000,  and  one  in  China 
weighs  120,000  Ibs. 


FOREIGN   WEIGHTS   AND   MEASURES. 


TABLE  OF  FOREIGN  WEIGHTS  ANL  MEASURES 

REDUCED    TO    THE    STANDARD    3F   THE    UNITED    STATES. 
(The  two  right  hand  figures  are  the  hundredth  oarts  of  a  whole  Dumber,) 

FRANCE. 

Metre 3-28  feet. 

Decimetre  (l-10th  metre)    3-94  inches. 

Velt  2-00  galls. 

Hectolitre 26-42  galls. 

Decalitre 2-64  galls. 

Litre 2-11  pints. 

Kilolitre 35-32  feet. 

Hectolitre 2'84  bush. 

Decalitre 9-08  quarts. 

Millier 2-205  Ibs. 

Quintal .  •  .    220-54  Ibs. 

Kilogramme .«. .    2:21  Ibs. 

AMSTERDAM. 

100  Ibs.  1  centner 108-93  Ibs. 

Last  of  grain 85.' 25  bush. 

Ahm  of  wine 41-00  galls. 

Amsterdam  foot 0-93  foot. 

Antwerp  foot 0-94  foot. 

Khineland  foot 1-03  feet. 

Amstersdam  ell 2-26  feet. 

Ell  of  the  Hague 2-28  feet. 

Ell  of  the  Brabant 2-30  feet. 

NETHERLANDS. 

Ell 3'28feet. 

MuddeofZak 2-84  bush. 

\  at  hectolitre 26-42  galls. 

Kan  .litre 2-11  pints. 

Pond  kilogramme 2'21  Ibs. 

HAMBURG. 

Last  of  grain 89-64  bush. 

Ahm  of  wine 38-25  galls. 

Hamburg  foot 0'96  foot. 

Ell l-92feet. 

PRUSSIA. 

iOO   Ibs.    of   2   Cologne 

marks  each 103-11  Ibs. 

Quintal,  110  Ibs 113-42  Ibs. 

Shelf  el  of  grain 1-56  bush. 

Eiinar  of  wine 18-14  galls. 

Ell  cf  cloth 2-19  feet. 

Foot 1-03  feet. 

DENMARK. 

100  Ibs.  1  centner 110-28  Ibs. 

Barrel  or  toende  of  corn.  3-95  bush. 

Viertel  of  wine 2-04  galls. 

Copenhagen     or   Rhine- 
land  foot 1-03  feet. 

SWEDEN. 

100  Iba.  or  5  lispttnds 73-76  Ibs. 

Kan  of  corn 7-42  bush. 

Last 75-00  bush. 

Cann  of  wine 69-09  calls. 

Ell  of  cloth 1-95  feet. 

RUSSIA. 

100  Ibs.  of  32  laths  each...  90-26  Ibs. 

Chertwert  of  grain 5'96  bush. 

Vedroof  wine 3.25  galls. 

Patersburgh  foot 1*18  feet. 

Moeoow  foot 1-lOfeet. 

Pood 36-00  11* 


Quintal,  or  4  arrobas J.Oi-44  Ibs. 

Arroba 25-36  Ibs. 

Arroba  of  wine ...«.    4 -43  galla 

Fanega  of  grain.,. „    1-60  busn, 

PORTUGAL. 

100  Ibs 101-19  Iba, 

22  Ibs.  ( I  arroba) 22'26  Iba, 

4  arrobas  of  22  Ibs.  (1  quin- 
tal)   89-05  Ifcs. 

Alquiere 4-75  bush, 

Mojo  of  grain 23-03  bush, 

Last  of  salt 70'00  bush, 

Almude  01  wine 4-37  galls, 

SICILY. 

Cantar  ogroso 192-50  Ibs. 

Cantaro  sottile 175' 00  Ibs. 

100  Ibs 70-0011)8. 

Salma  grossa  of  grain 9  -77  bush, 

Salma  generale 7-85  bush. 

Salma  of  wine 23'06  galls, 

NAPLES. 

Cantaro  groso 196-50  Ibs. 

Cantaro  picolo 106-00  Ibs. 

Carro  of  grain 52-24  bush, 

Carroof  wine 264-00  galls, 

ROME. 

Rubbio  of  grain 8-36  bush, 

Barih  of  wine 15-31  galla. 

GENOA. 

100  Ibs.  or  peso  groso 76-87  Iba. 

100  Ibs.  or  peso  sottile 69\89  Ibs. 

Mina  of  grain 3'43  bush, 

Mezzarola  of  wine .   • 39-22  galls, 

FLORENCE  AND  LEGHORN. 

100  Ibs.  or  1  cantaro 74-86  Ibs. 

Moggio  of  grain 16'59  bush. 

Barile  of  wine 12*04  galls, 

VENICE. 

100  Ibs.  peso  groso 105'IS  Ibg. 

100  Ibs.  peso  sottile 64-04  Ibs. 

Moggio  of  grain 9-08  busht 

Anifora  of  wine 137  '00  galls. 

TRIESTE. 

100  Ibs .123-60  Ibs. 

Stajo  of  grain 2-34  bush, 

Orna  or  eimer  of  wine 14-94  gails. 

Ell  for  woolens 2*22  feet. 

Ell  for  silk 2-10  feet 

MALTA. 

190  Ibs.  1  cantar 174-50  Ibs. 

Salma  of  grain 8-22  bush. 

Foot 0'85foot 

SMYRNA. 

100  Ibs.  (1  quintal) 129-48  Ibs. 

Oke 2-83lbs. 

Quillot  of  grain 1-46  bush* 

Quillot  of  wine 13-50  gall* 

CHINA. 

Tail 1-SSoz. 

16  tails  1  catty 1-33  Ibs. 

100  catties  1  picul 133-26  lb* 


PRINTERS  AND  PUBLISHERS  TABLE.  577 


PAPER  TABLE  FOR  PRINT- 
ERS'   AND     PUBLISHERS' 
USE, 

Showing  th*  quantity  of  paper  re- 
quired for  printing   1000  copies,  (in 
eluding  56  extra  copies  to  allow  for 
•wastage),  of  any  usual  sized  Book 
from  8vo.  down   to   321110.      If  the 
quantity  required  is  not  found  in  the 
Table,  double  or  treble  some  suita- 
ble number  o£  pages  or  quantity  of 
paper. 

NAMES    AND    DIMENSIONS    OF 
VARIOUS    SIZES  OF  PAPER. 

/ 

PRINT. 

Double  Medium  24          3& 

II 

o| 

II 

l! 

6% 

u 

24 

48 

120 
144 

168 
192 
216 
240 
264 
288 
3" 
336 
360 
384 
408 
432 
456 
480 
504 

It 

IOOO 

Cop's. 

RS.QS 

Double  Royal  26          40 

2 
3 

4 

I 
I 

9 

xo 

12 

»4 

!i 

18 

20 
2l 
22 

«7 
28 

3o 
Jl 
52 
13 

,;      35 

36 

m 

* 

g 

16 

24 

32 

88 
96 
104 

112 

J20 

128 
136 

152 

160 

168 
176 

184 
192 

200 

208 

216 

224 
232 
240 

264, 
272 
280 
288 
296 

304 

312 

320 

12 

24 

00 

72 

96 

108 

120 
132 
144 

156 

168 
1  80 
192 
204 
216 
228 
240 
252 
264 
276 
288 
300 

324 
336 

348 
360 

372 
384 
39<> 
408 
420 
43* 
444 
456 
468 
480 

16 
32 
48 
64 
80 
96 

112 

128 

144 
160 
176 
192 
208 
224 
240 
256 
272 
288 
304 
320 
336 
352 
368 
384 
400 
416 
432 
448 
464 
480 
496 
5" 
528 
544 
560 
576 

33 
64 
96 
128 
160 
192 
224 
256 
288 
320 

416 
448 
480 
5" 

I          2 
2          4 

3       6 
4      8 
5     10 

6       12 

7     H 
8     16 
9     18 
ii 

12         2 

3    t 

'5      8 
16     10 

I/       12 

18     14 
19     16 

20       IS 
22 
23         2 

24    i 

25       6 
26      8 
27     10 

28       12 
29       »4 

30    16 
31     18 
33 
34      * 

35       4 
36      6 
37      8 
38     10 

40     14 
41     16 
42     18 
44 

FOLDED. 

Commercial  Note  8          10 

FLAT. 

At]as       26    x    33 

N.  B.—  The  weight  of  a  ream  of  paper 
and  the  price  per  pound  being  given,  the 
cost  per  ream  or  quire  mav  be  known  *t 
once  by  consulting  the  READY  RECKOWK 
TABLE. 

PASTEBOARD,    PULP    COLORS,    &C. 

To  REMOVE  PRINTER'S  INK  FORM  PAPER  PULP.— Potash  4  lb&;  6i& 
-solve  in  as  little  boiling  water  as  possible,  and  add  3^  Ibs.  tallow,  boh 
for  3  hours,  and  add  while  cooling  and  stirring,  3  gals,  rain  water.  < 
Boil  the  paper  pulp,  keeping  it  covered  with  water,  and  to  each  20  gals, 
.pulp,  add  1  gal.  of  the  above  mixture;  beat  and  stir  thoroughly,  and 
the  black  printing  ink  will  rise  to  the  surface ;  skim  it  off  as  long  as  it 
continues  to  rise. 

COLORED  PAPER. — The  papers  made  from  colored  ragr  are  the 
'brown  packing  paper  and  coarse  colored  paper,  such  as  sugar  and  pin 
mpers.  According  to  Wagner,  colored  pin  paper  requires  to  every 
:oO  kilos  (see  the  French  measures  and  their  English  equivalent! 
•described  elsewhere)  of  dry  pulp  the  several  under-mentioned  sub* 
•stances  :— 

i  2.05  Kilos  Acetate  of  Lead, 
i  0.45      ';     Bichromate  of  Potash, 
/  2.05     "     Sulphate  of  Iron, 
-  j  1.05     "    Ferrocyanide  of  Potash. 
J  3-°°     "    Blue, 
jl.05     "    Yellow, 

Violet 1.05     "    Extract  of  Logwood, 

•Rose 6.00     "    Extract  of  Brazil  Wood. 

.,,„-  ( 3.00     "    Oil  of  Vitriol, 

J3.00    "    Chloride  of  Lime. 

Ultra  marine  and  aniline  blue  are  also  used  in  coloring.  In  varfe- 
gated  paper  chemical,  mineral  and  vegetable  colorings  are  used  ac- 
cording to  the  desired  colors.  Body  colors  are  rendered  nuia  by  a 
solution  of  gum  arabic  or  alum  in  the  size,  which  can  be  applied  by 
ft  brush  or  sponge  when  only  one  side  is  to  1  e  colored.  Variegated 
and  tapestry  paper  are  an  important  part  of  the  manufacture. 

FRENCH  COMPOSITION  FOR  PRINTER'S  ROLLERS. — For  a  24-inch 
roller,  take  Russian  isinglass,  £  oz;  gelatine  £  oz;  when  the  usual  com- 
position, compounded  of  glue,  1  Ib;  molasses  1  pt.  is  ready  for  pouring 
•add  the  above  to  it;  let  all  boil  15  minutes  longer,  then  cast  in  the 
•usual  way. 

PASTEBOARD  AND  OTHER  PAPERS. — Pasteboard  is  made  in  3  ways: 
1.  By  placing  the  pulp  in  a  form :  form-board.  2.  By  pressing  several 
•damp  sheets  to  fo-m  a  thick  card;  elastic  pasteboard.  3.  By  pasting 
together  the  finished  paper  sheets ;  sized  pasteboard.  1.  Form-board 
:is  an  inferioi  kind  employed  for  ordinary  purposes  of  packing,  book- 
binding, etc.  It  is  made,  from  waste  paper,  refuse  rags,  and  the 
coarse  parts  of  the  pulp.  Clay  or  chalk  is  sometimes  present  to  25 
per  cent,  of  the  weight  of  this  pasteboard.  It  is  made  in  a  coarse 
-ribbed  form,  goes  through  the  same  process  of  knotting  as  the  p^per 
•sheet,  and  is  dried  and  dressed  under  a  roller. 

2.  Elastic  pasteboard  is  of  better  material,  and  presents  a  smoothes 
surface;  6  to  12  sheets  of  paper  previously  dampened  are  placed  to- 
cether  and  pressed  into  one  compact  sheet.  A  separate  and  hardei 
kind  of  pasteboard  is  the  thick  elastic  board,  used  for  binding  books. 
The  inner  layer  is  made  of  coarse  stuff,  saw  dust,  etc.  3.  Size  paste* 
board,  or  cardboard  is  made  of  2  to  15  sheets  of  sized  paper,  pressed 
ifiud  satined.  There  are  varieties  of  this  cardboard,  such  as  Bristol- 
•fcoard,  London-board,  the  former  being  extensively  used  for  water* 
drawings,  mounting-board,  ornamental-board  t  etc. 


MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  AC.,  RECEIPTS.         579 


PRINTING.—  Take  a  small  portion  of  strong  lithographic 
tarnish  and  grind  with  York  Brown,  when  well  ground,  thin  down 
*dth  thin  varnish  and  gold  size  equal  parts.  This  will  do  for  letter 
press  or  lithograph  printing,  for  paper,  cloth,  silk,  &c. 

Another  Way.  —  Print  as  with  common  printers'  ink,  then  dust  on 
or  rub  over  with  good  pale  or  other  colored  bronze  powder,  allow  it 
to  set,  then  shake  or  brush  off  the  superfluous  bronze  with  a  light 
eoft  brush. 

GOLD  PRINTING.  —  Have  gold  leaf  cut  the  proper  form  to  suit  your 
job,  and  use  gold  size  instead  of  ink  as  in  the  usual  way  on  the  type. 
Apply  the  gold  leaf  to  the  size  until  the  impression  is  covered,  using 
a  gilders  tip,  or  by  a  dexterous  use  of  the  thumb,  and  forefinger  of 
the  right  hand  slightly  moistened,  raise  the  gold  leaf  with  the  ac- 
companying paper  and  apply  to  the  size.  When  all  is  covered  dab  it 
down  gently  with  a  ball  or  soft  cushion  of  cotton  or  other  proper 
material,  and  remove  the  superfluous  gold  with  a  soft  brush,  and  if 
the  size  has  been  well  applied  it  will  assume  a  splendid  appearance. 
)  Use  a  good  firm  roller  for  gold  and  bronze  printing. 

COLORED  INKS  FOB  PRINTERS.  —  21  Tints.  —  In  every  case  use  good 
varnish,  the  greatest  cleanliness,  a  good  marble  slab,  a  good  muller 
for  grinding,  and  never  compound  a  surplus  quantity  over  and  above 
the  present  requirements.  Grind,  blend,  and  finely  pulverize  the 
ingredients,  in  each  and  every  instance.  Good  work  demands 
emooth  good  ink,  free  from  gritty  particles.  For  a  good  RED,  grind 
in  English  vermilion,  with  a  little  lake.  DEEP  RED  use  Indian  red 
and  laLe.  BRIGHT  RED,  add  carmine  to  pale  vermilion.  DEEP 
SCARLET,  add  a  little  portion  of  vermilion  to  carmine.  BLUE, 
Prussian  blue.  BRIGHT  PALE  BLUE,  cobalt,  also  verditure  and  indigo 
lor  other  shades  of  blue.  GREEN,  to  pale  chrome  add  Chinese  blue; 
Tary  the  colors  by  varying  the  proportions  of  the  different  pigments. 
HMERALD  GREEN,  grind  pale  blue  with  a  little  Chinese  blue,  then 
add  the  emerald  until  the  color  suits.  DEEP  BRONZE  BLUE,  Chinese 
blue.  DEEP  BROWN,  burnt  umber,  with  a  small  quantity  of  scarlet 
lake.  PALE  BROWN,  burnt  sienna  with  a  little  scarlet  lake.  DEEP 
LILAC,  add  a  little  carmine  to  cobalt  blue  ;  for  a  pale  lilac,  reverse 
the  proportions  of  each.  BRIGHT  PINK,  crimson,  lake  or  carmine  as 
TOU  prefer.  Blue  and  black  inks  intermixed,  will  evolve  a  DEEP 
BLUE  INK;  carmine  pnd  blue,  will  yield  a  PURPLE  INK;  yellow  and 
fclue,  a  GREEN  INK;  yellow  and  carmine,  a  VERMILION  INK;  yellow 
and  black,  a  BRONZE  GREEN;  yellow,  blue,  and  black,  a  DEEP 
GREEN  Ink  ;  carmine,  yellow  and  black,  a  BROWN  INK. 

COPPER  PLATE  PRINTER'S  INK  is  made  by  adding  Frankfort 
black  in  proper  quantity  to  the  usual  linseed  oil  burnt  as  for  common 
printing  ink.  See  page  545. 

GOLD  LEAF.  —  According  to  the  color,  gold  leaf  is  demoninated 
deep,  medium,  fine,  red,  pale  red,  deep  orange,  lemon,  pale  white,  &c. 
Deep  gold  admits  very  little  alloy,  the  quantity  being  usually  about 
2^  of  silver  and  2i  copper,  making  5  in  all.  A  medium  kind  is  made  of 
i2  parts  pure  gold,  12  silver  and  6  copper.  The  gold  is  first  made  in- 
to small  ingots  1  ^  x  £  in.  and  3-16  in.  thick.  The  ingot  is  passed 
repeatedly  betweer  2  polished  steel  rollers,  until  it  becomes  a  long 
ribbon  only  1-800  m.  thick.  The  ribbon  being  cut  into  inch  square 
pieces,  150  of  these  are  interleaved  with  thick  paper,  and  enclosed  ia 
3  parchment  case  called  a  kutch.  The  kutch  is  subjected  to  a  long 
continued  series  of  blows  administered  with  a  16  Ib.  hummer,  and  to 


580         MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  AC.,  RECEIPTS. 

ail  parts  of  both  surfaces  equally.  When  each  piece  has  been  stretch- 
ed out  by  this  beating  to  4  in.  square,  the  kutch  is  opened,  the  pieces 
are  cut  into  4  of  2  in.  square  each,  and  these  are  interleaved  in  a 
"book  of  gold-beater's  skin  called  a  shoder,  the  150  pieces  being  now 
600.  Another  beating  with  a  9  Ib.  hammer  spreads  out  these  as  be- 
,'fore  and  another  cutting  augments  the  number  from  600  to  2400. 
These  are  separated  into  3  packets  of  800  each,  and  each  of  theso 
packets  is  again  beaten  in  a  book  of  gold  beater' s  skin  called  a  mould ; 
this  beating,  lasting  4  hours,  is  done  with  a  7  Ib.  hammer.  The  leaves 
of  gold  now  reduced  to  the  proper  thickness,  are  cut  into  «?|  in.  square 
which  are  interleaved  in  books  and  made  up  in  packs.  Leaf  gold  ia 
the  thinnest  substance  produced  in  the  mechanical  arts,  being  only 
the  280.000  of  an  inch  in  thickness,  a  single  grain  covering  66  square, 
ins.  Dentist's  gold  is  thicker  than  the  ordinary  leaf  gold. 

ARTIFICIAL  WRITING  SLATE.—  Sand  (fine),  82  parts;  lampblack,, 
8  parts;  boiled  linseed  or  cotton  seed  oil,  10  parts;  boil  thoroughly 
together,  then  add  spirits  turpentine  in  order  to  reduce  the  mixture 
for  easy  application  to  a  thin  piece  of  paste-board.  When  dry,  apply 
Another  coat,  dry  again,  give  it  a  third  coat  and  finish  off  by  rubbing: 
smooth  with  a  piece  of  cotton  waste  soaked  in  spirits  turpentine. 
Makes  most  superb  memorandum  books,  &c. ;  use  a  slate  pencil. 

THE  DRUMMOND  LIGHT  is  produced  by  directing  a  jet  of  mixed, 
oxygen  and  hydrogen  upon  a  pencil  of  pure  lime,  the  gases  being: 
conveyed  in  separate  tubes  cr  pipes,  to  within  a  very  short  distance 
from  the  aperture  at  which  they  are  to  be  delivered,  and  the  flowing: 
together  and  mixing  in  a  very  minute  quantity  before  combustion, 
takes  place.  This  arrangement  is  adopted  to  ensure  safety.  The- 
gases  are  used  in  the  proportion  of  2  of  hydrogen  to  1  of  oxygenr 
which  form  a  dreadfully  explosive  mixture. 

To  ENGRAVE  ON  COPPER.  NEW  METHOD. — Coat  the  copper  with 
any  of  the  silvering  solutions  described  in  this  work,  cover  this  with 
colored  varnish,  then  draw  the  lines  with  a  sharp  point  in  the  manner 
of  using  a  diamond  for  stone  engraving,  and  etch  them  in  with  pet- 
chloride  of  iron. 

To  ENAMEL  COPPER  VESSELS. — Pulverize  finely  12  parts  of  fluor 
epar,  12  parts  unground  gypsum,  and  1  part  borax,  and  fuse  together 
in  a  crucible;  when  cold,  mix  with  water  to  a  paste,  and  apply  to  the 
interior  with  a  paint  brush ;  when  dry  the  vessel  should  be  thoroughly 
"baked  in  a  muffle  or  furnace. 

TEMPERING  POINTS  OF  TOOLS. — After  being  tempered  the  volume 
of  the  tool  is  slightly  increased,  and  consequently  its  specific  gravity 
is  decreased.  As  the  expansion  or  increase,  of  volume  is  so  very 
slight,  it  is  quite  immaterial  which  is  plunged  into  the  liquid  first ; 
however,  every  moment  the  edge  is  kept  out  it  is  cooling,  and  the 
pampering  may  be  rendered  defective  thereby.  Mercury  tempers 
.(lie  hardest,  then  water,  then  salt  water,  then  oil  of  various  kinds — 
j'jn  whale  oil.  As  oil  cools  the  metal  more  slowly,  it  is  not  tempered 
§j  hard  but  the  tenacity  is  increased. 

'    HARD  TINNING  COMPOUND. — An  alloy  of  nickel,  iron  and  tin  has 

i  been  introduced  as  an  improvement  in  tinning  metals,  by  the  firm  of 

Blaise  &  Co.,  Paris.    In  an  experiment  to  show  the  tenacity  of  the 

nickel,  a  piece  of  cast  iron  tinned  with  the  compound  was  subjected 


MACHINISTS,    ENGINEERS*,    AC.,    RECEIPTS.          581 

for  a  lew  minutes  to  a  -white  heat  under  the  blast,  and,  although  the 
tin  was  consumed,  the  nickel  remained  as  a  permanent  coating  upon 
the  iron.  The  proportions  of  nickel  and  iron  mixed  with  the  tin,  in 
order  to  produce  the  best  tinning,  are  10  ozs.  of  the  best  nickel  and  7 
ozs.  of  gheet  iron,  to  10  Ibs.  of  tin.  These  metals  are  mixed  in  a 
crucible  to  prevent  the  oxidation  of  the  tin  by  the  high  temperature 
necessary  for  the  fusion  of  the  nickel ;  the  metals  are  covered  with  1 
«z.  of  borax  and  3  ozs.  pounded  glass.  The  fusion  is  complete  in  half, 
an  hour,  when  the  composition  is  run  off  through  a  hole  made  in  the 
flux.  In  tinning  metals  with  this  composition  the  workman  proceed* 
in  the  ordinary  manner. 

To  RECOVER  GOLD  FROM  QUARTZ. — Pulverize  the  quartz  rock  as 
•usual,  and  fuse  the  mass  with  lime  and  oxide  of  iron.  When  fused, 
immerse  thin  plates  of  wrought  iron  in  the  mixture.  The  plates 
soon  become  coated  with  a  thin  film  of  gold,  and  are  then  with- 
drawn and  immersed  in  a  bath  of  melted  lead,  which  removes  the 
adhering  gold,  when  the  plates  can  at  once  be  returned  to  the  fused 
quartz  and  the  operation  repeated  as  frequently  as  the  case  mav 
zequire.  Another  method,  when  the  metal  is  disseminated  through 
quartz  pyrites  or  lead,  is  to  pulverize  the  ore  as  usual  and  wash  the 
whole  with  a  stream  of  water,  which  carries  away  the  lighter 
portions  of  sand,  leaving  the  heavy  metals  behind.  It  is  further 


per 

"by  being  finely  granulated  and  boiled  with  concentrated  sulphuric 
acid  until  every  other  constituent  is  boiled  out.  Gold  by  being 
alloyed,  loses  much  of  its  ductility  and  malleability,  but  gams  ii? 
fusibility  and  hardness.  Gold  alloys  are  assayed  in  two  ways, 
first,  by  rubbing  the  article  on  a  touchstone  (which  is  a  velvety, 
t>lack  flinty  variety  of  jaspar)  so  as  to  make  a  metallic  streak, 
which  is  touched  with  aqua  rcgia,  and  th*)  effect  is  compared  with 
that  of  a  similar  streak  made  by  an  alloy  aiL  known  composition.  By 
this  means  an  experienced  operator  can  estimate  the  amount  of 
alloy  in  any  mixture  correctly  within  one  per  cent.  Full  inf  orma~ 
tion  regarding  the  second  process  can  be  seen  under  the  article  on 
REFINING  GOLD  AND  SILVER. 

GOLD  MINING  IN  COLORADO. — From  the  veins  of  Gilpin  County 
alone  nearly  600  tons  of  ore  are  raised  daily,  or  180,000  tons  annually. 
Nearly  500  lodes  have  been  assayed  or  mapped  in  a  circle  of  three 
miles  in  diameter  ;  fully  a  thousand  lodes  have  been  recorded,  and 
more  or  less  work  performed  on  each.  From  fifteen  to  twenty  miles 
of  reputable  lodes  are  known  to  exist,  upon  which  there  is  not  less 
than  8  miles  of  shafting,  the  deepest  being  800  feet.  There  is  not  less 
than  20  miles  of  drifting  or*  these  veins,  following  the  ore  deposit  in  / 
the  crevices,  and  the  official  assays  show  the  ore  to  be  worth  from- 
$40  to  $130  per  ton.  The  tailings,  or  refuse  of  ore  put  through  the 
stamps,  are  found  to  be  worth  $20  per  ton,  notwithstanding  from  10 
to  20'per  cent,  of  the  precious  metal  passes  down  the  stream.  The 
average  shipments  of  bullion  from  this  one  county  verges  on  $2,600,- 
000  annually.  The  machinery  required  for  this  immense  production 
consists  of  83  stamp  mills,  lf:5  engines  in  place,  4367  horse  power, 
*nd  1597  stamps,  of  which  there  are  over  800  in  use,  requiring  1701 


582      MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  &c.,  RECEIPTS. 

horse  power.  There  are  30  engines  used  at  the  shafts  of  mines  fo* 
raising  ore  from  the  veins  and  keeping  them  free  from  water.  Thes» 
mills  contam  from  5  to  50  stamps,  mostly  driven  by  steam.  The 
ere,  broken  into  fragments,  is  fed  into  a  battery  in  which  the  stamps 
are  raised  and  allowed  to  fall,  crushing  the  ore  fine  enough  to  flo\r 
through  a  screen  placed  in  front.  Mercury  is  fed  in  this  battery,  and 
(the  pulverized  ore  uiixed  with  sufficient  water  is  then  made  to  flow 
over  wide  plates  of  copper  amalgamated  with  quicksilver.  The  gold, 
or  part  of  it,  adheres,  forming  an  amalgam  with  the  mercury,  whicli 
is  afterwards  scraped  off,  squeezed  hard,  and  the  lump  retorted  in 
a  close  retort  of  iron  for  the  purpose  of  vaporizing  the  mercury  and 
getting  the  gold  almost  pure  ;  the  retorts  being  subsequently  shipped 
to  the  East  for  minting.  Each  stamp  is  calculated  to  do  from  £  to  £ 
of  a  ton  in  24  hours,  requiring  about  one 'horse  power  to  each  stamp 
lead.  Most  of  the  ore  is  reduced  in  leased  mills  abandoned  by  com- 
panies. These  mill  men  charge  their  customers  between  $3  and  $4 
per  ton  for  doing  this  work  and  returning  the  retort  of  gold.  The 
tailings  are  partially  caught  in  the  best  mills  on  blankets,  and 
reworked  at  a  profit ;  the  bulk,  however,  passes  outside,  a  portion; 
stopping  to  be  shovelled  into  a  pile,  the  balance  going  on  to  the  stream. 
The  waste  is  nearly  or  quite  equal  to  the  gross  yield  in  bullion. 
The  most  profitable  branch  of  vein  mining  and  reduction  by  tha 
smelting  process  was  undertaken  by  Prof.  Hill  in  1867,  in  connection, 
•with  some  Boston  and  Providence  capitalists,  and  is  managed  with 
much  ability,  energy  and  skill,  compensated  by  enormous  profits,  of 
which  the  outside  public  know  little  or  nothing,  from  the  vigilance* 
•with  which  all  such  information  is  suppressed.  From  the  road  side 
you  see  from  20  to  30  piles  of  ore  sending  forth  sulphurous  emanations 
into  the  air.-  These  piles  are  first  started  on  a  layer  of  wood,  and 
are  run  up  in  a  pyramid  form  some  5  to  6  feet,  with  diameter  at  base* 
of  from  16  to  20  feet,  and  then  fired,  the  sulphur  affording  the  only- 
fuel,  after  the  exhaustion  of  the  wood,  to  keep  the  fire  going  from 
lour  to  six  weeks.  This  ore  has  been  passed  through  the  sampling 
works  and  been  paid  for,  the  amount  lying  thus  in  piles  at  one  time* 
amounting  to,  perhaps,  $80,000.  After  roasting  sufficiently  to  drive- 
off  the  sulphur,  and  oxidize  a  portion  of  the  iron,  these  piles  are 
cooled  and  the  ore  carried  to  the  smelting  furnaces,  where  under  a 
heavy  heat,  more  sulphur  is  driven  off,  and  the  silica  or  gangue  mat- 
ter is  made  to  unite  with  the  oxide  of  iron  to  form  a  slag.  At  the  end 
of  the  smelting  gome  8  or  10  tons  are  thus  reduced  to  one  called 
"  matte."  containing  from  $1,500  to  $2,000  in  the  precious  metals,  and 
Irom  40  to  60  per  cent  of  copper.  This  product  is  then  shipped  in  baga 
to  Swansea,  England,  for  separation  into  the  several  metals  contained. 
The  establishment  contains  three  smelting  furnaces  and  three  calcin- 
ing furnaces,  capable  of  reducing  from  20  to  25  tons  of  ore  per  day. 
The  tailings  which  are  concentrated  along  the  streams,  and  are  also 
eold  to  this  establishment,  average  from  $35  to  $40  per  ton.  These 
Works  are  doubtless  the  most  profitable  of  the  kind  known  in  the 
•world.  In  working  tolerably  Ibigh  grade  sulphuretted  ores,  if  th& 
facilities  do  not  admit  of  sending  them  to  England,  the  best  way  is  to 
erect  a  common  furnace,  having  the  fire  surfaces  of  good  soap  stone; 
then,  to  every  150  Ibs.  of  ore,  put  in  one  bushel  of  charcoal  and  10 
BBT  cent  of  salt.  The  ore  will  readily  melt  to  a  slag,  and  will  b.> 


MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  &c.,  RECEIPTS. 

pretty  well  desulphurized.    The  slag  can  be  drawn  off,  and  whe» 
cold  can  be  broken  up,  and  worked  like  free  gold  ore. 

RECOVERING  SILVER  BY  THE  PATIO  PROCESS. — The  operation 
known  by  this  name  is  sometimes  conducted  on  an  immense  scale. 
In  one  instance  at  the  hacienda  of  Regla  near  Real  de  Monte,  there  is 
an  establishment  the  floor  of  which  is  1^  acres  in  extent,  built  in  the 
most  substantial  manner,  slightly  sloped  to  facilitate  the  flow  of  water. 
The  flooring  consists  of  well  matched  pine  boards,  and  this  vast  re- 
ceptacle sometimes  contains  as  much  as  1000  tons  of  argentiferous 
slime,  30  tons  of  salt,  3  tons  sulphate  of  copper,  and  18,000  Ibs.  of 
mercury  in  various  stages  of  the  amalgamating  process.  The  reason 
why  this  takes  place  in  the  well  known  manner  is  because  there  is  an, 
affinity  between  the  different  ingredients  employed  in  the  operation. 

ON  CORRESPONDENCES.— /The  affinity  above  referred  to  as  existing 
.  between  different  materials,  arises  from  a  nature  inseminated  or  im- 
planted in  each  substance  by  the  CREATOR,  by  virtue  of  which  such 
a  mutual  affinity  exists  between  them  that  when  an  intermixture, 
takes  place,  they,  as  it  were  attract  each  other,  and  rush  together  in 

•  mutual  embrace.    Closely  connected  with  these  affinities,  as  showing 
the  cause  of  their  existence  and  origin,  we  have  iu  the  science  of  cor- 
respondences a  most  wonderful  and  instructive  study,  entering  in 
its  varied  ramifications,  so  deeply  into  the  inherent  nature  of  every 
created  thing,  that  there  is  nothing,  and  can  be  nothing  in  the  universe' 

I    but  what  comes  within  its  consideration.    The  transcendent  import- 

;    ance  of  the  subject  is  such  that  it  is  deserving  of  vastly  more  elaborate- 

consideration  than  the  transient  notice  of  a  single  paragraph,  but  as  it. 

r   -would  be  a  violation  of  order  to  enter  into  an  extended  explanation  in 

|    this  place,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  appendix  for  further  illustration. 

MERCURY  OR  QUICKSILVER. — The  ore  is  cinnabar  of  a  bright  ver- 

!   milion  color.    Its  specific  gravity  is  8098.    It  is  produced  in  immensa 

-  quantities  at  the  New  Almaden  mine  in  Santa  Clara  County,  12  miles- 
from  the  town  of  San  Jose,  which  is  54  miles  from  San  Francisco,  CaL 

1   The  process  by  which  the  fluid  metal  is  extracted  is  one  of  great  sim- 
!    plicity.    There  are  6  furnaces,  near  which  the  ore  is  deposited  from 
;    the  mine,  and  separated  according  to  its  quality;  the  larger  masses- 
)   are  first  broken  up  and  then  all  is  piled  up  under  sheds  near  the. 
r   furnace  doors.    The  ore  is  next  heaped  on  the  furnaces,  and  a  steady 
f  though  not  a  strong  fire  is  applied;  as  the  ore  becomes  heated  fh» 
|  quicksilver  is  sublimed,  and  being  condensed  it  f  alls  by  its  own  weighty 
1   and  is  conducted  by  pipes,  which  lead  along  the  bottom  of  the  furnace 
I  to  email  pots  or  reservoirs  imbedded  in  the  earth,  each  containing  from 
f  1  to  2  gallons  of  the  metaL    The  furnaces  are  kept  going  night  and: 
j  day,  while  large  drops  or  minute  streams  of  the  pure  metal  ar*. 
I   constantly  trickling  down  into  the  receivers;  from  there  it  is  car-' 
1    tied  to  the  store  house  and  deposited  in  large  cast  iron  tanks  or 
'  vats,  the  largest   of   which  is   capable  of   containing   2.0  tons  of 
I   quicksilver.    Seven  or  eight  days  are  required  to  fill  the  furnaces. 
I  extract  the  quicksilver  and  remove  the  residuum.    The  miners  and 
those  who  merely  handle  the  quicksilver  are  not  injured  thereby,* 
tut  those  who  work  about  the  furnaces  and  inhale  the  fumes  of , 
the  metal  are  seriously  affected.    Salivation  is  common,  and  the 
attendants   on  the  furnaces   are   compelled  to   desist  from  their 
Jftbour  every  three  or  four  weeks,  when  a  fresh  set  of  hands  i&  put 


$84      MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  &c.,  RECEIPTS. 

<A.    The  horses  and  mules  are  also  salivated,  and  from  20  to  30  of 
thejox  die  every  year  from  the  effects  of  the  mercury. 

SMELTING  OF  COPPER. — After  the  ore  is  raised  from  the  mine,  it  is 
freed  from  its  matrix  and  sorted,  the  purest  portions  being  broken  : 
into  pieces  the  size  of  a  nut.  The  first  calcination  is  effected  in  a\ 
Teverberatory  furnace,  the  heat  not  being  raised  too  high.  At  the 
«nd  of  12  hours  the  ore  is  converted  into  a  black  powder,  contain'  ' 
ing  sulphide  of  copper,  oxide  and  sulphide  of  iron,  and  earthy 
impurities.  The  roasted  ore  is  next  fused  with  a  quantity  of  silicious 
elag,  by  which  means  it  is  converted  into  a  fusible  slag,  consisting 
of  silicate  of  iron  and  sulphides  of  iron  and  copper,  which  sink 
through  the  slag,  forming  at  the  bottom  a  heavy  mass,  termed  a 
unatt.  The  matt  thus  procured  is,  while  melted,  run  into  water, 
by  which  it  is  granulated.  The  product  obtained  is  called  coarse 
-metal.  It  is  roasted  once  more  for  twenty-four  hours,  by  which 
means  the  larger  proportion  of  the  sulphide  of  iron  is  converted 
into  oxide.  It  is  then  calcined  with  some  copper  ore  known  to 
•contain  oxide  of  copper  and  silica.  The  oxide  of  copper  transforms 
«jiy  remaining  sulphide  of  iron  into  oxide,  which  is  taken  up  by  the 
fiilica  to  form  a  slag,  through  which  the  sulphide  of  copper  sinks. 
This  matt  contains  about  80  per  cent,  of  copper,  and  is  known 
fcy  the  name  of  fine  metal.  It  is  cast  into  pigs,  the  lower  portions 
cf  which  contain  most  of  the  impurities  ;  the  metal  extracted  from 
.the  upper  portions  being  known  in  the  market  as  best  selected 
copper.  The  fine  metal  has  now  to  be  freed  entirely  from  sulphur 
"by  a  final  calcination,  at  a  heat  just  short  of  that  required  to  fuse 
it.  During  the  process  the  metal  becomes  oxidized  at  the  surface. 
The  oxide  thus  formed  decomposes  the  rest  of  the  sulphide,  sul- 
phurous acid  escaping,  the  metallic  copper  remaining  behind.  The 
metal  obtained  is  run  off  into  moulds,  forming  ingots  full  of  bub- 
"bles,  from  the  escape  of  the  sulphurous  acid  gas.  These  ingots, 
•which  are  known  as  pimple,  or  blistered  copper,  from  their  peculiar 
appearance,  have  now  to  undergo  the  process  of  refining.  They 
are  placed  in  a  reverberatory  furnace,  and  kept  hi  a  melted  state 
lor  upwards  of  20  hours,  to  oxidize  the  last  traces  of  foreign 
metals.  Slags  are  formed  on  the  surface  and  skimmed  off,  and  a 
.great  deal  of  oxide  is  produced  which  is  absorbed  by  the  metal.  To 
reduce  this  oxide,  the  surface  of  the  melted  metal  is  covered  with  an- 
thracite or  charcoal,  and  towards  the  last  a  young  tree  is  thrust  in. 
This  process,  which  is  called  poling,  disengages  *he  whole  of  the 
oxygen  from  the  oxide  diffused  through  the  mass  ."he  above  is,  as 
.nearly  as  possible,  the  method  of  copper-smeltux -  as  employed  in 
England,  the  processes  adopted  in  Saxony  and  North  America  being 
nearly  indentical  with  it,  the  difference  merely  being  modifications 
to  suit  the  various  impurities  contained  in  the  ore.  When  the  ore  con- 
sists of  oxide  or  carbonate  of  copper  only,  it  is  reduced  to  the  metallic 
etate  by  simple  fusion  with  charcoal  and  subsequent  poling. 

SMELTING  OF  LEAD. — The  ore  having  been  brought  to  the  surface, 
Is  first  sorted  by  hand,  the  purest  portions  being  set  aside  ready  for 
i  melting.  The  rest  is  broken  by  hammers  into  lumps  as  large  as  a 
walnut,  and  again  sorted.  The  remainder  is  then  crushed  in  a  mill, 
«md  sifted  through  coarse  sieves,  the  coarser  portions  being  set  asid« 
Cor  the  stampers,  and  the  finer  being  subjected  to  the  process  otjig* 


MACHINISTS,    ENGINEERS',    &C.,    RECEIM'S.         588 

fj.  This  consists  in  plunging  a  sieve  containing  the  ore  into  water, 
an  shaking  it  dexterously,  so  that  the  smallest  particles  pass  through 
leaving  the  larger  pieces  in  the  sieve,  with  the  lightest  and  least  me- 
tallic portions  uppermost  If  the  sorted  galena  be  tolerably  free 
from  gaugue,  about  H  tons  of  the  ore  is  mixed  with  l-15th  to  l-40th ' 
its  weight  of  lime,  and  heated  to  dull  redness  in  a  reverberatory  f ur- ! 
nace,  through  which  a  current  of  air  is  passing.  By  this  means  t- 
large  portion  of  the  sulphur  is  burnt  off  as  sulphurous  acid,  oxide  of 
load  and  sulphate  of  lead  being  formed,  and  much  of  the  ore  re- 
maining undecomposed.  When  the  roasting  has  been  carried1 
sufficiently  far,  the  furnace  doors  are  shut  and  the  heat  is  raised. 
The  sulphate  and  oxide  of  lead  re-act  on  the  undecomposed  sulphide, 
a  large  quantity  of  sulphurous  acid  is  formed  which  passes  off,  leav- 
ing large  quantities  of  metallic  lead  behind.  The  fire  is  now  damped, 
and  a  quantity  of  lime  thrown  in,  which  f orips  a  very  infusible  slag, 
allowing  the  metallic  lead  to  be  drawn  o£t  into  moulds.  This  is 
emelted  with  an  additional  portion  of  ore.  Lead  is  refined  by  being 
melted  in  a  shallow  pan  in  a  reverberatory  furnace.  By  this  operation 
any  tin  or  antimony  it  may  contain  is  oxidized  and  removed.  When 
a  ladleful  of  the  lead  under  this  operation  cools  with  a  peculiar  crys- 
talline surface;  the  process  is  discontinued,  and  the  metal  is  run  off 
into  pigs.  For  some  purpose,  such  for  instance  as  the  making  of  red 
lead  for  the  manufacture  of  flint  glass,  it  is  necessary  that  the  lead 
-should  be  almost  chemically  pure,  as  a  proportion  of  copper  for  in- 
stance,amountiug  only  to  a  few  grains  per  ton,  would  color  the  glass  and 
spoil  the  batch.  Silver  may  be  profitably  extracted  from  lead,  even 
^vvhen  it  contains  only  three  or  four  ounces  to  the  ton,  by  Pattinson's 
process.  This  process  depends  upon  the  fact  that,  as  lead  solidifies, 
the  first  portions  that  crystallize  are  pure  lead.  The  operation  is, 
therefore,"  performed  by  melting  the  metal  in  an  iron  pot  and  al- 
lowing it  to  cool  gradually  ;  as  it  cools,  the  crystals  of  pure  lead  are 
removed  by  a  perforated  ladle,  and  the  process  continually  repeated 
•with  fresh  portions  of  lead  until  the  mass  contains  about  300  ounces 
to  the  ton.  It  is  then  submitted  to  cnpdlation. 

To  CONSTRUCT  A  BAROMETER. — Get  a  strong  glass  tube  34  inches 
long  and  of  a  smooth  even  bore.  Close  oi)e  end  by  means  of  a  spirit 
lamp  and  blow  pipe,  or  Bunsen  "burner,  and  fill  the  tube  with  pure, 
clean,  dry  mercury,  excluding  all  bubbles  of  air.  Now  place  your 
finger  over  the  open  end  of  the  tube,  and  cautiously  insert  it  in  a 
small  cistern  or  vessel  partially  filled  with  mercury.  Do  not  remove 
your  finger  until  the  end  of  the  tube  which  it  covers  is  safely  below 
the  rarface  of  the  mercury  in  the  vessel.  When  the  tube  is  thus  in- 
serted remove  your  finger  and  the  contents  will  fall  until  the  height 
of  the  mercury  is  nearly  30  ins.  above  the  level  of  the  mercury  in  the 
cistern  beneath.  In  the  barometer  the  mercury  never  rises  abovt 
31  inches  and  seldom  falls  below  27.  The  tube  may  be  fitted  into  a 
grooved  wooden  case,  the  scale  attached  in  the  proper  place,  and  tho 
£ual  adjustment  made  by  comparison  with  a  correct  instrument. 

SMELTING  OF  TIN. — To  extract  the  metal,  the  ore  is  first  stamped  or 
washed  to  get  rid  of  the  lighter  particles  of  sand  or  earth  adhering  to* 
it.  It  is  then  roasted  to  free  it  from  arsenic  and  sulphur,  and  again 
washed  to  carry  off  the  sulphate  of  copper  and  oxide  of  iron.  The  wash- 
ed ore  ia  mixed  with  f  romJaie-fifth  to  one-eighth  its  weight  of  powder- . 
ed  anthracite,  or  charcoalfwnd  a  small  portion  of  lime  to  form  a  fusible , 


58t>       MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  &c.,  RECEIPTS. 

alag  with  any  of  the  remaining  gangue.  The  charge  is  placed  in  the 
hearth  of  a  low  crowned  reverberatory  furnace,  and  the  doors  are 
closed  up.  Heat  is  applied  very  gradually  for  five  or  six  hours,  care 
/being  taken  to  raise  the  temperature  high  enough  to  cause  the  carbon. 
to  reduce  the  tin  without  melting  the  silicious  gangue,  which  would 
form  with  the  binpxide  an  enamel  too  troublesome  to  remove.  When. 
Dearly  all  the  tin  is  reduced,  the  heat  is  raised  considerably,  the  slags 
being  thus  rendered  fluid  and  capable  of  floating  on  the  surface  of  tho 
melted  metal.  The  tin  is  then  run  off  into  cast  iron  pans  from  which 
it  is  ladled  off  into  moulds  to  form  ingots.  The  tin  thus  procured  is 
far  from  being  pure,  it  is  therefore  submitted  to  the  process  of  lignation, 
which  consists  in  heating  the  ingots  to  incipient  fusion.  By  this 


run  out  is  again  melted  and  run  out  with  wet  stakes.  The  steam  thus 
formed  bubbles  up  to  the  surface,  carrying  with  it  all  the  mechanical 
impurities  contained  hi  the  tin.  The  mass  is  then  skimmed  and  allowed 
to  cool.  When  just  about  to  set,  the  upper  half  is  ladled  out,  the  othei 
metals  and  impurities  having  sunk  into  the  bottom  half,  from  the  ten- 
dency that  this  metal  has  to  separate  from  its  alloys.  The  finest  quality 
of  tin  is  frequently  heated  to  a  temperature  just  snort  of  its  melting 
point.  At  mis  heat,  it  becomes  brittle,  and  is  broken  up  into  masses, 
showing  the  crystals  of  the  metal,  and  forming  what  is  known  as 
grain  tin.  The  formation  of  crystals  is  to  some  extent  a  guarantee 
of  its  purity,  since  impure  tin  does  not  become  brittle  in  this  way. 
English  tin  generally  contains  small  quantities  of  arsenic,  copper,  iron, 
and  lead.  Tin  fuses  at  442°  Fahr. ,  but  it  is  not  sensibly  volatilized  at 
that  or  any  higher  temparature.  For  the  manufacture  of  tin  plate  the 
best  soft  charcoal  iron  is  obliged  to  be  used.  After  it  has  been  rolled, 
and  cut  to  the  requisite  size,  its  surface  is  made  chemically  clean  by 
immersion  for  a  few  minutes  in  dilute  sulphuric  acid.  The  sheets  are 
then  heated  to  a  red  heat  in  a  reverberatory  furnace,  withdrawn,  al- 
lowed to  cool,  hammered  flat,  passed  between  polished  rollers,  and 
are  now  washed  in  dilute  acid.  This  preparation  is  needed  to  free  the 
surface  of  the  iron  from  the  slightest  portion  of  oxide,  to  which  the 
tin  would  not  adhere.  In  order  to  tin  them  they  are  plunged  one  by 
one  into  a  vessel  of  tallow,  from  which  they  are  transferred  to  a  bath 
of  tin.  From  this  they  are  taken,  after  a  certain  time,  allowed  to 
drain,  and  dipped  again.  The  superfluous  tin  at  the  edge  of  the  plate 
is  removed  by  dipping  it  in  the  melted  tin  once  more,  and  detaching 
it  by  giving  the  plate  a  sharp  blow. 

!  ROYAL  BRITISH  WASHING  POWDER. — Soda  ash,  10  Ibs;  carbonate 
of  soda  (ordinary  soda),  10  Ibs. ;  crush  into  coarse  grams.  Have  a 
thin  solution  of  glue,  or  decoction  of  linseed  oil  ready,  into  which  pour 
the  soda  until  quite  thick,  and  spread  out  on  boards,  in  a  warm  apart-  9 
ment,  to  dry,  then  pack  up  into  nice  square  packages  for  sale,  label- 
'  ling  neatly.  Used  to  soften  hard  water;  finds  a  ready  sale  at  a  good!' 
fprofit.  Another  Way  to  soften  Hard  Water.  Stir  1  oz.  fresh  lime  ir* 
a  bucket  of  water,  pour  all  into  a  barrel  of  water,  rummage  well; 
when  it  settles,  the  water  will  be  soft,  pure,  and  fit  for  use.  Seltzer 
Aperient.  Calcined  magnesia,  1  Ib. ;  tartaric  acid,  in  crystals,  1£  !bs.  j 
loaf  sugar,  l£  Ibs, ;  bicarbonate  of  soda,  1  Ib.  Powder  all  carefully., 


MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  &c.,  RECEIPTS.      587 

dry  separately,  mix,  and  add  of  ess.  lemon  and  orange,  Ox  each,  i  fl. 
dr.  Cork  tightly  in  warm  dry  bottles,  after  passing  through  a  fine 
eieve.  1  tablespoonf  ul  to  a  tumbler  of  water  acts  as  a  mild  cathartic. 
LIQUID  BLACK  LEAD  POLISH. — A  good  and  reliable  substitute  for 
powdered  stove  polish,  can  be  thus  made :  black  lead,  pulverized,  2 
Ibs.;  spts.  turpentine,  2  gills;  water,  2  gills;  sugar,  2  ozs.;  mis. 

USEFUL  ITEMS  FOR  DAILY  REMEMBRANCE. 

LEGAL  BREVITIES. — A  note  dated  on  Sunday  is  void.  A  note  op- 
tained  by  fraud,  or  from  one  intoxicated,  is  void.  If  a  note  be  lost 
or  stolen,  it  does  not  release  the  maker,  he  must  pay  it.  An  endorser 
of  a  note  is  exempt  from  liability,  if  not  served  with  notice  of  its  dis- 
honor within  24  hours  of  its  non-payment.  A  note  by  a  minor  is 
void.  Notes  bear  interest  only  when  so  stated.  Principals  are  re% 
eponsible  for  their  agents.  Each  individual  in  partnership  is  respon- 
sible for  the  whole  amount  of  the  debts  of  the  firm.  Ignorance  of  the 
law  excuses  no  one.  It  is  a  fraud  to  conceal  a  fraud.  It  is  illegal  to 
compound  a  felony.  The  law  compels  no  one  to  do  impossibilities. 
An  agreement  without  a  consideration  is  void.  Signatures  in  lead 
pencil  are  good  in  law.  A  receipt  for  money  is  not  legally  conclusive, 
The  acts  of  one  partner  bind  all  the  others.  Contracts  made  on  Sun- 
day cannot  be  enforced.  A  contract  with  a  minor  is  void.  A  con- 
tract made  with  a  lunatic  is  void.  Written  contracts  concerning  land, 
must  be  under  seal. 

A  TABLE  OF  DAILY  SAVINGS    AT  COMPOUND  INTEREST. 

Cents  per  Day           Per  Year              In  Ten  Years            Fifty  Yeart 
$10 $130 $2,90 


,900 

20 2GO 5,800 

117 40 620 11,600 

27J 100 1,300 29,000 

55 200 2,600 58,000 

1.10 400 «,200 116,000 

1.37 500 6,500 145,000 

By  the  above  table  it  appears  that  if  a  mechanic,  or  clerk  saves  2| 
cents  per  day  from  the  time  he  is  21  till  he  is  70,  the  total  with  in- 
terest will  amount  to  $2,900,  and  a  daily  saving  of  27$  cents  reaches 
the  important  sum  of  $29,000.  Save  all  you  can  in  a  prudent  man- 
ner for  a  time  of  possible  want,  but  act  justly  by  paying  your  debts, 
and  liberally  by  assisting  those  in  need,  and  helping  in  a  good 
cause. 

ON  PROFANE  SWEARING.— Let  every  man  do  his  best  to  discoun- 
tenance this  abominable  habit,  and  shun  it  as  an  accursed  sin  in  every 
possible  way.  No  respectable  person  will  allow  himself  to  be  guilty 
of  it.  Business  men  who  make  a  practice  of  it  will  find  themselves 
avoided  by  the  best  class  of  customers,  for  I  know  that  some  persona 
can  suffer  no  mental  punishment  equal  to  that  inflicted  by  being  com- 
pelled to  listen  to  profane  language.  Besides,  every  man  known  as  a 
profane  swearer,  will  not  be  credited  by  those  whose  good  opinion  ia 
worth  having,  even  when  he  may  be  speaking  the  truth. 

ACT  ^WELL  YOUR  PART,  DON'T  BE  SELFISH.— Kemember  that  it 
10  by  imparting  happiness  to  others,  and  making  ourselves  useful, 


588      MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  &c.,  RECEIPTS. 

that  we  receive  happiness.  Stand  by  this  truth,  live  it  out,  and  aU 
ways  keep  doing  something  useful  for  the  common  good,  doing  it  weH, 
and  acting  sincerely.  Endeavour  to  keep  your  heart  in  the  attitude  of 
cherishing  good  will  to  all,  thinking  and  speaking  evil  of  no  one,  and 
•always  with  ,\  kind  word  for  every  body.  Selfishness  is  its  own  curse ; 
lit  is  a  starving  vice.  The  man  who  does  no  good  gets  none.  He  is 
/like  the  heath  in  the  desert,  neither  yielding  fruit  nor  seeing  when 
)  good  cometh,  a  stunted  dwarfish,  miserable  shrub.  Let  all  your  in- 
fluence be  exerted  for  the  purpose  of  doing  all  you  can  for  the  com« 
|mon  good  and  individual  welfare  of  every  one. 

MARRIED  LIFE,  ITS  JOTS  AND  SORROWS.— A  good  wife  is  the 
greatest  earthly  blessing.  A  wife  never  makes  a  greater  mistake 
than  when  she  endeavours  to  coerce  her  huband  with  other  weapons 
than  those  of  love  and  affection.  Those  weapons  are  a  sure  pull  if 
he  has  any  thing  human  left  in  him.  Forbear  mutual  upbraidings. 
In  writing  letters,  during  temporary  separation,  let  nothing  contrary 
to  love  and  sincere  affection  be  expressed;  such  letters  from  a  wife 
have  a  most  powerful  emotional  effect,  sometimes  little  understood 
by  those  who  write  them.  It  is  the  mother  who  moulds  the  character 
and  destiny  of  the  child  as  to  the  exteriors,  therefore  let  calmness, 
peace,  affection,  and  firmness  rule  her  conduct  towards  her  children. 
Children  are  great  imitators,  whether  they  have  scolding  or  peaceful 
mothers,  they  are  generally  sure  to  learn  from  the  examples  set  before 
them,  and  thus  the  consequent  joy  or  sorrow  is  transferred  to  other 
families,  therefore  let  mothers  take  heed  to  their  conduct.  It  is  not 
possible  to  exercise  judgment  and  prudence  too  much  before  entering 
on  the  married  lifo.  Be  sure  that  the  affections  on  both  sides  are  sa 
perfectly  intertwined  around  each  other,  that  the  two  as  it  were,  form 
one  mind  ;  this  requires  time,  and  a  thorough  mutual  knowledge  on 
both  sides.  Marry  hi  your  own  religion,  and  into  a  different  blood 
and  temperament  from  your  own.  Betid  your  whole  powers  to  avoid 
depreciatory  remarks,  jibing  and  anger  in  every  form,  and  spec- 
ially avoid  everlastingly  dishing  up  any  unsuccessful  past  action  that 
was  done  from  a  good  motive  and  with  the  best  intentions  at  the  time. 
Let  nothing  foreign  to  the  spirit  of  love  and  mutual  affection  intervene 
to  cause  distance  between  husband  and  wife  ;  to  this  end  let  self-de- 
nial rule  over  each,  and  reciprocal  unselfishness.  Avoid  habitual 
fault-finding,  scolding,  &c.,  as  you  would  perdition  itself;  many  men 
tremble  as  they  cross  their  threshold  into  the  presence  of  scolding  wives. 
Let  husband  and  wife  cultivate  habits  of  sobriety,  and  specially  avoid 
drunkenness  in  every  form.  What  a  dreadful  spectacle  it  is  to  see  a 
husband  transformed  into  a  demon,  tottering  homeward  to  a  broken* 
hearted  wife,  whose  noble  self-sacrificing  devotion  to  him  seems  to 
partake  more  off  the  nature  of  heaven  than  of  earth.  Never  part,  even 
(for  a  journey,  without  kind  and  endearing  words,  and  as  a  kiss  syni- 
ifrolizes  union  from  interior  affection,  do  not  dispense  with  it  on 
puch  occasions,  repeating  it  when  you  return.  In  one  word,  let 
love  rule  supreme. 

In  all  your  dealings  with  woman,  take  a  lesson  from  the  cooing  dov«, 
•peak  softly,  deal  gently,  kindly  and  considerately  with  her  in  every 
way.  Let  every  husband  and  every  wife  cherish  for  each  other  th€ 
heavenly  flame  of  affection,  and  let  no  rude,  harsh,  or  embittered  ex- 
pMssion  on  either  side  chill  the  sacred  fire.  If  ever  adoration  of  t/W 


MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS',  &c.,  RECEIPTS.       589 

creature  may  hope  for  pardon,  surely  the  -worship  rendered  by  mac 
to  a  kind,  pure,  affectionate  and  loving  wife,  heaven's  best  gilt,  may 
invoke  forgiveness.  What  countless  millions  of  women  have  sac- 
rificed health,  strength  and  life  in  attendance  on  sick  and  dying  hus- 
bands, children  and  strangers  ?  How  many  have  perished  by  rush- 
ing through  fire  and  water  to  save  their  children,  and  starved  them- 
gelves  that  they  might  live  ?  In  how  many  hospitals  has  she  proved 
herself  an  angel  of  mercy,  and  her  sweet  voice  uttered  words  of 
comfort  and  clieer  ?  Therefore  let  woman  have  her  full  rights,  even 
that  of  voting  if  she  desires  it,  fora  good  woman's  influence  will  ever  be> 
used  for  a  good  purpose  ;  but  let  woman  act  towards  man  as  indi- 
cated in  the  above  advice  for  man  to  act  towards  woman,  and  she  would 
be  all  but  omnipotent,  for  man  in  a  manner  would  move  heaven  and. 
earth  to  serve  her,  and  would  do  unspeakably  more  for  her  than  can 
ever  be  done  by  all  the  fussy  croakers,  old  inaids,and  woman's  right* 
associations  and  lecturers  in  the  creation.  Love  in  the  family  is  tho 
one  thing  needf  vil  to  regenerate  the  earth  and  cause  the  wilderness  to- 
become  as  Eden,  and  the  desert  to  blossom  as  the  rose.  Reversed 
love  and  discord  have  broken  more  hearts,  and  caused  more  sorrow, 
estrangement,  and  downright  death,  than  war,  pestilence  and  all  other 
causes  combined.  It  palsies  energy  and  ambition,  engenders  gloom 
and  despair,  and  transforms  manhood  into  an  icicle.  Statistics  prove* 
that  the  married  live  longer  on  the  average  by  several  years,  than 
the  unmarried,  a  most  satisfactory  proof  that  the  married  state  is  pre- 
eminently the  life  designed  for  man,  therefore  let  all  interested  do 
their  utmost  to  make  it*the  happiest 

In  reference  to  the  maintenance  of  h  3alth,  many  valuable  prescription* 
and  much  good  advice  will  be  found  under  the  Medical  Department 
in  this  work,  but  truth  requires  us  to  state  that  for  the  purpose  of 
mitigating  the  pains  and  labour  incident  to  woman  at  the  most  event- 
ful and  critical  periods  of  her  life,  nothing  within  the  whole  compass 
of  nature  will  compare  with  water,  in  its  varied  applications.  Thi* 
intimation  is  made  for  the  purpose  of  directing  enlightened  and  in- 
telligent action  on  the  subject  as  necessity  may  call  for  it.  Past  ex- 
perience sustains  us  when  we  say  that  all  may  enjoy  the  great  bless- 
ing of  good  health  in  the  free  use  of  the  bath,  the  temperate  use  of 
proper  diet,  plenty  of  exercise,  pure  air,  warm  clothing  and  ab- 
stinence from  every  excess  inimical  to  health. 

CHILDREN  AND  HOME  CONVERSATION. — Children  hunger  perpetu- 
ally for  new  ideas.  They  will  learn  with  pleasure  from  the  lips  of 
parents  what  they  deem  drudgery  to  learn  from  books,  and  even  if 
they  have  the  misfortune  to  be  deprived  of  many  educational  ad- 
yantages  they  will  grow  up  intelligent  if  they  enjoy  in  childhood  the 
privilege  of  listening  to  the  conversation  of  intelligent  people.  Let 
them  have  many  opportunities  of  learning  in  this  way.  Be  kind  tx> 
them,  and  don't  think  it  beneath  you  to  answer  their  little  questions, 
for  they  proceed  from  an  implanted  faculty  which  every  true  man  andi 
woman  should  take  a  great  delight  in  gratifying. 

HOME  AFTER  BUSINESS  HOURS.— Happy  is  the  man  who  can  find 
that  solace  and  that  pootry  at  home.  Warm  greetings  from  loving: 
hearts,  fond  glances  from  bright  eyes,  and  welcome  shouts  of  merry 
hearted  children,  the  many  thousand  little  arrangements  for  comfort 
and  enjoyment,  that  silently  tell  of  thoughtful  and  expectant  love, 
the*6  are  the  ministrations  tkat  reconcile  us  to  the  prose  of  life. 


$90      MACHINISTS,  ENGINEERS';  AC.,  RECEIPTS. 

Think  of  this  ye  -wives  and  daughters  of  business  men  !  Think  of  th* 
toils,  the  anxieties,  the  mortification  and  wear  that  fathers  undergo 
to  secure  for  you  comfortable  homes,  and  compensate  them  for  their 
toils  by  making  them  happy  by  their  own  fireside. 

WELL  WORTHY  OF  IMITATION. — A  worthy  Quaker  thus  wrote  :— 
"  I  expect  to  pass  through  this  world  but  oiice.  If,  therefore,  there 
be  any  kindness  I  can  do  to  any  fellow  being,  let  me  do  it  now,  let 
me  not  defer  nor  neglect  it,  for  I  will  not  pass  this  way  again.  " 
Were  all  to  act  thus  how  many  would  be  made  happy  ! 

ANOTHER  SENSIBLE  QUAKER. — A  Quaker  lately  propounded  the 
momentous  question  to  a  fair  Quakeress,  as  follows :  "  Hum  !  yea 
and  verily ;  Penelope,  the  spirit  urgeth  and  moveth  me  wonderfully 
to  beseech  thee  to  cleave  unto  me,  flesh  of  my  flesh,  and  bone  of  m\r 
bone."  "Hum  !  truly,  ObadiaJ'.,  thou  hast  wisely  said.  Inasmuch, 
as  it  is  not  good  for  man  to  be  alone,  lo,  I  will  sojourn  •with  thee." 

TABLE  CONVERSATION. — Instead  of  swallowing  your  food  hi  sullen 
eilence,  or  brooding  over  your  business,  or  severely  talking  about 
others,  let  the  conversation  at  the  table  be  genial,  kind,  social  and 
cheering.  Don't  bring  any  disagreeable  subject  to  the  table  in  your 
conversation,  any  more  than  you  would  in  your  dishes.  Avoid 
ecandalizing  people,  and  never  cherish  a  jubilant  feeling  over  the 
infirmities  or  misfortunes  of  others.  The  more  good  company  you, 
fcave  at  your  table  the  better.  Hence  the  intelligence,  refinement  and 
appropriate  behaviour  of  a  family  given  to  hospitality.  Never  feel  that 
intelligent  visitors  can  be  anything  but  a  blessing  to  you  and  yours. 

KEEP  THE  HOUSE  CLEAN  AND  WELL  VENTILATED. — A  neat,  clean, 
fresh  aired,  sweet,  cheerful,  well  arranged  house,  exerts  a  moral  in- 
fluence over  its  inmates,  and  makes  the  members  of  a  family  peace- 
able and  considerate  of  each  other' s  feelings;  on  the  contrary,  a  filthy 
equalid,  noxious  dwelling,  contributes  to  make  its  inhabitants  selfish, 
eensual,  and  regardless  of  the  feelings  of  others.  Never  sleep  in"  a 
email  close  bedroom,  either  during  summer  or  winter,  without  free 
ventilation  from  door  or  windows,  mile?s  otherwise  supplied  with 
abundance  of  fresh  air.  It  will  be  seen  that  a  person's  house  usually 
corresponds  with  his  character. 

SAFE  BUSINESS  RULES. — BUSINESS  MEN,  in  business  hours,  attend 
ONLY  to  business  matters.  SOCIAL  CALLS  are  best  adapted  to  the 
BOCIAL  CIRCLE.  Make  you*  business  known  IN  FEW  WORDS,  without 
loss  of  time.  Let  your  dealings  with  a  stranger  be  MOST  CAREFULLY 
considered,  and  TRIED  FRIENDSHIP  duly  appreciated.  A  MEAN  ACT 
vill  soon  recoil,  and  a  MAN  OF  HONOUR  WILL  BE  ESTEEMED,  Leave 
**  TRICKS  OF  TRADE"  to  those  whose  education  was  never  completed. 
I'reat  ALL  with  respect,  CONFIDE  IN  FEW,  WRONG  NO  MAN.  Be  never 
afraid  to  say  No,  and  ALWAYS  PROMPT  to  acknowledge  and  rectify  a 
wrong.  Leave  nothing  for  to-morrow  that  SHOULD  be  done  to-day. 
Because  a  friend  is  polite,  do  not  think  hia  TIME  is  valueless.  Have 
a  PLACE  for  everything,  and  EVERY  thing  in  its  place.  To  preserve 
LONG  friendship,  "keep  A  SHORT  CREDIT,  the  way  to  GET  CREDIT  is  to 
be  punctual ;  the  way  to  PRESERVE  IT  is  NOT  TO  USE  it  much. 
SETTLE  OFTEN  ;  have  SHORT  accounts.  Trust  no  man's  A  PPEARANCES, 
they  are  often  deceptive,  and  assumed  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining 
credit.  Rogues  generally  dress  well.  The  rich  are  generally  PLAIN 
HEN.  Be  WELL  SATISFIED  before  you  give  a  credit,  that  those  TO 
WHOM  YOU  GIVE  IT  are  SATE  M£3f  to  be  trusted. 


ITEMS    FOR    DAILY    REMEMBRANCE.  591 

HABITS  OF  A  MAN  OF  BUSINESS.— A  sacred  regard  to  the  princf, 
f)les  of  justice  forms  the  basis  of  every  transaction,  and  regulates  tha 
conduct  of  ths  upright  man  of  business.  1.  He  is  strict  in  keeping  hia 
engagements.  2.  Does  nothing  carelessly  or  in  a  hurry.  3.  Employs 
nobody  to  do  what  he  can  easily  do  himself.  4.  Leaves  nothing  un- 
done that  ought  to  be  done,  and  which  circumstances  permit  him  to 
do.  5.  Keeps  his  designs  and  business  from  the  views  of  others,  yet 
he  is  candid  with  all.  (5.  Is  prompt  and  decisive  with  his  customers, 
and  does  not  overtrade  his  capital.  7.  Prefers  short  credit  to  long 
ones ;  and  cash  to  credit  at  all  times,  either  in  buying  or  selling ;  and 
small  profits  in  credit  cases  with  little  risk,  to  the  chance  of  better 
gains  with  more  hazards.  8.  He  is  clear  and  explicit  in  his  bargains. 
9  Leaves  nothing  of  consequence  to  memory  which  he  can  and  ought 
to  commit  to  writing.  10.  Keeps  copies  of  "all  his  important  letter? 
which  he  sends  away,  and  has  every  letter,  invoice,  &c.,  belonging 
to  his  business,  titled,  classed  and  put  away.  11.  Never  suffers  hia 
desk  to  oe  confused  by  many  papers  lying  upon  it.  12.  Keeps 
everything  in  its  proper  place.  13.  Is  always  at  the  head  of  his  busi- 
ness* well  knowing  that  if  he  leaves  it,  it  will  leave  him.  14.  Holds 
it  as  a  maxim,  that  he  whose  credit  is  suspected  is  not  to  be  trusted. 
15.  Is  constantly  examining  his  books,  and  sees  through  all  his  affairs 
as  far  as  care  and  attention  will  enable  him.  16.  Balances  regu- 
larly at  stated  times,  and  then  makes  out  and  transmits  all  his  accounts 
current  to  his  customers,  both  at  home  and  abroad.  17.  Avoids  as 
much  as  possible  all  sorts  of  accommodation  in  money  matters  and 
law-suits  where  there  is  the  least  hazard.  18.  He  is  economical  in 
liis  expenditure,  always  living  within  his  income.  19.  Keeps  a  memo- 
randum book  in  his  pocket,  in  which  he  notes  every  particular  relative 
to  appointments,  addresses,  and  petty  cash  matters.  20.  Is  cautious 
how  he  becomes  security  for  any  person.  21.  And  is  generous  when 
urged  by  motives  of  humanity.  Let  every  man  act  strictly  to  these 
habits;  when  once  begun  will  be  easy  to  continue  in,  ever  remember- 
ing that  he  had  no  profits  by  his  pains  whom  Providence  does  not 
prosper,  and  success  will  attend  his  efforts.  Let  him  also  remember 
that  the  true  achievements  of  life  do  not  consist  in  making  startling 
strikes,  but  in  the  solid  performance  of  dailv  duty. 

How  TO  MAKE  A  FORTUNE.— Cornelius  Vanderbilt,  on  being  inter- 
rogated as  to  the  best  way  to  make  a  fortune,  is  reported  to  have  said 
jn  reply,  "  There  is  no  secret  about  it,  all  you  have  to  do  is  to  attend 
to  your  business  and  go  ahead."  "There  is  nothing,"  said  George 
Law,  "so  easy  as  making  money  when  you  have  money  to  make  it 
with ;  the  only  thing  is  to  see  the  crisis  and  take  itatits  flood."  Alex- 
ander T.  Stewart,  the  millionaire  merchant  prince  of  New  York,  who 
died  April  10,  187G,  once  said  to  an  anxious  enquirer,  "  I  consider 
honesty  and  truth  great  aids  in  making  a  fortune."  This  was  ster- 
ling advice,  and  when  it  is  supplemented  by  good  management, 
ardent  application  to  business,  and  strong  self-reliance,  as  it  was  ia 
an  eminent  degree  in  Mr.  Stewart's  own  case,  it  cannot  fail  to  tell 
with  irresistable  power  in  favor  of  the  man  who  follows  it. 

TRUE  CHARITY.— Mr.  Stewart's  idea  of  charity  was  that  in  order 
to  help  men  you  must  assist  them  to  get  work  to  help  themselves, 
and  not  cherish  in  them  a  spirit  of  cringing  dependence  by  giving 
2heoi  money  for  nothing.  "  Himself  a  man  of  strong  self-reliance, 


£92  ITEMS   FOR   DAILY   REMEMBRANCE. 

he  believed  that  the  best  service  you  could  do  men  was  to  teach  them 
to  rely  on  themselves — to  present  them  opportunities  which  only 
could  be  improved  by  individual  effort.  He  had  no  charity  for  idle- 
ness, or  the  ambition  to  reap  when  you  have  not  sown."  As  observ- 
ed by  his  executor,  Judge  Hilton,  "It  is  more  charitable  to  furnish 
employment  to  men  and  women,  than  it  is  to  destroy  their  self-respect 
by  giving  them  money,  as  to  paupers.  Mr.  Stewart  never  believed  in 

arsons  on  the 
ist  carry  out 
maintaining  the 

business  which  will  keep  those  9,600' persons  m  honorable  employ- 
ment, so  that  they  can  s/ipport  themselves  and  the  thousands  of  fami- 
lies dependent  upon  theiii."  Of  Mr.  Stewart's  honesty  and  rigidly  fair 
dealing  there  are  numerous  accounts.  ' '  What  do  you  mean  by  saying 
what  you  know  to  be  untrue,"  he  once  demanded  of  a  clerk  who  was- 
trying  his  best  to  convince  a  woman  that  a  piece  of  calico  would  not 
fade.  "The  calico  won't  wash,  she'll  demand  her  money  back  and 
ehe'll  be  right.  I  don't  want  goods  represented  for  what  they  are 
not."  tt  was  this  perfect  honesty  towards  his  customers  that  was  Mr. 
Stewart's  leading  characteristic ;  and  it  was  his  invariable  custom, 
when  questioned  as  to  his  explanation  for  his  success,  to  reply  with 
much  emphasis.  "  Truth,  truth  is  the  talismanic  word;  and  if  I  have 
one  earthly  wish  or  desire  greater  than  another,  it  is  that  in  this 
respect  my  example  may  be  commended  and  followed  by  young  men 
entering  into  business,  and  especially  by  young  merchants."  On  this 
firm  basis  of  truth  and  integrity  he  conducted  his  colossal  business, 
not  oy  reckless  risks  or  bargains,  but  bv  steady  adherence  to  business, 
perfect  system,  and  close  attention  to  the  least  details  as  well  as  the 
largest. 

It  is  much  to  be  regretted  that  Mr.  Stewart  did  not,  during  hi? 
long  and  most  successful  business  career,  see  fit  to  inaugurate  and 
carry  out  to  completion  any  such  system  of  public  beneficence  as  was 
at  all  commensurate  with  the  ample  means  at  his  command,  and  that 
the  performance  of  such  important  offices  should  be  delegated  or  in- 
trusted in  an  optional  ww,  to  another.  Every  man,  prospered  and 
blest  with  the  almost  boundless  prosperity  meted  out  to  Mr.  Stewart, 
owes  a  duty  to  society  which  should  never  be  neglected  in  this  way. 
The  generous  conduct  of  that  great  and  good  philanthrophist,  Georga 
Peabody,  is  in  this  respect  most  worthy  of  double  honor,  and  his  es- 
teemed name  will  be  deservedly  and  gratefully  remembered  by  gen- 
erations yet  unborn,  for  the  memorable  sen-ices  which  he  rendered 
in  his  princely  bequests  to  the  industrious  poor  of  London,  and  the 
•education  of  the  colored  population  of  the  South. 

The  following  extracts  from  a  letter  written  by  Dr.  Franklin  to  the 
Rev.  George  Whitefield  (in  response  to  a  letter  of  thanks  for  relief 
derived  by  the  latter  from  the  application  of  electricity  in  a  case  oj 
paralysis)  very  clearly  defines  the  mutual  duty  of  mankind  to  each 
ether.  The  following  is  the  first  part  of  Franklin's  letter  :— • 

PHILADELPHIA,  June  6, 1753. 

Sm  :  I  received  your  kind  letter  of  the  2d  inst,  and  am  glad  to 
hear  that  you  increase  in  strength.  I  hope  you  will  continue  mend- 
tog  till  you  recover  your  former  health  and  firmness.  Let  me  know 


STEMS  FOR  T5AILT  REMEMBRANCE.  595 

whetaer  yen  still  use  the  cold  bath,  and  what  effect  it  has.  As  to  the 
kindness  you  mention,  I  "wish  it  could  have  h  jen  of  greater  service  to 
you.  But  if  it  had,  the  only  thanks  I  should  desire  is,  that  you  would 
always  be  equally  ready  to  serve  any  other  person  that  may  need 
your  assistance,  and  so  let  good  offices  go  round,  for  mankind  are  all 
of  a  family.  For  my  own  part,  when  I  am  employed  in  serving 
others,  I  do  not  look  upon  myself  as  conferring  favors,  but  on  paying 
iebts. 

In  my  travels  and  since  my  settlement,  I  have  received  much 
kindness  from  men,  to  whom  I  shall  never  have  any  opportunity  of 
making  the  least  direct  return,  and  numberless  mercies  from  God,, 
who  is  infinitely  above  being  benefited  by  our  services.  Those  kind- 
nesses from  men  I  can  therefore  only  return  on  tiieir  fellow-men  and 
I  can  only  show  my  gratitude  for  those  mercies  from  God,  by  a  readi- 
ness to  help  his  other  children  and  my  brethren.  For  I  don't  think 
that  thanks  and  compliments,  though  repeated  weekly,  can  discharge: 
our  real  obligation  to  each  other,  and  much  les?  those  to  our  Creator. 
You  will  see  in  this  my  notion  of  good  works,  that  I  am  far  from  ex- 
pecting to  merit  heaven  by  them.  By  heaven  we  understand  a  state 
of  happiness  infinite  in  degree  and  eternal  in  duration  ;  I  can  do 
Aothing  to  merit  such  rewards.  He  that  for  giving  a  draught  of. 
water  to  a  thirsty  person,  should  expect  to  be  paid  with  a  good  planta- 
tion, would  be  modest  in  his  demands,  compared  with  those  wha 
think  they  deserve  heaven  for  the  little  good  they  do  on  earth.  Even 
the  mixed  imperfect  pleasures  we  enjoy  in  this*  world,  are  rather 
from  God's  goodness  than  our  merit !  how  much  raoresuch  happiness 
of  heaven  !  for  my  part,  I  have  not  the  vanity  to  think  I  deserve  it, 
the  folly  to  expect  it,  nor  the  ambition  to  desire  it,  but  content  myself 
in  submitting  to  the  will  and  disposal  of  that  God  >ho  made  me,  who 
has  hitherto  preserved  and  blessed  me,  and  in  whose  fatherly  good- 
ness I  may  well  confide,  that  he  will  never  make  v>e  miserable,  and. 
that  even  the  afflictions  I  may  at  any  time  suffer,  shall  tend  to  my 
benefit. 

CORRESPONDENCE  OR  SYMBOLIC  MEANING  OF  COLOKS. —  Whiis 
Was  the  emblem  of  light,  religious  purity,  innocence,  faith,  joy  and 
life.    In  the  judge,  it  indicates  integrity,  in  the  sick,  humility,  in  the  ? 
woman,  chastity. 

Red,  the  ruby,  signifies  fire,  divine  love,  heat  c<  the  creative 
power,  and  royalty.  White  and  red  roses,  express  love  and  wisdom. 
The  red  color  of  the  blood  has  its  origin  in  the  action  of  the  heart, 
which  corresponds  to,  or  symbolizes  love.  In  a  bad  sense,  red  cor- 
responds to  the  infernal  love  of  evil,  hatred,  etc. 

Slue,  or  the  sapphire,  expresses  heaven,  the  firmament,  truth  fron» 
1.  celestial  origin,  constancy  and  fidelity. 

Yellow,  or  gold,  is  the  symbol  of  the  sun,  of  the  goodness  of  God, 
£f  marriage,  and  faithfulness .  In  a  bad  sense,  yellow  signifies  in- 
constancy, jealousy  and  deceit. 

Green,  the  emerald,  is  the  color  of  the  spring,  of  hope,  particularly 
of  the  hope  of  immortality  and  of  victory,  as  the  color  of  the  laurel 
and  palm. 

Violet,  the  amethyst,  signifies  love  and  truth,  or  rass»oi»  an«?  suf- 
fering.   Purple  and  scarlet  signify  things  good  and  true  tr*»*a 
teal  origin. 


ITEMS   FOR   DAILY   REMEMBRANCE. 


Black  corresponds  to  despair,  darkness,,  carthliness,  mourning 
negation,  wickedness  and  death. 

THE  BEST  THINGS.— The  best  theology— a  pure  and  beneficent 
life.  The  best  philosophy — a  contented  niind.  The  best  law — the 
golden  rule — The  best  education — self-knowledge.  The  best  state- 
jnanship — self-government.  The  best  medicine  cheerfulness  and 
temperance.  The  best  art — painting  a  smile  on  the  brow 
of  childhood.  The  best  science — extracting  sunshine  from  a 
cloudy  wray.  The  best  war — to  war  against  internal  evils  and 
iselfishness.  The  best  music — the  laughter  of  an  innocent  child.  The 
Ibest  journalism — printing  the  true  and  the  beautiful  only  on  mem- 
<ory's  tablet  The  best  telegraphing — flashing  a  ray  of  sunshine  into 
.a  gloomy  heart.  The  best  biography — the  life  which  writes  charity 
in  the  largest  letters.  The  best  mathematics — that  which  doubles  the 
most  joys  and  divides  the  most  sorrows.  The  best  navigation — steer- 
:ing  clear  of  the  lacerating  rocks  of  personal  contention.  The  best 
•diplomacy — effecting  a  treaty  of  peace  with  one's  own  conscience. 
'The  best  engineering— building  a  bridge  of  love,  faith,  and  trust,  in 
the  Divine,  over  the  river  of  death. 

SAVE  A  LITTLE.— Every  man  who  is  obliged  to  work  for  his  liv- 
ing, should  make  a  point  to  lay  up  a  little  money  for  that  "rainy 
-day  "  which  we  are  all  liable  to  encounter  when  least  expected.  The 
best  way  to  do  this  is  to  open  an  account  with  a  savings  bank.  Ac- 
cumulated money  is  always  safe  ;  it  is  always  ready  to  use  when 
needed.  Scrape  together  five  dollars,  make  your  deposit,  receive 
your  bank  book,  and  then  resolve  to  deposit  a  given  sum,  small 
though  it  be,  once  a  month,  or  once  a  week,  according  to  circum- 
stances. Nobody  knows  without  trying  it,  how  easy  a  thing  it  is  to 
save  money  when  an  account  with  a  bank  has  been  opened.  With 
such  an  account  a  man  feels  a  desire  to  enlarge  his  deposit.  It  gives 
him  lessons  in  frugality  and  economy,  weans  him  from  habits  of  ex- 
travagance, and  is  the  very  best  guard  in  the  world  against  intemper- 
ance, dissipation  and  vice.  The  following  table  is  appended  in  order 
to  exhibit  the  time  required  by  money  to  double  itself  when  loaned  at 
•the  designated  rates  of  interest : — 


Time  in  which  a  Sum  will  double. 

Rate  per  cent. 

Simple   Interest. 

Compound  Interest 

-f 

o 

50  years. 

35  years      1  day. 

2  1-2 

40  years. 

28  years   26  days. 

3 
3  1-2 

33  years  4  months 
28  years  208  days. 

23  years  164  days. 
20  years    54  days. 

4 

25  years. 

17  years  246  days. 

4  1-2 

22  years  81  days. 

15  years  273  days. 

5 
6 

20  years. 
16  years  8  months 

15  years   75  days. 
14  years  327  davs 

7 

14  years  104  days. 

10  years    89  days. 

8 

12  1-2  years. 

9  years     2  days. 

9 

11  years  40  days 

8  vears    16  days. 

10 

10  years. 

7  years  100  days. 

WAGES  TABLE, 

•ALAJIIBS  AND  -WAGE*  BY  THE  YEAR,  MONTH,  WEEK  OR  DAY,  SHOW- 
ING WHAT  ANY  SUM  FROM  $20  TO  $1600  PER  ANN0M,  IS  PER 
MONTH,  WEEK  OR  DAY. 


fterTear 

Per  Month. 

Per  Week. 

Per  Day. 

Per  Year. 

Per  Month 

Per  Week 

Per  Dsj 

20  is 

1.67 

.38 

.05 

$   280  is 

*    c. 

23.33 

*    e. 

6-37 

»   fir 

25 

2.08 

.48 

.07 

285 

23.75 

5-47 

.78 

30 

2.50 

.58 

.08 

290 

24.17 

5.56 

.79 

35 

2-92 

.67 

.10 

295 

24.58 

5.66 

.81 

40 

3.33 

.77 

.11 

300 

25.00 

5.75 

.82 

45 

3.75 

.86 

.12 

310 

25.83 

5.95 

.85 

60 

4.17 

.96 

.14 

320 

26.67 

6.14 

.88 

65 

4.58 

1.06 

.15 

325 

27.08 

6.23 

.89 

60 

5.00 

1.15 

.16 

330 

27.50 

6.33 

.90 

66 

5.42 

1.25 

.18 

340 

28.33 

6.52 

.93 

70 

5.83 

1.34 

.19 

350 

29.17 

6.71 

.96 

75 

6.25 

1.44 

.21 

360 

30.00 

6.90 

.99 

80 

6,67 

1.53 

.22 

370 

30.83 

7.10 

1.01 

85 

7.08 

1.63 

.23 

375 

31.25 

7.19 

1.03 

90 

7.50 

1.73 

.25 

380 

31.67 

7.29 

1.04 

95 

7.92 

1.82 

.26 

390 

32.50 

7.48 

1.07 

100 

8.33 

1.92 

.27 

400 

33.33 

7.67 

1.10 

105 

8-75 

2.0) 

.29 

425 

35.42 

8.15 

1.16 

110 

9.17 

2.11 

.30 

450 

37.50 

8.63 

1.23 

115 

9.58 

2.21 

.32 

475 

39.58 

9.11 

1.30 

120 

10.00 

2.30 

.33 

500 

41.67 

9.59 

1.37 

125 

10.42 

2.40 

.34 

525 

43.75 

10.0T 

1.44 

130 

10.83 

2.49 

.36 

550 

45.83 

10.55 

1.51 

135 

11.25 

2.59 

,37 

575 

47.92 

11.03 

1.58 

140 

11.67 

2.69 

.38 

600 

50.00 

11.51 

1.64 

145 

12.08 

2.78 

.40 

625 

52.08 

11.99 

1.71 

150 

12.50 

2.88 

.41 

650 

54.17 

12.47 

1.78 

155 

12.92 

2.97 

.42 

675 

56.25 

12.95 

1.85 

160 

13.33 

3.07 

.44 

700 

58.33 

13.42 

1.92 

165 

13.75 

3.16 

.45 

725 

60.42 

13.90 

1.99 

170 

14.17 

3.26 

.47 

750 

62.50 

14.38 

2.05 

175 

14.58 

3.36 

.48 

775 

64.58 

14.86 

2.12 

180 

15.00 

3.45 

:49 

800 

66.67 

15.34 

2.19 

185 

15.42 

3.55 

.51 

825 

68.75 

15.82 

2.26 

190 

15.83 

3.64 

.52 

850 

70.8.3 

16.30 

2.33 

195 

16.25 

3.74 

.53 

875 

72.92 

16.78 

2.40 

200 

16.57 

3.84 

.55 

900 

75.00 

17.26 

2.47 

205 

17.08 

3.93 

.56 

925 

77.08 

17.74 

2.53 

210 

17.50 

4.03 

.58 

950 

79.17 

18.22 

2.60 

215 

17.9? 

4.12 

.59 

975 

81.25 

18.70 

2.67 

220 

18.33 

4.22 

.60 

1000 

83.33 

19.18 

2.74 

225 

18.75 

4-31 

.62 

1050 

87.50 

20.14 

2.88 

230 

19.17 

4.41 

.63 

1100 

91.67 

21.10 

3.01 

235 

19.58 

4.51 

.64 

1150 

95.83 

22.06 

3.15 

240 

20.00 

4.60 

.66 

1200 

100.00 

23.01 

3.29 

245 

20.42 

4.70 

.67 

1250 

104.17 

23.29 

3.42 

2.50 

20.83 

4.79 

.69 

1300 

108.33 

24.93 

3.56 

•    255 

21.25 

4.89 

.70 

1350 

112.50 

25.89 

3.70 

I    260 

21.67 

4.99 

.71 

1400 

116.67 

26.85 

3.84 

265 

22.08 

5.08 

.73 

1450 

120.84 

27.80 

3.98 

27C 

22.50 

5.18 

.74 

1500 

125.00 

28.77 

4.11 

275 

22.92 

$.27 

.75 

1600 

133.34 

30.68 

4.38 

NOTE.— If  the  desired  sum  is  not  in  the  table,  double  some  number  ;  fo< 
instance  if  the  salary -or  wages  is  $2000,  d«»"ble  the  gums  opposite  $1000,  and  AT 
90.  with,  the  rest. 


WAGES  TABLE. 

WAGES    TABLE,  CALCULATED    OK  A  SCALE    or  TEN  HOURS  LABO» 

PER  DAY.  THE  TIME,  IN  HOURS  AND  DAYS  IS  NOTED  IN  THE 
LEFT  HAND  COLUMN,  AND  THE  AMOUNT  OF  WAGES  UNDER  THB 
BESPECTIVE  HEADINGS  AS  NOTED  BELOW. 


.     $1.00      $1.50      $:2.00      $2.50      $3.00      $3.50      $4-00      $4.50   I  $5.00      $5.50      $6.» 


6.00 


Wugw. 


$6.50      $7.00       $7.50 


$8.00      $9.00 


$10.00  I  $11.00 


.18% 

•362/0 

.55 

.73 

.91: 
1.10 
1.28 
1.46: 
1.65 


$12.00 


.10 

.20 

.40 

.60 

.80 

1.00 

1.20 

1.40 

1.60 

1.80 


$13.00 


.11 

.22 

-43% 

.65 

•862/3 
1.08% 
1.30 
1.52 
1.73% 
1.95 


$14.00  !  $15.01 


.12  .12»4 

.23i/2!  .25 

.462/3 1  .50 

.70     |  .75 


1.08%  1.163 
2.162|  2.331 
3.25  1 3.50 
4.331 
B.41* 
6.50 


4.662/3 
5.83% 
7.00 


1.25 
2.50 
3.75 
5.09 
6.25 
7-50 


1.33% 
2.662/3 
4.00 


8.00 


1.50 
3.00 
4.50 
6.00 
7.00 
9.00 


1.66 
3.33 
5.00 
6.662/3 
8.33% 
10.00 


1.83% 
3.662/3 
5.50 
7.331/0 
9.16% 
11.00 


2.00 
4.00 
6.00 
8.00 
10.00 
12.00 


2.17 

4.34 

6.51 

8.68 

10.85 

13.00 


2.33%    2.50' 

4.66%'  5.00|   , 
6.992/3    7.50-   ' 
9.33     !  10.00 
11.66%  12.50 
14.00       15-Oa 


If  the  desired  number  of  days  or  amount  of  wages  is  not  in  the  table, 
double  or  treble  any  suitable  number  of  days  or  amount  of  money  as  the  cas* 
may  be,  until  yon  obtain  the  desired  number  of  days  and  the  wages  t* 
correspond. 

To  REDUCE  THE  PRICE  OF  "WHEAT,  IN  STERLING,  PER  IMPERIAL, 
QUARTER,  TO  DOLLARS  AND  CENTS. — Reduce  the  shillings  per  quarter 
into  dollars  and  cents,  at  24.2  cts.  per  shilling,  and  divide  by  9£,  the  num- 
ber of  United  States  bushels  in  an  imperial  quarter. 

EXAMPLE.— Required  the  price  of  wheat  per  IL  S.  bushel  in  Liverpool, 
fetches  58s.  6d.  per  imperial  quarter.  58s.  6d,  equals  $14  35, 
ivided  by  9J,  gives  $l,5li  the  price  per  bushel. 


INTEREST  TABl,jik, 

AT  SIX  PKB  CBNT.,  HC  DOLLARS  AND  CENTS,  >BOM  O?TB  DOtULT  "*« 
TEN  THOUSAND. 


Iday. 

7  days. 

15  days. 

1  mo. 

3  mos.  ]  6  mos. 

12  mos. 

$ 

*c. 

So. 

Sc^ 

«  c. 

f  c. 

*   0. 

f  C, 

1 

00 

00 

00-/2 

01% 

03 

OS 

3 

00 

001/4 

oo1/} 

01 

03 

06 

It 

9 

00 

00% 

00% 

01% 

04% 

09 

IS 

4 

00 

00% 

01 

02 

06 

12 

24 

I 

00 

00% 

011/4 

02% 

07% 

15 

M 

« 

00 

00*^'t 

01% 

03 

09 

18 

at 

7 

00 

003/1 

01% 

03% 

10% 

21 

41 

t 

00 

01 

02 

04 

12 

24 

48 

• 
10 

00 
00 

01 

Oil/, 

02% 
02% 

8S* 

13% 
15 

27 
30 

64 
60 

20 

OOV4 

02% 

05 

10 

30 

60 

1  23 

*0 

00% 

03% 

07% 

15 

45 

90 

1  80 

40 

00% 

04% 

10 

20 

60 

1  20 

2  40 

60 

01 

06 

12% 

25 

75 

1  50 

300 

100 

01% 

11% 

25 

60 

1  50 

3  00 

6  00 

300 

OJ 

23% 

60 

1  00 

3  00 

6  00 

12  00 

-800 

05 

35 

75 

1  50 

4  50 

9  00 

18  00 

400 

07 

46% 

1  00 

2  00 

6  00 

12  00 

24  00 

•00 

08 

68% 

1  25 

2  50 

7  50 

15  00 

30  00 

1000 

17 

1  16% 

2  50 

5  00 

15  00 

30  00 

60  00 

sooo 

33 

2  £3% 

6  00 

10  00 

30  00 

60  00 

120  00 

sooo 

60 

3  60 

7  50 

15  00 

45  00 

90  00 

180  00 

4000 

67 

4  66% 

10  00 

20  00 

6000 

120  00 

240  00 

6000 

83 

6  83% 

12  50 

25  00 

75  00 

150  00 

300  00 

10000 

1  67 

11  66% 

25  00 

60  00 

150  00 

300  00 

600  00 

fBVSN  PER  CENT.,   IN  DOLLARS  AND  CENTS,  FBOM  ONE  DOLLjIJ 
TO  TEN  THOUSAND. 


1 

2 
8 
4 

€ 

7 
» 
9 

3D 

20 

SO 

40 

60 

KK) 

200 

900 

400 

BOO 


3000 
4000 


01 

01V2 

t 

02*2 

03 

06 

09 

12 

15 

29 

58    , 

iS* 

1  46 

2  92 
5  S3 
8  75 

11  67 
1458 
29  17 


JM 


1 

42 
49 


1  40 

2  19 

2  80 

3  59 
7  00 

14  00 

21  00 

28  09 

35  Oft 

70  09 

140  09 

210  00 

3W  00 

30000 

700  0» 


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READY   RECKONER. 

READY  TJECRONER,  to  find  the  Price  of  any  Number  of  Pounds,  Yard* 

Pieces,  or  Bushels,  from  2  cents  to  $3.00. 
The  first  column  contains  the  NUMBER,  the  top  columns  the  PRICES. 


*. 

2ct. 

Set. 

4ct. 

5ct. 

6ct. 

6V4ct. 

7ct. 

Set. 

9ct. 

10  ct. 

11  et. 

2 

.  4 

.  6 

.  8 

.10 

.12 

.121/0 

.14 

.16 

.18 

.20 

.28 

3 

.  6 

.  9 

.12 

.15 

.18 

•18% 

.21 

.24 

.27 

.30 

.33  ) 

i 

.  8 

.12 

.16 

.20 

.24 

.25 

.28 

.32 

.36 

.40 

.44;' 

•$ 

.10 

.15 

.20 

.25 

.30 

.311/4 

.35 

.40 

.45 

.50 

.55 

^ 

.12 

.18 

.24 

.30 

.36 

.371/2 

.42 

.48 

.54 

.60 

1 

.14 

.21 

.28 

.35 

.42 

.433,5 

.49 

.56 

.63 

.70 

77 

i 

.If. 

.24 

.32 

.40 

.48 

.50 

.56 

.64 

.72 

.80 

.88 

9 

.18 

.27 

.36 

.45 

.54 

•561/4 

.63 

.72 

.51 

.90 

.99 

10 

.20 

.30 

.40 

.50 

•60 

-62V2 

.70 

.80 

.90 

1.00 

1.10 

11 

.22 

.33 

.44 

•55 

•66 

•6832 

.77 

.88 

.99 

1.10 

1.21 

12 

.24 

.36 

.48 

.60 

.72 

.75 

.84 

.96 

1.08 

1.20 

1.38 

13 
14 

26 

28 

.39 
.42 

.52 
.56 

.65 
.70 

.78 

.84 

.Sly, 

•87% 

.91 

.98 

1.04 
1.12 

1.17 

1.26 

1.90 
1.40 

1.4t 
1.54 

15 

SO 

.45 

.60 

.75 

.90 

•93% 

1.05 

1.20 

1.35 

1.50 

1.66 

16 

32 

.48 

.64 

.80 

.96 

1.00 

1.12 

1.28 

1.44 

1.60 

1.76 

17 

.34 

.51 

.18 

.85 

1.02 

1.06V4 

1.19 

1.36 

1.53 

1.70 

1.87 

18 

.36 

.54 

'.72 

.90 

1.08 

1.12$ 

1.26 

1.44 

1.62 

1.80 

1.98 

19 

.38 

.57 

.76 

.95 

1.14 

1.183/4 

1.33 

1.52 

1.71 

1.90 

2.09 

20 

,40 

.^0 

.80 

1.00 

1.20 

1.25 

1.40 

1.60 

1.80 

2.00 

2.2ft 

25 

.50 

.75 

1.00 

1.25 

1.50 

1.561/4 

1.75 

2.00 

2.25 

2.50 

2.  5 

30 

•60 

.90 

1.20 

1.50 

1.80 

1.871/2 

2.10 

2.40 

2.70 

3.00 

3.30 

40 

.80 

1.20 

1.60 

2.00 

2.40 

2.50 

2.80 

3.20 

3.60 

4.00 

4.40 

60 

1.00 

1.50 

2.00 

2.50 

3.00 

3.12% 

3.50 

4.00 

4.50 

5.00 

5.50 

SO 

1.20 

1.80 

2.40 

3.00 

360 

3.75 

4.20 

4.80 

5.40 

6.00 

6.60 

70 

1.40 

3.10 

2.80 

3.50 

4.20 

4.37% 

4.90 

5.CO 

6.30 

7.00 

7.70 

SO 

1-60 

2.40 

3.20 

4.00 

4.80 

5.00 

5.60 

6.40 

7.20 

8.00 

8.80 

1W 

1.80 

2.70 

3.60 

4.50 

5.40 

5.62Vo 

6.30 

7.20 

8.10 

9.00 

9.90 

100 

2.00 

3.00 

4.00 

500 

6.00 

6.25'" 

7.00 

8.00 

9.00 

10.00 

11.00 

Ko« 

12  ct. 

12%*t. 

13ct. 

14  ct. 

15  ct. 

16  ct. 

18  ct. 

ISS^t. 

19  ct. 

20  ct. 

21  ct. 

2 

.24 

~25~ 

.26 

.28 

.30 

,32 

.36 

.371/2 

.38 

.40 

.42 

3 

.36 

37% 

.39 

.42 

.45 

.48 

.54 

•56% 

.57 

.60 

.63 

4 

.48 

.50  * 

.52 

.56 

.60 

.64 

.72 

.75 

.76 

.80 

.84 

.60 

.62% 

.66 

.70 

.75 

.80 

.90 

.933/4 

.95 

1.00 

1.06 

« 

.72 

.75 

.78 

.84 

.90 

.96 

1.08 

1.12% 

1.14 

1.20 

1-26 

-7 

.84 

.87% 

.91 

.98 

1.05 

1.12 

1.26 

1.311/4 

1.33 

1.40 

1.47 

.96 

1.00 

1.04 

1.12 

1.20 

1.28 

1.44 

1.50 

1.52 

1.60 

1.68 

<( 

1.08 

1.12% 

1.17 

1.26 

1.35 

1.44 

1.62 

1.H83/4 

1.71 

1.80 

1.89 

10 

1.20 

1.25 

1.30 

1.40 

1.50 

1.60 

1.80 

1.87% 

1.90 

2.00 

2.10 

11 

1.32 

1.37% 

1.43 

1.54 

1.65 

1.76 

1.98 

2.061/4 

2.09 

2.20 

2.31 

12 

1.44 

1.60 

1.56 

1.68 

1.80 

1.92 

2,lfc 

2.25 

2.28 

2.40 

2.52 

13 

1.56 

1.62% 

1.69 

1.82 

1.95 

2.08 

2.34 

2.4334 

2.47 

2.60 

2.73 

14 

1.68 

1.T5 

1.82 

1.96 

2.10 

2.24 

2.52 

2.62% 

2.66 

2.80 

2.94 

»    1.'. 

1.80 

1.87% 

1.95 

2.10 

2.25 

2.40 

2.70 

2.811/4 

2.85 

3.00 

3.15 

16 

1.92 

2.00 

2.08 

2.24 

2.40 

2.56 

2.88 

s!oo 

3.04 

3.20 

3.36 

2.04 

2.12% 

2.21 

2.38 

2.55 

2.72 

3.06 

3.18% 

3.23 

3.40 

3.57 

18 

2.16 

2.25^ 

2.34 

2.52 

2.70 

2.88 

324 

3.42 

3.60 

3.78  \ 

19; 

2:28 

2.37% 

2.47 

2-66 

2.85 

3.04 

3.42 

3.56% 

3.61 

3.80 

3.99 

20 

2.40 

2.50 

2.60 

2.80 

3.00 

3.20 

3.60 

3*.75 

3.80 

4.00 

4.20 

25 

3.00 

3.12% 

3.25 

3.50 

3.75 

4.00 

4.50 

4.68% 

4.75 

5.00 

5.25 

3.'60 

3.75 

3.90 

4.20 

4.50 

4.80 

5.40 

5.62% 

5.70 

6.00 

6.30 

fO 

4.80 

5.00 

5.20 

5.60 

6.00 

6.40 

7.20 

7.50 

7.60 

8.00 

8.40 

-SO 

6.00 

6.25 

6.50 

700 

7.50 

8.00 

9.00 

9.37% 

9.50 

10.09 

10.50 

-60 

7.20 

7.50 

7.80 

8.40 

9.00 

960 

10.80 

11.25 

11.40 

12.00 

12.60 

70 

8.40 

8.75 

9.10 

9.80 

10.50 

11.20 

12.60 

13.121/2 

13.30 

14.0f 

14.70 

.'80 

9.60 

10.00 

10.40 

11.20 

12.00 

12.80 

14.40 

15.00 

15.20 

16.00 

16.80 

10.80  111.  25 

ll.TO 

12.60 

13.50 

14.40 

16.20 

16.87%,. 

17.10 

18.00 

18.90 

100 

12.001  12.50 

14.00]  15.00 

16.00 

18.00  .18.75  " 

19.00 

20.00 

21.01 

READY   RECKO"SEK. 

She  first  column  on  the  left  contains  the  NUMBER  of  the  Article,  and  tht 
oolumm  on  the  tops  of  the  tafcles  the  PRICE. 


Nos 

22  ct. 

23ct. 

24  ct. 

25  ct. 

26ct.j27ct. 

28  ct. 

29  ct. 

30  ct. 

31  ct.  3iy4ct. 

2 

.44 

.46 

.48 

.50 

.52 

.54 

56 

.58 

.60 

.62 

.62% 

3 

.66 

.69 

.72 

.75 

.78 

.81 

.84 

.87 

.90 

.93 

.88 

.92 

.96 

1.00 

1.04 

1.08 

1.12 

1.16 

1.20 

1.24 

1.25'* 

<    5 

1.10 

1.15 

1.20 

1.25 

1.30 

1.35 

1.40 

1.45 

1.50 

1.55 

1.561/4 

1.32 

1.38 

1.44 

1.50 

1.56 

1.62 

1.68 

1.74 

1.80 

1.86 

1.87$ 

7 

1.54 

1.61 

1.68 

1.75 

1.82 

1.89 

1.96 

2.03 

2.10 

2.17 

2.18% 

* 

1.76 

1.84 

1.92 

2.00 

2.08 

2.16 

2.24 

2.32 

2.40 

2.48 

2.50 

0 

1.98 

2.07 

2.16 

2.25 

2.34 

2.43 

2.52 

2.61 

2.70 

2.79 

2.81% 

10 

11 

2.20 
2.42 

2.30 
2.53 

2.40 
2.64 

2.50 
2.75 

2.60 
2.86 

2.70 

2.97 

2.80 
3.08 

2.90 
3.19 

3.00 
3.30 

3.10 
3.41 

ii 

12 

2.64 

2.76 

2.88 

3.00 

3.12 

3.24 

3.36 

3.48 

3.60 

3.72 

375 

13 

2.86 

2.99 

3.12 

3.25 

3.38 

3.51 

3.64 

3.77 

3.90 

4.03 

4.0614 

14 

3.08 

3.22 

3.36 

3.50 

3.64 

3.78 

3.92 

4.06 

4.20 

4.34 

4.37% 

15 

3.30 

3.45 

3.60 

3.75 

3.90 

4.05 

4.20 

4.35 

4.50 

4.55 

4.68# 

16 

3.52 

3.68 

3.84 

4.00 

4.16 

4.32 

4.48 

4.64 

4.80 

4-96 

5.00 

17 

3.74 

3.91 

4.08 

4.25 

4.42 

4.59 

4.76 

4.93 

5.10 

5.27 

5.3114 

18 

3.96 

4.^4 

4.32 

4.50 

4.68 

4.86 

5.0-i 

5.22 

5.40 

5.58 

5.621.4 

19 

4.18 

4.37 

4.56 

4.75 

4.94 

5.15 

6.32 

5.51 

5.70 

5.89 

5.93% 

"2V 

4.40 

4.60 

4.80 

5.00 

5.20 

5.40 

5.00 

5.80 

6.00 

6.20 

6.25 

"25 

5.50 

5,75 

6.00 

6.25 

6.50 

6.75 

7.00 

7.25 

7.25 

7.75 

7.8114 

30 

6.60 

6.90 

7.20 

7.50 

7.80 

8.10 

8.40 

8.70 

».oo 

9.30 

9.37% 

•40 

8.80    9.20 

9.60 

10.00 

10.40 

10.80 

11.20 

11.60 

12.00 

12.40 

12.50 

50 

11.00  11.50 

12.00 

12.50 

13.00 

13.50 

14.00 

14.50 

15.00 

1550 

15.62% 

60 

13.20  13.80 

14.40 

15.00 

15.60 

16.20 

16.80 

17.40 

18.00 

1860 

18.75 

70 

15.40  16.10 

16.80 

17.50 

18.20 

18.90 

19.60 

20.30 

21.00 

21.70 

21.87% 

80 

17.60  18.40 

19.20 

20.00 

20.80 

21.60 

22.4" 

23.20 

24.00 

24.80  25.00  " 

90 

19.80  20.70 

21.60 

22.50 

23.40 

24.30 

25.20 

26.10  !  27.00 

27.90  28.1214 

100 

22.00  23.00 

24.00 

25.00 

26.00 

27.00 

28.00 

29.00  |  30.00 

31.00  131.25 

Xo* 

Vet 

33i/2ct. 

34  ct 

35  ct 

36  ct. 

37  ct.  37V2ct. 

38  ct. 

39  ct.    40  ct. 

2 

.64 

.66 

.662/3 

.68 

.70 

.72 

.74 

.75 

.76 

.78 

.80 

3 

.96      .99 

1.00 

1.02 

1.05 

1.08 

1.11 

1.12% 

1.14 

1.17 

1.20 

4 

1.28 

1.32 

1.331/3 

1.36 

1.40 

1.44 

1.48 

1.50  " 

1.52 

1.56 

1.60 

5 

1.60 

1.65 

1-662? 

1.70 

1.75 

180 

i.85 

1.871/2 

1.90 

1.95 

2.00 

•6 

1.92 

1.98 

2.00 

2.04 

2.10 

2.16 

2.22 

2.25 

2.28 

2.34 

2.40 

7 

2.24 

2.31 

2.331/3 

2.38 

2.45 

2.52 

2.59 

2.621/a 

2.66 

2.73 

2.80 

1 

2.56 

2.64 

2.66% 

2.72 

2.80 

2.88 

2.96 

3.00 

3.04 

3.12 

3.20 

<) 

2.88 

2.97 

3.00  3 

3.06 

3.15 

3.24 

3.33 

3.371/2 

3.42 

3.51 

3.60 

10 

3.20 

3.30 

3.331/3 

3.40 

3.50 

3.60 

3.70 

S.752 

3.80 

3.90 

4.00 

11 

3.52 

3.63 

3.60% 

3.74 

3.85 

3.96 

4.07 

4.121/2 

4.18 

4.29 

4.40 

12 

3.84 

3.96 

4.00 

4.08 

4.20 

4.32 

4.44 

4.50  2 

4.56 

4.68 

4.80 

13 
14 

4.16 
4.48 

4.29 
4.62 

4.331/3 
4.6G2| 

4.42 
4.76 

4.55 
4.90 

4.68 
5.04 

4.81 
5.18 

*£* 

4.94 
5.32 

5.07 
5.46 

5.2C 
5.60 

15 

4.80 

4.95 

5.00 

5.10 

5.25 

5.40 

5.55 

5.62V2 

5.70 

5.85 

6.00 

16 

5.12 

5.28 

5.3314. 

5.44 

5.60 

5.76 

5.92 

6.00 

6.08 

6.24 

C.40 

17 

5.44 

5.61 

5-662/3 

5.78 

5.95 

6.12 

6.29 

6.371/2 

6.46 

6.63 

6.80 

18 

5.7« 

5.94 

6.00 

6.12 

6.30 

6.48 

6.66 

6.75 

6.84 

7.02 

7.20 

19 

6.08 

6.27 

6.33U 

6.46 

6.65 

6.84 

7.03 

7.121/2 

7.22 

7.41 

7.60 

20 

6.40 

6.60 

6.662? 

6.80 

7.00 

7.20 

7.40 

7.50 

7.60 

7.80 

8.00 

25 

8.00 

8.25 

8.331,1 

8.50 

8.75 

9.00 

9.25 

9.371/2 

9.50 

9.75 

10.00 

30 

9.60 

9.90 

10.00 

10.20 

10.50 

10.80 

11.10 

11.25 

11.40 

11.70 

12.00 

40 

13.80 

12.10 

13.331/3 

13.60 

14.00 

14.40 

14.SO 

15.00 

15.20 

15.60 

16.00 

60 

16.00 

16.50 

16.66% 

17.00 

17.50 

18.00 

18.50 

18.75 

19.00 

19.50 

20.00 

60 

19.20  19.80 

20.00 

20.40 

21.00 

21.60 

22.20 

22.50 

22.80 

23.40 

24.00 

70 
80 
90 

22.40 
25.60 
28.80 

23.10  23.3314 
26.40J26.662l 
29.70  30.00 

23.80 
27.20 
30.60 

24.50 
28.0!) 
31.50 

25.20 
28.80 
32.40 

25.90 
29.60 
33.3J 

26.25 
30.00 
33.75 

26.60 
30.40 
34.20 

27.30 
31.20 
35.10 

28.00 
32.00 
36.0ft 

100 

32.00 

33.00 

38.331/a 

34.00 

35.00 

36.00 
tint 

37.00 

37.50 

38.00 

39.00 

4i.5J 

READY  RECKONER. 

tfco  first  column  on  the  left  contains  the  NUMBER  of  the  ArticJe,  an<} 
the  column  on  the  tops  of  the  Tables  the  PRICE. 


Jfos 

41  ct. 

42  ct. 

43  ct. 

44  ct. 

45  ct. 

46  ct. 

47  ct, 

48  ct. 

49  ct. 

50  ct. 

51  ct. 

2 

.82 

.84 

.86 

.88 

.90       .92 

.94 

.96 

.98 

1.00 

1.02 

3 

1.23 

1.26 

1.29 

1.32 

1.35     1.38 

1.41 

1.44 

1.47 

1.50 

1.53 

4 

1.64 

1.68 

1.72 

1.76 

1.80 

1.84 

1.88 

1.92 

1.96 

2.00 

2.04 

5 

2.05 

2.10 

2.15 

2.20 

2.25 

2.30 

2.35 

2.40 

2.45 

2.50 

2.55 

6 

2.46 

2.52 

2.58 

2.64 

2.70 

2.76 

2.80 

2.88 

2.94 

3.00 

3.06 

7 

2.87 

2.94 

3.01 

3.08 

3.15 

3.22 

3.29 

3.36 

3.43 

3.50 

3.57 

8 

3.28 

3.36 

3.44 

3.52 

3.60 

3.68 

3.76 

3.84 

3.92 

4.00 

4.08 

9 

3.69 

3.78 

3.87 

3.96 

4.05 

4.14 

4.23 

4.32 

4.41 

4.50 

4.59 

10 

4.10 

4.20 

4.30 

4.40 

4.50 

4.60 

4.70 

4.80 

4.90 

5.00 

5.10 

11 

4.51 

4.62 

4.73 

4.84 

4.95 

5.06 

5.17 

5.28 

5.39 

5.50 

5.61 

12 

4.92 

5.04 

5.16 

5.28 

5.40 

5.72 

5.64 

5.76 

5.88 

6.00 

6.12 

13 

5.33 

5.46 

5.59 

5.72 

5.85 

5.98 

6.11 

6.24 

6.37 

6.50 

6.63 

14 

5.74 

5.88 

6.02 

6.16 

6.30 

6.44 

6.58 

6.72 

6.K6 

7.00 

7.14 

15 

6.15 

6.30 

6.45 

6.60 

675 

6.00 

7.05 

7.20 

7.:;.-) 

7.50 

7.65 

16 

6.56 

6.72 

6.88 

7.04 

7.20 

7.36 

7.52 

7.68 

7.84 

8.00 

8.16  , 

17 

6.97 

7.14 

7.31 

7.48 

7.65 

7.82 

7.99 

8.16 

8.33 

8.50 

8.'i7  I 

18 

7.38 

7.56 

7.74 

7.92 

8.10 

8,28 

8.46 

8.61 

8.82 

9.00 

9.18 

19 

7.79 

7.!»8 

8.17 

8.30 

8.55 

8.74 

8.93 

9.12 

9.31 

9.50 

9/J9 

20 

8.20 

8.40 

8.60 

8.80 

9.00 

9.20 

9.40 

9.60 

9.  SO 

10.00 

10.20 

25 

10.25 

10.50 

10,75 

11.00 

11.25 

11.50 

11.75 

12.00 

12.25 

12.50 

12.75 

30 

12.30 

12.60 

12.90 

13.20 

13.50 

13.80 

'14.10 

14.40 

14JO 

15.00 

15.30 

40 

16.40 

16.80 

17.20 

17.60 

18.00 

18.40 

18.80 

19.20 

19.60 

20.00 

20.40 

50 

20.50 

21.00 

21.50 

22.00 

22.50 

23.00 

23.50 

24.00 

24.50 

25.00 

25.50 

60 

24.60 

25.20 

25.80 

26.40 

27.00 

27.60 

28.20 

28.80 

29.40 

30.00 

30.60 

70 

28:70 

29.40 

30.10 

30.80 

31.50 

32.20 

32.90 

33.00 

34.30 

35.00 

£5.73 

80 

32.80 

33.60 

34.40 

35.20 

36.00 

36.80 

37.60 

38.40 

39.20 

40.00 

40.80 

90 

36.90 

37.80 

38.70 

39.60 

40.50 

41.40 

42.30 

43.20 

44.10 

4B.OO 

45.92 

100 

41.00 

42.00 

43.00 

44.0:) 

45.00  46.0;! 

47.00 

48.00 

49.00 

50.00 

51.00 

Nos 

52  ct. 

53  ct. 

54  ct. 

55  ct. 

56  ct. 

57  ct. 

58  ct. 

59  ct. 

60  ct. 

61  ct. 

62  ct. 

2 

1.04 

1.06 

1.08 

1.10 

1.12 

1.14 

1.16 

1.18 

1.20 

1.22 

1.24 

3 

1.56 

1.59 

1.62 

1.65 

1.68 

1.71 

1.74 

1.77 

1.80 

1.83 

1.84 

4 

2.08 

2.12 

2.16 

2.20 

2.24 

2.28 

2.32 

2.36 

2.40 

2.44 

2.48 

5 

2.60 

2.65 

2.70 

2.75 

2.80 

2.85 

2.90 

2.95 

3.00 

3.05 

3.11 

6 

3.12 

3.18 

3.24 

3.30 

3.36 

3.42 

3.48 

3.54 

3.60 

3.66 

3.71 

7 

3.64 

3.71 

3.78 

3.85 

3.92 

3.99 

4.06 

4.13 

4.20 

4.27 

4.34 

8 

4.16 

4.24 

4.32 

4,40 

4.48 

4.56 

4.64 

4.72 

4.80 

4.88 

4.9$ 

9 

4.68 

4.77 

4.86 

4.95 

5.04 

5.13 

5.22 

5.31 

5.40 

5.49 

5.58 

10 

5.20 

5.30 

5.40 

5.50 

5.60 

5.70 

v.80 

5.90 

6.00 

6.10 

6.20 

11 

5.72 

5.83 

5.94 

6.05 

6.16 

6.27 

8.38 

6.49 

6.60 

6.71 

6.82 

12 

6.24 

6.36 

6.48 

6.60 

6.72 

6.84 

6.96 

7.08 

7.20 

7.32 

7.44 

13 

6.76 

6.89 

7.02 

7.15 

7.28 

7.41 

7.54 

7.67 

7.80 

7.93 

8.06 

14 

7.28 

7.42 

7.56 

7.70 

7.84 

7.98 

8.12 

8.26 

8.40 

8.54 

8.6ft 

15 

7.80 

7.95 

8.10 

8.25 

8.40 

8.55 

8.70 

8.85 

9.00 

9.15 

9.30 

16 

8.32 

8.48 

8.64 

8.80 

8.96 

9.12 

9.28 

9.44 

9.60 

9.76 

9.92 

17 

8,84 

9.01 

9.18 

9.35 

9.52 

9.69 

9.86 

10.03 

10.20 

10.37 

10.54 

18 

9.36 

9.54 

9.72 

9.90 

10.08 

10.26 

10.44 

10.62 

10.80 

10.98 

11  16 

19 

9.88 

10.07 

10.26 

10.45 

10.64 

10.83 

11.02 

11.21 

11.40 

11.59 

11.78 

20 

10.40 

10.60 

10.80 

11.00 

11.20 

11.40 

11.60 

11.80 

12.00 

12.20 

12.40 

25 

13.00 

13.25 

13.50 

13.75 

14.00 

14.25 

14.50 

14.75 

15.00 

15.25 

15.50 

30 

15.60 

15.90 

16.20 

16.50 

16.80 

17.10 

17.40 

17.70 

18.00 

18.30 

18.60 

40 

20.80 

21.10 

21.60 

22.00 

22.40 

22.80 

23.20 

23.60 

24.00 

24.42 

24.80 

50 

26.00 

26.50 

27.00 

27.50 

28.00  28.50 

29.00 

29.50 

30.00 

30.50 

31.00 

60 

31.20 

31.80 

32.40 

33.00 

33.60  34.20 

34.80 

35.40 

36.00 

36.60 

37.20 

70 

36.40 

37.10    37.80 

38.50 

39.20  39.90 

40.60 

41.30 

42.00 

42.70 

43.40 

80 

41.60 

42.40 

43.20 

44.00 

44.80  45.60 

46.40  i  47.20 

48.00 

48.80 

49.60 

90 

46.80 

47.70 

48.60!  49.50 

50.40!  51.30 

52.20    53.10 

54.00 

54.90 

55.80 

100 

52.00 

53.00 

54.00    55.00 

56.00[  57.00  i  58.00  1  59.00 

60.00  J  61.00 

62.00 

602      . 

READY   RECKONER. 

If  the  Number  required  is  not  found  in  the  Tables,  add  two  Numbers  to, 
gether  ;  for  instance,  if  35  bushels  are  required,  add  the  prices  opposite 
30  and  5  together  ;  and  so  for  365  bushels—  trebl 


add  60  and  5  together. 


le  the  value  of  100,  and 


B~ 

62V2ct.|(53ct.|64ct. 

65  ct. 

66  ct. 

66%ct. 

67  ct. 

68  ct. 

69  ct. 

70  et. 

71  ct. 

2 

1.25     i    1.26]  1.28 

1.30 

1.32 

1.331/3 

1.34 

1.36 

1.38 

1.40 

1.42 

3 

1.87V 

,     3.89    1.92 

1.95 

1.98 

2.00 

2.01 

2.04 

2.07 

2.10 

2.13 

4 

2.50 

•     2.52    2.56 

2.60 

2.64 

2.66% 

2.68 

2.72 

2.76 

2.80 

2.84 

5 

3.12V 

,     3.151  3.20 

3.25 

3.30 

3.331/3 

3.35 

3.40 

3.45 

3.50 

3.55 

6 

3.75 

3.78    3.84 

3.90 

3.96 

4.00 

4.02 

4.08 

4.14 

4.20 

4.28 

7 

4.37V 

,     4.41!  4.48 

4.55 

4.62 

4.66% 

4.69 

4.76 

4.83 

4.90 

4.97 

8 

5.00 

"     5.04   5.12 

5.20 

5.28 

5.331/3 

5.36 

5.44 

5.52 

5.60 

56$ 

9 

5.62V 

,     5.67!  5.76 

5.85 

5.94 

6.00 

6.03 

6.12 

6.21 

6.30 

6.3? 

10 

6.25 

"     6.3( 

»    6.40 

6.50 

6.60 

6.66% 

6.70 

6.80 

6.90 

7.00 

7.1ft 

11 

6.871/ 

5     6.9 

i    7.04 

7.15 

7.26 

7.33% 

7.37 

7.48 

7.59 

7.70 

7.81 

12 

7.50  ' 

7.5 

3    7.68 

7.80 

7.92 

8.00 

8.04 

8.16 

8.28 

8.40 

8.52 

13 

8.12V. 

,     8.1 

)    8.32 

8.45 

8.58 

8.6624 

8.71 

8.84 

8.97 

9.10 

9.23 

14 

8.75 

8.8 

)    8.96 

9.10 

9.24 

9.331/3 

9.38 

9.52 

9.  66 

9.80 

9.94 

15 

9.37V. 

,     9.4, 

>    9.60 

9.75 

9.90 

10.00 

10.05 

10.20 

10.35 

10.50 

10.65 

16 
17 

10.00 
10.62V. 

10.0 
,   10.7 

<  10.24 
L   10.  SS 

10.40 
11.05 

10.56 
11.22 

10.66% 

10.72 
11.39 

10.88 
11.56 

11.04 
11.73 

11.20 
11.90 

11.36 
12.07 

18 

11.2C 

ll.34ill.52 

11.701 

11.88 

12.'00/3 

12.06 

12.24 

12.42 

12.60 

12.78 

19 

11.87^ 

11.9712.16 

12.35 

12.54112.66% 

12.73 

12.92 

13.11 

13.30 

13.49 

20 

12.50 

12.6( 

)  12.80 

13.00 

13.20ll3.33i2, 

13.40 

13.60 

13.80 

14.00 

14.20 

25 

15.62V; 

,   15.7, 

>  16.00 

16.25 

16.50 

16.66% 

16.75 

17.00 

17.25 

17.50 

17.75 

30 

18.75 

18.9( 

)  19.20 

19.50 

19.80 

20.00 

20.10 

20.40 

20.70 

21.00 

21.  3C  " 

40 

25.00 

25.2( 

)  25.60 

26.00 

26.40 

26.66% 

26.80 

27.20 

27.60 

28.00 

28.40 

60 

31.25 

31.50i32.00 

32.50 

33.00 

33.33$ 

33.50 

34.00 

34.50 

35.00 

35.50 

GO 

37.50 

37.8< 

)  38.40 

39.00 

39.60 

40.00 

40.20 

40.80 

41.40 

42.00 

42.60 

70 

43.75 

44.K 

)  44.80 

45.50 

46.20  46.66% 

46.90 

47.60 

48.30 

49.00 

49.70 

80 

50.00 

50.4( 

)  51.20 

52.00 

52.80)53.33% 

53.00 

54.40 

55.20 

56.00 

56.80 

90 

51.25 

56.70  157.60 

58.50 

69.40  160.00 

60.30 

61.20 

62.10 

63.00 

63.90 

100 

62.50 

63.00:64.00    i;r,.00 

66.00 

67.00 

68.00 

69.00 

70.00 

71.00 

Nos 

72  ct. 

73  ct. 

74  ct. 

75  ct. 

76  ct. 

77  ct. 

78  ct. 

V-cfc. 

80  ct. 

81  ct. 

82  ct 

2 

1.44 

1.46 

1.48 

1.50 

1.52 

1.54 

1.56 

1.58 

1.60 

1.62 

1.64 

3 

2.16 

2.19 

2.22 

2.25 

2.28 

2.31 

2.34 

2.37 

2.40 

2.43 

2.46 

4 

2.88 

2.92 

2.96 

3.00 

3.04 

3.08 

3.12 

3.16 

3.20 

3.24 

3.2S 

6 

3.60 

3.65 

3.70 

3.75 

3.80 

3.85 

3.90 

3.95 

4.00 

4.06 

4.10 

6 

4.32 

4.38 

4.44 

4.50 

4.56 

4.62 

4.68 

4.74 

4.80 

4.86 

4.92 

7 

5.04 

5.11 

5.18 

5.25 

5.32 

5.39 

6.46 

5.53 

5.60 

6.67 

5.74 

8 

5.76 

5.84 

5.92 

6.00 

6.08 

6.16 

6.24 

6.32 

6.40 

6.48 

6.66 

9 

6.48 

6.57 

6.66 

6.75 

6.84 

6.93 

7.02 

7.11 

7.20 

7.29 

7.38 

10 

7.20 

7.30 

7.40 

7.50 

7.60 

7.70 

7.80 

7.90 

8.00 

8.10 

8.20 

11 

7.92 

8.03 

8.14 

8.25 

8.30 

8.47 

8.68 

8.69 

8.80 

8.91 

9.02 

12 

8.64 

8.76 

8.88 

9.00 

9.12 

9.24 

9.36 

9.48 

9.60 

9.72 

9.84 

13 

9.36 

9.49 

9.62 

9.75 

9.88 

10.01 

10.14 

10.27 

10.40 

10.63 

10.66 

14 

10.08 

10.22 

10.36 

10.50< 

10.64 

10.78 

10.92 

11.06 

11.20 

11.34 

11.48 

15 

10.80 

10.95 

11.10 

11.25 

11.40 

11.55 

11.70 

11.85 

12.00 

12.15 

12.30 

16 

11.52 

11.68 

11.24 

12.00 

12.16 

12.32 

12.48 

12.64 

12.80 

12.96 

13.12 

17 

12.24 

12.41 

12.58 

12.75 

12.92 

13.09 

13.26 

13.43 

13.60 

13.77 

13.94 

18 

12.96 

13.14 

13.32 

13.50 

13.68 

13.86 

14.04 

14.22 

14.40 

14.68 

14.76 

19 

13.68 

13.87 

14.06 

14.25 

14.44 

14.63 

14.82 

15.01 

15.20 

15.39 

15.58 

20 

14.40 

14.60 

14.80 

15.00 

15.20 

15.40 

15.60 

15.80 

16.00 

16.20 

1640 

25 

18.00 

1825 

18.50 

18.75 

19.00 

19.25 

19.50 

19.75 

20.00 

20.25 

20.  5f 

30 

21.60 

21.90 

22.20 

22.50 

22.80 

23.10 

23.40 

23.70 

24.00 

24.30 

24.60 

40 

28.80 

29.20 

29.60 

30.00 

30.40 

30.80 

31.20 

31.60 

32.00 

32.40 

32.80 

60 

36.00 

3650 

37.00 

37.50 

38.00 

38.50 

39.00 

39.50 

40.00 

40.60 

41.00 

60 

43.20 

43.80 

44.40 

45.00 

45.60 

46.20 

46.80 

47.40 

48.00 

48.60 

49.20 

70 

50.40 

51.10 

51.80 

52.50 

53.20 

53.90 

54.60  1  55.30 

56.00 

56.70 

57.40 

SO 

57.60 

68.40 

50.20 

60.00 

60.80    61.60 

62.40  !  63.20  i  ^4.00 

64.80 

65.60 

90 
100 

64.80 
72.00 

65.70    66.60    67.50i  68.40    69.30 
73.00{  74.001  75.00!  76.001  77.00 

70.20  1  71.10  i  72.  (K/  72.90 
78.0V  '  -9.00  1  «O.CK/  31.00 

73.80 
82.00. 

READY  RECKONER 

;he  Number  required  is  not  found  in  the  Tables,  add  two  Number*  to. 
gether;  for  instance,  if  35  bushels  are  required,  add  the  prices  opposite 
20  and  5  together ;  and  so  for  365  bushels— treble  the  value  of  100,  au4 
add  60  and  5  together. 


tfee 

83  ct. 

84  ct. 

85  ct. 

86  ct. 

87  ct. 

87i/2ct. 

88  ct 

89  ct. 

90  ct. 

91  ct. 

32  ct. 

2 

1.66 

1  68 

1  70 

1  72 

1.74 

1.75 

1.7f 

5      1.78 

1.80 

1.82 

1.84 

3 

2.49 

2^52 

2^55 

2!28 

2.61 

2.621/2 

2.6< 

t      2.67 

2.70 

2.73 

2.7S 

4 

3.32 

3.36 

3.40 

3.44 

3.48 

3.50 

3.K 

I      3.56 

3.60 

3.64 

3.68 

6 

4.16 

4.20 

4.25 

4.30 

4.35 

4.371,4 

4.4( 

)      4.45 

4.50 

•4.55  / 

4.60 

e 

4.98 

5.04 

6.10 

6.16 

5.22 

&  25 

5.2> 

<      5.34 

5.40 

5.46 

5.52 

7 

5.81 

5.88 

5.95 

6.02 

6.09 

6.121/2 

6.  11 

>      6.23 

6.30 

6.37 

6.44 

8 

6.64 

S.72 

6.80 

6.88 

6.96 

7.00 

7.0* 

I      7.12 

7.20 

7.28 

7.36 

9 

7.47 

7.56 

7.65 

7.74 

7.83 

7.871/2 

7.95 

5      8.01 

8.10 

8.19 

8.28 

10 

8.30 

8.40 

8.50 

8.60 

8.70 

8.75 

8.80      8.90 

9.00 

9.10 

11 

9.13 

9.24 

9.35 

9.46 

9.57 

9.621/2 

9.681     9.79 

9.90 

10.01 

10.12 

fc 

9.96 

10.08 

10.20 

10.32 

10.44 

10.50 

10.51 

5    10.68 

10.80 

10.92 

11.04 

13 

10.79 

10.92 

11.05 

11.18 

11.31 

11.371/2 

11.4- 

I    11.57 

11.70 

11.83 

11.96 

14 

11.62 

11.76 

11.90 

12.04 

12.18 

12.25 

12.35 

5    12.46 

12.00 

12.74 

12.88 

15 

12.45 

12.60 

12.75 

12.90 

13.05 

13.121/3 

13.2( 

)    13.35 

13.50 

13.65 

13.80 

16 

13.28 

13.44 

13.60 

13.76 

13.92 

14.00 

14.  0* 

5    14.24 

14.40 

14.56 

14.72 

17 

14.11 

14.28 

14.45 

14.62 

14.79 

14.871/2 

14.  9( 

>    15.13 

15.30 

15.47 

15.64 

18 

14.94 

15.12 

15.30 

15.48 

15.66 

15.75 

15.  & 

I    16.02 

16.20 

16.38 

16.56 

19 

15.77 

15.96 

16.15 

15.34 

16.53 

16.621/2 

16.75 

i    16.91 

17.10 

17.29 

17.48 

20 

16.60 

16.80 

17.00 

17.20 

17.40 

17.50 

17.6( 

)    17.80 

18.00 

18.20 

18.40 

•25 

20.75 

21.00 

21.25 

21.50 

21.75 

21.871/2 

22.<H 

>    22.25 

22.50 

2?.75 

23.00 

30 

24.90 

25.20 

25.50 

25.80 

26.10 

26.25 

26.4( 

)    26.70 

27.00 

27.30 

27.60 

40 

33.20 

33.60 

34.00 

34.40 

34.80 

35.00 

35.  2( 

)    35.60 

36.00 

36.40 

36.80 

BO 

41.60 

42.00 

42.50 

43.00 

43.50 

43.75 

44.01 

)   44.50 

45.00 

45.50 

46.00 

60 

49.80 

50.40 

51.00 

51.60 

52.20 

52.50 

52.81 

)    53.40 

54.00 

54.60 

55.20 

70 

58.10 

58.80 

59.50 

60.20 

60.90 

61.25 

61.61 

>    62.30 

63.00 

63.70 

64.40 

80 

66.40 

67.20 

68.00 

68.80 

69.60 

70.00 

70.41 

)    74.20 

72.00 

72.80 

73.60 

90 

74.70 

75.60 

76.50 

77.40 

78.30 

78.75 

79.201  80.10 

81.00 

81.90 

82.80 

»0tf 

83.00 

84.00 

85.00 

86.00 

87.00 

87.50 

88.00!  89.00 

90.00 

91.00 

92.  0« 

tfos 

D3ct. 

94  ct. 

95  ct. 

96  ct. 

97  ct. 

98  ct. 

99  ct. 

$1. 

$2. 

S3. 

T 

1.86 

1.88 

1.90 

1.92 

1.94 

1.96 

1.98 

2. 

4. 

6. 

3 

279 

2.82 

2.85 

2.88 

2.91 

2.94 

2.97 

3. 

6. 

9. 

4 

3.Y2 

3.76 

3.80 

3.84 

3.88 

3.92 

3.66 

4. 

8. 

12. 

4.85 

4.70 

4.75 

4.80 

4.85 

4.90 

4.95 

5. 

10. 

15. 

6 

5.58 

5.64 

5.70 

6.76 

6.82 

5.88 

5.94 

6. 

12. 

18. 

6.51 

S.58 

6.65 

6.72 

6.79 

6.86 

6.93 

7. 

14. 

21. 

7.44 

f.52 

7.60 

7.68 

7.76 

7.84 

7.92 

8. 

16. 

24. 

9 

8.37 

«.46 

8.55 

8.64 

8.73 

8.82 

8.91 

9. 

18. 

27. 

10 

9.30 

9.40 

9.50 

9.60 

9.70 

9.80 

9.90 

10. 

20. 

30. 

11 

10.23 

10.34 

10.45 

10.56 

10.67 

10.78 

10.89 

11. 

22. 

33 

12 

11.16 

11.28 

11.40 

11.52 

11.64 

11.76 

11.88 

12. 

24. 

36. 

13 

12.09 

12.22 

12.35 

12.48 

12.61 

12.74 

12.87 

13. 

26. 

39. 

14 

13.02 

13.16 

13.30 

13.44 

13.58 

13.72 

13.86 

14. 

28. 

42. 

15 

13.95 

14.25 

14.40 

14.55 

14.70 

14.85 

15. 

30. 

45. 

16 

14.88 

is!  04 

15.20 

15.36 

15.52 

15.68 

15.84 

16. 

32. 

48. 

17 

15.81 

15.98 

16.15 

16.32 

16.49 

16.66 

16.83 

17. 

34. 

51. 

18 

16.74 

16.92 

17.10 

17.28 

17.46 

17.64 

17.82 

18. 

36. 

54. 

19 

17.67 

17.86 

18.05 

18.24 

18.43 

18.62 

18.81 

19. 

38. 

57. 

50 

18.60 

18.80 

19.00 

19.  2J 

19.40 

19.60 

19.80 

20. 

40. 

60. 

25 

23.25 

23.50 

23.75 

24.00 

24.25 

24.50 

24.75 

25. 

50. 

75. 

30 

27.90 

29.20 

28.50 

28.80 

29.10 

29.40 

29.70 

30. 

60. 

90. 

40 

37.20 

37.60 

38.00 

88.40 

38.80 

39.20 

39.00 

40. 

80. 

120. 

SO 

46.50 

47.00 

47.50 

48.00 

48.50 

49.00 

49.50 

50. 

100. 

150. 

€0 

55.80 

56.40 

57.00 

57.60 

58.20 

58.80 

59.40 

60. 

120. 

180. 

70 

65.10 

65.80 

66.50 

67.20 

67.90 

68.60 

69.30 

70. 

142. 

214 

80 

74.40 

75.20 

76.00 

76.80 

77.60 

78.40 

79.20 

80. 

160. 

240. 

90 

83.70 

84.60 

85.50 

86.40 

87.30      88.20 

89.10 

90. 

180. 

270. 

400 

93.00 

94.00 

95.00 

96.00 

97.00  i  9».00 

89.00  1     100. 

m 

30fe 

,  STATURE,  &c.,  o*1  MAX.— The  mean  weight,  andstature  oftht: 
human  body  at  birth,  and  at  every  subsequent  age,  together  with  th« 
expectancy  of  life  from  20  to  70  years  of  age,  is  as  follows. 


MALES. 

FEMALES. 

YEARS. 

YEARS. 

Age 

Feet. 

Lbs. 

Age 

Feet. 

Lbs. 

Age. 

Expectancy 

Age. 

Expec- 
tancy. 

0 

1.64 

7.06 

0 

1.62 

6.42 

20 

4  ji/2 

46 

«4 

£ 

2.60 

25.01 

2 

2.56 

23-53 

21 

40% 

47 

2314 

:  i 

3-04 
3-44 

31-38 

38.80 

4 
6 

3-oo 
3-33 

28.67 
35-29 

22 
23 

4°i/ 

39$ 

48 
49 

22ft 
22 

9 

4.00 

49-95 

9 

3-92 

47.10 

24 

38% 

50 

2I1/k 

it 

4-36 

59-77 

ii 

4.26 

56-57 

25 

38 

5' 

20^ 

13 

4-72 

75.81 

13 

4.60 

72-65 

26 

37% 

52 

19% 

15 

5.07 

96.40 

15 

4-92 

89.04 

27 

3672 

53 

19 

n 

20 

30 

5-36 
5-44 
5-49 
5-52 

116.56 
127.59 
132.46 
140.38 

20 

30 

|:3 

5-18 

104-34 
112.55 
115.30 
119.82 

28 
29 
30 
31 

35% 

34% 
33% 

54 

1 

;? 

40 

5-52 

140.42 

40 

5-18 

121.  8l 

32 

33 

58 

J5  Mf 

50 

5-49 

139.96 

5° 

5-04 

123.86 

33 

32l,4 

59 

15 

60 

5-38 

136.07 

60 

4-97 

119.76 

34 

3*% 

60 

i4JA 

70 

5-32 

131-27 

70 

4-97 

113.60 

35 

3* 

61 

14  , 

60 

5-29 

127-54 

80 

4-94 

108.80 

36 

3°72 

62 

Utt 

90 

5.29 

127.54 

90 

4-94 

108.81 

37 

29% 

63 

13 

38 

29 

64 

I21/t 

39 

27% 

U 

"g 

Mean....  103.  66 

Mean....  93.73 

41 
42 

261/0 

3 

vPL 

43 
44 

25% 

69 

7o 

1 

45 

24%_    . 

The  weight  of  the  male  infant  at  birth  is  1 1bs.  avoirdupois  ;  that  ok  th* 
female  is  not  quite  6y2lbs.  The  maximum  weight  (14oy2lbs.)  of  tho« 
male  is  attained  at  the  age  of  40 ;  that  of  the  female  (nearly  124  Ibs.)  id 
not  attained  until  50 ;  from  which  ages  they  decline  afterwards ;  th» 
male  to  127*4  lbs,?  the  female  to  100  Ibs.,  nearly  a  stone.  The  full  grown 
adult  is  20  times  as  heavy  a8  a  new  born  infant.  In  the  first  year  hfr 
triples  his  weight,  afterwards  the  growth  proceeds  in  geometrical  prog, 
ression,  go  that  if  50  infants  in  their  first  year  weigh  1000  Ibs..  they  will 
in  the  second  weigh  1210  Ibs.;  in  the  third  1331  Ibs.;  in  thefourth  1464  Ibs.; 
the  term  remaining  very  constant  up  to  the  ages  of  11-12  in  females  ;and 
12-13  in  males  ;  where  it  must  be  nearly  doubled ;  afterwards  it  roav 
be  continued,  and  will  be  found  very  nearly  correct  up  to  the  age  of 
\8  or  19,  when  the  growth  proceeds  very  slowly.  At  an  equality  of  ago 
Aio  male  is  generally  heavier  than  the  female.  Towards  the  age  of  12 
years  only,  an  individual  of  each  sex,  has  the  same  weight.  The  mala 
attains  the  maximum  weight  about  the  age  of  40,  and  he  begins  to  losa- 
it  very  sensibly  towards  60.  At  80  he  loses  about  13.2328  Ibs. ;  and  the 
stature  is  diminished  2-756  inches.  Females  attain  their  maximum  weight 
about  50.  The  mean  weight  of  a  mature  man  is  104 Ibs.,  and  of  an  aver- 
age woman  94 Ibs.  In  old  age  the v  lose  about  12  or  14 Ibs.  Men  weight 
most  at  40,  women  at  50  and  begin  to  lose  weight  at  60.  The  meaa 
weight  otf  both  sexes  in  old  age  is  that  which  they  had  at  19. 

When  the  male  and  female  have  assumed  their  complete  development,, 
they  weigh  almost  exactly  20  times  as  much  as  at  birth,  while  the  stat- 
ure is  about  3Va  times  greater. 

Children  lose  weight  during  the  first  three  days  after  birth  ;  at  the  ape 
of  a  week  they  sensibly  increase  ;  after  1  year  they  triple  their  weight ;. 
then  they  require  6  years  to  double  their  weight,  and  13  to  quadruple  it.. 
In  a  child  the  head  is  eqnal  to  a  fifth  part,  and  in  a  full  grown  man  to 
an  eighth  part  of  the  height  of  the  individual.  The  human  skeleton, 
weighs  from  9  Ibs.  6  ozs.  to  16  Ibs.,  and  the  blood  27  or  28 Ibs.  &  opined 
human  body  leaves  a  residuum  of  onlySozs.  All  beside*  to  r«st<»*«»<*  to 
the  gaseous  elements. 


Weight  of  Cast  Iron  Pipes  of  Different  Thicknesses,  from  1  inch  to  22 
inches  in  Diameter.    1  foot  in  Length. 


Diam 

Thickn 

Weight. 

Diam 

Thickn 

Weight. 

Diam, 

Thickn 

Weight. 

Ins. 

•Ins. 

Lbs. 

Ins. 

Ins. 

Lbs. 

Ins. 

Ins. 

Lbs. 

1. 

1A 

3.06 

7.1/2 

1/2 

39.22 

•% 

104.76 

% 

6.05 

% 

49.92 

•78 

123.3 

l.i/i 

' 

1/4 

3.67 

% 

60.48 

1. 

142.  Iff 

% 

6. 

2 

71.76 

11 

71.0T 

1% 

79 

6.89 

i 

83.28 

•78 

89.61 

72 

9.8 

8. 

72 

41.64 

•  /4 

108.46 

!•% 

78 

7.8 

% 

52.68 

•  % 

127.6 

72 

11.04 

74 

64.27 

i! 

147.03 

4 

7» 

8.74 

t? 

76.12 

14.1/a 

\L 

73.72 

72 

12.23 

1 

88.2 

•78 

92.66 

3.1/4 

78 

9.65 

^•72 

1A 

44.11 

•3/4 

112.1 

72 

13.48 

% 

66.16 

% 

131.86 

S»72 

78 

10.57 

8/4 

68. 

1. 

151.92 

72 

14.66 

T/8 

80.5 

15. 

75.96 

% 

19.05 

1 

93.28 

•78 

95.T2 

€.74 

79 

11.54 

9. 

46.5 

•34 

115.T8 

72 

15.91 

6£ 

69.92 

•78 

136.15 

78 

20.59 

s 

71.7 

i! 

156.82 

3. 

% 

12.28 

78 

84.7 

15.1/a 

78.4 

72 

17.15 

1 

97.98 

•% 

98.78 

% 

22.15 

9.72 

1A 

48.98 

•  7/r 

119.49 

*/i 

27.56 

% 

62.02 

•  f 

140.4 

3.1/4 

72 

18.4 

% 

75.32 

i! 

161.82 

79 

23.72 

% 

88.98 

16. 

80.  8T 

74 

29.64 

1 

102.9 

•78 

101.82 

«.% 

i 

19.66 
25.27 

10. 

51.46 
65.08 

•  78 

123.14 
144.76 

a? 

31.2 

0 

78.99 

t 

166.6 

3.74 

72 

20.9 

/ft 

93.24 

16.  i/a 

83.3 

^8 

26.83 

t 

108.84 

•  % 

104.82 

% 

33.07 

10.1/2 

' 

53.88 

•74 

126.79 

4. 

72 

22.05 

% 

68.14 

'  11 

149.02 

78 

28.28 

74 

82.68 

1. 

171.6 

8? 

34.94 

y« 

97.44 

17 

85.73 

4.1/4 

7? 

23.35 

| 

112.68 

•% 

107.96 

78 

29.85 

11. 

I/ 

56.34 

•  8/4 

130.48 

% 

36.73 

% 

71.19 

"TS 

153.3 

a 

1C 

24.49 

8? 

86.4 

i! 

176.58 

5/! 

31.4 

7/8 

101.83 

17.77 

88.23 

34 

38.58 

1 

1176 

•% 

111.06 

4.% 

iZ 

25.7 

11.72 

l/» 

58.82 

•3/4 

134.16 

79 

32.91 

74.28 

•7/8 

157.50 

74 

40.43 

90.06 

181.33 

8. 

72 

26.94 

/8 

106.14 

18. 

114.1 

78 

•U34 

1 

122.62 

•3/4 

137.8* 

SA 

42.28 

12. 

V2 

61.26 

V 

161.9 

6.  i/a 

72 

29.4 

5/s 

77.36 

186.24 

% 

37.44 

4l 

93.7 

19. 

5 

120.24 

2 

45.94 

% 

110.48 

•» 

145.2 

6. 

i/4 

31.82 

i 

127.42 

V 

170.4T 

% 

40.56 

12.1/2 

g 

63.7 

t 

195.92 

3? 

49.6 

£0.4 

20. 

126.33 

78 

68.96 

•  ^4 

97.4 

•8/4 

152.53 

^i/ 

TJ 

34.32 

7/ 

114.72 

% 

179.02 

% 

43.68 

1   ' 

132.35 

i! 

205.8 

3? 

53.3 

13. 

66.14 

21. 

132.5 

% 

63.18 

% 

83.46 

'•% 

159.84 

^ 

72 

36.66 

3/i 

101.08  ! 

1L 

187.6 

% 

46.8 

7» 

118.97 

1. 

215.52 

8? 

66.96 

1 

137.28 

22. 

138.6 

V 

67.6 

13.7a 

1/4 

68.64 

!3/4 

187.24 

1  * 

7S.39  | 

4t 

86.55 

•7«  i 

196.4* 

;ii 


*s  3*: 

i 


N 

*il 


N  \O  f>  M 
•«»•  "^oo   " 


i\OOt^.ioOf^'^'l^t^>     ^ 

1    <4    CO  10  t^  ON  O    «    -1-00    COW 

M   M   M   M  f|   H 


IA  •»>  M  M   o  00 

t^-<j-«oou-ii-i 


I       I 

«3  |M 


y 


n 

n 


cOfor^wooO"^  mxO  &    «   t^  f^  0 
f'j  'T^  »>>o6  6   "-  ro  «o  «^  C>  «   4x6  (>  f!   -4- 

*"  it  M-M  M  M  a  «»rt  «  ft  MM 


. 

M   M  (^  co  ^f  »OO   l^»O^O    "^   rointN.O^M   ro  mSO    O 

M^IMM'MftffMCt.  4lf9 


« 


S'ff^RS 

'    6»«    -^ 

N  »o  tn 


§«< 


M 


^    N  o  O  O  N  irt  O  \O  M  M  0  w  «vO  •»  »s  •*  M  M  «  mae  f^ 


«  •»  ci  N  co  >f  »n>o  t^.00  o>  « 


«vo  irt  M  ee  n»»eo  o  0  O>  «x 

-*\O   O  ro  t^  M  O>o  "»  *  M  ** 


•   »0   t^  •  A   «     fO   I 


•ainnfcg  jo 
•PTS  P" 


RELATIVE    STRENGTH     O"    BODIES    TO    RESIST    TORSION, 
LEAD  BEING  i. 


Tin 1.4 

Copper 4.3 

Yeilow  Brass. 4.6 


Gun    Metal 5.0 

Cast  Iron.   9.0 

Swedish  Iron 9.5 


English  Iron 10.  r 

Blistered  Steel 16.6. 

Shear  Steel 17. » 


CAPACITIES,  SIZE  AND  WEIGHT  OF   COPPERS. 


Depth 
in 
Inches. 

Gallons 

Weight 
in 
pounds. 

Depth 
in 
inches. 

Gallons 

Weight 
in 
pounds. 

Depth 
in 
inches. 

Gallons 

Weight 
in 
pounds* 

9% 

i 

i% 

24 

15 

22% 

29% 

29 

4€%    J 

«ajj 

14 

2 

3 

J* 

•  *% 

25 

16 
17 

3» 

30 
32 

30 
36 

45    r 

4 

6 

2554 

18 

271 

34 

43 

64% 

ft 

5 

1% 

26 

19 

35 

48 

'7/2 

6 

9 

36^ 

20 

3'1 

36 

53 

79^» 

i8j| 

7 

26^ 

21 

37 

58 

87 

19% 

8 

12 

*7i 

22 

331 

38 

6£ 

74  fa 

20}| 

9 

J3% 

23 

39 

67 

Iooy» 

10 

«  5 

27% 

24 

36^ 

40 

106% 

21% 

ii 

277i 

25 

45 

104 

156 

22 

12 

18 

28 

26 

39 

5° 

146 

219 

22% 

13 

'9% 

28% 

27 

4o% 

23  tt 

14 

21 

29 

28 

42 

WEIGHT  OF  SQUARE  AND  RCUNDCAST  IRON. 


Square  per  Foot. 

Round  per  Foot. 

Weight. 

Size. 

Weight. 

Size. 

Weight. 

Size. 

Weight. 

.   Size. 

Inches 
square. 

Pounds. 

Inches 
Square. 

Pounds. 

Inches 
Diam. 

Pounds. 

Inches 
Diam. 

Pounq»- 

% 

.78 

4 

50. 

% 

.61 

4/8 

4'-7« 

79 

X.22 

4/8 

53-14 

^0 

•95 

^K 

44.27 

ZA 

1.75 

4  /* 

56-44 

y». 

1.38 

47B 

46.97 

i 

a-39 

47» 

59.  8  1 
63.28 

i 

1.87 
2.45 

4  fa 

49.70 
52.50 

i/4 

3-95 

478 

66.84 

1/8 

3.10 

4fi 

55-37 

H 

4.88 

70.50 

3.83 

4/8 

58.3* 

I 

5-9° 
7«3 
8-25 

t 

74.26 
78.12 
82.08 

1 

4.64 

5t/ 
5$ 

6i.35 

64.46- 
67.64 

5i 

9-57 

5  74 

86.13 

1^X4 

7-5i 

ST^ 

70.09 

% 

10.98 
12.50 

*% 

90.28 
94-53 

2 

8.62 
9.81 

1 

74.24 

77-65 

;/8 

14.11 

ST! 

98.87 

2/S 

ii  .08 

5% 

15-81 

c3/ 

103-32 

2   y^ 

12.42 

5Ji 

84!7t 

TO 

17.62 

5/a 

107.86 

23/i 

13-84 

6 

88.35 

% 

19-53 

6 

112.50 

2% 

15-33 

6^ 

95-87 

K 

21-53 

6l/L 

122.08 

2^8 

16.91 

6% 

103.69' 

% 

6Va 

132-03 

2/i 

18.56 

6M 

111.82 

% 

25.83 

6)| 

142.38 

2>i 

20.28 

y 

120.26 

3 

28.12 

• 

J53-I2 

3 

22.  iS 

7/i 

129. 

3/4 

30.51 

7% 

164.25 

3/8 

23.96 

7% 

138.05 

3/i 

33- 

35-59 

% 

I75-78 
187.68 

& 

25.92 
27-95 

P 

147.41 

3% 

38.28 

8 

200.12 

3% 

30,l6 

8/^ 

167.05 

378 

41.06 

8^ 

212.56 

378 

32.25 

8% 

177.19- 

3zi 

43-94 

8% 

225.78 

37* 

34-51 

8-K 

187.91 

3/i 

46.92 

8Ji 

239-25 

3/i 

36.85 

9 

i^3.7» 

9 

253.12 

4 

39.37 

9Ji         210. 

J 

608 


WEIGHT  OF  IRON  PER  FOOT. 


WEIGHT  OF  FLAT  STEEL  PER  FOOT. 


1.27 

1 70 


.958 


2-39 


1. 06 

2.13 
2.66 


1.17 


2.92 


3.19 


2.98 
3-72 


a-55 
3.40 
4.26 


8.87 
3-83 
4-79 


aV3 
2.13 
3.20 

4.26 
5.32 


a-34 
3-5! 


6.9* 


7-45 


MOULDERS  AND  PATTERN  MAKERS'  TABLE. 
Cast  Iron  being  i,      j      Bar  Iron,  being  i,  White  Pine,  being  t,    /' 


Bar  Iron  equal 
Iteel 
Urass          « 

M 


1.07  Cast  In 

1. 08  Steel 
1.16  Copper 
1.2 1  Brass 
i.S5|Lead 


equ 

" 


ual 


Cast  Iron  equal 

Copper        « 


•95 
1.03 
1.16 

109  Lead 
1.48  Zinc 


t3« 
»-f 

» 


TABLES    FOR    ENGIXEEHS    ATTO    MACHINISTS. 


ftie  and    strength 
Columns.     Iron 

of  Cast   Irno 
i  in.  thick. 

Capacities  of  Cisterns,  la  galls. 
Diameter  Jrttn  2  te  25  F*t> 

£  jj 

Height  in  feet 

Depth,  10  Inches. 

I* 

4    1   6 

8 

IO 

12 

X4 

h 

Load  in  Cwts. 

t       feet       19.5 
2%      "           30.6 

8    feet  313.35 
8%         353-7* 

• 

72 

60 

49 

40 

32 

26 

3                 44.06 
3T/4             59-97 

9            396.56 
9%         461.4* 

^M 

& 

119 
178 

247 
326 
418 

*05 
143 
232 

400 

MS 
214 

288 
379 

& 

354 

<*b 
in 
172 

242 
327 

55 

,11 

220 
301 

4                 78-33 
41/!              99-  »4 
5                122.40 

sH         148.10 

6                 176.25 

10             489.2* 
it             592.4* 

12                705.00 

13             817-4 
14            959.6 

5 

522 

501 

479 

452 

427 

394 

()IL              206.85 

15           iiei.5 

^> 

607 

592 

573 

55° 

525 

497 

7                239.88 

20           1958.4 

i 

1032 
1333 

1013 
1315 

989 
-.80 

959 
1259 

924 
1224 

887 
1185 

7%            2.75-40 

25           3059-9 

1716 

1697 

672 

1640 

1603 

1561 

•0 

2119 

2100  : 

077 

2045  2007 

1964 

SI 
12 

2570 
3050 

25502 
3040  ; 

520 

020 

24902450 

2970(2930 

2410 
2900 

V/eighteof  CordwoocI 

£  « 

Height  in  feet. 

I  Cord  of  Hickorv.  . 

Jbs.  carW 

.....   4468     100 

|J 

16  ~[  i* 

20 

22     |    24  _ 

Hard  Maple...  2X64      cf 

fi.S 

IXKU  in  Cwts. 

Ash  

t?'   fl* 

3449      79 

a 

22 

t 

| 

>3|      I( 

Pitch  Pine  ...     1903      4) 

£ 

4 
7 

J 

a 

29 
0 

49 

Canada  Pine...  1870     4* 
Yellow  Oak....  2920     ft 

L 

.11 

ii 

»7 

•)      106 

J      160 

94 

144 

B) 

130 

White  Oak....  1870     £ 
Lombardy  Pop- 

5 

365 

33 

7      3io 

262 

*       Red  Oak. 

4 

46q 

44< 

t        4 

in 

386 

360 

848 

80 

5      765 

725 

686 

1142 

109 

1    ic 

'52 

1 

005 

959 

9 

to 

151; 

1916 

146 
186 

7    1416 

5    1811 

1364 

I75S 

I3H 

1697 

SI 

•158 

230 

;   9: 

48 

i 

189 

2127 

«2 

2830 

278< 

v  2730    2670 

2600 

ARITHMETICAL  SIGNS   AND  THEIR   SIONIFICATTO! 

*  Sign  of  Equality,  and  signifies  as    4+12=16. 


-r-        '*      Addition 

—       **      Subtraction 

X        *       Multiplication 

-5-        "      Division 

^         **      Square  Root 
Square  Root. 

6*  Sign  of  to  be  Squared 

7*        "      to  be  Cubed 
Powers. 

'ollowing  table  shows  weight  fn  tons  required  to  tear  asundtf 
bars  I  inch  square  of  the  following  materials. 

Oalc 5l/6  tons.     Wrought  Copper  ..15    tons 

Fir 5^    '          English  Bar  Iron.. 25      " 

Cast  Iron 7^    "         American  Iron...  .37^2  ** 

Wrought  Irou  . .- 10     tt        Blistered  Steel .... 
610 


as   8-f-8=i6  the  sum. 
as  12 — 4=8  the  remainder 
as  12X3=36  the  product, 
as  24-7-3=8  or  5U  s=8. 
Evolution    or    Extraction 

thus  82=64  Involution,  or 
thus    3^=27    the    Raising 


READY  RECKONER  TABLE1 

Wages,  Rent,  Board,  etc.  The  sum  win  be  found  heading  6tt 
•olumns,  %i,d  trie  days  and  weeks  on  the  extreme  left  hand  column.  If  th« 
iesired  sum  is  not  in  the  Table,  double  or  treble  two  or  three  suitable  numbers. 


TIME. 

$2.50. 

$2.75. 

$3.oo. 

£3.25- 

#3-5°- 

£3.75- 

$4.00. 

#4«25- 

$4.50. 

$4.75- 

«; 

•36 

•39 

•43 

.40 

.50 

•53 

•57 

.61 

.64 

.61 

.72 

.78 

.86 

•93 

-..oo 

X.07 

1.14 

1.2  1 

1.28 

x.|6 

ft  3 

1.08 

•J7 

1.29 

x-39 

1.50 

1.61 

1.71 

1.82 

x>93 

4 

1.44 

.56 

1.71 

1.86 

2.00 

2.14 

2.28 

a-43 

a-57 

2.71 

5 

x.So 

•95 

2.14 

2.32 

2.50 

2.68 

2.86 

3-03 

3.21 

3-39 

6 

2>I5 

•34 

3-57 

2.78 

3-00 

3-21 

3-43 

3.64 

3.86 

4.07 

x 

2.50 

•75 

3.00 

3-25 

3-50 

3-75 

4.00 

4-25 

4.50 

4.75 

f* 

5.00 

7.50 

5-50 
8.25 

6.00 
9.00 

6.50 
9-75 

7-00 
'O.5° 

7-5° 

XI.25 

8.00 

12.00 

8.50 
12.75 

9.00 
13-50 

9-50 
14.25 

£4 

10.00 

11.00 

12.  OO 

13.00 

14.00 

15.00 

16.00 

17.00 

18.00 

19.00 

5 

12.50 

13-75 

15.00 

16.25 

I7.50 

18.75 

20.00 

21-25 

22.50 

*3-75 

"^TIME- 

#5.00. 

£5-25- 

$5-5°- 

£5-75- 

#6.00. 

#6.25. 

£6.50. 

£6.75. 

.96 

1.92 

£7.00. 

la 

£2 

•71 
X-43 

•75 
1.50 

,'.58 

.82 
1.64 

.86 
1.72 

.89 
x.78 

•93 
x.86 

I  -00 
2.00 

R3 

2.14 

2.25 

2-37 

2.46 

2.28 

2.67 

2.79 

2.88 

3,00 

3-5* 

4 

2.86 

3.00 

3-iS 

3.28 

3.44 

3-56 

3.72 

3-84 

4.00 

4.26 

c 

3-57 

3'75 

3-94 

4.10 

4.30 

4'45 

4.65 

4.80 

5.00 

5.72 

6 

4.28 

4.50 

4-73 

4.92 

5.16 

5-34 

5-58 

5-76 

600 

6.86 

t 

5.00 

5-25 

5-50 

5-75 

6.00 

6.25 

6.50 

6-75 

7.00 

8.00 

«  3 

IO.OO 

10.50 

II.OO 

11.50 

12.00 

12.50 

13.00 

13-50 

14.00 

16.00 

^3 

15.00 

15-75 

16.50 

17.25 

18.00 

iS-75 

19.50 

20-25 

21.00 

24.00 

S>  4 

20.00 

a  i.  oo 

f2.00 

23.00 

24.00 

25.00 

26.00 

27.00 

28.00 

32.00 

5 

25.00 

26.25 

•7.50 

*8.75 

30.00 

31-25 

32.50 

33-50 

35-00 

4000 

WEIGHT  OF  LEAD  PIPE— DIFFERENT  SIZES. 


Olib'e 

AAA 

Weight 
per  foot 

Weight  Weight 
per  footl  per  foot 

B 

Weigh* 
perfoot 

C 

Weight 
perfoot 

D 

Weight 
perfoot 

D  Light 

Weight 
per  foot 

Weight 
perfoot 

E  Light 
Weight 
perfoot 

Inches 

i 

Ib.    oz. 
x       £ 

I    I 

t        c 

6          12 

9        ° 

IO          12 

'.b.    ow 

I        5 

2            0 
2          12 

3         8 
4       »= 
5      12 

8        o 
9        o 

Ib.    oz. 

I            2 

X          12 
2           S 

3        o 
4        o 
4       *2 
6        4 
7        ° 

:b.  o«. 

I         o 

l         4 

2           0 

*           4 

3         4 
3       12 
5        o 

6        o 

Ib.    oz. 
»3 

0 
12 

O 

8 

0 

4 

4 

Ib.    01. 

0         10 

o      13 

x        8 

I          12 
2            0 
2           8 

3        8 
4        c 

ib.    oz. 

Ib.    ox. 

o       8 

0         II 

X           0 

:  i 

2           0 

3         4 

Ib,    ox. 

o        9 

0        It 
t            0 

»         4 

i        8 

SIZE  AXD  CAPACITIES  OF  CRIBS  AND  BOXES. 
Crib  6%  ft.  long,  3%  ft.  broad,  3^  deep,  63%  bush.  %  peck. 
•"    Box  4  ft.  Jong,  3  ft.  ^:  in.  v  ide,  2  ft.  8  in.  deep,  36%  c.  ft.,  i  ton  of  coal* 
i«c  Box  4V2ft.  Jong,  2%"  ft.  wide,  2  feet  deep,  22%  cubic  feet. 

Box  2  ft.  long,  i  foot  4  in.  wide,  2  ft.  8  ir..  deep,  10.722  cu.  in.  i  barrel* 
Box  2  ft.  long,  x  foot  2  in.  wide,  i  foot  2  in.  deep,  5.376  cu.  in.  ^4  barrel* 
Box  i  foot  2  in.  Jong  by  16  8-10  in.  wide  and  8  in.  deep,  i  bushel. 
Box  12  x  ii  2-10  in.,  8  in.  deep,  1.075  2-10  in.  or  %  bushel. 
Box  8x8  4-ic  in.  and  8  in.  deep.  537  6-10  cu.  in.  or  I  peck. 
Box  8  x  8  in.  and  4  2-10  in.  deep,  268  8-10  cu.  in.  or  %  peck, 
»ox  7x4  in.  and  4  8-10  in.  deep,  134  4-10  cu.  in.  %  galloJU 
max.  4  x  4  in.  and  4  2-10  iu.  deep,  t/  a-xp  cu.  in.  v  QUfcrt, 


DIAMETERS,  CIRCUMFERENCES  AND  AREAS  OF  CIRCLES. 

Example.— Required  the  circumference  of  a  circle  hoop,  erring,  th* 
diameter  being  3  ft.  4  in.  In  the  column  of  circumferences,  opposite  th* 
Indicated  diaineter,  stands  10  ft.  5%  in.,  the  circumference  required.  Th»> 
just  allowance  for  contraction  of  the  metal  is  its  exact  thickness,  or  it*. 
breadth,  if  it  is  beait  edgeways,  which  must  be  added  to  the  diameter. 

The  millwright  can  at  once  ascertain  the  diameter  of  any  wheel  lie  ar  wf 
I  require,  the  pitch  and  number  of  teeth  being  given. 

Example.— If  a  wheel  is  ordered  to  be  made  to  contain  60  teeth,  th« 

§"  h  of  the  teeth  to  be  3%  inches,  the  dimensions  of  the  wheel  may  be 
wn  simply  as  follows  : — Multiply  the  pitch  of  the  tooth  by  the  num* 
of  teeth  the  wheel  is  to  contain,  and  the  product  will  be  the  ctrcun* 
nceof  wheel  thus— 

3%  inches  pitch  of  the  tooth. 
10  X  6  =  60  the  number  of  teeth. 
Feet  19     4%  inches  the  circumference  of  the  wheel. 
The  diameter  answering  to  this  circumference  is  6  ft.  2  in.,  consequently; 
With  one/  half  of  this  number  as  a  radius,  the  circumference  of  the  wheel 
*riil  be  described. 


Dia.  in     Circum. 
inch.      in  inch. 


Area  in        Side   of       Dia  in 


eq.   inch.       ; — • 


ijich. 


Cir.    in 

ft.    in. 


Area    in 
eq.   inch. 


Area  in 
•U-     it. 


Jin. 


-196 

-392 

-589 

-785 

-981 

1-178 

1-374 


-0030 
-0122 
-0276 
-0490 
-0767 
-1104 
-1503 

-1963 
-2485 
-3068 
-3712 
-4417 
-5185 
-6013 
-6903 

-7854 
-9940 
1-227 
1-484 
1-767 
2-074 
2-405 
2-761 

3-141 

3-546 
3-976 
4-430 
4-908 
5-412 
5-939 
6-491 

7-068 

8-295 
8-946 
9-621 
0-320 
1-044 
1-798 


-4331 
-4995 
-5438 
-6093 
-6646 
-7200 
-7754 
-8308 


5  in. 


6  in. 


in. 

3-16 

5-16 

7-16 

9-16 

11-16 


3  in. 


3T-16 


3 


12-566 
13-364 
14-186 
15-033 
15-904 
16-800 
17-720 
18-665 

19-635 
20-629 
21-647 
22-690 
23-758 
24-850 
25-967 
27-108 

28-274 
29-464 
30-679 
31-919 
33-183 
34-471 
35-784 
87-128 

S8-4R4 
39-871 
41-282 
42-718 
44-178 
45-C63 
47-173 
48-707 

50-265 
61-848 
63-456 
65-088 
66-745 
68-426 
60-132 
61-862 


-0879 
-0933 
-0993 
-1052 
-1113 
-1176 
-1240 
-1306 

-1374 
-1444. 

-1515 
-1588 
-1663 
-1739' 
-1817 
-189? 

-1979- 

-2062 
-214T 

-2234. 
-2322 
-2412 
-2504 


-2791. 


-8092 
-3196, 
-329? 
-340& 

-3513 
-3629 
-3741 
-3856 
-3972 
-4»89 
-4203 
-4S3C* 


DIAMETERS,  CIRCTJMFERET 


AND  AREAS  OP  CIRCLES,  Jte" 


pia.  in 
IT  in. 

Cir.    in 
ft.     in. 

Area  in 
sq.  inch. 

Area  in 

8q.    ft. 

Dia.  in 

ft.     in. 

Cir.    in 
ft.     in. 

Area  in 

sq.  inch. 

Area  in 

sq.    ffc 

9 

2      4% 

63-617 

-4453 

1      4 

4      2i/4 

201-062 

1-4074 

*    3% 

2      4% 

65-396 

-4577 

4      2% 

204-216 

1-4295 

I* 

2      6 

67-200 

-4704 

1        4V4 

4      3 

207-394 

1-4517 

2      5% 

69-029 

-4832 

IAS/ 
^  /8 

4      3% 

210-597 

1-4741 

9  / 

2      5% 

70-882 

-4961 

1      4%    4      3% 

213-825 

1-496T  „ 

f)<y 

2      6% 

72-759 

-5093 

1      4%    4      41/4 

217-077 

1-5195 

93/4 

2      6% 

74-662 

-5226 

1      4%   4      4% 

220-303 

1-5424 

p% 

2     1 

76-588 

-5361 

1      4% 

4      5 

223-654 

1-5665 

1tO 

2      7% 

78-540 

-5497 

1      5 

4      5% 

226-980 

1-5888 

10% 

2      734 

80-515 

-5636 

1      5% 

4      5%    230-330 

1-6123 

2      8% 

82-516 

-5776 

1      5% 

4      6%    233-705       1-6353 

10% 

2      8% 

84-540 

-5917 

1      5% 

4      61/,    237-104       1-659T 

10% 

2      8% 

86-590 

-GOG1 

1      6% 

4      6%    240-528       1-6835 

10% 

2      9% 

88-664 

-6206 

1      5% 

4      7% 

243-977     !  1-7078 

2      9% 

90-762 

-6353 

1         63/4 

4      7% 

247-450 

1-7321 

107/£ 

2    10% 

92-855 

-6499 

250-947 

l-756« 

11 

2    10% 

95-033 

-6652 

1      6 

4     8% 

254-469 

1-7812 

2    10% 

97-205 

-6874 

1      6% 

4      8% 

258-016 

1-8061 

lli/J   2    ll'/i 

99-402 

-6958 

1      «% 

4      $/ 

261-587 

1-8311 

11%   2    11% 

101-623 

-7143 

1      6% 

265-182 

1-8562 

11%!  3      0% 

103-869 

-7290 

4    10j| 

268-803 

1-8816 

3      0% 

106-139 

-7429 

1      6% 

272-447 

1-9071 

11% 

3      0% 

108-4:34 

-7590 

1        C% 

4  ioy! 

276-117 

1-932S 

11% 

3      1# 

110-753 

-7752 

1      6% 

4    11% 

279-811 

1-958S 

J 

3      1% 

113-097 

-7916 

1      7 

4    11% 

283-529 

1-9847 

T            V 

A             /g 

3      2 

115-466 

-8082 

1      7% 

5      0 

287-272 

1-9941 

1           % 

3      2% 

117-859 

-8250 

1      7% 

5      0% 

291-039 

2-0371 

3      2%,  120-276 

-8419 

1      7% 

5    oy. 

294-831 

2-0637 

117 

3      3%    122-718 

-8590 

1      7% 

5      1% 

298-648       2-0904 

jf 

3      3% 

125-185 

-8762 

1      7^ 

5      1% 

302-489     !  2-1172 

1          % 

3      4 

127-676 

-8937 

5      2 

306-355     i  2-1443 

1          % 

3      4% 

130-192 

-9113 

1      7% 

5      2% 

310-245       2-1716 

1       1 

3      4% 

132-732 

-9291 

1      8 

5      2% 

314-16) 

2-1990 

1       1% 

3      6% 

135-297 

-9470 

1      8% 

5      3% 

318-099 

2-2265 

1       1% 

3      0% 

137-886 

-9642 

1      8% 

5      3% 

322-063 

2-2543 

1       1% 

3      6s 

140-500 

-9835 

1      8% 

5      4 

326-051 

2-2922 

1       1% 

143-139 

1-0019 

5      4% 

330-064 

2-3103 

1       1% 

3      6s! 

145-802 

1-0206 

1      85/« 

5      4% 

334-101 

2-3388 

1    i3/4 

3      7% 

148-489 

1-0294 

1      8% 

5      5% 

338-163 

2-367$ 

i    iy, 

3      7% 

151-201 

1-0584 

1      8% 

5      6% 

342-250 

2-3956 

1      2 

3     7% 

153-938 

1-0775 

1      9 

5      5% 

346-361 

2-4244 

1      2% 

3      8% 

156-699 

1-0968 

1      9%    5      6% 

350-497 

2-4633 

1      2% 

3      8$ 

159-485 

1-1193 

1      9%   5      6% 

354-657 

2-4824 

..1      2% 

3      9% 

162-295 

1-1360 

1      9%    5      7% 

358-841 

2-5117 

3      9% 

165-130 

1-1569 

1      9%    5      7% 

363-051 

2-54?f 

I      2% 

3      9% 

167-989 

1-1749 

5      1% 

367-284 

2-57f« 

-1      2% 

3    10l/4 

170-873 

1-1961 

1      934 

5      8% 

371-543 

2-600  f 

1      2% 

3    10% 

173-782 

1-2164 

1      9% 

5      8% 

376-826 

i  2-6308 

1      3 

3    11% 

176-715 

1-2370 

i    10 

5      9% 

380-133 

'  2-6608 

1      3% 

3    11% 

179-672 

1-2577 

5      9% 

384-465 

2-6691 

3   ny. 

182-654 

1-2785 

i  ioy! 

5      9% 

388-822 

2-7016 

1      3% 

4      OV4 

186-661 

1-2996 

1    10% 

393-203 

2-7224 

1      3$ 

4      0% 

188-692 

1-3208 

1    10% 

5    10% 

397-608 

2-7632 

1      *% 

4      1 

191-748 

1-3422 

1     10% 

5    11 

402-038 

2-7980 

1  % 

4      1% 
4     1% 

194-828 
197-U38 

1-3637 

,V3855 

1     10% 
1    10ft 

5    11% 

5    11% 

406-493 
410-972 

2-8054 

a-otBi 

DIAMETERS,  CIRCUMFERENCES  AND  AREAS  OF  C1RCLJCS,  &a 


Dia.  to 
ft.    ft. 

Cir.   in 

It.     in. 

1    Area  in 
eq.  inch. 

Area  in 
sq.     ft. 

]  Dta.  in 

)    ft.    in. 

Cir.  in 

ft.  in. 

Area  in 
Bq.  inch. 

Areaia 

(K).  ft. 

1    11 

6      0% 

415-476 

2-8903 

3      0 

9      5 

1017-87 

7-068& 

11% 

6     0% 

420-004 

2-9100 

3      0V 

9      6% 

1032-06 

7-1671 

11% 

6      1 

424-557 

2-9518 

3      0% 

9      G% 

7-2664 

429-135 

2-9937 

3      O3/ 

9      7i/« 

1060-73 

7-3662 

11%    6        l8/j 

433-737 

3-0129 

3      1 

9      8Vi 

1075-21 

11%   6      21/4 

438-363 

3-0261 

3      114 

9      9 

1089-7!) 

7-5681 

:    11%:  6    2«£ 

443-014 

3-0722 

3      1% 

9      9% 

1104-46 

7-6691 

6      3 

447-OUO 

3-1081 

3        I3/! 

9    10% 

1119-24 

7-7791 

0 

6      33/0 

452-390 

3-1418 

3      2 

9    11% 

1134-12 

7-8681 

01/4 

6      4% 

461-864 

3-2075 

3      21/4 

10      0<4 

1149-03 

7-979J 

2     0% 

6      4% 

471-436 

3-2731 

S      2%  13      0# 

1164-16 

8-0846 

2     0% 

6      534 

481-106 

3-3410 

3    23410     i4Z 

1179-32 

8-1891 

2      1 

6      61% 

490-875 

3-4081 

3      3 

10      2% 

1194-59 

8-2951 

2     11/4   6     71/1 

500-741 

3-4775 

3      31/4 

10       •# 

1209-95 

8-4025 

2      1%   6      8% 

510-706 

3-5468 

3      3%  10      4" 

1225-42 

8-5091 

2     l£  8     8% 

620-769 

3-6101 

3      3% 

19     4% 

1240-88 

8-6171 

226      9% 

530-930 

3-6870 

3      4 

10      5% 

1256-64 

8-7260 

2     2V4l  6    1014 

541-189 

3-7583 

3      41/4 

10      63/ft 

1272-39 

8-8361 

2     2% 

6    111/; 

551-547 

3-8302 

3      4%  10      714 

1288-25 

8-9462 

2     234 

7     0 

562-002 

3-9642 

3      43^110      8 

1304-20 

9-0561 

2     3 

7      03/:!  572-556 

3-9761 

3      6    llO      884 

1320-25 

9-1686 

2     314 

7      1%|  583-208 

4-0500 

3      51/4  10      9% 

1336-40 

9-2112 

2      3% 

7      23/o   593-958 

4-1241 

3      5%  10    10% 

1352-65 

9-3961 

2      3$ 

7      3%)  604-807 

4-2000 

3      634 

10    11% 

1369-00 

9-5061 

2     4 

7      3% 

615-753 

4-2760 

3      6 

10    11% 

1385-44 

9-6212 

2     41/4 

7      4%    626-798 

4-3521 

3      61/4 

11      034 

1401-98 

9-7364 

2     4% 

2     4$ 

7      5%    637-941 
7      614!  649-182 

4-4302 
4-5083 

3    eg 

3      6% 

11      1% 

1418-62 
1435-36 

9-8518 
9-9671 

2     6 

7      7 

660-521 

4-5861 

3      7 

11      3  * 

1452-20 

10-084 

2     6V 

7     7% 

671-958 

4-6665 

3      71/4 

11      3% 

1469-14 

10-202 

2     6% 

7     8% 

683-494 

4-7467 

3      7%  11      4% 

1486-17 

10-320 

2     63/4 

7     9% 

695-128 

4-8274 

3      7% 

11      63^ 

1503-30 

10-43* 

2     6 

7    101/4 

706-860 

4-9081 

3      8 

11      61/4 

1530-53 

10-559 

2     61/4 

7    11 

718-690 

4-9901 

3      8i/i 

11      7 

1537-86 

10-679 

2      6% 

7     113/4 

730-618 

5-0731 

3      8% 

11      734 

1555-28 

10-800 

2       68/4 

8     0^* 

742-644 

5-1573 

3      8S4 

11      8% 

1572-81 

10-922 

2     7 

8      13| 

754-769 

5-2278 

3      9 

11      9% 

1590-43 

11-044 

I     71/4 

8     2% 

766-992 

5-3264 

3      91/4 

11     10% 

1608-15 

11-167 

2     7% 

8      2% 

779-313 

5-4112 

3      9%  11     10% 

1625-76 

11-291 

2     7% 

8     334 

791-732 

6-4982 

3      932 

11    H34 

1643-89 

11-115 

2     8 

8     4% 

804-249 

5-5850 

3    10 

12      01/2 

1661-90 

11-534 

2     8V4 

8     f>% 

816-865 

5-6729 

3    101/4 

12      1% 

1608-02 

11-666 

2      8% 

8     6% 

829-578 

5-7601 

3    10% 

12      2 

1698-23 

11-793 

2     83,4 

8      6% 

842-390 

5-8491 

3    10% 

12      3% 

1716-54 

11-920 

2     9 

8      7% 

855-300 

5-9398 

3    11 

12      3% 

1734-94 

12-048 

2     91/4 

8      8% 

868-308 

6-0291 

3    11  1/4 

12      4% 

1753-45 

12-176 

2     9% 

8      914 

881-415 

6-1201 

3    11% 

12      5V4 

1772-05 

12-305 

2     934 

8    10 

894-619 

6-2129 

3    11% 

12      6 

1790-76 

12-435 

2    10 

8    1034 

907-922 

6-3051 

4      0 

12      634 

1809-56 

12-566 

2    101/4 

8    11% 

921-323 

6-3981 

4      01/4 

12      WZ 

1828-46 

12-69T 

2    10% 

9      031 

934-822 

6-4911 

4      0%il2      8% 

1847-45 

12-S29 

2    10% 

9      1% 

948-419 

6-5863 

4      034  12      9% 

1866-55 

12-962 

2    11 

9      1% 

962-115 

6-6815 

4      1     112      9% 

1885-74 

13-095 

9      2% 

975-908 

6-7772 

4      11/4!  12    10% 

190,5-03 

13-229 

2    11%   9      3% 

989-800 

6-8738     i 

4    utlia  11% 

1924-42 

13-364 

*    llffl  9      4Viil003-79 

6-9701 

13      OVi 

1943-91 

13-499 

DIAMEYERS,  CIRCUMFERENCES  AND  AI6EAS  OF  CIRCLE*. 


Dia.  in 

ft.    in. 

Cir.   in 

ft    in. 

Area  in 
sq.  inch. 

Area  in 

8q.      ft. 

Dia.  in 

ft,   in. 

Cir.   in 
ft.    in. 

Area  in 
eq.  inch. 

^•fc 

4      2 

13      1 

1963-50 

13-635 

5      4 

16       9 

3216-99 

22-338 

4      21/4  13      1% 

1983-18 

13-772 

5      41/4 

16       QS/A 

3242-17 

22-511 

4      214  13      2% 

2002-96 

13-909 

5      414  16     10% 

3267-46 

22-621 

4      2%  13      3% 

2022-84 

14-047 

5      4?4  16     113,a 

3292-83 

22-868 

4      3 

13      41/4 

2042-82 

14-186 

5      5 

17       oy. 

3318-31 

23-043 

4      314 

13      5 

2062-90 

14-325 

5      51/4 

17      0% 

3343-88 

23-221 

*      31/2 

13      53,4 

208.V07 

14-4(15 

5      5V  17       3% 

3369-56 

23-33(1 

4      33^ 

13      6i/2 

21U3-J5 

14-606 

5      6%  17      2i/2 

3395-23 

23-578 

4      4 

13      71/4 

2123-72 

14-748 

5      6 

17      33/g 

3421-20 

23-758 

4      4V, 

1  1         Rl7 

lo      eVo 

2144-19 

14-890 

5      61/4 

17      4% 

3447-16 

23-938 

4      4$  13      8$ 

2164-75 

15-033 

5      61/2  17      4%    3473-L3 

24-119 

4      4^4  13      9% 

2185-42 

15-176 

5      63/,:17      6%    3499-39 

24-301  - 

4      5     1-13    lo4 

2206-18 

15-320 

5      7      17      6$  3525-26 

24-483  , 

4      51/4  13    lli/4 

2227-05 

15-165 

5      7y,  17      71,4';  3552-01 

24-666 

4      51/2  14      0 

2248-01 

15-611 

5      7$  17      8/4 

3578-47 

24-8£0 

4      5%  U      0% 

2269-06 

15-757 

5      7% 

17      8% 

3605-03 

25-034' 

4     6     14      1V8 

2290-22 

15-904 

5.     8 

17      9%l  3631-68 

25-220 

4      61/4  iH      2% 

2311-48 

16-051 

5      81/4  17     10%    3658-44 

25-405 

4      61/2  14     *% 

2332-83 

16-200 

5      *i/2il7     11%!  3685-29 

25-502. 

4     63/4  14      4 

2354-28 

16-349 

5      8%il7    11%    3712-24 

25-779 

4      7     14      434 

2357-83 

19-498 

5      9     118      0%    3739-28 

25-S64 

4      71/4  14      6i| 
4      71/2  14      63/8 

2397-48 
2419-22 

16-649 

16-800 

5      fll/4'18      1%    3766-43 
5      91/2  ;  18      214    3793-67 

2G-155 
26-344 

4      7^14      7$ 

2441-07 

16-951 

5      93/4  18      8$ 

3821-02 

26-534 

4     8 

14      7% 

2463-01 

17-104 

5    10 

18      8% 

3848-46 

26-725 

4      81/4  14      8% 

2485-05 

17-227 

5    101/4 

18      4^4 

3876-99 

26-916- 

4      8r2i4      gi|    2507-19 

17-411 

5    10%  18      63Z 

3903-63 

27-108 

4      83/4  14    10V^ 

2529-42 

17-565 

5    10%  18      &A 

3931-36 

27-301 

4      D 

14    11 

2551-76 

17-720 

5    11 

18      7 

3959-20 

27-494 

4      9^4    11% 

2574-19 

17-876 

5  ny4 

18      7% 

3987-13 

27-688 

2596-72 

18-033 

5    11%:  18      8% 

4015-16 

27-883 

4     9?J 

15      1% 

2619-35 

18-189 

5    11%  18      9% 

4043-28 

28-078' 

4    10 

15      2i/4 

2642-08 

18-347 

6     0 

18     101/8 

4071-51 

28-274 

4  ioy4 

15      2% 

2664-91 

18-506 

6      Oy4  18     10%    4099-83 

28-471 

4    10$  15      3$ 

2687-83 

18-665 

6        gl8     11%    4128-25 

28-663 

4    103415      4iZ 

2710-85 

18-825 

6        %  19      0#i  4156-77 

28-865 

4    11 

15      514 

2733-97 

18-995 

6 

19      11/4 

4185-39 

29-06* 

4    1114 

15      6<4 

2757-19 

19-147 

6        V4 

19      2% 

4214-11 

29-264 

4    Hi/2  115      6% 

2780-51 

19-309 

6        % 

19      2% 

4242-f<2 

29-46« 

4    H3/4 

15      7% 

2803-92 

19-471 

6        % 

19      8% 

4271-S3 

29-66* 

6     0 

C      01/4 

5  8 

15      81/2 
15      9% 
15    10 
15    1034 

2S27-44 
2851-05 
2874-76 
2898-56 

19-635 
19-798 
19-96? 
20-128 

6      2     19      41/0 
6      2V4»      614 
6      21/2  19      6 
6      23^119      63/4 

4300-85 
4329-95 
4359-16 
4388-47 

29-86T 
30-069 
30-271 
30-475  j 

5      1 

15      115/4 

2922^7 

20-294 

6      3 

19       7% 

4417-87 

30-679 

5      iy4  16      OS/I 
6      IK  16      1% 

2946-17 
2970-57 

20-161 
20-629 

6      31/4 
6      3$ 

19      8% 
19       9% 

4447-37 

4476-97 

30-884  f 
30-090 

6      1%  16      1% 

2994-77 

20-797 

6      3% 

19      9% 

45«6-67 

31-296 

C      2     16      23/4    3019-07 
B      21/4  16      3%    3043-47 
2%  16      41/2    3067-96 

20-965 
20-135 
20-305 

6      4 

6      4V4 

6      4i/o 

19     1034 

19  n% 
20    oyl 

4536-47 
4566-36 
4596-35 

31-503 
31-710 
31-919 

2%  1  16      Ijg 

3     16      5% 

3092-56 
3117-25 

21-476 
21-647 

6      43^ 
6      5 

20       1% 
20      1% 

4626-4< 
4656-63 

32-144 
32-33T 

31/4  ;  16      614 

3142-04 

21-819 

6      BV4  20      2% 

4686-92 

32-648: 

Si/2  18      7% 

3166-92 

21-992 

6      "$20      3% 

4717-30 

32-75ft 

3%  16      8y4 

3191-91 

22-106 

<-   fi^iis^*   414 

47.47-79 

S'J-WC 

61£ 


I5IAK.,  &C.  OP  CIRCLES,  CONTENTS  IX  GALS.,  AREA  IN  FEET 


DUm.       Circ.      Area  in  ft.        Gallons. 


Diam.       Circ.      Area  in  ft. 


Gallon*. 


9    5 


310 
410 
510 
610 
711 
til 
911 


213 
313 
413    71 
5  13  10* 
614 


914 
1015 


15  8- 

1  15  11' 

216  2' 

316  5' 

416  9 

517  0^ 

617  3V4 

7  IT  63^ 


.7854 

.9217 

1.0690 

1.2271 


1.5761 
1.7671 


2.1816 
2.4052 
2.6398 
2.8852 

8.1416 

3.4087 
3.6869 
3.9760 
4.2760 
4.5869 
4.9087 
5.2413 
6.5850 
6.9395 
6.3049 
6.6813 

7.0686 

7.4666 

7.8757 

8.2957 

8.72G5 

9.1683 

9.6211 

10.0846 

10.5591 

11.0446 

11.5409 

12.0481 

12.5664 
13.0952 
13.6353 
14.1862 
14.7479 
15.3206 
15.9043 
16.4986 
17.1041 
17.7205 
18.3476 
18.9858 


19.6350 
20.2947 
20.9656 
21.6475 
22.3400 
23.0*37 
23.7583 
24.4835 


lft.indpth 

5.8735 

6.8928 

7.9944 

9.1765 
10.4413 
11.7866 
13.2150 
14.7241 
16.3148 
17.9870 
19.7414 
21.4830 

23.4940 
25.4916 
27.5720 
29.7340 
32.6976 
34.3027 
36.7092 
39.1964 
41.7668 
44.4179 
47.1505 
49.9654 

52.8618 

55.8382 
58.8976 
62.0386 
65.2602 


75.4166 


82.5959 
86.3074 
90.1004 

93.9754 
97.9310 
101.9701 
103.0300 
110.2907 
114.5735 


123.3830 
127.9112 
132.5209 
137.2105 
142.0582 


146.8384 
151.7718 
150.7891 
161.8886 
167.0674 
172.3300 
177.6740 
183.0973 


n 

12 


13 
13 
13 
13 

14 
14 
14 
14 

15 
15 
15 
15 

16 
16 
16 
16 

17 
17 
17 
17 

18 
18 
18 
18 
616 


Ft.  In.  Ft.  In. 

5          8 1 17  9% 

5          9|18  03,4 

5        10  18  3V8 

5        11  18  7% 

219  4% 

819  7V? 

620  4% 

921  23/fl 

21  11% 
322  9<5 
623  6»4 
9,24  4$ 

25    iya 
3^5  11 
626    8 
927    6 


25.2199 
25.9672 
26.7251 
27.4943 

29.0867 
30.6796 
33.1831 
35.7847 

38.4846 
41.2825 
44.1787 
47.1730 

50.2656 
53.4562 
56.7451 
60.1321 

63.6174 

67.2007 
70.8823 
74.6620 

78.5405 
82.5160 
86.5903 
90.7627 


6|36  1U  103.8691 

9  36  10%:  108.4342 

37  8%  113.0976 
338  5%  117.8590 
6:39  3%' 122.7 187 
127.6765 

132.7326 

J,  137.8867 
_  _  ,„  143.1391 
43  2%;  148.4896 
43  11%  153.9384 
W|44  914159.4852 
645  6%  165.1303 


4010 

341    7V2 
642    4% 


946    4     170.8735 

47  1V2I176.7150 
347  10%  1 182.6545 
64  8%i  188.6923 
949  5%  1 194.8282 


50    2 

351  0^1207.3946 
6  51  10  213.8251 
952  7%  220.3537 

53  4%  226.9806 
354  21A|233.7055 
6154  11%  240.5287 
955  9%  1 247.4500 

156  6y2 1254.4696 
357  4  261.5872 
658  13/J268.S031 
9  58  10%  276.1171 


1  ft.  in  dptfe 
188.6045 
194.1930 
199.8610 
205.6133 

223.947i 
229.4342 
24  .1564 
267.6122 

287.8032 
308.7270 
330.3859 
352.7665 

375.9062 
399.7068 
424.3625 
449.2118 

475.7563 
502.5536 
530.0861 
558.3522 

587.3534 
617.0876 
647.5568 
678.279T 

710.6977 
743.3686 
776.7746 
810.9143 

848.1890 
881.3966 
917.7395 
954.8159 

992.6274 
1031.1719 
1070.4514 
1108.0645 

1151.2129 
1192.6940 
1234.9104 
1277.8615 

1321.5454 
1365.9634 
1407.5165 
1457.0032 

1503.6250 
1550.9797 
1599.0696 
1647.893* 

1697.4516 
1747.7431 
1798.7698 
1850.5301 

1903.0254 
1956.2537 
2010.2171 
2064.31*0 


SCANTLING    REDUCED    TO    ONE    INCH    BOARD    MEASURE. 
SCANTLING  AND  TIMBER  MEASURE 

BBDUCED     TO     ONE     INCH     BOARD     MEAStTBE. 

^EXPLANATION.— To  ascertain  the  number  of  Feet  of  Scantling  or  Tim- 
ber, say  18  Feet  Long  and  2  by  3  Indies.      Find  2  by  3  in  the  top 
columns,  and  18  in  the  left  hand  column,  and  under  2  by  3  and  against  ' 
18  is  9  feet.  / 

ft  the  Scantling  is  longer  than  contained  in  the  Table,  add  two  lengthi" 
together,    if  shorter,  take  part  off  some  length. 


1 

THICKNESS  AND  WIDTH  IN   INCHES. 

2.2 

2-3 

2.4 

2-5  2.6 

2-7 

2.8  2.9 

3.3 

3.4  3.5 

3.6  3-7  3.8|3.S 

4.4 

6 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5.        6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 

4.6 

6. 

7.6 

9. 

10.6  12. 

13.6 

8. 

1 

2 

.4 

3.6 

4.8 

5.10    7. 

8.  2 

9.4 

10.6 

5.3 

7. 

8.9 

10.6 

12.3 

14. 

15.9 

9.4 

2.8 

4. 

5.4 

6.  8    8. 

9.  4 

10.fi 

12. 

6. 

8. 

10. 

12. 

14.    16. 

18. 

10. 

9 

3. 

4.6 

6. 

7.  6    9. 

10.  6 

12. 

13.6 

6.9 

8. 

11.3  13.6 

15.9  18. 

20.3 

12. 

10 

S 

.4 

5. 

6.8 

8.  4  10. 

11.  8 

13.f 

15. 

7.6  10. 

12.6 

15. 

17.6 

20. 

22.6 

13.4 

11 

S 

.8 

5.6 

7.4 

9.  2  11. 

12.10 

14.J 

16.6 

8.3  11. 

13.9 

16.6 

19.3 

22. 

24.9 

14.3 

12 

4. 

6. 

8. 

10.      12. 

14. 

16. 

18. 

9. 

12. 

15. 

18. 

21. 

24. 

27. 

16, 

13 

4 

.4 

6.6 

8.8  10.10  13. 

15.  217.4 

19.  C 

9.9 

13. 

16.3 

19.6 

22.9 

26. 

29.3 

17.4 

14 

4.8 

7. 

9.4  11.  8  14. 

16.  4 

18.i 

(21. 

10.614. 

17.6J21. 

24.6 

28. 

31.6 

18.8 

15 

t 

7.6 

10. 

12.  6  15. 

17.  620. 

22.6 

11.3 

15. 

18.9 

22.6 

26.3 

30. 

33.  S 

20.  • 

16 

t 

'A 

8. 

10.8 

13.  4  16. 

18.  821.424. 

12. 

16. 

20. 

24. 

28. 

32. 

36. 

21.4' 

17 

6.8 

8.6 

11.4 

14.  2  17. 

19.1022.825.6 

12.9 

17. 

21.3125.6 

29.9 

34. 

38.3 

22.8 

18 

6. 

9. 

12. 

15.      18. 

21. 

24. 

27. 

13.6 

18. 

22.6J27. 

31.6 

36. 

40.6 

24. 

19 

1 

A 

9.6 

12.8 

15.10(19. 

22.  2 

25,4 

28.6 

14.3 

19. 

23.9 

28.6 

33.3 

38. 

42.9 

24.4 

20 

6.8 

10. 

13.4 

16.  8120. 

23.  4 

•>»;!* 

30. 

15. 

20. 

25. 

30. 

35. 

40. 

45. 

26.8 

21 

•3 

10.6 

14. 

17.  6  21. 

24.  6 

28. 

31.6 

15.9  21. 

26.3 

31.6 

36.9 

42. 

47.3 

28. 

22 

7.4 

11. 

14.8 

18.  4  22. 

25.  8 

29.4 

33. 

16.6  22. 

27.6 

33. 

38.« 

44. 

49.6 

29.4 

•23 

•3 

.8 

11.6 

15.4 

19.  2  23. 

26.10 

30.1 

34.6 

17.3 

23. 

28.9 

34.6 

40.3 

46. 

51.9 

30.* 

24 

12. 

16. 

20.      24. 

28. 

32. 

36. 

18. 

24. 

30. 

36. 

42. 

48. 

54. 

32. 

25 

J= 

!4 

12.6 

16.8 

20.10  25. 

29.  2 

33.4 

37.6 

18.9 

25. 

31.3 

37.6 

43.9 

50. 

56.3 

33.4 

30 

10 

15. 

20. 

25.      30. 

35. 

40. 

45. 

22.  6  j  30. 

37.6 

45. 

52.6 

60. 

67.6 

40. 

11.4  17. 

22.8 

28.  4  34. 

39.  3 

45.4  51. 

25.6  34. 

42.6:51. 

58.6 

68. 

76.6 

45.4 

40 

13.4  20. 

26.8  33.  4'40. 

46.   853.460.    30.040. 

50. 

60. 

70.    80. 

90. 

53. 

"« 

THICKNESS  AND  WIDTH  IN  INCHES. 

£ 

5.4 

4.6 

4.7 

4.8 

4.9 

5.5 

5.6 

5.7 

5.8 

5.9  6.6 

6.7 

6.8 

6.9 

6.10 

6 

LO. 

12. 

14. 

16. 

18. 

12.  6 

15. 

L7.  6 

20. 

22.6    18. 

21. 

24. 

27. 

30. 

7 

11.8 

14. 

16.4 

18.8 

21. 

14.  7 

17.6 

20.  6 

23.4 

26.3   21. 

24.6 

28. 

31.6 

35. 

8 

13.4 

16. 

18.8 

21.4 

24. 

16.  8 

20. 

23.  4 

26.8 

30.      2 

28. 

32. 

36. 

40. 

9 

15. 

18. 

n. 

24. 

27. 

18.  9 

22.6 

26.  3 

30. 

33.9    2 

7. 

31.6 

36. 

40.6 

45. 

16.8 

20. 

23.4 

26.8 

30. 

20.10 

25. 

29.  2 

33.4 

37.6    30. 

35. 

40. 

45. 

50. 

11 

18.4 

22. 

25.8 

29.4 

33. 

22.11 

27.6 

32.  1 

36.8 

41.3    3 

3. 

38.6 

44. 

49.6 

5& 

12 

SO. 

24 

28. 

32. 

36. 

25. 

30. 

35. 

40. 

45.      3 

6. 

42. 

48. 

64. 

00.    > 

13 

21.8 

26. 

30.4 

34.8 

39. 

27.  1 

32.6 

37.11 

43.4 

48.9   3 

9. 

46.6 

52. 

58.6 

661 

14 

23.4J28. 

32.8 

37.4 

42.129.  2 

35. 

10.10 

46.8 

52.6   42. 

49. 

56. 

63. 

TO. 

35 

25. 

50. 

35. 

40. 

45.  31.  3 

37.6 

13.  9 

50. 

56.3   4 

5. 

52.6 

60. 

67.6 

75. 

18 

26.8 

32. 

37.4 

42.8 

48. 

33.  4 

40. 

16.  8 

53.4 

60.      48. 

56. 

64. 

72. 

80. 

17 

28.4 

34. 

39.8 

45.4 

51. 

35    5 

42.6,49.  7 

56.8 

63.9   5 

1. 

59.6 

68. 

76.6 

85.  / 

18 

30, 

36. 

43. 

48. 

54.  37.  6 

45.   P52.  6 

60. 

67.6)  54. 

63. 

72. 

81. 

90.  , 

19 

31.8 

38. 

44.4 

50.8 

VI.  39.    7 

47.6  55.  5 

63.4 

71.31  5 

T. 

66.6 

76. 

85.6 

96. 

20 

33.4 

40. 

46.8 

53.4 

60. 

41.  * 

50. 

58.  4 

66.8i  75.   1  6 

). 

70. 

80. 

90. 

100. 

21 

35. 

42. 

49. 

56. 

63. 

43.  9 

52.6 

il.  3 

70. 

78. 

9    63. 

73.6 

84. 

94.6 

105. 

22 

368 

44. 

£1.4 

58.8 

66. 

45.10 

55. 

>4.  2|  73.4 

82. 

6    6 

3. 

77. 

83. 

99. 

110. 

•23 

38.446. 

53.8 

61.4 

69. 

47.11 

57.6 

57.  1 

76.8 

86. 

3    6 

}. 

80.6 

92. 

108.6 

LIB. 

24 

40. 

48. 

56. 

64. 

72. 

50. 

60. 

ro. 

80. 

90. 

0    7 

>. 

84. 

96. 

108. 

iai 

"25 

41.8 

50. 

58.4 

66.8 

75. 

52.  1 

62.6 

f2.11 

83.4 

93. 

9    7 

5. 

87.6 

100. 

112.6 

125. 

30 

50. 

60. 

70. 

80. 

62.  6 

75. 

J7.  6 

100. 

112. 

6    94 

). 

105. 

120. 

195. 

150.    . 

34 

56.8J68. 

79.4 

90.8 

102! 

70.10 

85. 

».  2 

113.4 

127. 

6102. 

119. 

136. 

153. 

170.    ; 

* 

96.8186.    SS.i  106.8  120.  83.  4 

100. 

116.8;133.4  150. 

sr 

120. 

140. 

100. 

180, 

20Q    v 

THICKNESS  AN'T>  TTTPTTT  I3T  INCITES. 


A-LiAOJi^.-^  JLJOO    Ad*  fc*      V»  A  -i-'  J.  -H    dL^n     J.,44  VA^ato 

KIT 

6,12 

7.7 

7.8 

7.9  17.10 

7.11  7.12 

8.8 

8.9 

8.10 

8.11  1  8.1? 

H 

36. 

24.  6 

28. 

31.6 

35. 

38.  6    42. 

32. 

36. 

40. 

44. 

48. 

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42. 

28.  7 

32.8 

36.9)  40.10 

41.11 

49. 

37.4 

46.8 

51.4 

66. 

14. 

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32.  8 

37.4 

42.      46.  8 

51.  4 

56. 

42.8 

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53.4 

58.8 

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36.  9 

42. 

47.3    52.  6 

57.  9 

63. 

48. 

54. 

60. 

66. 

72.. 

56. 

60. 

40.10 

46.8 

52.6;  68.  4 

64.  2 

70. 

53.4 

60. 

66.8 

73.4 

80. 

ei>.« 

66. 

40.11 

51.4 

57.9 

64.  2 

70.  7 

77. 

58.8 

66. 

73.4 

80.8 

88. 

86. 

72. 

49. 

56. 

63. 

70. 

77. 

84. 

64. 

72. 

80. 

88. 

96. 

7i.6 

78.    53.  1 

60.8 

68.3 

75.10 

83.  5 

91. 

69.4 

78. 

86.8 

95.4    104. 

77. 

84.    57.  2    65.4 

73.6 

81.  8 

89.10    98. 

74.8 

84. 

93.4 

102.8    112. 

82.6 

90.    61.  3 

70. 

78.9 

87.  6 

96.  3  105. 

80. 

90. 

100. 

110. 

120. 

88. 

96. 

64.  4 

74.8 

84. 

93.  4;  102.  8  112. 

85.4 

96. 

106.8 

117.4 

128. 

93.6 

102. 

69.  5 

79.4 

89.3 

99.  2  109.  1  119. 

90.8 

102. 

113.4 

124.8 

136, 

99. 

108. 

73.  6 

84. 

94.  6i  105. 

115.  6  126. 

96. 

108. 

120. 

132. 

144. 

HOI.  6 

114, 

77.  7 

88.8 

99.9  110.10  121.11  133. 

101.4 

114. 

126.8 

139.4 

152. 

UD. 

120. 

81.  8 

93.4 

105.    116.  8  128.  4  140. 

106.8 

120. 

133.4 

146.8 

160. 

115.6 

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85.  9 

98. 

110.3122.  6ll34.  9147. 

112. 

126. 

140. 

154. 

168. 

121. 

132. 

89.10 

102.8 

115.6  128.  6  141.  2  154. 

117.4 

132. 

146.8 

161.4 

176. 

126.6 

138. 

93.11 

107.4 

120.9  134.  2  147.  7  161. 

122.8 

138. 

153.4 

168.8 

134, 

132. 

144. 

112. 

126.    140. 

1C8. 

128.    J144. 

160. 

176. 

192. 

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9  10 

9.11|9.12 

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10.12 

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40.6 

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49.6 

54. 

50.0 

55. 

60. 

60.  6 

66. 

72. 

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84. 

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52.6 

57.9 

63. 

68.4 

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70. 

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91. 

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54. 

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72. 

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80. 

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86.  6 

90. 

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67.6 

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83.4 

91.  8 

100. 

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100.10 

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155.10 

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171.  6 

187. 

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221. 

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148.6 

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261.4 

262.6 

28 

15 

225! 

240. 

211.  3 

227.  6 

243.9 

260. 

245. 

262.6 

280. 

281.3 

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240. 

256. 

225.  4 

242.  8 

260. 

277.4 

261.4 

280. 

298.8 

300. 

32 

17 

255. 

372. 

239.  5 

257.10 

276.3 

294.8 

277.8 

297.6 

317.4 

318.9 

34 

18 

270. 

243.  6 

273. 

292.6 

312. 

290. 

314. 

336. 

337.6 

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111 

385. 

304. 

257.  7 

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329.4 

310.4 

332.6 

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300. 

320. 

271.  8 

303.  4 

325. 

346.8 

326.8 

350. 

373.4 

375. 

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21 

315. 

336. 

285.  9 

318.  6 

341.3 

364. 

343. 

367.3 

392. 

393.9 

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22 

330. 

352. 

299.10 

333.  8 

357.6 

381.4 

359.4 

385. 

410.8 

412.6 

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368. 

313.11 

348.10 

373.9 

398.8 

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TIME  REQUIRED  ron  DIGESTION  OF  DIFFERENT  ARTICLES  OF  FOOD, 
BEING  OBSERVATIONS  MADE  BY  DR.  BEAUMONT,  SURGEON  IN  THB 
UNITED  STATES  ARMY,  ON  THE  CANADIAN,  ST.  MARTIN,  THROUGH 
AN  ORIFICE  IN  HIS  STOMACH,  CAUSED  BY  A  GUNSHOT  WOUND. 


H.M. 
Apples,  sweet  and  mellow  1  50 

H.  M. 

Heart  Animal  fried      4 

Lamb  boiled                                  2  36 

sour  and  liard      2  50 

Liver,  Beef's,  boiled  2 
Meat  and  Vegetables,  hashed..  2  30 

Barley  boiled                           •    2 

Beans,  'boiled  2  30 

.  Beans  and  Green  Corn,  boiled.  3  45 

Mutton  roasted      "3  15 

roasted  dry             .     .  .      3  30 

broiled  or  boiled  3 
Oysters   raw  2  55 

Steak    broiled                     3 

toiled                            ..  .  2  45 

roasted  3  15 

boiled.with  mustard,  etc.  3  30 
tendon,  boiled  5  30 
tendon   fried                      4 

stewed  330 

Parsnips  boiled                    .   .     2  30 

Pigs  Sucking,  roasted  2  30 

old  salted  boiled      .  ...  4  15 

Feet,  soured,  boiled  1  00 
Pork,  fat  and  lean,  roasted  .  .  .  ,  5  15 
recently  salted,  boiled....  4  30 
<•           "       fried,....  4  1*, 
«          "      broiled..  3  15 
«<           «       raw  3 

Beets   boiled  3  45 

Breau  Corn  baked                 ...  3  15 

Wheat,  baked,  fresh....  3  30 
Butter   melted      3  30 

Cabbage  crude                          .  2  30 

Potatoes    boiled    3  30 

crude,  vin'r,boil'd.  j   ^  30 

'  baked             .     ..     .  3  20 

roasted        2  30 

Bice   boiled                                 1 

Cartilage  boiled                            4  151 

Sago  boiled      1  45 

Sausage  Pork    broiled                3  20 

Soup   Barley               .        1  30 

Custard  baked             .       .         2  45 

Beef  and  Vegetables  —  4 
Chicken  3 

Dumplings,  Apple,  boiled  3 
Eg(Ts,  boiled  hard      .       .             3  30 

Mutton  or  Oyiter  3  80 
Sponge-cake  bakeu      .       .        2  30 

Suet,  Beef,  boiled  5  30 

°    boiled  soft  3 

Mutton,  boiled  4  30 

fried                        .  .       .    3  30 

Tapioca  boiled     .  .                  .  .  2 

,  (  wild                 2  18 

fish,  Cod  or  Flounder,  fried..  3  30 
Cod,  cured,  boiled  2 
Salmon,  salVd  and  boil'd  4 
Trout,  boiled  or  fried.  .  .  .  1  30 
fowls,  boiled  or  roasted  4 
Goose  roasted      3 

Turkey,  roasted  j^Vstie;;;:  330 
boiled                         ..    2  25 

Turnips  boiled    3  30 

Veal,  roasted  4 

fried                            .       .  4  50 

Brains   boiled                     1  4i 

Gelatine,  boiled  2  30 

Venison  Steak,  broiled  1  35 

COMPARATIVE  VALUE  OF  VARIOUS  FOODS  AS  PRODUCTIVE  OF  DYNA- 
MIC FORCE,  WHEN  OXIDIZED  IN  THE  BODY. 
Cabbage  1.    Veal  lean                   2  8  Pea  meal                    9 

Carrots  1.2  Mackerel              .     .  3  8  Wheat  flour                 91 

.Egg,  white  of  1.4  Ham,  lean  4.    Arrowroot.    9.3 
Milk                               1  5  Bread  crumbs             5  1  Oat  meal                       9  3 

Apples  1  5  Egg  hard  b™^^          K  4.  nVio««A                         m  A 

Ale  1.8  Egg!  yolk. 
Fish  1.0  Su^ar 

.7  9iCocoa                           16  & 

g.  !  Butter                        17  3 

Potatoes  2.4  Isinglass  .  . 
Porter  2.6iRice  

,  8  71  Fat  of  beef                 21-6 

8.9Cod  liver  oil  21.7 

SAFE  LOAD  IN  STRUCTURES,  INCLUDING  WEIGHT  OF  STRUCTURE. 

Tn  oast-iron  columns                                                        «-  *4  breaking  weight 

Wrought-iron  structures     =*  V*           "            '* 

In  cast-iron  girders  for  tanks        .       .                    .  a=s  14           "           " 

In  timber  =  1-10         "           ** 

Stone  and  bricks  .  .  —  i/a           «           « 

"WEIGHT  OF  WATER  AT  ITS  COMMON  TEMPERATURB. 


i 
i 
i 

1-8 
85-84 

1 
12 

1 
'  1 

1 

2-282 
46-64 
11-2 


cubic  inch 
'«      inches 
«»      foot 


«      feet 
•'        •• 

Cylindrical  inch 
"         inches 
«'         foot 


feet 


•03617 
•434 
62-5 
6-25 
7-50 
112-00 
2240-00 
•02842 
•341 
49-1 
5 


13-44 


112 
2240 

112 
2240 

112 
2240 


Ib. 


Imperial  gallon* 
U.  S.  Gallons. 
Ibs. 


Imperial  gallonfc 
U.  S.  gallons. 
Ibs. 


Imperial  gallons 
Imperial  gallons 
United  States  gallons 
United  States  gallons 
Note.— 5  Imperial  gallons  equal  6  United  States  gallons.    Hence  t« 
eonvert  Imperial  gallons  into  United  States  gallons  add  one-fifth  to  the- 
Imperial ;  and  to  convert  United  States  gallons  into  Imperial  gallons  de- 
duct one-sixth  from  the  United  States. 

A  cubic  foot  of  rain  water,  which  weighs  62%  Ibs.,  presses  at  30  feet 
deep  13  Ibs.  per  square  inch,  and  at  300  feet  is  1,300  Ibs.    At  36  feet  th» 
pressure  per  square  foot  is  a  ton,  and  at  108  feet  nearly  3  tons. 
THE   FOLLOWING  TABLES  SHOW  THE    DIFFERENT  VALUES  OF    THR 
BRITISH  IMPERIAL  AND  THE  UNITED  STATES  MEASURES. 

IT.  S.  measure  for         British  (Im.)  measure.  U.  S,  measure  for         British  (Im.)  measure- 


.fine,  spirits,  &c. 
42  gals.  =  1  tierce, 
63  =1  hogsh. 

126  =1  pipe, 

252  =  1  tun, 


gstlls.  qts.  pts.  gills 

34    3    1    3 

52    1    1    3 

104    3    1    3 

209    3    1    2 


To  convert  Imperial  Gallons  into 


ale  and  beer.  galls,  qts.  pts.  gill* 

9  gals.  =  1  firkin,  =      9011 
36  =1  barrel, =    36    2    0    3 

54  =1  hogsh.  =    54    3    1    1 

100  =1  butt,     =  109    3    0    3 

United  States  Wine  Gallons  multi- 


ply  the  Imperial  by  1-2.  To  conver 
ply  the  U.  States  Wine  gallons  by  '833.  51  U.  S.  Ale  Gallons  equal  60  Im- 
perial Gallons,  therefore  to  convert  one  into  the  other  add  or  deduct  l-€0th, 
SPECIFIC  GRAVITIES  AND  WEIGHTS  OF  METALS,  WOODS,  LIQUIDS,  £o> 
Engineers'  and  Contractors'  Pocket  Hook. 


METALS. 

STONES,  EARTHS,  ETC. 

<*    1 

O     • 

SJ3  - 

11 

*    1 

II- 

!l* 

Names. 

|»3J? 

Si* 

til 

Names. 

fsjf 

Is? 

£?3 

fclS 

£g.2 

£*J 

££.£ 

2  rf 

Platina     

19500 

1.417 

.7053 

Marble,  average 

2720 

170.00 

13 

Pure  gold  

19258 

1.435 

.6965 

Granite,  ditto.  . 

2651 

165.68 

13V, 

"MpTvurv 

13560 

2-038 

.4904 

Purbeck  stone 

2601 

162.56 

13*r 

Lead            

11352 

2-435 

.4105 

Portland  ditto 

2570 

160.62 

14 

Pure  silver  

10474 

2.638 

.3788 

Bristol  ditto.. 

2554 

159.62 

14 

Bismuth 

9823 

2.814 

.3552 

Millstone  

248  J 

155.25 

•t  A  \f 

Copper,  cast  — 
—      sheet  .  . 

8788 
8910 

3.146 
3.103 

J3225 

Paving  stone.. 
Craigleith  ditto 

2415 
2362 

150-93 
14/.62 

15 

Brass,  cast  

7824 

3.533 

.3036 

Grindstone  

21  43 

133-98 

16*4 

—     sheet..... 
Iron,  cast  

8396 
7264 

3.293 
3-806 

.3037 
263 

Chalk.  British 
Brick.  

2781 
2000 

173.81 
126.00- 

12% 
17 

—    bar  
Steel  soft 

7700 
7H33 

3.592 
3.530 

.279 
.2833 

Coal,  Scotch  
—  Newcastle 

1300 
1270 

81.15 
79.3T 

27^ 
w 

—    hard 

7816 

3-537 

.2827 

—  Staffordsh's 

1240 

77  -80 

29 

Yin  ,  cast  

729* 

3.790 

.2636 

—  Cannel.  ...  . 

1238 

T7.37 

2$ 

7190 

3.845 

.26 

• 

SPECIFIC  GRAVITIES,  &c.  OF  MATERIALS 


f 

Names. 

Weight, 
water 
being  1000. 

Weight  of  a 
cubic  foot 
in  Ibs. 

Number  of 
cubic  feet 
in  a  ton. 

Names. 

Weight, 
water  being 

1000. 

Weight  of 
an  imperial 
gallon  in 

4WI? 

Lignum  vitae... 
Box,  French  .... 

1331 
1328 

83.31 
83.00 

9f/4 

Acid,  sulphuric,... 
—    nitric...     . 

1850 
1271 

u.s 

127 

—    Dutch  
.Ebony,  Indian.. 
—      American 

912 
1209 
1331 

58.00 
75.56 
83-18 

38% 
29% 

—    muriatic  
—    fluoric  
—    citric  

1200 
1060 
1034 

l5!6i 
10  3' 

Oak,  just  felled. 
—    seasoned  .  . 
>*og  oak  of  Irel'  d 
Mahogany  Sp'sli 

1113 
743 
1046 
1063 

69.56 
46.43 
65.37 
66.43 

32jfc 

—    acetic  
Water  from  Baltic 
—  from  the  Dead 
Sea  

1062 
1015 
1240 

ia.6, 

—      bay  wood 
Medlar  tree  

637 
944 
913 

39.81 
59.00 
57  06 

38  * 
3917. 

—  from  the  Med- 
iterranean .  .  . 
—  from  the  Irish 

1029 
1028 

10.3" 
10  2' 

Olive  tree  
Beech      

927 
852 

57.93 
53.25 

38% 
42 

Channel 
ice            ..  . 

1001 

10  1 

tab 

845 

52  81 

4014 

distilled 

1000 

10  0< 

Ald^r   

•800 

50.00 

44% 

Oils  expressed 

793 

49  56 

45V4 

940 

9  4' 

Plum-tree  

755 

47.18 

sweet  almond 

932 

93 

Maple 

752 

47  00 

47% 

923 

9  2 

Teak  

750 

46.87 

48 

hempseed'. 

926 

93 

Cherry-tree  

715 

44.68 

50 

Olive  

915 

9.2 

Elm  

673 

42.06 

Oils  essential 

Walnut. 

671 

41  93 

53% 

1043 

10  4 

Red  pine  

657 

47.06 

54% 

lavender  .  ... 

894 

8  9 

Yellow  do  
Pear  tree  

652 
650 

40.76 
40.62 

55 
55 

turpentine.... 
amber  

870 
868 

8.7 
8.7 

Sycamore,  chest- 
nut, and  lime 
tree,  each  — 
Willow  • 
Foplar,  white  Sp. 
—     common.. 

604 

585 
529 
383 
561 

37.75 
36.50 
33.06 
23.93 
3  .06 

591/4 
67$ 
64 

Alcohol   of     com- 
merce,   at     60° 
Fahrenheit 
Alcohol,  absolute... 
Ether,  nitric  
—    muriatic  
Proof  spirit  

825 

797 

908 
729 
922 

&J* 

7.9 
9.1 
7.5 

9.2 

K51 

34  43 

65 

Tar 

1015 

10  1 

i/arch  

530 

33  02 

68 

Vinegar,  distilled.. 

1000 

10.1 

Cork  

240 

15.00 

149 

OF  LIQUIDS  IN  VOLUME  FROM  32°  TO  212°  FAHRJOKHXIT, 
1000  parts  of  water  become  1046 

"  oil  "         1080 

»ercury  "        1018  - 

"          spirits  of  wine         ««        1110 
«  air  "         1373  ,-' 

-Che  heat  that  would  raise  i  Ib.  of  water  1°  would  raise  a  pound  of  all' 
9P.7  ;  1  Ib.  air  =  about  11  cubic  feet. 

One  pound  of  steam  will  raise  3657  cubic  feet  of  air  10°,  and  cause  it  to 
expand  from  32°  to  42°,  about  3733  cubic  feet. 

PERMANENT  LOADS  ON  BRIDGES,  &c. 

For  rough  calculations  the  weight  of  the  bridge  itself  may  be  assumed 
to  be  (in  wrought  iron  bridges)  :„ 

For  30  feet  spans,  single  line 560  Ibs.  per  foot  ruxu 

"    60  "  '<        672        " 

«<  100  «  '<        1,008        " 

"150  "  "        1,344        " 

«  200  u  *         1,680        " 

Dense  crowds  average  120  Ibs.  per  square  foot. 

For  flooring,  1*8  to  224  Ibs.  per  square  foot,  exclusive  of  the  weight  « 
Ike  flooring  is  generally  allowed. 

In  storehouses,  from  224  to  450  Ibs.  per  square  foot 


STRENGTH  OF  THE  TEETH  OP  CAST  f  RON  WHEELS  AT  A  GIVEN  VELOC1TT. 


Pitch 
of  teeth 
In  inches. 

Thickness 
of  teeth 
in  inches. 

Breadth 

of  teeth 
in  inches. 

Strength  of  teeth  in  horse  power  at 

3  feet  per 
second. 

4  feet  per 
second. 

6  feet  per 
second. 

8  feet  p<* 
second. 

3.99 

1.9 

7.6 

20.57 

27.43 

41.14 

54.85 

3.78 

1.8 

7.2 

17.49 

23-32 

34.98 

46.64 

3.57 

1.7 

6.8 

14.73 

19.65 

29.46 

39.28 

3.36 

1.6 

6.4 

12.28 

16.38 

24.56 

32.74 

3-15 

1.5 

6. 

10.12 

13.50 

20.24 

26.98 

2.94 

1.4 

5.6 

8.22 

10.07 

16.44 

21.92 

2.73 

1.3 

5.2 

6.58 

8.78 

13.16 

17.54 

2.52 

1.2 

4.8 

5-18 

6.91 

10.36 

13.81 

2.31 

1.1 

4.4 

3.99 

5.32 

7.98 

10.64 

2.1 

1.0 

4. 

3.00 

4.00 

6.00 

8.00 

1.89 

.9 

3.6 

2.18 

2.91 

4.36 

5.81 

1.68 

.8 

3.2 

1.53 

2.04 

3.06 

3.08 

1.47 

.7 

2-8 

1-027 

1.37 

2.04 

2.72 

1.26 

.6 

2.4 

.64 

.86 

1.38 

1.84 

1.05 

.5 

2. 

.375 

.50 

.75 

1.00 

TEETH  OF  WHEELS.— Multiply  one-fourth  of  the  square  of  the  pitch 
In  inches  by  the  breadth  of  the  teeth  in  inches  ;  the  product  is  the  horses' 
power  that  the  teeth  will  transmit  when  the  pitch  line  passes  through 
4  ft.  per  second. 

In  quick  speeds  or  fractional  pitches,  it  may  be  more  convenient  to 
take  the  following  rule  : — Multiply  the  square  root  of  the  pitch  in  inches 
by  the  breadth  of  the  teeth  in  inches ;  the  product  is  the  horses'  power  at 
16  ft.  per  second. 

A  general  rule  to  ascertain  the  length  of  the  teeth  is,  to  take  %  of  the 
pitch  for  the  distance  from  the  root  to  the  pitch  line,  and  V*  of  the  pitch 
lor  the  distance  from  the  pitch  line  to  the  top. 

When  wheels  drive  pinions,  let  no  pinion  have  less  than  8  teeth ;  rath, 
et  11  or  12  if  convenient. 

When  uinion  drive  wheels,  let  no  pinion  have  less  than  6  teeth  ;  rathe* 
8  or  9- 

The  number  of  teeth  in  a  wheel  should  be  prime  to  the  number  of 
teeth  in  its  pinion. 

To  increase  or  diminish  velocity  in  a  given  proportion,  and  with  the 
least  quantity  of  wheel-work,  let  the  number  of  teeth  on  each  pinion  be 
to  the  number  of  teeth  on  its  wheel  as  1  :  3  59.  Even  to  save  space  and 
expense,  never  let  the  ratio  exceed  1  :  6 — BUCHANAN. 

HICKS'S  RULE  FOR  CALCULATING  THE  STRENGTH  OF  SHAFTS — 
Multiply  the  horses'  power  by  the  assumed  number  (300),  and  divide  tha 
product  by  the  revolutions  per  minute  ;  the  cube  root  of  the  quotient  will 
be  the  diameter  required. 

HEATING  POWER  OF  PEAT  AS  COMPARED  WITH  WOOD. 

100  Ibs.  turfy  peat,  air  dry,  average 95  Ibs.  pine  wood* 

fibrous   "       "  «        108       "         " 

"       earthy    "       «  «        104       "         « 

"       pitchy    "       "  "        Ill       «         • 

COMPARISON  OF  HEAT  BY  BULK. 

100  cubic  feet  of  turfy  peat  =  33  cubic  feet  pine  wood  in  logs. 
"  "  fibrous  "    =    90         "  ««  " 

«  «<  earthy    "    =  145         "  "  " 

"  '  pitchy    "    =  184         "  "  «• 

Peat,  coal,  or  coke  =  25  to  35  of  the  peat  by  weight. 
"        "  "        =  30  to  40  per  cent,  by  volume. 

Turf  is  30  feet  deep  in  upper  marshes  and  it  grows  30  inches  In  a  cen- 
tury. In  Hanover  it  grows  8  feet  in  60  years.  There  are  in  many  bogs  3 
separated  strata  or  layers  of  large  trees  separated  by  10  or  12  feet  of  turf 
*fl4  hastli.  A  carbonizing  process  gives  them  the  appearance  of  being 
burnt.  The  bogs  of  Ireland  cover  2,830,000  acres  to  the  depth  of  5,  12 
and  even  30  feet ;  the  bogs  are  ascribed  to  the  prevalence  of  shallow 
hikes,  whict  promote  the  crowth  of  npsses  and  aquatic  plants. 


jpaeity  of  air  vessels  =-  20  times  the  capacity  of  the  blowing  cylinder  It 

the  cylinder  is  single-acting. 
««  "  «=  10  times  of  double-acting. 

Velocity  of  air  in  the  passages  should  not  exceed  35  feet  per  second 
t»  T»ity  of  blast  for  iron  furnaces,  from  2%  to  3  Ibs.  per  square  inch- 

jfacn  smith's  forge  requires  150  cube  feet  of  air  per  minute.  Density 
«f  smith's  forge  blast  i/4  Ib.  per  square  inch.  Each  ton  per  hour  melted 
in  cupola  requires  3,500  cube  feet  per  minute.  Each  finery  forge  requires 
"100,000  cube  feet  per  minute  for  each  ton  refined.  Each  blast  furnace  "A 
cube  feet  per  minute  for  each  cube  yard  capacity  of  furnace.  Molesworth^. 
Manufacture  of  Pig  Iron — Coke  or  Anthracite  Coai — 13  to  20  tons  ot  ait 
are  required  for  each  ton. 

Charcoal — 17  to  18  tons  air  are  required  for  each  ton*  1  ton  of  air  at 
54°  =  29,751,  and  at  60°  =  31,366  cubic  feet. 

Pressure, — The  pressure  ordinarily  required  for  smelting  purposes  it 
•qual  to  a  column  of  mercury  from  3  to  7  inches. 

Pipes. — Their  area,  leading  to  the  reservoir,  should  be  '2  that  of  the 
blast  cylinder,  and  the  velocity  of  the  air  should  not  exceed  35  feet  pex 
second. 

A  ton  of  pig  Iron  requires  for  its  reduction  from  the  ore  310,000  cubic 
feet  of  air,  or  5'3  cubic  feet  of  air  for  each  Ib.  of  carbon  consumed.  Pres- 
sure, -7  Ib.  per  square  inch. 

An  ordinary  eccentric  fan,  4  ft.  diameter,  with  5  blades  10  ins.  wida 
and  14  ins.  length,  set  1  9-16  ins.  eccentric,  with  ail  inlet  opening  of  17'5 
ins.  diameter,  and  an  outlet  of  12  ins.  square,  making  870  revolutions  per 
jniiiute,  will  supply  air  to  40  tuyeres,  each  of  1%  ins.  diameter,  and  at  4 
pressure  per  square  inch  of  -5  inch  of  mercury. 

An  ordinary  eccentric  fan  blower,  50  ins.  diam.,  running  at  1000  revo- 
lutions per  minute,  will  give  a  pressure  of  15  ins.  of  water,  and  require 
for  its  operation  a  power  of  12  horses.  Area  tuyere  discharge  500  square 
ins. — HaswelL 

PROPERTIES  OF  FUEL. 


||| 

*5  P 

<M  r*4 

|| 

ll 

Ktnd  of  Fuel. 

•goo, 

!•§ 

^1^1 

"ft.2 

•2^ 

if  -I, 

l-Ss* 

?3 

•S-2 

PH 

Q  OS1** 

^  * 

o 

Bituminous  Coal       

7  to   9 

80 

265 

50 

44 

8  to  10 

282 

54 

40 

Coke  

8  to  10 

86 

245 

31 

72 

Coke,  Nat'l  Virginia  :..... 

8  to    9 

80 

260 

48 

48 

Coke,  Cumberland  

8  to  10 

80 

250 

70 

Charcoal.  

5  to   6 

265 

?4 

104 

Dry  Wood  

4  to   5 

44 

147 

?0 

100 

4 

34 

115 

?5 

100 

Turf,  dry  (peat)     

6 

51 

165 

89 

5 

40 

132 

30 

75 

Illuminating  gas  

13.8 

194 

0  37 

2980* 

Oil,  wax,  tallow... 

14 

77 

200 

59 

37 

Alcohol  

9.56 

58 

154 

52 

42 

MEMORANDA  CONCERNING  COAL  AND  IRON. 
\     First  notice  of  stone  coal  is  B.  C.  371. 

The  coal  fields  o^  England  were  the  first  practically  developed. 

First  record  of  stone  coal  used  in  England  was  A.  D.  820. 

Records  of  regular  mining  in  England  first  made  in  1180* 

Coal  first  used  in  London  in  1240. 

First  tax  laid  on  coal  in  England  in  137JJ. 

Tax  was  repealed  in  1831,  having  been  taxed  400  years. 

First  patent  for  making  iron  with  pit  coal  was  granted  to  Simeoi 
Sturtevant,  in  1612.  but  was  not  successful. 

Iron  first  made  in  a  bla^t  furnace  with  pit  coal  witk  success  by  a  Mft 
Darby,  of  Colebrook  Dale*  Eag'sn-;  in  ri3. 


Ox  COAL,  STEAM  HEATING,  Era 

In  1747  iron  was  made  in  Eneland  wifh  pit  coal,  suitable  tot  oiie 
trfacture  Of  cannon. 


In  1864  the  production  or  iron  in  Great  Britain  was  5.000.000  Ktoa, 

Wooden  tails  in  mines  were  used  in  1777. 

Cast-iron  rails  in  mines  were  used  in  1790. 

Wrought-iron  rails  in  mines  were  used  in  1815. 

Coal  gas  first  made  use  of  practically  in  1798  > 

AMERICAN  COAL  FIELDS.—  First  coal  fields  'worked  In  America  werW 
the  bituminous  fields  at  .Richmond,  Va.,  discovered  in  1750.  This  coal 
was  used  at  Westham,  on  the  James  River,  to  make  shot  and  shell  dur- 
ing the  War  of  Independence. 

The  first  use  of  Anthracite  coal  was  in  1768-69. 

First  used  for  smithing  purposes  in  1790. 

First  used  to  burn  in  a  common  grate  in  1808. 

,o  Jf  1«t,tucS,®88f  ul  use  of  Anthracite  coal  for  the  smelting  of  Iron  was  In 
1839,  at  the  Pioneer  Furnace,  at  Pottsville,  Pa.  It  had  bleu  tried  on  thj 
Lehigh  111  1826,  but  was  unsuccessful. 

The  great  shaft  of  the  Philadelphia  and  Reading  Iron  Companv  hat 
been  sunk  to  a  depth  of  1,569  ft.  from  the  surface  to  the  great  mammoth 
-coal  vein  which  attains  a  thickness  of  25  feet,  in  that  distance  passing 
tLrough  no  less  than  15  coal  seams,  of  which  6  are  workable  and  have  an 
average  thickness  together  of  64  feet.  Even  then  there  are  a  number  of 
«oal  seaius  underlying  these. 

VENTILATION. 

Each  person  require**  at  least  from  3  to  4  cubic  feet  of  air  per  minute. 
Ordinary  windows  allow  about  8  cubic  feet  a  minute  to  pass.    Sleeping 
apartments  require  1000  cubic  feet  of  space  to  each  occupant.    Ail  orttt- 
uary  gas  flame  require*  as  much  air  as  9  persons. 
WARMING  BY  STEAM. 

When  the  external  temperature  is  10°  below  freezing  point,  ir.  ordet 
to  maintain  a  temperature  of  60°  ;  or, 

One  superficial  foot  of  steam  pipe  for  each  6  superficial  feet  of  glass  in 
the  windows  ;  or, 

One  superficial  foot  of  steam  pipe  for  every  6  cube  of  air  escaping  for 
ventilation  per  minute  ;  or, 

One  superficial  foot  of  steam  pipe  for  every  120  feet  of  wall,  roof,  o* 
ceiling;  or, 

One  square  foot  of  steam  pipe  to  80  cubic  feet  of  space  ; 

One  cube  foot  of  boiler  is  required  for  every  2,000  cube  feet  of  spac* 
to  be  heated; 

One  horse-power  boiler  is  sufficient  for  50,000  cube  feet  of  space.  Steam 
should  be  about  212°.—  Molesworth. 

As  usually  estimated,  1  square  foot  of  pipe  is  amply  sufficient  to  he«J 
75  to  80  cubic  feet  of  air  in  exterior  rooms,  and  100  feet  in  interior  rooms. 
THICKNESS  OF  BOILER  IRON,  AND  PRESSURE  ALLOWED  BY  UNITED 

STATES  LAWS. 

Presture  equivalent  to  the  Standard  for  a  Boiler  42  inches  Diameter  and 
1/4  inch  Thick. 


Wire 

Ga»g« 

Thick- 
ness in 
16ths. 

DIAMETER  IN  INCHES. 

34  ins. 

36  ins. 

38  ins. 

40  ins. 

42  ins. 

44  ins. 

46  ins." 

No. 

5 

4JA     ' 

4  * 
3 

Lbs. 
169.9 
158.5 
147.2 
135.9 
124.5 
113.2 
101.9 

Lbs. 

160.4 
149.7 
139.1 
128.3 
117.6 
106.9 
96.2 

Lbs. 
152. 
141.8 
131.8 
121.6 
111.4 
101.3 
91.2 

Lbs. 
144.4 
134.7 
125.1 
115.5 
105.9 
69.2 
86.6 

Lbs. 
137.5 
128.3 
119.2 
110. 
100.8 
91.7 
82-5 

Lbs. 
131.2 
122.5 
113.7 
105. 
96.2 
87.5 
78.7 

Lb*.. 
125.5 
117.2 
108.& 
100.4 
92.1 
83.T 
79* 

HOTBS  ox  SfHEsreTR  or  BorL««a. 

Boiler  Plates  ana  Bolts.— The  tensile  strength  of  iron  plates  wi4 
bolts  ranges  from  42,500  to  62,000  Ibs.  Mean  tensile  strength  of  copper 
plates,  33,000  Ibs.  up  to  120°  ;  temperature  at  220°  =  32,000  Iba. ;  at  550 J  - 

'  Bursting  or  Collapsing  Pressures.— Iron  plates  should  be  based  upon  ; 
a  strength  2-5  that  of  ultimate  strength  of  the  metal  ;   for  use  in  aal* 
•water,  at  %  that  of  its  ultimate  strength.  , 

Resistance  to  collapse  much  less  than  to  bursting. 

Strength  of  Stay  Bolts.— Of  iron,  for  use  in  salt  water,  should  be  taker 
at  1-7  ;  fresh 'water,  1-6  ;  copper,  1-5  of  ultimate  tensile  strength. 

Stay-bolts,  when  screwed  and  riveted,  are  y3  stronger  than  when  screw 
ed  iione. 

RELATIVE  STRENGTH  OF  RIVETED  JOINTS  PER  SQUARE  INCH  OF  MN  - 

•OLE  PLATE Single-lapped,  machine  riveted,  rivets  3  diameters,  centre  to 

centre,  25,000  Ibs. ;  hand  riveted,  24,000  Ibs.  ;  staggered  riveting,  and  equi- 
distant from  centres,  30,500  Ibs.  ;  abut  joints,  hand  riveted— rivets  not 
•"  staggered,"  and  equidistant  from  centres— single  cover  or  strip,  30,OW 
Ibs. ;  rivets  set  " square, ,"  single  co.o*  or.strip,  42,000 Ibs. ;  double  Cuvera 
er  strips,  55,000  Ibs. 

To  FIND  REQUISITE  QUANTITY  OF  WATER  FOR  A  BOILER. 

Add  15  to  the  pressure  of  steam  per  square  inch,  divide  sum  by  18 
multiply  the  quotient  by  .24  ;  product  is  quantity  in  U.  S.  gallons  per 
minute  for  each  horse-power. 

To  FIND  HEIGHT  OF  A  COLUMN  OF  WATER. 

To  Supply  a  Steam  Boiler  against  any  Pressure  of  Steam  required. 

Multiply  pressure  in  pounds  upon  a  square  inch  of  boiler  by  2.5  j  pro 
duct  will  be  height  in  feet  above  the  surface  of  the  water  in  boiler. 
COLD  WATER  AND  FEED  PUMPS. 

The  cold-water  pump  usually  =  diameter  of  cylinder  x  0.3  when  Btrok* 
—  %  stroke  of  engine. 

The  cold-water  pump  usually  =  diameter  of  cylinder  x  0.42  whei- 
stroke  =»  V*  stroke  of  engine. 

Velocity  of  water  in  pump  passages  should  not  exceed  500  feet  per 
minute.  Pump  valves  should  not  be  of  less  area  thau  %  area  of  th» 
pump. 

Feed  Pumps  for  High  Pressure  Engines. 

Diameter  =*  1-11  diameter  of  cylinder  when  pump's  stroke  =»  stroke  «r 
the  engine. 

Diameter  «•  %  diameter  of  cynn<*3r  when%  stroke  of  the  engine. 

Diameter  *=%  diameter  of  cylinder  when  V*  stroke  of  the  engine. 
feed  Pumps  for  Conanusinri  Engines. 

Diameter  —  1-11  diameter  of  cylinder  when  V2  stroke  of  the  engine. 

Diameter  -*  %  diameter  of  cylinder  when  V*  stroke  of  the  engine. 

DEPRECIATION  OF  MACHINERY,  ETC- 

Per  annum  on  first  cost. 


Depreciation. 

Wear  and 
Tear. 

Total. 

Engines 

6  per  cent. 

3  per  cent. 

9  per  cent 

Boilers       .       .   

3         " 

13         «' 

Machines                      ... 

7V       " 

11         " 

*  Mill  wt>rk  and  Gearing  

4  2     " 

2y       " 

Stands  and  belts  

45  3      " 

45  *     «' 

78.54  feet  per  minute* 
157.08         *  «' 


IRON  TURNING  TOOLS. 

Surface-bored  should  be  at  the  rate  of 

Surface  turned  

FORM  OF  IRON-CUTTING  TOOLS. 

To  form  and  place  any  tool  to  cut  any  surface,  let  the  end  be  so  form- 
ed and  placed  as  to  make  the  least  possible  angle  with  the  surface  to  be 
cut,  and  whatever  degree  of  acuteness  may  be  considered  requisite  ;  let 
the  keeimeM  be  given  by  hollowing  out  the  surface  on  which  the  shaving* 


FOB  FORETELLING  THF.  "WEATHER  THROUGH  THE  LuNATioait 

OF  THE  MOON. 
(DB.  HERSCHELL  AND  ADAM  CLARKE.) 


If  the  New  Moon  the  First 
Quarter,  the  Full  Moon  or 
the  Last  Quarter,  enters  — 

la  Summer. 

• 

In  Winter. 

Between  midnight   and   2  ) 

A.  M  :.  ; 

Fair.                       { 

Cold,  fr't  showers. 
Rain. 
Wind  and  rain. 

Changeable. 

Frequent  showers. 
Very  rainy. 
Changeable. 
Fair. 
Fair  if  wind    N.  ( 
W.,  rainy  if  S.  { 
or  S.  E.                ( 
Do. 
Fair. 

Hard  frost,  unless  wintf 
is  S.  or  E. 
Snowy  and  stormy.       ' 
Rain. 
Stormy. 
Cold  rain  If  wind  is  W., 
snow  if  E. 
Cold  and  high  wind. 
Snow  and  rain. 
Fair  and  mild. 
Fair. 
Fair  and  frosty  if  win<J 
is  N.  or  W.,  rain  o» 
snow  if  S.orS.  E. 
Do. 
Fair  and  frosty. 

Set  2  and  4AM.    .  . 

"    4and6A.  M  

"    6  and  8  A.  M  

«    SaudlOA.M  { 
•'    10  and  12  A.  M  

It  12  M.  and  2  P.  M  

jBet.  2  and  4  P.  M  

"    4  and  6  P.  M  

•:    6  and  8  P.  M  I 
"    8  and  10  P.  M  

*'    10  and  midnight  

OBSERVATIONS.— 1.  Tlie  nearer  the  time  of  the  moon's  change,  first 
quarter,  full,  and  last  quarter,  is  to  mid-night,  the  fairer  the  weather  dur- 
ing 7  following  days.  Range  for  this  is  from  10  at  night  till  2  next  morn- 
ing.  2.  The  nearer  to  mid-day  the  phases  of  the  moon  happen,  the  more 
foul  or  wet  weather  during  the  7  days  following.  3.  The  moon'g  change 
entering  from  4  to  10  of  the  afternoon,  may  expect  fair  weather. 
FORCE  OF  THE  WIND. 


Miles 
ifour. 

Feet 
per 
Minute. 

Feet 
per 
Second. 

Force  in 
pounds  per 
square  foot. 

Description. 

1 

88 

1.47 

.005 

Hardly  perceptible 

2 
3 

176 
264 

2.93 
4.4 

.020) 
.044  f 

Just  perceptible. 

4 
K 

352 
440 

5.87 
7.33 

.079) 
0.123  f 

Gentle  breeze. 

10 
15 

880 
1,320 

14.67 
22. 

0.492) 
1.107  f 

Pleasant  breeze. 

20 
25 

1,760 
2,200 

29.3 
36.6 

1.970  ) 
3.067  f 

Brisk  gale. 

80 
85 

2,640 
3,080 

44.0 
51.3 

4.429  ) 
6.027  f 

High  wind. 

40 
45 

3,520 
3.960 

58.6 
66.0 

7.870  ) 
9.900  } 

Very  high  wind. 

60 

4,400 

73.3 

12.304 

Storm. 

60 
70 

5,280 
6,160 

88.0 
102.7 

17.733  ) 
24.153  ) 

Great  storm. 

80 
100 

7,04C 
8,800 

117.3 
146-6 

31.490  ) 
49.200  f 

Hurricane. 

Loss  OF  LIGHT  BY  USE  OF  SHADES.—  F.  H.  Storer. 


GLASS,  ETC. 

Th'k- 

ness. 

Loss. 

GLASS,  ETC. 

Th'k- 

n  ess. 

Los* 

American  Enamelled.  . 

Ins. 
1-16 
1-8 

PrCt. 
51.23 
13.08 

Window,  d'ble,  Eng... 

Ins. 
1-8 
1-8 

PrCt. 

13 

Crystal  plat<  f  .  . 

1-8 

8  61 

1-16 

4  2T 

English           

1-8 

6  15 

1-16 

6675, 

Porcelain  Transpar'cy. 

1-3 

97.68 

"       green  

1-16 

81.9* 

MiscELLANfiof  g    MEAS-  f si:  M:LE,  AS  MEASURLD  BY 


URES  FOR   VARIOUS  PUBPOSES. 


KIOUS  NATIONS. 


A  load  of  unhewn  tim-  The  English  mile  is Iff 60  vela 

ber 40  cubic  ft.lThe  Scotch       «  .  i«u    " 


A  load  of  squared  tim- 
ber   60  " 

A  load  of  inch  boards  .  600  sq.  ft. 

A  load  of  two-inch 
planks  300 


1964 

The  Irish  "        2240 

The  German     "        8106 

The  Dutch  and  Prussian 

,    mile  is 3480 

The  Italian  mile  is 1766 


A  hundred  of  deals....  120  in  num. i The  Vienna  post  mile  is. .  8296 
A  hundred  of  nails 120       "         The  Swiss  mile  is 9153 


A  thousand  of  bricks. . .  1200       " 

A  load  of  bricks 500       " 

A  load  of  lime 32  bushels. 


The  Swedish  and  Danish 

mile  is 7341.5  '< 

The  Arabian  mile  is 2143  *• 

The  Roman  mile  is. .  1628  or  2025  " 

TheWerst         "        1167  or  1337  " 

The  Tuscan       «'        1808  " 

The  Turkish      "        .....  1826  " 

The  Flemish      "        6869  -« 


A  load  of  sand . 

A  sack  of  potatoes,  or 

coals 224    Ibs. 

A  bushel  of  salt  or  flour    56       " 

A  bushel  of  wheat 60       " 

A  bushel  of  barley 50       " 

A  bushel  of  oats 40       " 

The  British  league,  or  three  times  our  geographical  mile  of  60  to  % 
degree,  or  20L-5  yards,  is  6075  yards.  The  Brabant  league  is  6096  yard.. 
The  Danish  and  Hamburg  league  8244  yards,  the  German  league 8101,  th« 
long  German  ditto,  10126  yards,  the  short  do.  6859,  the  Portuguese  league 
is  6760  yards,  the  Spanish  7416  yards,  the  Swedish  11700  yards.  All  of 
them  parts  of  a  degree,  but  made  before  the  length  of  a  degree  was  ac- 
curately determined. 

To  TEST  QUALITY  OF  STEEL. 

Good  tool  steel,  with  a  white  heat,  will  fall  to  pt»— «.»  ;  with  bright 
red  heat  will  crumble  under  the  hammer ;  with  middling  heat  may  b« 
drawn  to  a  needle-point. 

To  test  hardening  qualities,  drav  under  a  low  heat  to  a  gradually  taper- 
ed square  point  and  plunge  into  cold  water  j  if  broken  point  will  scratch 
glass,  the  quality  is  good. 

To  test  tenacity,  a  hardened  piece  will  be  driven  into  cast-iron  by  a 
hardened  hammer — ii  poor,  will  be  crumbled.  Excellence  will  be  in 
proportion  to  tenacity  in  hard  state.  Soft  steel  of  good  quality  gives  a 
curved  line  fracture  and  uniform  gray  texture.  Tool  steel  should  be  dull 
•ilver  color,  uniform,  entirely  free  from  sparkling  qualities. 

Aquafortis,  applied  to  the  surface  of  steel,  produces  a  black  spot; .  on 
Iron  the  metal  remains  clean.  The  slightest  vein  of  iron  or  steel  can  b« 
readily  detected  by  this  method. 

STEEL  SPRINGS. 

Rule  1st— To  find  elasticity  of  a  given  steel-plate  spring :  Breadth  ot 
plate  in  inches  multiplied  by  cube  of  the  thickness  in  1-16  inch,  and  by 
number  of  plates  ;  divide  cube  of  span  in  inches  by  product  so  found; 
and  multiply  by  1.66.  Result,  equal  elasticity  in  l-16th  of  an  inch  per 
ton  of  load. 

Rule  2d— To  find  span  due  to  a  given  elasticity,  and  number  and  siz^ 
of  plate  :  Multiply  elasticity  in  sixteenths  per  ton.  by  breadth  of  plate  i* 
inches,  and  divide  by  cube  of  the  thickness  in  inches,  and  by  the  number 
of  plates ;  divide  by  1.6C,  and  find  cube  root  of  the  quotient.  Result, 
equal  span  in  inches. 

R»le  3d— To  find  number  of  plates  due  to  a  given  elasticity,  span, 
and  size  of  plates  :  Multiply  the  cu>>e  of  the  span  in  inches  by  1.66  ;  mul- 
tiply the  elasticity  in  sixteenths  by  the  breadth  of  the  plate  in  inches, 
and  by  the  cube  of  the  thickness  in  sixteenths  ;  divide  the  former  pro- 
duct by  the  latter.  The  quotient  is  the  number  of  plater 

Pule  4/£— To  find  the  working  strength  of  a  given  steei-plate  spring : 
Multiply  the  breadth  of  plate  in  inches  by  the  square  of  the  thickness  in 
sixteenths,  and  by  the  number  of  plates ;  multiply  also  the  working 
•pan  in  inches  by  11.3  ;  divide  the  former  product  by  the  latter.  Result, 
equal  working  strength  in  tons  burden. 

Rule  5th— To  find  span  due  to  a  given  strength  and  number,  and  size 
9t  plate ;  Multiply  the  breadth  of  plate  ttv  inches  by  the  square  of  &• 


ON  METALS,  STAIR-CASES,  PAINTS. 

in  sixteenths,  and  by  the  number  of  plates  ;  multiply,  also, 
strength  in  tons  by  11.3,  divide  the  former  product  by  the  latter.    ~ 
«qualworking  span  in  inches. 

R«le  6th— To  tind  the  number  of  plates  due  to  a  given  strength,  span* 
and  size  of  plate  :  Multiply  the  strength  in  tons  by  span  in  inchet ,  and 
divide  by  11 .3  ;  multiply  also  the  breadth  of  plate  in  inches  by  the  square 
of  tlie  thickness  in  sixteenths  ;  divide  the  former  product  by  the  latter, 
Jlesult,  equal  number  of  plates. 

The  span  is  that  due  to  the  form  of  the  spring  loaded.  Extra  thiclt 
plate*  must  be  replaced  by  an  equivalent  number  of  plates  of  the  ruling 
thickness,  before  applying  the  rule.  To  find  this,  multiply  the  number oT^; 
extra  plates  by  the  square  of  their  thickness,  and  divide  by  the  square  of 
the  ruling  thickness  ;  conversely,  the  number  of  plates  of  the  ruling 
thickness  to  be  removed  for  a  given  number  of  extra  plates,  may  befouuu 
til  the  same  way. 

LINEAL  EXPANSION  OF  METALS. 
Produced  by  raising  their  temperature  from  32°  to  212°  Fahrenheit. 

1  part  in  322  Gold lpartiii6Gfc 


Platinum 

Tin  (pure) 

Tin  (impure) 

Silver 

Copper 

Brass 

Falmouth  tin.... 
JKnglish  brass  rod 

JJrass  wire 

Blistered  steel... 


517 


Bismuth 
Iron . 


351 

403 

500  Antimony 

524  Palladium 

581 

584 


Platinum. 

Flint  glass 


584  Flint  glass 

462  Soft  rolled  iron 
528  Prism  of  cast  iron . 


Reflector  metal. 


870  Renned  silver. 
STAIR-CASES. 


71§ 
812 
925 
1000 
1100 
1248 
819 
904 
51T 


width  ot 

Tread. 

Height  of       Wi 
Riser.             1 
...8%  inches.    10 

dthof 
''read, 
inches 

M 

<( 

tt 

I. 

ticial  y^ 

t 

super! 
)ne  poi 

&eighw  -. 
Riser. 
....6Vi  inches 

8        «•           11 

€       «    

....7Va     «           12 

...M       « 

*        **     1                         13 

PAINTINO 
1  gal.  priming  color  will  cover  50  super 
J.    «    whit*  zinc               "           50 
1    "    white  paint             •'          44 
1    ••    lead  color                «          60 
1    **    black  paint             '•          60 
1   «    «*one  color               «•          44 
*   *    yellow  paint            "          44 
1    *    bin*  color                 «           45 
1    *   *roen  paint             «          45 
\    «•    brirfjtemer.  green  "          25 
1    *    fcwmxe  green           "           45           « 
<On«  pound  of  paint  will  cover  about  ^ 
*nd  about  6  yds.  each  additional  coat.     < 

lpfl» 

\ 

icial  yarda  the  first  coftt, 
ind  of  putty  for  stopping; 

Cue  gallon  of  tar,  and  1  Ib.pitch,  will  cover  12  yds.  s-uper 
licial  the  nrst  coat,  and  17  yds.  each  additional  coat. 

PAIIXTS,  &c.—  In  addition  to  the  very  ample  information  to  be  fount 
tthe  Painters  Department,  the  following,  transcribed  from  the 


MANUAL,  are  given. 

/BOILED  I©IL.—  Raw  oil—  1.3  parts,  copperas—  3-15  parts,  litharge—  6-3 
iwrts,  Put  the  litharge  and  copperas  in  a  cloth  bag  ami  suspend  in  th» 
Mdddle  of  the  kettle.  Boil  the  oil  4%  hours  over  a  slow  fire,  then  let  it 
»t»nd  and  deposit  the  sediment. 

DariNGS.—  Mixture  of  copperas  and  litharge  taken  from  the  boiled 
Oil  60  part*.  Spirits  turj 

PHTTY.—  Spanish  whi 
flhfce  into.  a  ctiff  - 
kerned. 


e  oi  copperas  ana  mnarge  taiten   irom  tne  i 
turpentine  56  parts,  boiled  oil  2  parts, 
whiting,  pulverized  81-6  parts,  boiled  oil  20'4 
eu  if  not  intended  for  immediate  use  raw  oil  • 


PAINTS,  INKS,  BYES,  Era 
WHITE  PAINT. 

Inside  work.  Outside  work. 

WWte  lead,  ground  in  oli 8<J      80. 

Boiledoil..? 14.5 9. 

Raw  oil 9- 

Spirits  turpentine 8 4. 

New  wood-work  requires  1  Ib.  to  the  square  yard  for  three  coats- 

LEAD  COLOR.— White  lead  ground  in  oil  75  parts,  lamp  black  1  par^ 
feoiled  linseed  oil  23  parts,  litharge  0-5  parts,  Japan  varnish  0-5  parts,- 
•pirits  turpentine  2-5  parts.  Lamp  black  and  litharge  are  ground  sepa 
lately  with  oil,  then  stirred  into  the  white  lead  and  oil. 

BLACK  PAINT.— Lamp  black  28  parts,  litharge  1  part,  Japan  varnisli 
1  part,  boiled  linseed  oil  73  parts,  spirits  turpentine  1  part. 

GRAY  OR  STONE  COLOR  FOU  BUILDINGS.— White  lead  in  oil  73  parts, 
belled  oil  9-5  parts,  raw  oil  9-5  parts,  spirits  turpentine  3  parts,  Turkey 
umber  0.5  parts,  lamp  black  0.25  parts.  One  square  yard  of  new  brick- 
work requires  for  2  coats  1.1  Ib.,  for  3  coats  1.5  Ib. 

PAINT  FOR  TARPAULINS.— 1st.  Olive.  Liquid  olive  color  100  parts, 
beeswax  6  parts,  spts.  turpentine  6  parts.  Dissolve  the  beeswax  in  spts. 
turpentine,  with  a  gentle  heat,  and  mix  the  paint  warm.  2d.  Add  12  ozs, 
beeswax  to  1  gal  linseed  oil,  boil  it  two  hours  ;  prime  the  cloth  with  the 
mixture,  and  use  it  in  the  place  of  boiled  oil  for  mixing  the  paint. 
CREAM  COLOR.  (For  Buildings.) 

1st  coat.  2d  coat. 

White  lead,  in  oil 66.66    70. 

Frenchyellow 3.33    .5.33 

Japan  varnish 1.33     1.33 

Kawoil 28.00     24.5 

Spirits  turpentine 2.25 2.2o 

One  square  yard  of  new  brick- work  requires  for  nrst  coat,  0-75  Ibs.; 

CHEAP  PAINT  FOR  SHEDS  AND  FENCES.— Melted  pitch  Gibs.,  linseeA. 
oil  1  pt.,  brick  dust,  or  yellow  ochre,  1  Ib. 
To  the  above  we  add  the  following  valuable  Items  :— 

To  WATERPROOF  AWNINGS. — Immerse  first  in  solution  containing 
20  per  cent,  of  soap,  and  repeat  the  process  in  a  copper  solution  of  equal 
strength,  then  wash  and  dry. 

ANILINE  INKS.— 1.  Violet.  Dissolve  1  part  of  aniline  violet  blue  In 
300  parts  of  water.  A  beautiful  ink.  2.  Blue  Ink.  Dissolve  1  part  of  solubla 
Paris  blue  in  250  parts  of  water.  3.  Red  Ink.  Dissolve  1  part  soluble 
fuchsin  in  200  parts  boiling  water. 

INDIA  OR  CHINESE  INK.— Calcined  lamp  black  100  parts.  Boghead 
shale  black,  in  impalpable  powder,  50  parts  ;  Indigo  carmine  in  cakes,  10 

nts  ;  Carmine  lake,  5  parts  ;  Gum  arabic  (best  quality)  10  parts  ;  Puri- 
ox-gall  20  parts;  Alcoholic  ext.  of  musk,  5  parts;  Dissolve  the  gum  In 
50  to  60  parts  of  pure  water,  and  fUter  through  a  cloth.  The  indigo,  car- 
mine, lake,  lamp  black,  and  shale  black  are  mixed  with  the  liquid  and 
the  whole  ground  on  a  slab  with  a  muller  like  ordinary  colors,  but  much 
longer.  Now  add  the  ox-gall  and  ext.  of  musk  slowly,  grinding  well  in. 
Next  dry  in  the  air  away  from  dust,  mould  into  cakes  and  dry  again. 
Wuen  quite  firm,  compress  into  bronze  moulds  with  any  desired' design, 
Vrap  up  in  tin  foil  and  again  in  gilt  paper.  A  splendid  article. 

To  DYE,  STIFFEN  AND  BLEACH  FELT  HATS.— Felt  hats  are  dyed  "by 
^eptjaJ-ed  immersion,  drawing  and  dipping  in  a  hot  watery  solution  of 
logwo»>d  38  parts,  green  vitriol  3  parts,  verdigris  2  parts  ;  repeat  the  im- 
mersions and  drawing  with  exposure  to  the  air  13  or  14  times,  or  until  the 
color  auits,  each  step  in  the  process  lasting  from  10  to  15  minutes.  Ani- 
line colors  may  be  advantageously  used  instead  of  tho  above.  For  & 
•tiffening,  dissolve  borax  10  parts,  carbonate  of  potash  3  parts,  in  hot 
water  then  add  shellac  50  parts,  and  boil  until  all  is  dissolved  ;  apply 
with  i  sponge  or  a  brush,  or  by  immersing  the  hat  when  it  is  ccld,  auct 
dip  at  once  in  very  dilute  sulphuric  or  acetic  acid  to  neutralize  the  alkali 
and  fix  the  shellac.  Felt  hats  can  be  bleached  by  the  use.  of  sulphuric 
acid  gas. 

m 


SUGGESTIONS   TO   ARTISANS,  &C. 

SECRETS.— A  spoonful  of  ox-gall  to  a  gallon  of  water  win 
Bet  the  colors  of  almost  any  goods  soaked  In  it  previous  to  washing.  A, 
tea-cup  of  lye  in  a  pail  of  water  will  improve  the  color  of  black  good«. 
Nankin  should  lie  in  lye  before  being  washed  ;  it  sets  the  color.  A  strong 
tea  of  common  hay  will  preserve  the  color  of  French  linens.  Vinegar  in 
the  rinsing  water  for  pink  or  green  calicoes  will  brighten  them.  Soda 
answers  the  same  end  for  both  purple  and  blue.  To  bleach  cotton  cloth, 
take  one  large  spoonful  of  sal-soda,  one  pound  of  chloride  of  lime,  for 
thirty  yards  ;  dissolve  in  clean  soft  water,  rinse  the  cloth  thoroughly  in 
cold  'soft  water  in  order  that  the  cloth  may  not  rot.  The  above  amount 
t>f  cloth,  with  the  bleaching  compound  may  be  whitened  in  from  ten  to 
fifteen  minutes. 

SUGGESTION?  TO  ARTISANS.— Never  consider  time  wasted  that  it- 
•pent  in  learning  rudiments.  In.  acquiring  a  knowledge  of  any  art  or 
handicraft  the  greatest  difficulty  is  experienced  at  the  beginning,  be- 
cause our  work  then  possesses  little  or  nothing  of  interest.  Our  first 
lessons  in  drawing,  or  music,  or  with  tools,  are  very  simple  ;  indeed  so 
simple  are  they  that  we  are  disposed  to  undervalue  their  importance. 
The  temptation  is  to  skip  a  few  pages  and  begin  further  on  in  the  book. 
But  such  a  course  is  fatal  to  success.  To  learn  principles  thoroughly 
vs  to  succeed.  Be  content  to  learn  one  thing  at  a  time,  whether  it  be  to 
push  a  plane  square  and  true,  or  draw  a  straight  line.  Whatever  you 
learn,  learn  it  absolutely,  without  possible  question.  This  will  enable 
you  to  advance  steadily,  step  by  step,  year  after  year,  and  some  day 
you  will  wonder  why  you  have  been  enabled  to  distance  the  geniuse* 
who  once  seemed  so  far  in  advance  of  you. 

Set  your  heart  upon  what  you  have  in  hand.  Valuable  knowledge 
is  acquired  only  by  intense  devotion.  You  must  give  your  entire  mind 
to  whatever  you  undertake,  otherwise  you  fail,  or  succeed  indifferently, 
whl<;h  is  but  little  better  than  failure. 

Learn,  therefore,  to  estimate  properly  the  value  of  what  is  called 
leisure  time.  There  is  entirely  too  much  of  this  in  the  world-  Do  not 
mistake  our  meaning.  Rest  is  necessary  and  play  is  well  in  its  place, 
but  young  men  who  hope  to  do  something  in  life  must  not  expect  to  play 
one  third  of  their  time. 

While  you  resolve  to  acquire  a  thorough  knowledge  of  your  art,  be 
equally  as  anxious  to  know  something  beyond  it.  A  craftsman  ought  to 
ba  ashamed  of  himself  who  (knows  nothing  but  the  use  of  his  tools. 
Having  the  time  to  acquire  it,  be  careful  to  properly  estimate  the  value 
of  knowledge.  Remember  of  what  use  it  will  be  to  you  in  ten  thousand 
instances  as  you  go  along  in  life  and  be  as  conscientious  in  learning 
rudiments  here  as  elsewhere.  Learn  to  speU  correctly,  to  write  a  good 
plain  hand,  and  to  punctuate  your  sentences. 

Do  not  dress  beyond  your  means  ;  never  spend  your  last  doHar.  unless 
for  food  to  keep  yourself  or  some  one  else  from  starving.  You  will 
always  feel  better'to  keep  a  little  money  in  your  pocket.  At  the  earliest 
possible  opportunity  save  up  a  few  dollars  and  place  the  amount  in  a 
sayings  bank.  It  will  serve  as  a  magnet  to  attract  other  money  thafc 
might  be  foolishly  spent- 
Just  as  soon  as  you  can  command  the  means,  buy  a  piece  of  ground. 
Do  not  wait  until  you  have  saved  enough  to  pay  all  down,  but  begin  by 
paying  one  third  or  one  quarter.  Do  not  be  afraid  to  go  in  debt  for  land, 
for  it  increases  in  value. 

Marry  as  soon  as  you  are  able  to  support  a  wife  and  can  find  a  good 
woman  who  is  willing  to  accept  you.  —  The  American  Builder. 

In  commending  the  above  advice  the  editor  would  enterpose  a  salutary 
caution  regarding  the  deposit  of  money  in  Savings  Banks,  while  many 
successful  business  men,  and  other  possessed  of  exuberant  imagination  say 
that  there  is  no  such  word  as  fail,  it  is  palpablv  manifest  that  the  collapse 
of  no  less  than  eleven  Savings  Banks  in  New  York  and  its  vicinity  during 
the  past  few  months,  has  furnished  ruinous  proof  to  thousands  of  de- 
positors that  the  contrary  is  the  truth.  In  making  deposits  then,  be 
sure  that  your  savings  are  put  in  a  safe  place  and  that  the  integrity  of , 
f*»e  men  to  whom  you  intrust  them  is  beyond  question. 


Miscellaneous  Rules,  &c.,  for  Engineers,  Mill-owners, 
Mechanics,  &c. 

GEARING  A  COMPOUND  LATHE.— The  term  Compound  or  double  gear* 
Clf,  as  applied  to  the  screw-cutting  gear  of  a  lathe  means  that  there  exists, 
between  the  gear  wheel  which  is  fastened  to  and  revolves  with  the  lathe 
spindle  and  the  feed  screw,  two  gear  wheels  of  different  diameters  and 
revolving  side  by  side,  at  the  same  number  of  revolutions,  by  reason  of 
being  fixed  upon  the  same  sleeve  or  axis.  The  object  of  this  arrangement 
is  to  make,  between  the  speed  at  which  the  lathe  mandril  or  spindle  will 
run,  and  the  speed  or  revolution  at  which  the  feed  screw  will  run,  a  great- 
er amount  of  difference  than  is  possible  in  a  single  geared  lathe,  and  thus 
to  be  able  to  cut  threads  of  a  coarser  pitch  than  could  be  cut  hi  the  latter. 
This  is  usually  accomplished  by  providing  two  intermediate  wheels  of 
different  diameters,  both  being  held  by  a  ff ather  in  a  sleeve  revolving 
upon  an  adjustable  pin  for  the  purpose. 

It  is  obvious  that  the  smallest  of  these  compounded  or  coupled  wheels 
will  gear  into  and  with  the  wheel  or  gear  on  the  feed  screw  ;  and  that 
the  changes  of  gear  may  be  made  upon  the  gear  running  on  the  lathe 
mandril  and  that  running  on  the  feed  screw,  without  disturbing  the  pair 
of  intermediate  (and  compounded)  gears  referred  to.  In  many  cases, 
however,  only  the  wheel  upon  the  feed  screw  need  be  changed,  since  a  M 
wide  range  of  pitch  may  be  obtained  by  changing  that  wheel  only. 

To  find  the  number  of  teeth  in  the  wheel  required  to  be  placed  on  the 
feed  screw,  we  have  the  following  rule  : 

Divide  the  pitch  to  be  cut  by  the  pitch  of  the  feed  screw,  and  the  pro- 
duct will  be  the  proportional  number.  Then  multiply  the  number  of 
teeth  on  the  lathe  mandril  gear  by  the  number  of  teeth  on  the  smallest 
gear  of  the  compounded  pair,  and  the  product  by  the  proportional  num- 
ber, and  divide  the  last  product  by  the  number  of  teeth  in  the  largest 
wheel  of  the  compounded  pair,  and  the  product  is  the  number  of  teeth 
lor  the  wheel  on  the  feed  screw. 

Suppose,  for  example,  the  gear  on  the  lathe  mandril  contains  40  teeth 
running  into  the  largest  of  the  compounded  gears  which  contains  50  teeth, 
and  that  the  small  gear  of  the  compounded  pair  contains  15  teeth  ;  what 
wheel  will  be  required  for  the  feed  screw— its  pitch  being  2,  ana  tht 
thread  requiring  to  be  cut  being  20  ? 

Pitch  Pitch  of  Proportional 

required.          feed  screw.  number. 

20       -J-         2         =         10 

Then- 
Mandril        Small  com-      Proportional       Large  com* 
gear  teeth.       pound  gear.          number.  pound  gear. 

40  x  15  x  10  -j-  50  =  120  =  the  number  o$ 
teeth  required  upon  the  wheel  for  the  feed  screw.  In  the  above  example, 
however,  all  the  necessary  wheels  except  one  are  given  ;  and  since  it  is 
often  required  to  find  the  necessary  sizes  of  two  of  the  wheels,  the  follow- 
ing  rule  may  be  used  : 

Divide  the  number  of  threads  you  wish  to  cut  by  the  pitch  of  the  feed 
screw,  and  multiply  the  quotient  by  the  number  of  teeth  on  one  of  the 
driving  wheels,  and  the  product  by  the  number  of  teeth  on  the  other  of 
the  driving  wheels  ;  then  any  divisor  that  leaves  no  remainder  to  the  last 
product  is  the  number  of  teeth  for  one  of  the  wheels  driven,  and  the 
quotient  is  the  number  of  teeth  for  the  other  wheel  driven. 

[In  this  rule  the  term  "  wheel  driven  "  means  a  wheel  which  has  mo- 
tion imparted  to  it,  while  its  teeth  do  not  drive  or  revolve  any  other 
wheel ;  hence  the  large  wheel  of  the  compounded  pair  is  one  of  the 


€36 


EULES    FOR   MACHINISTS,    MILLERS,    AC. 


wheels  driven,  while  the  wheel  on  the  feed  screw  is  the  other  of  thw 
wheels  driven.] 

Example.— It  is  required  to  cut  20  threads  to  the  inch,  the  pitch  of  th» 
feed  screw  being  2,  one  of  the  driving  wheels  contains  40  teeth  and  thd', 
•ther  15  :  » 


Pitch  required 
to  be  cut. 

20 


Pitch  of 

feed  esrew, 


Teeth  in  one 
driving  wheel. 

40         ; 


Teeth  in  other 
driving  wheel. 

15         = 


GOOO, 


Then,  6000  -f-  50  —  120  ;  and  hence  one  of  the  gears  will  require  to  ton- 
tain  50  and  the  other  120  teeth  ;  if  we  have  not  two  of  such  wheels,  we 
may  divide  by  some  other.nuinber  instead  of  50. 

Thus  :  6000  -7-  60  =  100  ;  and  the  wheels  will  require  to  have,  re- 
•pectively,  60  and  100  teeth. 

If  there  are  no  wheels  on  the  lathe  we  proceed  as  follow s  : 

Divide  the  pitch  required  by  the  pitch  of  the  feed  screw  ;  the  quotient 
i?  the  proportion  between  the  revolutions  of  the  first  driving  gear  and 
the  feed  screw  gear. 

Example.  Required  the  gears  to  cut  a  pitch  of  20,  the  feed  screw  pitch 
being  4  ;  here  20  -f-  4  =  5  ;  that  is  to  say,  the  feed  screw  must  revolve 
five  times  as  slowly  as  the  first  driving  gear  ;  we  now  find  two  numbers 
which,  multiplied  together,  make  five  :  as  2^  X  2  =  5  ;  hence  one  pair 
of  wheels  must  be  geared  2^  to  1  and  the  other  pair  2  to  1,  the  small 
wheel  of  each  pair  being  used  as  drivers,  because  the  ihread  required  if 
finer  than  the  feed  screw.  Rose's  Complete  Practical  Machinist,  H. 
Carey  Baird  &  Co.,  Philadelphia. 

HIPPED  HOOFS,   MILL  HOPPERS,    &C. 

To  find  the  various  Angles  and  proper  Dimensions  of  Materials  where- 
by to  construct  any  figure  whose  form  is  the  Fru&trum  of  a.  proper  or 
inverted  Pyramid,  as  Hipped  Roofs,  Mill  Hoppers,  dfcc, 


A  B  C  D  represents  the  desired  size  of  plan  for  a  roof,  E  T  represents  th* 
height  ;  draw  the  line  A  E  to  meet  the  apex  or  ridge  E  K  on  plan  ;  from 
E,  at  right  angles  with  C  E  and  equal  to  the  designed  height  draw  the 
line  E  T  then  the  line  T  C,  equal  the  length  of  the  struts  or  corners  of  th? 
roof  ;  from  C,  with  the  distance  C  F,  draw  the  arc  T  H,  continue  thd 
diagonal  C  E  until  it  cuts  the  arc  E  H,  through  which,  and  parallel  with 
the  apex  E  K,  draw  the  line  I  L,  which  determines  the  required  breadth 
for  each  side  of  the  roof  :  from  C,  meeting  the  line  I  L,  draw  the  line  C 
G,  or  proper  angle  for  the  end  of  each  board  by  which  the  roof  might  re- 
quire to  be  covered,  and  the  angle  at  T  is  what  the  boards  require  to  be 
made  in  the  direction  of  their  thickness,  when  the  corners  or  angles  re- 
quire to  be  mitred. 

To  COMPUTE  THE  NUMBER  OF  REVOLUTIONS  OF  A  PINION  OR  DRIVEN 
WHEN  THE  NUMP.F.R  OF  RF.VOLUTIONS  OF  DRIVER  AND  THE  DIAMETER 
OR  THE  NUMBER  OF  TEETH  OF  DRIVER  AND  DRIVEN  ARE  ofvEN. 
—Multiply  the  dumber  of  revolutions  of  driver  by  its  number  of  teeth 


RULES    FOR   MACHINISTS,    MILLERS,   AC. 


687 


ar  its  diameter,  and  divide  the  product  by  the  number  of  teeth  or  thfr 
diameter  of  the  driver. 

PROPORTION  OF  CIRCLES. — To  assist  machinists  in  enlarging  or  reducing 
machinery  wheels  without  changing  their  respective  velocities. 


k,  lay  off  two  circles,  D  F  and  G  I,  the  size  of  the  largest 
*rhich  von  wish  to  change  to  a  large  or  small  machine,  with  the  central 
point  H  of  the  smaller  circle  G  I  on  the  periphery  of  the  largest  circle  D 
F  :  then  describe  two  lines  Q  0  and  S  A  tangent  to  the  circles  as  shown 
in  diagram,  then  draw  the  line  R  B  through  their  centres  ;  now  if  you 
wish  to  reduce  the  machine  outline  a  circle  of  the  size  you  wish  to  re- 
duce it  to;  if,  say,  one-half,  have  the  centre  K  one-half  the  distance 
from  E  to  P  and  lay  off  the  circle  J  L.  and  on  its  periphery  N  as  a  cen- 
tre lay  off  a  circle  M  O  with  their  perinheries  touching  the  tangent  lines 
Q  C  and  S  A,  as  shown  in  diagram.  This  will  make  the  circle  J  L  one- 
half  the  size  of  the  circle  D  F.  and  the  circle  M  O  one-half  the  size  of  the 
circle  G  I  ;  leaving  J  L  and  M  O  in  the  same  proportion  to  each  other 
as  D  F  and  G  1. 

To  reduce  one-third,  have  the  centre  K  one-third  the  distance  from  JL 
to  P  ;  if  oi>e-fourth,  have  the  centre  K  one-fourth  the  distance  from  E  tcr 


RULES   FOR   MACHINISTS,   MILLERS,   AC. 

F,  &c.  This  reckoning  may  be  applied  beyond  the  centre  E  for  cnlargl^ 
machine  wheels,  arid  will  enable  the  mechanic  to  make  the  alteration 
without  changing  their  respective  velocities. 

To  COMPUTE  THE  DIAMETEK  OF  A  PINION  WHEN  THE  DIAMETER  OF 
THE  DRIVER,  AND  THE  NUMBER  OF  TEETH  IN  DRIVER  AND  DRIVEN  ARE 
GIVEN. — Multiply  the  diameter  of  driver  by  the  number  of  teeth  in  the 
toinion  and  divide  the  product  by  the  number  of  teeth  in  the  driver,  and*, 
the  quotient  will  be  the  diameter  of  pinion.  t ' 

To  COMPUTE  THE  NUMBER  OF  REVOLUTIONS  OF  A  DRIVER,  WHEN' 
THE  REVOLUTIONS  OF  DRIVEN  AND  TEETH  OR  DIAMETER  OF  DRIVER 
AND  DRIVEN  ARE  GIVEN. — Multiply  the  number  of  teeth  or  the  diameter 
af  driven  by  its  revolutions  and  divide  the  product  by  the  number  of 
teeth  or  the  diameter  of  driver. 

To  COMPUTE  THE  NUMBER  OF  TEETH  IN  EACH  WHEEL  FOR  A  TRAIX 
OF  SPUR  WHEELS,  EACH  TO  HAVE  A  GIVEN  VELOCITY. — Multiply  the 
ammber  of  revolutions  of  the  driving  wheel  by  its  number  of  teeth,  and 
divide  the  product  by  the  number  of  revolutions  each  wheel  is  to  make 
*p  ascertain  the  number  of  teeth  required  for  each. 


G 

To  FIND  THE  CIRCUMFERENCE  OF  ANY  DIAMETER.— -From  the  centra 
B  describe  the  circle  A  C  G,  with  the  desired  diameter  ;  next  place  the 
corner  of  the  square  at  the  centre  B,  and  describe  the  lines  B  D  and  B  F  ; 
then  draw  the  chord  D  F  ;  three  times  the  diameter  added  to  the  dis- 
tance from  the  centre  of  the  chord  D  E  F  to  the  middle  of  the  subtending 
arc  D  G  F,  will  be  circumference  desired. 

To  FIND  THE  CIRCUMFERENCE  OF  A  CIRCLE,  OR  OF  A  PULLEY. — 
Multiply  the  diameter  by  3-1416,  or  as  7  is  to  22  so  is  the  diameter  to  the 
circumference. 

The  areas  of  circles  are  to  each  other  as  the  squares  of  their  diameters, 
and  a  circle  contains  a  greater  area  than  any  other  plain  figure  bounded 
Iby  an  equal  outline. 

To  COMPUTE  THE  AREA  OF  A  CIRCLE. — Multiply  the  circumference  by 
one  quarter  of  the  diameter  ;  or  multiply  the  square  of  the  diameter  by 
•7854 ;  or  multiply  the  square  of  the  circumference  by  '07958  ;  or  multi- 
ply half  the  circumference  by  half  the  diameter  ;  or  multiply  the  squar* 
»f  half  the  diameter  by  3'14i6 

TO   FIND  THE   CIRCUMFERENCE   OF   AN  ELLIPS*-,. 

Rule. — Multiply  half  the  sum  of  the  two  diameters  by  3-1416,  and  th* 
product  will  be  the  circumference.  . 

Example. — Suppose  the  longer  diameter  6  inches  and  the  shorter  di-l 
Ameter  4  inches,  then  6  added  to  4  equal  10,  divided  by  2  equal  5.  multi- 
plied by  3-1416  equal  15 '7080  inches  circumference- 


DIRECTIONS    TO   MILL-MEN,   AC.  639 

POWER  AND  CAPACITY  OF  SAW  MILLS,  SAW  FILING,  &c.— As  a  rule  it 
IB  admitted  by  mill-men  that  for  10,000  ft  per  day  about  20  horse-power 
te  required  ;  for  20,000  ft.,  30  horse-power  ;  and  for  30,000  ft.  40  horse- 
power. To  secure  these  results  it  is  indispensable  that  the  operator  should 
make  sure  of  having  a  good  mill  and  intelligent  first  class  workmen  to 
run  it.  In  hanging  the  saw,  see  that  the  mandril  fits  accurately  in  the 
ooxes,  so  that  it  will  run  without  heating.  Wnen  flat  collars  are  used, 
the  steadying  pins  should  be  made  with  a  shoulder,  as  where  any  other 
rform  of  pin  is  used  it  often  happens  that  a  burr  or  bunch  is  raised  at  the 
'corner  where  the  pin  enters  the  collar.  Both  saw  and  collar  should  be 
tested  with  a  straight  edge  ;  it  frequently  happens  in  turning  collars  that 
.through  the  lightness  or  springing  of  the  tool,  irregularities  in  the  grain  ol 
the  iron,  &c.,  the  work  may  not  be  perfectly  true,  and  in  this  case  the 
utmost  care  should  be  taken  to  ascertain  and  correct  the  deficiency,  if 
any  exists,  by  applying,  before  the  mandril  is  taken  from  the  lathe,  a  fine 
file  of  just  the  proper  spring,  against  the  face  of  the  collars  in  order  to 
remove  any  uneven  surfaces  that  may  have  been  left  upon  them.  If  they 
are  not  perfectly  true,  apply  a  pair  that  are  so,  independent  of  the  man- 
dril collars,  and  so  rigid  that  screwing  up  the  collars  cannot  act  upon  or 
impair  the  saw. 

The  saw  being  tested  and  found  correct,  place  it  on  the  mandril  and 
lighten  up  the  collars  by  hand,  slowly  revolving  the  saw  at  the  same  time, 
and  if  it  proves  to  be  truthfully  hung,  screw  it  home  with  a  wrench  tight; 
and  test  again  with  straight  edge  to  see  if  all  is  right,  revolving  the  saw 
and  observe  closely  whether  it  runs  true  or  not.  For  large  saws  a  high, 
authority  recommends  collars  that  have  a  perfect  bearing  of  about  \  in. 
on  the  outer  rim,  the  other  part  clear,  as  they  hold  tighter  than  a  solid, 
flat- faced  collar,  because  they  are  more  apt  to  come  fair  against  the  saw. 

To  correct  saws  out  of  rouiiH,  hold  a  piece  of  grindstone  or  cobblestone 
against  the  points  of  the  teeth  while  the  saw  revolves,  this  Trill  grind 
down  the  most  prominent  teeth  ;  or  the  longest  teeth  ma}r  be  marked  with 
red  chalk  while  the  saw  is  in  motidn,!*aud  afterwards  filed  down. 

The  following  figures  will  afford  valuable  aid  to  the  operator.  In  fig. 
1-  tiie  teeth  represented  by  the  dotted  lines  show  the  teeth  as  the  saw 
leaves  the  factory  ;  the  lines  at  B,C,  and  D  show  the  condition  to  which 
they  are  frequently  reduced  by  bad  filing.  These  defective  teeth  contain 
no  chamber  for  the  circulation  of  saw  dust,  and  teeth  filed  with  sharp, 
•square  corners  at  the  bottom  frequently  break,  as  shown  at  A,  tooth  C. 
This  kind  of  filing  is  most  destructive  to  both  saw  and  files,  and  requires 
at  least  double  the  power  necessary  to  operate  a  saw  with  teeth  of  the 
proper  shape.  For  good  work  it  is  absolutely  essential  to  file  back  to  the 
periphery  line,  and  the  best  work  will  be  done,  the  least' labor  expended, 
and  less  power  will  be  required  to  operate,  when  the  shape  of  the  teeth 
is  made  to  conform  to  the  patterns  illustrated  by  Figs.  2  and  3,  which 
also  represent  the  forms  best  adapted  for  sawing  soft  and  hard  wood  re* 
*spectively.  In  filing  circular  saws,  an  immense  saving  will  be  effected  by 
filing  from  the  face' or  under  side,  instead  of  from  the  top,  or  upper  part 
•of  the  tooth,  as  in  the  former  case  the  full  diameter  of  the  saw  is  retained 
to  a  much  greater  extent. 

Fig.  4,  at  A,  represents  a  tooth  that  requires  gumming,  or  chambering 
cut  in  proper  shape,  as  shown  at  D.  This  leaves  free  scope  for  the  dust, 
without  too  much  crowding,  and  the  useless  consumption  of  power.  A 
good  glimmer  is  an  article  that  no  sawyer  can  afford  to  dispense  with,  it 
saves  much  valuable  time  and  heavy  outlay  for  files,  besides  doing  more 
rapid  and  much  better  work.  A  good  swage  or  upset  is  equally  import* 
»nt  for  the  purpose  of  bringing  the  teeth  of  the  saw  to  a  sharp,  keen  edge, 


640 


DIAGRAMS    FO/»   SAW    I7LING. 


ft*  *f  QU  ^  How  Styfo  7*4 


DIAGRAMS  TO  ILLUSTRATE  SAW-FILING. 


IHRECTIONS    TO    MILL-MEN,   AC* 


641 


bringing  up  corners  and  vacancies  occasioned  by  wear,  and  spreading  th« 
points,  so  as  to  ease  the  body  of  the  saw  in  passing  through  the  log. 
Fig.  5,  at  A,  B,  C,  D,  and  E,  exhibits  the  different  set  required  for  sa^ 
teeth  as  effected  by  the  swage  ;  the  dotted  lines  show  the  undercut,  and; 
Fig.  6  shows  the  old  and  new  style  tooth.  Fig.  7,  at  C,  represents  the  con- 


PIG.  T. 

dition  the  tooth  should  be  in  for  work.  Point  B  shows  a  tooth  that  IB 
dull,  and  a  great  many  teeth  are  broken,  as  shown  at  D,  from  this  very 
cause.  The  tooth  of  a  24  inch  circular  saw  passes  through  the  log  2000 
times  per  minute,  120,000  times  per  hour,  or  1,200,000  times  per  day,  im- 
pelled by  a  tremendous  force  through  knots,  &c.,  and  if  not  kept  sharp 


PlO.  8.    BIGHT-HAND  SAW. 


DIRECTIONS   TO   MILL-MEN,   AC. 


the  severe  strain  is  bound  to  break  the  teeth.  If  the  teeth  were 
properly  set  and  well  filed  the  work  would  be  performed  in  better  shape 
with  half  the  power.  Eigs.  8  and  9  represent  right  and  left  hand  saws, 
and  a  very  slight  inspection  of  the  cuts  will  enable  any  person  to  observe 
a  most  important  distinction  in  ordering  circular  saws.  In  operating  the 
mill,  avoid  the  use  of  short  bearings  for  the  mandril,  and  short,  tight 
belts,  these,  together  with  the  mandril  crowding  against  the  collar,  art 
apt  to  cause  heating .  A  long,  free  belt,  with  long  bearings,  and  a  saw 
suiting  freely,  will  give  the  best  results  in  every  case. 


FIG.  9.    LEFT-HAND  SAW. 

The  improved  pattern  of  saw  teeth,  &c.,  outlined  above,  is  the  form 
originated  and  commended  by  the  celebrated  saw  manufacturing  firm  of 
Henry  Disston  &  Sons,  of  Philadelphia,  and  is  the  result  of  the  anxious 
study,  experience,  and  careful  labor  of  many  years.  The  high  standing 
of  the  firm,  together  with  the  excellent  reputation  of  their  good«,  fur- 
nish a  sufficient  guarantee  that  every  improvement  introduced  by  them 
will  be  found  based  on  correct  principles. 

SAW  MIT.L.— Two  Vertical  Saws  o/34  in.  Stroke,  Lathes,  &c.  Cylinder 
10  ins.  diam.  by  4  ft.  Stroke.  Pressure  90  to  100  Ibs.  per  square  in.,  full 
stroke.  Revolutions,  25  per  minute.  Boilers,  three  plain  cylindrical,  30 
ins.  in  diam.  by  20  ft.  in  length. 

NOTE.  This  engine  has  cut  of  yellow  pine,  30  ft.  by  18  ins.  in  one  minute, 
Engineers  &  Contractors  Pocket-Book. 

For  further  information  on  Saw  mills,  see  page  87. 

WEIGHT  OF  LUMBER  PER  THOUSAND  (M.)  FEET  BOARD  MEASURE. 


' 
DRF. 

PARTIA- 
SEASONED. 

GREEN. 

Fine  and  hemlock              ..   .    • 

2  500  Ibs. 

2  700  Ibs. 

3,000  Ibs.  * 

Norway  and  yellow  pine        . 

3  000     " 

4,000    4'. 

5,000    " 

Oak  and  Walnut        .  .   .. 

4000     " 

5,000    " 

JLsli  and  Maple  

S,500    " 

4.000    "      < 

SECTIONAL    VIEW    OF    A    FLOUR   MILL* 


643 


SECTIONAL  VIEW  OF  A  COMPLETE  FLOUR  MILL. 

The  above  cut.  from  the  Mill  Stone,  published  by  the  well  known  mill 
furnishing  firm  of  Nordyke  &  Marmon  Co..  of  Indianapolis,  Ind.,  affords 
*  sectional  view  of  a  complete  flour  mill  with  a  three  run  outfit,  two  runs 
for  wheat,  and  one  rim  for  corn. 

THE  NEW  PROCESS  OF  MILLING.  HIOH-GROUN*>  AND  PATENT  FLOUK, 
ETC.— In  considering  this  important  subject,  John  W.  Hopkins  writes  to 
the  MILL  STONE  as  follows  : — The  new  process  means  a  first-class  steam 
•engine,  grinding  the  flour  and  heating  the  mill  on  a  cent's  worth  of  coal 
to  the '  bushel  of  wheat,  taking  the  wheat  from  the  car  on  the  nido  line 
and  never  touching  it  by  manual  tauor  until  the  flour  barrels  are  taken 


044  NEW   PROCESS    OP   MILi-iNG,    &C. 

from  the  packer,  instead  of  the  shovelling  and  sweating  which  was  and 
still  is  in  vogue  iu  some  places. 

Where  water  power  is  used  instead  of  steam,  the  new  process  means 
the  use  of  turbine  wheels,  giving  over  80  per  cent,  of  the  full  power  of 
the  water,  instead  of  the  old  breast  wheel  giving  only  50;  the  boss  going 
into  a  nice  warm  mill  on  a  frosty  winter  morning  and  rinding  every  thing 
going  right,  instead  of  going  into  an  ice-bound  mill  of  the  old  breast- 
wheel  style,  with  a  couple  of  half  starved  youths  trying  to  cut  her  loose 
and  knock  her  to  pieces  at  the  same  time. 

The  new  process  means  nicely  turned  iron  shafting  and  pulleys,  with 
belt  gearing,  in  place  of  wooden  shafts  and  cog  gearing,  with  two  or; 
three  old  millwrights  slashing  around  with  sledge  hammers  to  keep  them 
wedged,  and  assisted  occasionally  by  two  or  three  millers  making  frantic 
efforts  to  start  the  break  downs.  It  also  means  closely  jointed  old  stock 
burrs,  and  plenty  of  them — 3G  inches  in  diameter  for  middlings,  and 
from  42  to  48  inches  for  wheat,  according  to  the  hardness  or  softness  of 
the  wheat — all  in  perfect  balance  and  true  smooth  face,  and  the  lands 
thereof  to  be  from  one-third  to  one-fourth  of  the  whole  surface  of  the 
burrs,  instead  of  one-half  as  in  by-gone  times.  It  does  not,  however, 
-nean  any  particular  patent  dress,  the  common  equalizing  dress  is  good 
enough  ;  but  it  does  mean  that  the  furrows  shall  be  smooth  and  straight 
in  all  directions,  not  less  than  two  inches  broad  and  deep  enough  at  the 
eye  to  bury  the  largest  grain  of  wheat,  and  about  the  fourth  of  that  at 
the  skirt,  the  draft  of  the  feather  edge  to  be  one  inch  to  the  foot  in  diam- 
eter of  the  burr,  and  all  furrows  of  the  same  kind  to  bear  the  same  rela- 
tion to  the  centre  and  circumference,  and  also  that  the  miller  shall  hav* 
the  power  and  means  to  alter  the  speed  of  any  run  without  affecting  the 
remainder,  i.  e.  speed  to  be  altered  instead  of  draft. 

To  mill  under  the  new  process  means  that  the  chop  shall  roll  instead  of 
slide  between  the  burrs,  or,  in  other  words,  the  substitution  of  a  system 
of  granulation  in  place  of  grinding. 

We  know  a  millwright  who  was  lately  called  -to  reconstruct  the  bolting 
machinery  of  a  considerable  merchant  mill.  Upon  mentioning  the  word 
purifier,  the  head  miller  in  charge  of  the  mill  -gitve-a  jump  as  if  he  had 
received  a  mild  stroke  from  a  galvanic  battery.  "I  want,"  sn»*  he, 
4 '  nothing  but  fine  cloths,  and  plenty  of  them,  Nos.  12,14  and  T(>,"  to 
Which  I  would  only  say  that  it  must  follow,  as  a  matter  of  course,  that  if 
you  grind  so  close  as  to  grind  a  fourth  of  the  bran  into  powder,  it  will 
require  fine  cloths  to  take  it  out,  and  even  they  will  fail  to  do  it  perfectly, 
whereas  if  the  grinding  is  properly  done,  XX,  10,  and  12,  will  be  th« 
thing. 

We  come  now  to  the  middlings — the  large  particles  which  have  with- 
stood the  action  of  the  burrs  most,  and  which  have  at  the  same  time  tha 
highest  specific  gravity  and  the  greatest  bulk.  They  must  be  separated 
from  the  very  light,  dead  fine  brown  dust  (which  is  principally  pulverized 
bran,  insoluble  in  the  acids  of  the  stomach),  the  first  would  net  po 
through  the  superfine  cloths,  on  account  of  their  bulk,  neither  would  tl:-3 
Matter,  on  account  of  their  lightness.  They  must,  however,  not  only  b* 
Separated,  but  also  graded,  and.  while  this  'is  almost  impossible  of  aceom« 
jplishment  with  cloths  alone,  it  is  rendered  comparatively  easy  ~by  the  me 
of  cloths  and  blast  combined,  and  therefore  the  necessity  ox  the  purifier. 
I  do  not  refer  to  any  particular  make  or  patent  in  the  way  of  purifiers, 
as  there  are  several  good  ones  in  the  market,  and  any  number  of  poor 
ones,  but  whatever  kind  is  used  should  have  capacity  enough,  and  do 
their  work  well. 

The  old  process  or  system  that  required  a  man  to  jump  on  the  burrs 
•very  twenty-four  or  twenty-six  hours  and  slash  them  all  over  witb  » 


VALUABLE   ADVICE    TO    MILLERS.  645 

pick  so  as  to  make  them  cut  up  15  bushels  of  wheat  an  hour,  and  mak« 
24  bushels  of  flour  to  the  100  bushels  of  wheat,  is  fast  becoming  obsolete. 

The  idea  of  making  such  Hour  either  for  home  consumption,  or  to  ship 
to  foreigners,  is  played  out ;  the  foreigners,  in  particular,  have  stopped 
hnving  such  flour,  and  want  the  wheat  instead  to  grind  for  themselves- 
lakead  of  this  old-time  system  it  is  now  required  of  the  miller  that  the 
face  of  the  burrs  shall  be  smooth  and  true,  and  if  any  high  places  develop 
themselves  they  must  b«  gently  touched  by  the  hand  of  a  master  eithei 
with  pick,  diamond,  or  emery  wheel,  and  not  more  than  six  bushels  an 
tour  should  be  ground  on  a  pair  of  burrs,  and  this  should  be  ground 
500!  or  not  at  all.  Moreover,  it  should  be  ground  high  enough  to  tak« 
off  a  broad,  clean  bran,  and  to  make  one  half  middlings,  and  finally  last, 
though  not  least,  the  substitution  of  the  new  process,  as  herein  delineated 
*n  outline,  means  to  realize  20  cents  per  bushel  more  out  of  the  wheat 
than  b;r  the  old  style,  and  a  showing  of  a  good  and  satisfactory  balaace 
<m  the  T4Tht  side  of  the  ledger  at  the  end  of  the  year.  At  least  such  is  the 
yiew  pro/vss  or  high-grinding  system,  as  I  understand  it. 

FAST  AJTD  SLOW  GRINDING.  VALUABLE  ADVICE  TO  MILLERS.  On 
this  all  important  subject,  J.  M.  Truax,  a  practical  miller,  writes  to  the 
Mill  Stone  as  follows  : — "  The  quantity  to  be  ground  must  depend  upon 
the  texture  or  density  of  the  stone,  the  draft,  the  number  and  depth  of 
furrows,  and  the  grinding  without  heating.  No  more  grinding  should  be 
done  than  can  be  dene  without  heating.  The  heating  is  the  stopping 
spot.  The  quantity  that  every  mill  ought  to  grind  is  that  quantity  that 
can  be  ground  and  not  heat,  whether  it  is  5,  10,  or  20  bushels  per  hour. 
If  every  miiler  will  observe  chis  as  his  guide,  he  will  do  the  best  work- 
that  he  is  able  to  do 

In  speaking  of  heating,  I  mean  to  SHV  that  the  grain  should  not  be  so 
heated  by  pressure  or  rubbing,  as  will  start  the  juice  or  essential  oils  of 
the  grain.  If  the  grain  oil  is  started  by  friction,  that  friction  produces 
heai,  and  that  heat  dries  and  evaporates  the  grain  juice,  and  the  virtue 
cf  the  flour  is  impaired.  Any  amount  of  cooling  will  not  repair  the  dan>- 
age  done  by  heating.  The  steam  that  rises  from  the  hot  running  mill  is 
the  vapor  from  out  of  the  essentfcl  oils  of  the  grain,  and  is  lost  in  the 
bread.  To  recommend  the  grinding  of  10,  15  or  25  bushels  of  wheat  per 
houi .  is  bad  advice,  imprudent.  Millers  differ  in  the  selection  of  stones, 
and  differ  about  their  dress,  and  the  motion  of  their  mill.  One  will  have 
one  kind  and  way,  and  another  another  kind  and  way  ;  but  whatever 
\vay  they  select,  when  they  go  to  grinding,  their  quantity  per  hour  should 
be  that  which  they  can  grind  and  not  heat,  whether  it  is  3,  5,  10  or  20 
bushels  per  hour.  Do  not  impair  the  substance  for  the  bulk  per  hour. 
Blood  heat  is  as  high  as  can  be  warranted  without  impairing  the  product. 
It  may  be  an  ambition  to  grind  fast,  but  an  old  adage  is  "  haste  makei 
waste."  If  millers  are  ambitious,  let  that  ambition  be  applied  to  thft 
making  of  a  perfect  running  mill.  Select  the  very  best  burrs,  and  put  in 
a  thoroughly  common  sense  dress  ;  a  dress  that  will  granulate  the  whole 
kernel  as  nearly  as  possible.  Keep  the  stones  as  far  apart  as  possible,  and 
keep  the  texture  or  grain  of  the  stones  clean.  Let  this  be  the  miller's 
ambition.  But  stop  adding  to  quantity  when  the  mill  is  at  blood  heat, 
and  as  much  less  heat  as  they  are  able  to,  and  let  the  bread  makers  and 
eaters  have  in  the  flour  all  the  virtue  that  mother  earth  has  produced.  . 

One  of  the  great  evils  in  milling  is  low  grinding,  and  its  evil  effects  are 
only  gecoud  to  those  produced  by  fast  grinding.  Wheat  is  composed  of 
two  parts  *-an  inner  and  an  outer  part.  The  inner  part  is  meaty,  and 
the  outer  is  a  shuck,  or  skin,  or  hull  ;  the  meaty  is  pulverizable,  while 
the  hull  or  covering  is  a  leather-like  substance,  and  has  thickness,  which 
thickness  equals  the  meshes  of  No.  14  or  15  bolting  cloth.  Now,  tht 


646  BALANCING    OF   MILLSTONES. 

question  arises,  how  shall  the  miller  grind  this  compound  kernel  anii 
clean  this  leather-like  covering,  and  granulate  the  inner  meat  to  a  prop- 
er fineness  for  bread  purposes,  and  not  over  rub  or  grind  to  dust  a  part,' 
of  the  hull  ?  This  is  the  question.  And  how  is  wheat  being  ground  all 
over  the  world  to-day  ?  I  need  not  answer,  for  all  knew  that  heavy 
grinding  has  been  the  order.  The  lands  or  face  of  one  burr  rubs  th» 
other,  or  nearly  so.  So  much  so  that  that  portion  of  the  bran  that  i». 
caught  between  the  face  of  the  mill  near  the  skirt  is  more  than  twice 
overground,  and  this  overgrinding  or  rubbing  the  bran  makes  a  brown 
dust,  and  blackens  the  flour.  It  is  like  brown  paint,  and  bolts  with  the 
flour  and  goes  into  the  bread. 

This  is  a  mistake,  and  should  be  avoided.  Bran  may  make  bread,  but 
not  the  bread  millers  feel  proud  of.  And  to  avoid  this,  millers  must  run 
a  lighter  mill.  Heavy  grinding  is  an  evil.  It  not  only  powders  a  portion 
of  the  bran  and  blackens  the  flour  ;  but  grinds  at  the  same  time  a  portion ; 
of  the  kernel  to  dust ;  also  destroying  its  juicy  substance  ;  and  at  tho 
eame  time  the  fine  ground  dust  is  rubbed  into  the  texture  of  the  stone, 
and  the  face  of  the  stone  becomes  glazed  and  smooth,  and  of  course  dull. 

Millers,  so  dress  your  mill  as  will  enable  you  to  grind  the  inner  part 
of  the  kernel  to  flour,  and  avoid  making  brown  paint  dust  from  the  bran. 
A  mille*  that  runs  a  heavy  mill  is  likely  to  look  for  a  medicine  to  doctor 
his  flour.  Medicine  for  flour  is  a  poor  substitute  for  a  good  dress  and, 
clean  stones.  Bread  eaters  much  prefer  the  full  life  of  the  cereals,  not  a. 
doctored  article.  Grain  once  killed  by  overgrinding  and  heating  will  not. 
be  brought  to  life  by  the  best  medicines.  All  the  flour-doctors  in  the. 
•world  can  not  repair  the  life  that  is  first  produced  in  natural  growth.. 
They  may  help  a  deadened  flour,  but  a  whole  reparation  is  impossible. 
Throw  away  the  drugs  !  Let  us  have  a  pure  flour." 

BALANCING  MILLSTONES.— To  examine  the  conditions  relative  to- 
balancing,  and  to  trace  the  effects  produced  by  an  unbalanced  runner,  to 
their  cause,  we  refer  to  the  adjoining  figure  in  which  R,  R,  represent* 
a  section  of  the  runner-stone  ;  B,  B,  a  section  of  the  nether  stationary  or 
bed-stone,  S,  the  mill-spindle  provided  at  the  upper  end  with  a  steel 
pivot  P,  upon  which  the  runner-stone  is  suspended,  so  as  to  admit  of  free> 
oscillation.  The  distance  from  the  face  F,  F,  of  the  runner-stone  to  th» 
pivot  P,  is  found  in  practice  to  be  from  5  to  8  inches,  according  to  the 
Bize  of  the  stone.  Since  the  thickness  of  the  runner-stone  varies  from  12" 
to  20  inches,  this  would  bring  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  runner-stone* 
below  the  point  of  suspension  P,  a  condition  favorable  to  stability,  or,  in. 
other  words,  the  millstone,  when  disturbed,  will  oscillate  until  equilibri- 
um is  restored.  It  will  not  be  so  easily  upset.  In  order  that  the  runner- 
stone  may  be  in  "  balance,"  or  the  distance  between  the  face  F,  F,  of  the 
jrunner-stone  and  the  face  of  F',  F',  of  the  bed-stone,  be  equal,  when  the 
iatter  is  perfectly  horizontal,  and  former  freely  suspended  ;  the  weight  of 
the  portion  of  the  runner  on  one  side  of  the  line,  A,  A,  drawn  through 
the  point  of  suspension  P,  and  perpendicular  to  the  faces  F',  F,'  must  bo 
equal  to  the  corresponding  half  on  the  other  side  of  the  same  line.  Should 
this  not  be  the  case,  the  deficiency  is  easily  made  up  by  cutting  a  cavity 
at  the  light  side,  near  the  circumference,  and  filling  it  with  an  amount  of 
lead  sufficient  to  establish  a  proper  equilibrium. 

Mill  stones  when  balanced  while  at  rest  are  usually  found,  when  run- 
ning,  not  to  retain  an  equal  distance  between  the  face  ;  one  side  will  drag 
—bear  harder  on  the  meal  subjected  to  its  action,  consequently  a  mill- 
etone  in  this  condition  will  grind  unevenly.  It  is  said  to  be  out  of  "  run~ 
binq;  balance." 

Jrom  the  very  nature  of  the  construction  of  the  French  millstone  (thf 
land  used  at  present  most  exclusively),  being  an  assemblage  of 


BALANCING    OP   MILL    STONES.  84? 

called  "  burr  blocks,"  of  various  sizes,  and  0:1  r.n  average  about  5  inche* 
"hick,  the  remainder  of  the  body  of  the  mill  stone  being  made  up  of 
_pawls,  all  cemented  together  with  plaster  of  Paris  ;  it  is  evident  that 
ihe  material  can  not  easily  be  distributed  symmetrically  as  to  weight. 
To  illustrate — conceive  a  line  E,  E,  drawn  through  the  pivot  P,  and  par- 
allel to  ihe  face  F,  F.  We  will  also  suppose  «a  section  (>  inches  thick  cut- 
out of  the  center  of  the  mill  stone.  Such  section  from  a  mill  stone  4  feet 
In  diameter  would  weigh  about  2GO  pounds,  taking  the  weight  of  the 
plaster  at  90  pounds  per  cubic  foot,  and  that  of  the  burr  block  at  16(1 
bounds- 


Now  it  may  happen  that  in  the  construction  of  the  millstone,  45  poundt 
«ay  be  placed  to  the  right  of  the  center  line  A,  A,  and  below  the  hori* 
lontal  line  E,  E  ;  35  pounds  may  come  above  this  line  on  the  same  sid* 
-  of  A,  A  ;  55  pounds  and  25  pounds  may  chance  to  be  on  the  opposite, 
below  and  above  E,  E,  respectively.  The  sum  of  the  weights  on  the  right 
of  A,  A,  is  equal  to  the  sum  of  the  weights  on  the  left,  viz.  :  80  pounds. 
The  standing  balance  still  obtains.  The  center  of  gravity  <?,  and  r/'  of 

'each  half  of  our  section  taken  separately,  however,  will  not  be  in  or  at 
equal  distances  from  the  line  E,  E,  with  the  material  thus  distributed  ;  / 

'but  will  fall  above  on  the  right  to  </",  and  below  on  the  left  to  <?'"  ;  a  liu« 


^joining  these  centers  of  gravity  will  take  the  direction  N,  N.     Now  when 
<a  mill  stone  so  constructed  is  rotated  about  its  axis  A,  A,  the  center  of 
gravity  <?'"  will  rise,  and  g"  tend  to  fall.    The  line  N,  N,  would  become- 
nearer  horizontal  as  the  speed  increases,  the  line  E,  E,  becomes  inclined  •• 
and  the  face  F,  F,  untrue.    The  mill  stone  is  out  of  "  running  balance." 

The  amount  of  pressure  produced  in  our  example  assumed,  we  com- 
pute as  follows  :  We  draw  a  line  through  the  center  of  gravity  g"  par- 
allel to  the  face  F,  F,  until  it  meets  the  perpendicular  line  A,  A  ;  we  sim* 
ilarly  draw  a  line  through  g'".  We  will  also  suppose  the  centers  of  gray* 
ity  g"  and  g"'  to  be  removed  J  of  an  inch  from  their  proper  place  on  th£ 
line  E,  E.  The  centrifugal  forr  3  would  be  given,  by  the  known  expres- 
sion —^  where  m,  represents  tb«  mass  or  the  weight  divided  by  th» 


$48  BALANCING    OF    MILL    STONES. 

force  of  gravity,  in  our  case  for  ^  of  the  section  -~-  v,  is  the  velocity  in 
*his  instance,  for  the  point  g"  or  c/'"  and  in  a  stone  4  feet  in  diameter  at 
175  revolutions  per  minute,  18  feet  per  second,  about ;  r  represents  tht 
radius,  equal  to  P,  g  =  1  ft.  in  our  case.  Hence  substituting  these  valuet 
is  the  formula,  we  obtain  ^j18'  =  810  Ibs.  for  the  centrifugal  force.  The 
part  of  this  force  which  is  effective  in  producing  the  pressure  at  X  equals '( 
810.  Cosine  of  the  angle  EP  *  =  734  pounds  nearly.  The  force  acts  with 
the  lever  arms  y  y"  ±  inch  and  PX^=  25  inches.  We  have,  therefore,  for 
the  total  pressure  at  the  point  X  -^-  X  2  =  14.68  pounds  ;  an  amount 
frequently  present  in  mill  .stones  in  actual  use,  producing,  by  this  unequal 
pressure,  a  flour  or  meal  less  advantageous  to  the  miller,  both  as  regards 
quality  and  quantity. 

What  is  required,  therefore,  to  adjust  the  "  Running  Balance  "  with- 
out disturbing  the  "  Standing  Balance  "  is  to  add  or  remove  the  same 
weight  from  each  side.  Thus,  if  we  add  10  pounds  to  the  part  weighing 
25  pounds,  and  the  same  amount  to  the  part  weighing  45  pounds,  we  have 
•not  disturbed  the  standing  balance,  while  we  have  made  the  weights  of 
the  parts  above  and  below  the  line  E,  E,  equal  respectively. 

To  balance  in  an  actual  case,  we  proceed  as  follows  :  First,  put  the  run- 
ner-stone in  good  standing-balance,  having  leveled  the  bed-stone,  ana 
trammed  the  spindle  previously.  We  then  raise  the  stone,  place  two 
strips  of  wood  between  the  faces,  start  the  runner  and  turn  off  the  back 
true  with  the  face  with  a  chisel,  having  first  arranged  a  firm  rest.  We 
then  remove  the  strips,  run  the  stone  at  its  proper  speed,  and  mark  the 
liigh  side  by  bringing  a  pencil  against  it.  The  high  side  requires,  as  we 
have  seen,  an  addition  of  weight  at  the  top,  close  to  the  circumference, 
4ind  the  opposite  low  point  at  the  bottom,  near  the  circumference 
and  the  face.  By  means  of  two  long  leather  straps,  we  tie  several  bars  ot 
lead  at  these  places,  repeating  the  operation  until  the  proper  amount  of 
weight  is  found,  which  is  then  securely  fixed  to  the  stone,  making  a  pro- 
per allowance  for  any  plaster  removed  from  the  stone,  or  any  waste  in- 
curred in  melting  the  lead. 


Seveial  patent  balances  which  facilitate  the  operation  have  been  intro< 
iuced.  A  more  common  one  consists  of  a  cast  iron  box,  which  is  insert- 
ed in  the  stone  at  the  circumference,  and  in  which  a  weight  can  be  raiser' 
or  lowered  by  means  of  a  screw.  All  that  is  required  in  this  case  is  't 
find  the  high  point  in  the  manner  described  ;  raise  the  weight  at  thi^ 
point,  and  lower  it  at  the  opposite  low  point,  thus  taking  weight  from  the 
upper  half  of  the  stone  and  adding  it  to  the  lower  half  and  the  reverse. 

It  in  not  to  be  supposed  that  if  a  mill  stone  is  put  in  good  running  bal- 
ance, that  it  will  remain  in  this  condition  for  any  length  of  time.     But, , 
>on  the  contrary,  its  balance  will  change  from  the  effects  of  the  weather  ; 
that  is,  by  an  unequal  absorption  of  moisture,  due  to  an  unequal  distnbu- 


PORTABLE    GRIST    MILL. 


649 


Hon  of  the  plaster  forming  the  back,  and  from  an  unequal  wear  of  the 
face  as  well.  It  is,  therefore,  expedient  to  frequently  examine  the  balance 
and  adjust  the  same.  V.  Bachman  in  Mill  Stone. 

The  art  of  balancing  mill  stones  is  greatly  simplified  by  an  ingenious 
arrangement  used  by  the  Nordyke  &  Mannon  Co.,  of  Indianapolis,  Ind., 
who  imbed  5  cast  iron  boxes,  like  the  one  represented  in  the  right  hand 
cut,  in  the  body  of  the  runner  stone.  They  are  placed  in  the  runner 

:th  the  lid  of  the  box  a  little  below  the  plaster  back  with  the  rounding 
li  irt  in  contact  with  the  band.  The  left  hand  figure  illustrates  the  inner 
adjustable  box,  and  screw  for  adjusting  the  same  when  in  the  stone.  It^ 
will  be  noticed  it  has  two  parts,  divided  by  a  partition.  The  cover  to  this' 
Inner  box,  shown  in  the  central  figure,  is  secured  with  a  screw,  and  fits 
down  upon  the  box  and  close  over  the  division,  so  that  either  side  may  be 
used  when  the  weight  is  wanted  at  a  point  between  any  two  of  the  "bal- 
ance boxes.  These  balance  boxes  gives  the  miller  full  control  of  the  run- 
ner ;  a  wrench  is  the  only  tool  required,  and  the  requisite  weights,  when 
once  placed  in  the  box,  are  not  liable  to  derangement  like  those  orduiar- 
lly  used. 


TOE  NORDYKE  &  MARMON  PORTABLE  GRISTMILL. 


The  above  illustration  represents  a.  Portable  Grist  Mill  made  by  the  ex- 
tensive  mill  furnishing  firm  of  Nordyke,  Marmon  &  Co.,  Indianapolis, 
Ind.  It  is  constructed  of  the  best  French  burr,  is  self-oiling,  self-feeding, 
idjustable-balanced,  and  is  well  calculated  to  render  efficient  service  to 
farmers,  saw-mill  owners,  &c.,  as  it  dispenses  with  skilled  attendance,  ii 
well  adapted  to  any  kind  of  suitable  power,  and  is  capable  of  grinding  flO 


650 


MILL    STONE    DRESS,    AC. 


bushels  of  corn  per  hour.  The  great  variety  and  immense  number  of  first 
class  water  and  steam  mills  erected  by  this  firm  all  over  the  fertile  regions* 
of  the  West  and  South,  form  a  sufficient  attestation  of  their  abilities  and 
resources  as  flouring  mill  contractors,  engineers,  and  mechanical  experts- 
In  addition  to  their  regular  mill  furnishing  business,  -which  has  expanded1 
to  vast  proportions  since  its  establishment  in  1851,  this  firm  publish  the 
Mill  Stone  (terms  Si  per  annum),  a  monthly  journal  of  paramount  utility 
to  every  miller,  farmer,  and  mechanic.  Of  this  periodical,  suffice  it  t<x 
gay,  that  one  of  the  articles  transferred  to  these  pages  and  credited  to  the 
Mill  Stone,  has  been  pronounced  by  a  practical  manbelonging  to  the  craft, 
to  be  worth  of  itself  $10  to  any  irHler.  The  articles  are  pregnant  witk 
interest  to  every  miller  and  will  doubtless  be  read  and  studied  with  the 
attention  which  ther  deserve. 

NUMBER  OF  MESHES  IN  BOLTING  CLOTH.— The  following  Table  exhibits 
the  number  of  meshes  contained  in  each  number  of  cloth  from  No.  0000 
to  No.  16,  of  Dufour  &  Co.'s  Anchor  Brand  of  Bolting  cloth  : 

No.  0000  contains 400  No.    7  contains 7,744 


000  676 

00  "  1,024 

0  "  1,764 

1  "  2,704 

2  *'  3,600 

3  "  4,096 

4  ««  4,624 

5  "  5,184 

6  "  6,400 


9 

10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 


8,461 

io,coa 

12,100 
11,400' 
..............  1(3,000 

1;>,GOO 

£2,500 


£3,900 


MILL  STONE  DRESS.— On  this  subject  a  practical  miller  writes  to  tn» 
Hill  Stone  as  follows :  "In  the  first  place  the  burr  must  be  brought  to  a, 
perfectly  true  face,  and  then  lay  off  the  furrows  with  a  straight  edge,  1% 
inches  wide  at  the  eye,  and  If  inches  wide  at  the  skirt.  Let  the  flare  ba 
on  the  feather  edge,  and  just  as  many  quarters  as  may  be  thought  best, 
and  which  will  depend  somewhat  on  the  speed.  I  generally  give  a  four 
loot  burr  from  13  to  16  leading  furrows,  stepping  them  off  with  a  pair  of 
on  the  outsu4e  edge  of  burr,  from  9  to  12  inches  apart,  and 


ft  en  dividing  the  spaces  between  them  into  quarters.  The  accompanying 
draft  of  the  dress  that  I  use  will  give  a  very  good  idea  of  my  plan.  I  have 
been  using  this  dress  for  years,  and  find' it  gives  better  satisfaction  in 
quality  of  flour  than  any  other  dress  I  ever  used.  It  grinds  cooler  and 
longer  than  the  old  style  of  dress,  and  it  will  grind  wet  or  damp  wheat 
better,  because  there  is  less  friction  about  it  and  there  is  more  room  fer- 
tf"s  meal  to  get  out  from  under  the  burrs,  and  therefore  the  meal  must  be 
'tetter." 


«PEED.    CAPACITY.    AC.,    OP   MILL    STONES* 


651 


ESTIMATE  OF  THE  SPEKD,"  POWER,  CAPACITY  AND  Di-cSL-sd  OF  MILL- 
STONES AS  PRACTICED  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN  FOR  GRINDING  WHEAT -WHERE 

KO  EXHAUST  OR  COMBINED  BJLAST  AND  EXHAUST  ARE  USED.    The  Miller* 


Diameter  of 

Millstone. 

Revolutious 
per  Minute. 

Horse   power. 

Average  capa- 
city per  hoar 
of  grinding  i;: 
bush.  through 
the  journey. 

Usual  dress. 

Draught   froitt 
fore  edge  of 
furrow. 

Feet.  Inches. 

Inches. 

2          6 

200 

2% 

iy2 

7.3 

2^ 

2        10 

180 

2% 

23i 

8.3 

2-% 

3         0 

170 

3 

3 

9.3 

2/1 

3         2 

160 

3^4 

31/4 

9.3 

2% 

3         4 

150 

3/4 

10.3 

3 

3         6 

140 

3% 

3% 

10.3 

3 

3         8 

130 

3% 

3% 

10.3 

3 

3        10 

125 

3% 

Nearly  4 

11.3 

3 

4         0 

120 

4 

4 

10.4 

3 

4         2 

115 

4% 

fVi 

1X4 

3 

4         4 

110 

41,4 

41£ 

11.4 

31/* 

4         6 

4         8 

105 
100 

% 

5 
6 

12.4 
12.4 

3% 

4        10 

95 

5 

6% 

12.4 

4* 

5         0 

90 

6 

7 

12.4 

^     4^ 

In  reference  to  the  foregoing  Table,  The  Miller  quotes  the  opinion  of  a. 
Scotch  engineer  and  millwright  whose  experience  entitles  him  to  rank  a* 
an  authority,  to  the  effect  that  there  should  be  only  four  standard  diame- 
ters of  millstones,  viz.  :  3  ft.  3  ft.  6  ins.  4  ft.  4  ft  6  Ins.  for 
•which  the  speed  should  be  170  revolutions  for  the  3  ft.,  155,  135,  and 
115  for  the  other  sizes  respectively,  and  he  estimates  that  all  their  sizes 
would  each  absorb  6  indicated  horse  power  to  grind  4  bushels  of  wheat 
per  hour  ;  in  other  words,  the  smallest  stone  at  its  high  rate  of  speed,  with, 
equal  duty,  would  require  as  much  power  to  propel  it  as  would  be  takei* 
"by  the  largest  stone  with  its  low  rate  of  speed.  The  same  authority  ex- 
presses a  conviction,  based  on  a  mature  experience  of  30  years,  that  a  vast 
improvement  could  be  effected  on  the  system  presented  in  the  abov» 
-  Table  by  taking  the  4  foot  stone,  running  at  135,  as  the  standard  for 
universal  use  in  grinding  wheat.  It  is  recommended  further  that  all  mills 
should  be  so  constructed  that  the  velocity  of  the  stones  could  be  varied  at 
pleasure,  when  in  operation,  either  by  running  each  pair  by  conical  pul- 
leys or  drums,  or  by  a  separate  engine,  as  the  state  of  the  weather,  or  tha 
different  varieties  of  wheat,  may  demand. 
Concerning  the  blast  and  exhaust  the  Miller  remarks  : 
•'  It  is  stated  by  some  parties  favorable  to  the  combined  Blast  and  Ex- 
Aaust  that,  by  the  adoption  of  that  system,  a  saving  of  power  is  effected, 
and  that  eight  bushels  of  wheat  can  be  ground  by  six-horse  power.  The: 
power,  however,  being  unlimited,  the  quantity  ground  can  be  increased 
i  almost  indefinitely,  in  the  above  proportion,  according  to  the  weight  of 
the  millstone,  sixteen  bushels  per  hour  often  being  ground  on  this  sys- 
tem. The  application  of  the  Exhaust,  drawing  the  air  through  the  eye  of 
the  running  millstone,  does  not  produce  a  greater  current  than  that  of  at- 
mospheric pressure,  the  millstones  grind  somewhat  faster,  and  there  is  a 
corresponding  amount  of  economic  power,  the  millstones  working  more 
freely.  Many  advantages  in  this  respect  result  from  th<  adoption  of 
the  simple  Exhaust,  having  for  its  object  the  removal  only  of  the  stive 
from  the  millstone  case." 


652 


SPEED   AND   PITCH   OF   BOLT,   AC. 


To  REMOVE  GLAM  FROM  MILLSTONES. — Take  the  burrss  clean  all  tbt 
flour  off  with  a  broom  and  wash  them  with  first  rate  vinegar.  This  voll 
leave  the  stones  free  from  glaze.  The  better  way  is  to  wash  the  stones  at 
night  and  leave  them  to  dry  until  morning.  A  miller  who  has  used  th« 
method  for  25  years,  recommends  to  tak«  up  the  stones  while  warn\ 
and  wash  them  with  a  mixture  of  one  half  pail  of  soft  water  and  on« 
quart  sharp  vinegar,  applied  with  a  woollen  cloth.  Lcffd's  News. 

SPEED  AND  PITCH  OF  BOLT, — An  experienced  miller  writes  on  thin 
subject  as  follows  : 

Many  years  of  practical  experience  in  custom  milling  and  in  grinding 
all  kinds  of  wheat,  hard  and  soft,  wet  and  dry,  has  convinced  me  that 
the  best  speed  to  give  a  bolt  cloth  to  accomplish  the  most  and  best  work, 
is  200  feet  per  minute.  The  reel  should  have  |  to  finch  pitch  per  foot 
and  should  be  kept  as  full  as  its  capacity  requires.  Keels  when  working 
on  hard  wheat  should  have  more  pitch  than  when  working  on  soft  wheat. 
More  millers  get  into  trouble  with  their  bolts  by  running  them  too  fast 
than  by  any  other  cause.  The  faster  you  run  the  cloth  after  you  get  up 
to  200  feet  per  minute,  the  less  it  will  bolt  and  you  can  give  it  speed 
enough  to  carry  all  the  flour,  middlings  and  bran  together  out  of  the  taii 
end  of  the  reel.  Lefftl '  f  News. 


THE  HOLMES  AND  BLANCH ARD   PORTABLE  MILL, 

The  above  illustration  represents  an  excellent  type  of  a  geared  Portable 
Grinding  Mill  manufactured  by  the  well  known  mill  furnishing  firm  of 
Holmes  &  Blanchard,  Boston,  Mass.    They  also  manufacture  the  same 
class  of  mill,  at  less  cost,  with  vertical  pulley.    The  stones  are  nmde  in 
one  entire  piece  from  the  best  French  burrs,  and  are  well  adapted  for  r 
flouring  wheat,  grinding  corn,  grain,  feed,  plaster,  salt,  coffee,  spices,  &j.  , 
The  makers  claim  that  the  capacity  of  their  mills,  of  which  they  build  a  », 
great  variety,  can  be  increased  to  almost  any  extent,  by  an  increase  of  ] 
power  or  speed,  or  they  can  be  worked  with  light  power  by  diminishing  [\ 
the  speed  and  quantity  of  work.    Their,  mills,  now  numbering  many  hun« 


CALCULATIONS   FOR    BELTS,    &C. 


653 


dreds  of  every  size  and  class,  are  highly  spoken  of  by  the  purchasers, 
arid  the  writer  can  bear  witness  to  the  utility  of  one  which  rendered  ex- 
cellent service  to  a  large  community  on  his  own  premises  in  New  Bruns- 
wick, Canada,  until  its  career  of  usefulness  was  terminated  by  a  fira 
which  destroyed  the  mill  building  with  all  its  contents. 

The  folio  wing  Tab 'e  exhibits  the  proper  speed,  power  required,  perform- 
ance, &c.,  of  the  Holmes  &  Blanchard  Portable  Mills.  » 


DIAM- 
ETER 
OF 
STONES 

BEST  SPEED 

PER  MINUTE. 

BUSHELS  CORN 
GROUND  PER  HOUR. 

•H.  P. 

re- 
quired. 

SIZE  OF    ~ 
PULLEYS, 

Steam 
or  wa'r 
power. 

Animal 
Power. 

Fine. 

Coarse. 

Crack- 
ed. 

Dia. 

Inches. 

Face. 
Inches 

42  inches. 

275 

20 

30 

200 

15 

28 

10 

36        " 
33        •« 

300 

15 

22 

150 

10 

24 

r  10 

325 

12 

18 

150 

8 

20 

8 

30 
26 
24        " 

325 
325 

10 

16 

150 

6 

20 

8 

8 

14 

125 

5 

16 

6 
6 

350 

200 

6 

12 

100 

4 

16 

20        "       |      3-'0 

275 

4 

8 

40 

3 

14 

5 

18        •'              350 

275 

3 

c 

30 

2 

14 

5 

16         "        I       350 

275 

2 

4 

30 

15* 

14 

5 

To  FIND  THE  LENGTH  OP  A  DRIVING  BELT  BEFORE  THE  PULLEYS 
ARE  IN  POSITION. — Add  the  circumference  of  '<;he  two  pulleys,  divide  the 
product  by  two,  and  add  the  quotient  thus  obtained  to  double  the  distance 
between  the  centres  of  the  two  shafts  which  will  give  the  length  of  belt 
required.  For  a  cross  belt,  add  the  circumference  of  the  two  pulleys,  mul- 
tiply the  product  by  three,  and  divide  by  two ;  the  quotient  added  to  double 
the  distance  between  centres  of  both  shafts  will  give  the  length  required. 
Horse-power  of  a  belt  equals  velocity  in  feet  per  minute  multiplied  by 
the  width,  the  sum  divided  by  1000. 

One  inch  single  belt,  moving  at  1000  ft.  per  minute  =  1  horse  power. 

Double  belts  about  700ft.  per  minute,  per  one  in.  in  width  =1  horse 
power. 

For  double  belts  of  great  length,  over  large  pulleys,  allow  about  500  ft. 
per  minute  per  inch  of  width  per  horse-power. 

Power  should  be  communicated  through  the  lower  running  side  of  a 
\belfc,  the  upper  side  to  carry  the  slack. 

Average  breaking  weights  of  a  belt,  3-16  X  1  inch  wide.  Leather, 
350  Ibs  ;  3  ply  rubber,  600  Ibs.  The  strength  of  a  belt  increases  as  its 
width.  The  co-efficient  of  safety  for  a  laced  belt  is  leathers  1-16  break* 
ing  weight,  rubber  =  1-3  do. 

To  DETERMINE  WHERE  TO  CUT  BELL  HOLES  IN  FLOORS. — Measure 
the  distance  in  inches  from  centre  of  driving  shaft  to  under  side  of  floor, 
on  the  upper  side  make  a  m**rk  over  the  centre  of  shaft.  Now  measure 
the  distance  from  centre  of  shaft  on  machine  to  be  driven  to  floor,  making 
a  mark  on  the  floor  immediately  beneath  the  centre,  then  measure  the 
distance  between  the  two  marta.  Transfer  these  figures  to  a  board  or 
paper,  draw  off  the  driving  and  the  driven  pulleys,  after  finding  their 
diameters  at  the  distance  from  sach  other  aud_  the  floor  line  previously 


•C54  CALCULATIONS   FOR   BELTS,   AC. 

-obtained,  and  draw  the  lines  representing  the  belt  cutting  the  floor  lin<w 
'•which  will  show  where  the  belt  passes  through  the  floor.  The  drawing, 
«an  be  made  to  a  scale  to  reduce  it  to  convenient  dimensions,  maintaining 
the  proportions.  The  holes  may  now  be  marked  off  on  the  floor  and  cut ) 
with  a  certainty  of  being  correct.  In  making  the  drawing  it  is  best  to  do 
it  full  size  on  the  floor  if  room  can  be  had,  and  allowance  must  be  mad* 
•for  the  thickness  of  flooring. 

WORKING  VALUE  OF  PULLEYS. — Pulleys  covered  with  leather,  iron 
pulleys  polished,  and  mahogany  pulleys  polished,  rank  for  working 
value  as  36,  24,  and  25  per  cent,  respectively,  wood  and  iron  uncovered  be- 
ing almost  identical.  The  smoother  a  pulley  is  turned  the  greater  will  b& 
the  power  imparted  by  it,  and  the  better  will  be  the  hold  of  the  belt.  A 
pulley  which  is  slightly  higher  in  the  middle  of  -its  width  exerts  the 
.greatest  power  in  retaining  the  belt  from  slipping  off  as  well  as  making 
it  last  longer  by  imparting  the  greatest  tension  to  the  middle,  or  strong- 
est part  of  the  belt,  to  the  manifest  relief  of  the  edges  or  weakest  part.  To 
obtain  the  best  results  from  belts  it  is  necessary,  in  lacing  or  cementing 
the  ends,  that  the  latter  should  be  cut  exactly  square  across,  and  tht> 
.  junction  should  be  equally  true,  otherwise  the  belt  will  be  strained  and 
torn  on  the  tightest  side,  besides  being  rendered  liable  to  run  off  the  pul- 
ley at  any  time. 

Belts  connecting  pulleys  perpendicular  to  each  other  should  be  kept 
•tight,  and  should  me  made  of  firm,  well  stretched  leather,  in  order  to 
work  to  the  best  advantage. 

TO  COMPUTE  THE  HORSE-POWER  OF  A  BELT,  ITS  VELOCITY  AND  THE 
XUMBER  OP  SQUARE  INCHES  IN  CONTACT  WITH  THE  SMALLEST  PULLEY 

BEING  KNOWN. — Divide  the  number  of  square  inches  of  belt  in  contact 
with  the  pulley  by  2,  multiply  this  quotient  by  the  velocity  of  the  belt  in 
ieet  per  minute,  and  this  amount  divided  by  36,000  and  the  quotient  will 
l)e  the  number  of  horse-power. 

TO   COMPUTE   THE  WIDTH  OP  BELTS    REQUIRED  FOR  TRANSMITTING 

VARIOUS  NUMBERS  OF  HORSE-POWER.— Multiply  36,000  by  the  number  of 
fcorse-power,  divide  the  product  by  the  number  of  feet  the  belt  is  to  run 
j>er  minute,  divide  the  quotient  by  the  number  of  feet  or  parts  of  a  foot 
in  length  of  belt  contact  with  the  smaller  pulley  ;  divide  the  last  quotient 
toy  6,  and  the  result  will  be  the  desired  width  of  the  belt  in  inches.* 

To  PREVENT  ACCIDENTS  FROM  SHAFTING. — These  may  be  rendered 
Impossible  by  loose  sleeves  formed  of  tin  or  zinc  fitted  to  the"  shafting,  and 
lined  with  cloth  or  leather  to  prevent  noise. 

To  GRIND  BURRS  INTO  FACE  WITH  WATER. — Maks  the  face  of  the 
ctone  absolutely  true,  then  bosom  each  stone  slightly  and  grind  them  in 
water  at  a  low  speed.  Let  the  speed  be  high  enough,  however,  to  bring 
the  water  to  the  lands.  To  grind  in  face  the  spindle  should'be  slightly 
loose  in  the  bush  and  the  running  stone  made  to  oscillate  1-16  of  an  inch 
or  more.  This  will  prevent  the  burrs  from  creasing  each  other,  and  will 
leave  a  perfect  face.  The  bosom  of  the  mill  should  be  two  brans  at  the 
•eye  and  one  bran  at  the  skirt  ;  just  enough  to  prevent  centre  riding.  A 
wedge  face  from  eye  to  skirt,  is  faulty  for  the  manufacture  of  pure  flour. 
The  bran  should  lie  horizontally  throughout  its  passage  through  the  mill. 
The  furrows  serve  as  squashing  surfaces.  Where  there  are  furrows,  no 
'bosoming  is  demanded.  LeffeVs  Ifews. 

To  PREVENT  BURRS  HEATING. — Dress  from  centre  to  circumference, 
leaving  no  bosom.  Draw  a  line  across  the  centre,  each  way,  dividing  a 
iour  foot  burr  into  16  squares  or  divisions,  and  other  sizes,  more  or  less, 

*  NOTE  The  above  estimate  is  based  on  the  rule  of  allowing  each  square 
inch  of  belting  in  contact  with  the  pulley  to  raise  half  a  pound  1  ft.  high  in  1 
ffvrinute  and  the  raising  of  36,00")  Ibs.  same  height  in  sam*  time  as  a  horse* 


INSTRUCTIONS  TO  MILLERS,  &C.          653 

to  the  same  proportion,  with  all  straight  furrows.  Let  the  draft  be  J  the 
•diameter  of  the  rock.  Lay  off  the  lands  and  furrows  ^  inch  each  observ- 
ing to  dress  smooth.  Sink  the  furrow  at  the  eye  £  inch  deep  for  corn, 
and  run  out  to  T3g  at  the  periphery  ;  for  wheat  ft  at  the  eye,  and  &  at  the 
periphery.  When  thus  furnished,  crack  the  lands  in  straight  lines,  square 
with  the  draft  of  cross  lines,  so  as  to  make  the  lauds  face  in  the  runnel 
'and  bed  direct. 

SIMPLE  ALARM  FOR  MILL  HOPPERS.— Take  a  piece  of  spring  steel 
ftbout  A  in.  wide,  and  bend  one  end  of  it  so  as  to  form  a  foot  by  which  to 
screw  it  to  the  bottom  of  the  shoe,  the  balance  of  the  spring  passing  up 
through  and  into  the  hopper,  and  bent  over  at  its  upper  end  so  as  to  form  a 
pendant  to  which  rivet  a  small  bell.  As  soon  as  the  grain  hi  the  hopper 
gets  below  the  bell,  it  will  commence  to  ring  and  thus  notify  the  attend- 
»nt.  Level's  rfeius. 

TEMPERATURE  OF  OAT  MEAL  KILN.  GRINDING  OF  OATMEAL  .—In 
response  to  a  request  from  a  correspondent,  Mr.  Gray,  an  experienced 
miller,  cays,  "There  is  no  given  temperature  in  drying  oats  ;  it  is  the 
plate  you  bring  to  the  necessary  heat,  not  the  house.  Oats  are  not  all 
the  same  grade,  some  kinds  are  thinner  in  the  hull  than  others.  I  always 
preferred  a  cast  iron  plate  in  place  of  tile,  as  you  get  more  heat.  I  do  not 
think  a  perforated  cylinder  will  make  sweet  meal,  that  is  still  the  great 
•want  in  the  country,  the  meal  is  stewed  in  the  drying,  and  has  not  a  fine 
•taste.  The  good  old  plan  to  find  out  when  your  kiln  floor  is  ready  to  re- 
ceive the  oats  is  just  to  spit  on  the  plate  and  if  it  raises  the  bead  you  can 
«t  once  load  your  kiln  six  inches  deep  with  the  oats.  The  cold  oats  will 
•cool  it  down  a  little  when  the  miller  must  look  to  his  furnace  and  keep 
up  the  same  heat  he  started  with — nox  any  hotter.  It  will  soon  begin  to 
jrteam,  and  in  about  half  an  hour  skim  off  the  oats  with  the  hand  down 
to  the  plate,  and  he  will  see  whether  it  is  hot  or  cold;  when  the  oate  are 
•dry,  say  two  inches  on  the  bottom,  that  will  be  perhaps  over  an  hour, 
take  the  wooden  shovel  and  clean  off  its  breadth  around  three  squares  o£ 
the  kiln  by  throwing  them  over  on  the  pats.  Then  turn  the  oate  over  to 
tne  one  end  (not  the  sides)  neatly  turning  them  on  top  from  the  bottom. 
This  takes  some  practice.  When  done  your  kiln  head  will  be  same  as  at 
'beginning-.  It  will  steam  again  after  about  an  hour  ;  when  the  steam  ia 
off,  turn  it  over  again  but  reverse  the  end  (turn  back).  Don't  let  the  fur- 
nace get  too  hot  now,  keep  its  temperature  down  rather.  In  about  an 
hour  more  the  miller  will  find  his  oats  dry.  He  must  now  open  his  fur- 
nace doors  and  cool  down,  let  the  oats  lay  on  the  kiln  20  minutes  even 
after  they  are  dry.  He  will  find  that  this  will  give  them  a  sweet  taste. 
Hever  dry  with  seeds  as  it  imparts  to  the  meal  a  tar  taste.  I  have  tried 
a  good  many  kinds  of  millstones  for  oat  meal,  and  I  find  in  my  long  ex- 
perience that  four  foot  porous  burrs  driven  120  revolutions,  with  a  three 
toed  rynd  loose  on  the  spindle  and  resting  in  3  dents  in  the  runner,  are  th« 
best.  "l  think  the  20  inch  vertical  burrs  will  make  the  oat  meal  too  floury, 
As  oat  meal  don't  take  so  much  friction,  the  stones  being  kept  so  high — 
•more  so  than  in  making  flour."  Leffd's  News. 

Note.—"Leffers  Milling  and  Mechanical  Neivs,"  from  which,  the  above 
items  are  transcribed,  is  a  monthly  journal  (terms  50  cents  per  annum),  pub- 
lished by  James  Leffel&  Co. ,  manufacturers  of  the  celebrated  Leffel  Turbine 
"Wheel,  Springfield,  Ohio.  The  paper  is  edited  with  consummate  ability,  and 
.it  is  safe  to  say  that  very  many  of  the  items  contained  in  it  are  singly  well 
vortb.  the  whole  year's  subscription  tenfold. 

The  Inflianapolis  Mechanical  Journal  (monthly,  50  cents  per  annum),  J.  H. 
Kerrick,  publisher.  Indianapolis.  Ind.,  is  a  most  useful  periodical  to  every 
one  who  either  operates  or  wishes  to  procure  machinery,  and  the  Western 
.Manufacturer  (monthly,  $2  per  annum),  Coyne  ft  Co.{  publishers  (and  Patent 
Acents)  Chicago,  Ills.,  is  unexcelled  on  the* subject  of  statistics  and 
•information  of  interest  to  manufacturers. 


•56 


HARRISON'S   GKINDING   MILL. 


HARRISON'S  IMPROVED  STANDARD  GRINDING  MILL. 

The  above  illustration  represents  a  new  improved  light  standard  20 
Inch  grinding  mill  as  constructed  by  Edward  Harrison,  of  New  Haven, 
Conn.  It  weighs  600  Ibs.  and  the  manufacturer  claims  for  it  a  grinding 
capacity  (with  from  6  lo  20  horse-power)  of  from  6  to  40  bushels  per  hour, 
and  that  with  1200  revolutions  per  minute,  it  has  a  grinding  surface 
equal  to  £  more  than  a  common  48  inch  run  with  175  turns  per  minute. 
He  claims  that  the  high  speed  adds  a  large  grinding  surface  to  the  burrs, 
that  the  grain  is  exploded  into  meal,  bran,  &c.,  as  soon  as  it  touches  the 
"burrs,  that  the  vertical  position  01  the  stones  permits  easy  delivery  of  the 
meal  and  cool  grinding,  and  that  there  is  not  only  no  possibility  of  Lie 
runner  following  up  the  bed  face  and  grinding  itself  out  of  true,  but  that,- 
on  the  contrary,  the  runners  are  self-facing  (the  bed  being  stationery,  the 
runner  rigid,  no  pivot,  bale  and  driver  being  used)  and  grind  themselves 
so  true  that  with  but  little  additional  labor  they  will  run  to  within  the 
•thousandth  part  of  an  inch  without  touching. 

The  mill  in  its  complete  form,  combining  grinder,  scourer,  and  bolter, 
*the  last  two  are  shown  in  the  next  cut)  is  a  decided  novelty,  and  when 
contrasted  with  other  mills,  presents  many  startling  points  of  difference. 
Briefly  described,  the  bolter,  or  mill-case  is  a  cylinder  about  10  ft.  long 
"by  3  ft.  in  diam.,  made  of  staves  and  held  together  by  a  band  and  iron- 
heads,  into  one  of  which  the  grinder  is  fitted,  which  is  merely  a  20  inch 
pair  of  burrs,  set  vertically,  with  the  runner  turning  on  the  inside,  its 
spindle  passing  horizontally  through  the  bed  stone  in  a  journal  about  10 
ins.  in  length.  The  scourer  and  bolter  is  connected  to  the  grinder  by  in*' 
peuious  machinery.  On  the  top  of  the  case  a  ventilator  runs  the  entiwi 
length,  having  uu  opening  of  about  20  superficial  square  feet,  which  w 


HORSE   FOWER    Otf    STREAMS. 


657 


Constructed  for  cooling  the  bolter  quickly,  the  opening  beh^  covered  with 
B,  fibrous  cloth  material  which  permits  the  air  to  escape  freely,  causing  « 
low  ana  even  temperature,  while  detaining  the  fine  flour  d'ust.  A  dis- 
charge spout  runs  the  -whole  length  of  the  case.  The  silk  bolter  occupies 
v  3arly  the  entire  space  in  the  cylinder,  and  is  fully  protected  from  not' 


•Bbstances  passing  into  it  from  the  grinder  by  a  wire  screen.  The  ^ 
dlings  cloth  is  attached  to  the  finer  silk,  on  the  reel,  continuously,  and 
around  it  the  middlings  chamber  is  formed  the  full  circumference  of  the 
reel-head,  through  which  passages  connect  to  the  delivery  spout,  in  the 
middle  of  the  cylinder  head  at  the  tail  of  the  mill,  while  sweeps  are  at- 
tached to  tb°  reel  of  the  bolter  for  scraping  the  flour  up  to  the  discharge 
opening. 

HORSE  POWER  OF  STREAMS. — Taking  Watt's  estimate  that  the  average 
power  of  a  horse  is  sufficient  to  raise  33,000  Ibs.  1  foot  in  vertical  height 
per  minute  (by  means  of  compound  pulleys)  a  waterfall  has  one  horse 
power  for  every  33,000  Ibs.  of  water  flowing  in  the  stream  per  minute,  for 
•ach  foot  of  fall.  To  compute  the  power  of  a  stream,  therefore,  multi« 


658  HORSE   POWER   OP   STREAMS. 

ply  the  area  of  its  cross  section  in  feet  by  the  velocity  in  feet  per  minute, 
and  we  have  the  number  of -cubic  feet  flowing  along  the  stream  per  min- 
ute. Multiply  this  by  62^,  the  number  of  pounds  in  a  cubic  foot  of 
water,  and  this  by  the  vertical  fall  in  feet,  and  we  have  the  foot-pounds 
per  minute  of  the  fall  ;  dividing  by  33,000  gives  us  the  horse-power. 

For  example  :  a  stream  flows  through  a  flume  10  feet  wide,  and  the 
depth  of  the  water  is  4  feet  ;  the  area  of  the  cross  section  will  be  40  feet. 
The  velocity  is  150  feet  per  minute  —  40  X  150  =  6000  =  the  cubic  feet  of 
water  flowing  per  minute.  6000  X  62^  =  375,000  =  the  pounds  of  water 
flowing  per  minute.  The  fall  is  10  feet  ;  10  x  375,000  =  3,750,000  = 
ihe  foot  pounds  of  the  waterfall.  Divide  3,750,000  by  33,000  and  we  have 
113§i  as  the  horse-power  of  the  fall. 

RULE. — Divide  the  continued  product  of  the  width,  the  depth,  the, 
velocity  of  the  water  per  minute,  the  height  of  the  fall,  and  the  weight  of 
»  cubic  foot  of  water  (G2|  Ibs.)  by  33,000. 

EXAMPLE.— The  flume  of  a  mill  is  10  feet  wide,  the  water  is  3  feet 
deep,  the  velocity  is  100  feet  per  minute,  and  the  fall  11  feet.  What  is 
the  horse-power  of  the  fall  ? 

OPERATION.— (10  x  3  X  100  x  11  X  62^)  ~  33,000  =  G2|  horse-power. 

"  Almost  every  man  has  about  him  in  his  daily  walk  sufficient  appara- 
tus for  a  tolerably  accurate  estimate  of  the  quantity  of  water  flowing  in 
any  stream.  A  walking  stick,  a  jack-knife,  and  a  watch,  provided  the 
walking-stick  fs  just  three  feet  long,  are  all  the  tools  necessary  for  the 
purpose. 

"  Take  a  section  of  the  stream  as  uniform  in  breadth  and  depth  as  pos- 
sible, and  measure  off  upon  its  bank  some  definite  length,  say  from  one 
to  four  hundred  feet,  according  to  the  rapidity  of  the  water  ;  set  a  stake 
close  to  the  water  at  each  end  of  this  section,  then  throw  into  the  water, 
opposite  the  upper  stake,  a  green  twig  or  limb  of  a  tree  or  other  object  of 
such  specific  gravity  as  to  nearly  but  not  quite  sink,  and  of  such  size  that  one 
portion  shall  remain  at  the  surface  while  another  portion  nearly  touches 
bottom,  the  object  being  to  get  the  average  speed  of  the  water.  The  re- 
sistance caused  by  the  bed  and  banks  of  the  stream  necessitate  some 
eare  in  this  part  of  the  experiment. 


"Note  accurately  the  time  the  object  is  passing  from  stake  to  stake, 
and  lepeat  the  operation  several  times  and  at  as  many  points  to  wards  the 
opposite  shore  ;  the  sum  of  the  several  times  divided  by  the  number  of 
points  at  which  the  speed  was  taken,  gives  the  average  speed  of  the 
water. 

"  Now  measure  the  depth  at  several  equidistant  points  across  the 
stream,  as  a,  b,  c,  d,  e,  f,  (the  diagram  showing  a  cross  section  of  the 
stream).  The  sum  of  these  depths  divided  by  the  number  of  points  at 
which  the  depth  was  measured  gives  the  average  depth  ;  this  average 
depth  multiplied  by  the  breadth  of  the  stream  gives  the  area  of  the  cross 
section  ;  this  area,  multiplied  by  the  length  of  the  section,  gives  the  cubic 
contents  of  the  body  of  water  embraced  in  the  section.  Thus  we  have 
the  quantity  and  its  velocity,  which  are  elements  necessary  to  show  the 
value  of  a  stream  for  manufacturing  purposes,  provided  it  has  sufficient 
fall  anywhere  to  render  it  available. 

"  Allowing  62  pounds  for  each  cubit- xoot  of  water,  a  supply  of  1,000 


PERFORMANCE    AC.    OP    A    HORSE 


«ubic  feet  per  minute,  and  a  fall  of  10  feet,  we  have  1,000  X  62  =e  62,000 
pounds  ;  62,000  x  10  =  020,000  pounds  momentum,  which  last  divided  by 
33,000=18. 7-horse  power,  one-fifth  of  which  being  deducted  for  friction 
*nd  loss,  would  leave  in  this  case  about  15-horse  power."  The  Millstone. 

Water-wheels  lose  from  10  to  50  per  cent  of  the  power,  and  the  actual 
power  of  the  steam  engine  is  less  than  that  indicated  by  the  horse-power, 
•owing  to  a  loss  by  friction,  the  amount  of  which  depends  on  the  perfeo 
tion  of  the  machinery,  arrangement,  &c.  For  horse-power  of  steam-en- 
gines, consult  page  370. 

PERFORMANCE,  &c.,  OF  A  HORSE  —A  horse  will  travel  400  yds.  in  4J 
minutes  at  a  walk,  400  yds.  in  2  minutes  at  a  trot,  and  400  yds.  in  1  minute, 
.at  a  gallop.  The  usual  work  of  a  horse  is  taken  at  22,500  Ibs.  raised  1 
foot  per  minute,  for  8  hours  per  day.  A  horse  will  carry  250  Ibs.  25  miles 
per  day  of  8  hours.  An  average  draught-horse  ^  will  draw  1,600  Ibs.  23 
miles  per  day  on  a  level  road,  weight  of  wagon  included.  The  avsrage 
weight  of  a  horse  is  1,000  Ibs. ;  his  strength  is  equal  to  that  of  5  men.  ID 
a  horse  mill  moving  at  3  feet  per  second,  track  25  feet  diameter,  he  exerts 
with  the  machine  the  power  of  4£  horses.  The  greatest  amount  a  horse 
•can  pull  in  a  horizontal  line  iu  900  Ibs.  ;  but  he  can  only  do  this  momen- 
tarily, in  continued  exertion,  probably  half  of  this  is  the  limit.  He  attains 
his  growth  in  5  years,  will  live  25,  average,  16  years.  A  horse  will  live 
25  days  on  water,  without  solid  food,  17  days  without  eating  or  drinking, 
but  only  5  days  on  solid  food,  without  drinking. 

TABLE  EXHIBITING  THE  PERFORMANCE:  OF  A  HORSE  AT  DIFFERENT 
fcATES  OF  SPEED  ON  RAILROADS,  CANALS,  TURNPIKES,  &C-,  DRAWING 
f  ORCE  83$  Ibs. 


Duration  of 

Useful  effect  for  1  day  in  tons,  drawn  1  mile- 

^peed  per  hour. 

Miles. 

day's  work 
—hours. 

On  canal  — 
tons. 

On  a  railroad- 
tons. 

On  a  turn- 
pike— tons. 

2H 

\\% 

520 

115 

14 

3 

8 

243 

92 

12 

3% 

6 

154 

82 

10 

4 

4^ 

102 

72 

9 

5 

& 

52 

57 

7.3 

6 

2 

30 

48 

6 

iy. 

19 

41 

5 

8 

i5 

12.8 

36 

4.5 

9 

A 

9. 

32 

4. 

10 

% 

6.5 

28.8 

3.6 

X  IN  FUEL  AND  INITIAL  PRESSURE  OF  STEAM  REQUIRED  WHEH 
ACTING  EXPANSIVELY,  COMPARED  WITH  NON-EXPANSION  OB 
FULL  STROKE. 


( 
Point 
I          of 
'?      Cutting 
Off. 

Gain 
in 
Fuel. 

INITIAL   PRESSURE 
REQUIRED. 

Point 
of 
Cutting 
Off. 

Gain 
r'uel. 

INITIAL    PRESSUBK 
REQUIRED. 

Cutting 
Off. 

Full 
Stroke. 

Cutting 
Off. 

Full 
Stroke. 

Stroke. 

i  ; 

i 

9 

Stroke. 

Per  cent. 
11.7 
22.4 
32. 
4L 

Stroke. 
1.01 
1.03 
1.09 
148    1 

Stroke. 
1. 
1. 
1. 
1. 

;  Stroke. 

Per  cent. 
49.6 
58.2 
67.6 

Stroke. 
1.32 
1.67 
2.6 

6CO 


COMPOUND^ MARINE 


IMPROVED  COMPOUND  SURFACE  CONDENSING  MARINE  ENGINE. 

EXTRAORDINARY  I/I^Y  OF  STEAM  MACHINERY. — Two  Locomotives 
telonging  to  the  Pennsylvania  R.  R.  Co.,  are  credited  with  the  following 
performances  ? — 

Engine  No.  J>5  r?-n  two  years,  ten  months,  and  twenty-five  days,  and 
aade  101,476  miles,  without  once  being  off  her  wheels,  or  receiving  other 
repairs  than  such  as  are  common  to  round-house  work.  The  cost  of  run- 
ning her  during  this  period  was  $1. 88  per  mile.  The  other  engine,  Jso. 
422,  ran  t^roe  years,  six  months  and  nineteen  days,  and  made  153,280 
miles,  g\  •  tost  of  $2.44  per  mile  without  undergoing  the 
repairs. 


COMPOUND  MARINE  ENGINE. 


6151 


To  TTST>  THE  QUANTITY  OF   WATER  NECESSARY  FOR  A  STEAM  BOIL* 

KR.~~ Ascertain  the  number  of  Ibs.  of  coal  consumed  per  hour,  divide  it 
by  7'5,  and  the  quotient  will  be  the  desired  quantity  of  water  in  cubic  ft 
pe-  hour.  A  cubic  ft.  of  water  weighs  62 '5  Ibs.  See  page  629. 


The  above  sketch  represents  an  outline  of  the  least-complicated  &n.r 
lowest-priced  form  of  compound-engine,  as  at  present  constructed  on  tl  ^ 
Clyde,  in  Scotland,  and  on  the  Delaware,  in  the  United  States.  Tl>: 
cranks  Y,  Z,  are  coupled  at  an  angle  of  90°  ;  only  two  cylinders,  A  aiK? 
B,  are  used  ;  a  uniform  distribution  of  steam  pressure  is  secured  by  a 
Jarsre  allowance  of  steam  pipe,  and  by  the  steam  reservoir,  0,  P,  between 
tne  two  cylinders.  The  valves,  ?/,  ?/,  are  adjusted  like  those  of  an  ordi- 
nary engine,  the  essential  difference  being  that  the  steam  exhausted  b/ 
the  first  cylinder,  A,  is  used  over  again  in" the  second  and  largest  one,  B, 
the  combination  effecting  a  steam  expansion  of  a^out  six  times,  the  pres- 
sure in  the  boiler  usually  ranging  between  60  ana  75  ibs.  per  square  inch 

In  the  City  of  Peking,  a  5,000  ton  vessel,  built  on  the  Delaware  for  tne 
nicific  Mail  Company,  there  are  two  pairs  of  compound  engines, 


662 


CONSUMPTION   OF   COAL,   &C. 


cylinders  of  51  and  88  ins.  diam.  The  crank  shafts  are  18  ins.  diant 
Boiler  pressure  is  60  Ibs.  Steam  is  expanded  9  times.  The  boilers  aat 
10  ( cylindrical  inform,  with  cylindrical  flues),  10^  ft.  long,  13  ft.  diam.; 
shells,  13-16  in.  thick,  with  520  ft.  of  grate  surface,  16,500  sq.  ft.  of  heat* 
ing  surface,  and  1,600  sq.  ft.  of  superheating  surface,  with  smoke  stacks, 
8£  ft.  diam.,  and  70  ft.  high. 

The  simplest  form  of  superheater  used  on  board  steamers  consists  of  * 
Drought-iron  drum  filled  with  tubes.  They  are  placed  usually  in  the 
lip-takes,  or  at  the  base  of  the  funnel  of  a  marine  boiler,  so  disposed 
that  the  waste  heat  and  flame  from  the  furnaces  will  pass  through 
the  tubes  and  around  the  shell  of  the  drum  the  steam  being  inside. 
Connection  is  made  with  the  boiler  and  steam  pipes  of  the  engine,  and 
fitted  with  stop  valves  to  govern  the  admission  of  steam  according  to 
requirements.  A  safety  valve  and  gauge  glass  is  also  fitted,  to  show 
whether  the  superheater  is  clear  of  water,  as  priming  is  liable  to  fill  it 
ap.  It  has  been  shown  that  this  contrivance  often  effects  a  saving  of  20 
to  25  per  cent,  in  the  fuel  consumed. 
TABLE  for  finding  the  CONSUMPTION  of  COAL  per  Hour  in  Steamers, 

either  Paddle  or  Screw  (the  same  Screw  being  used  throughout),  at  any> 


(At  a  given  Amount  of  Coal,  the  Engineer  may  determine  the  mostpru* 
dent  Rate  of  Engine  for  reaching  next  coaling  Port.) 

Speed. 

Consumption 
of  Coal. 

Speed. 

Consumption, 
of  Coal. 

Explanation. 

3 

.216 

9 

5.83 

3* 

.343 

9J 

6.86 

The  speed   for    the   cousump* 

4 

.512 

10 

8.00 

tion  of  an  unit  of  coal  is  sup- 

*l 

.729 

10^ 

9.26 

posed  here  to  be  5,  which  may  b» 

5 

1000 

11 

10  65 

5  miles  or  knot?,  or  5  times  any 

H 

1  331 

U| 

12.15 

number  of  miles  or  knots  ;  them 

6 

1.728 

12 

13.82 

if  5  of  such  number  of  miles  re- 

6£ 

2.197 

12J 

15.61 

quire  1  unit  of  coal  per  hour,  9 

7 

2.744 

13 

17.58 

of  such  units  will,  by  the  table, 

7i 

3.375 

13J 

19.68 

require  5.  83  units  of  coal,  and  3 

8 

4.096 

14 

21.95 

of  them  .216  units  of  coal 

9 

4.910 

It  will  be  evident  that  this  table  is  calculated  on  the  principle  that  th« 
Aorse  power  varies  very  nearly  as  the  cube  of  the  speed  ;  the  enormous 
increase  of  consumption  at  increased  velocities  is  in  fact  a  little  greater 
than  that  shown  by  the  Table. 

The  advantages  indicated  above  to  be  obtained  at  low  velocities  ara 
Svidently  independent  of  those  obtained  at  those  velocities  by  using  thd 
steam  expansively.  Engineer's  and  Contractor's  Pocket  BOOK 

To  PRESERVE  BOILER  TUBES.— A  coating  of  red-lead  and  boiled  linseed 
oil,  applied  to  iron  boiler  tubes  acts  as  a  powerful  preservative. 

A  lacquer  of  linseed  oil  and  caoutchouc  applied  to  the  walls  of  a  steam 
boiler  prevents  the  adhesion  of  sediment  so  that  the  scale  admits  of  easy 
removal. 

To  PROTECT  POLISHED  STEEL  OR  IRON  FROM  RUST.—  Go  over  the  sur- 
face with  paraffine,  or  steep  the  iron  for  a  few  minutes  in  a  solution  of 
eulphate  of  copper  and  then  transfer  it  into  a  solution  of  hyposulphite  of 
soda  acidulated  wiui  hydrochloric  acid.  The  result  is  a  blue-black  coafr* 
ing  not  affected  by  air  or  water. 


CONSUMPTION   OP   FUEL,   AC. 

BREAKING  AND  CRUSHING  STRAINS  OF  IRON  AND  STEEL.  AVERAGE 
CALCULATIONS. 

Breaking  strain  of  wrought  iron  =  23  tons  per  sq.  inch  of  section. 

Crushing    do,  do.          =  17  do.  do. 

Breaking  strain  of  cast  iron         =  7J    '  do.  do. 

Crushing    do.  do.  =  50  do.  do. 

Breaking  strain  of  steel  bars        =  50     '  do.  do. 

Crushing    do.  do.         =  166     *  do.  da 

MEMORANDA  OF  TEMPERATURES  FOR  ENGINEERS,  &c. "-Melting  ice 
Is  32°  ;  boiling  -water  at  atmospheric  pressure  or  exposed  to  air  212°  : 
Steam  at  60  Ibs.  pressure  by  steam  guage  307°  ;  usual  heat  of  superheated 
steam  380°  to  400°  ;  smoke  in  the  funnel  600°  ;  water  in  hot  well  from 
100U  to  120°.  For  raising  steam,  the  horizontal  surfaces  over  the  fire, 
have  double  the  value  of  vertical  surfaces  for  economy  of  heat.  Boiler 
plates  increase  in  strength  up  to  570°  of  heat,  and  get  weaker  with  the 
increase  of  temperature. 

Temperatures  at  sundry  subterranean  depths,  in  deg.  Fahr. 
At  68  ft.  47,9     At  621  ft.  50.7    At  1290  ft.  58.3    At  1662  ft  61.2 
*  299  "  48.8      "  939  "  57.8      "   1414  "  59.4      "   1900  "  61.4 

fc'resh  water  begins  to  freeze  at  32°,  called  the  freezing  point,  but  salt 
water  not  till  285°.  The  atoms  lose  the  motion  called  heat,  and  become 
fixed  in  crystals. 

CONSUMPTION  OF  FUEL  IN  MARINE  BOILERS. —  This  will  average 
about  15|  Ibs.  of  coal  per  square  foot  per  hour.  In  4  furnaces  3  ft.  wide 
by  6  ft.  long  with  72  sq.  ft.  of  surface,  about  12  tons  of  coal  will  be  burnt 
per  day. 

feet.    Ibs. 
72  x  15£ 

Thus, =  9.9  cwts.  per  hour,  say  10  cwts.  per  hour  or  12  tons  pet 

112 

day.  A  much  simpler  and  equally  correct  rule  is,  that  one  foot  in  width 
of  fire  bar  equals  1  ton  of  coal  per  day ;  so  that  in  the  example  above  the 
total  width  of  four  furnaces  is  3ft.  x  ^=  12  ft,  wide,  or  12  tons  per  day  ag 
before. 

A  ship  having  40  ft.  beam  and  ordinary  condensing  engines,  will  re- 
quire 40  tons  of  coal  per  day  to  drive  her  at  10  knots.  The  reason  for 
stating  this  is,  that  it  is  well  known  from  ordinary  experience  of  average 
eteamers  that  the  beam  squared  equals  the  consumption  of  fuel  for  40,  50, 
or  60  days,  according  to  whether  the  engines  are  ordinary  jet,  surface 
condensing,  or  compound.  Thus,  in  present  example  : — 

days 

4/0)160/0  5/0)160/0  6/0)160/0 

40  tons  for  one  day  32  tons  for  26  tons  8  cwt. 

for  ordinary  con-  surface  for  compound 

densiug .  condensing.  engines. 

A  pair  of  surface  condensing  engines  (not  compound)  having  40  inch 
cylinders,  doing  average  work,  wiL1  require,  16  tons  of  coal  per  day  ;  it  be- 
ing a  well  known  practical  fact  that  the  diameter  of  one  cylinder,  squared 
and  divided  by  100,  gives  the  average  consumption  of  fuel  in  this  class  of 
engine  per  day.  Thus,  in  present  example  : — 

422  =  40  x  40  =  1000  ;  then,  =  16  tons  per  day 

Compound  engines  burn  £  less,  and  ordinary  jet  \  more  than  the  above* 
Reetfs  Engineer's  Hand  Book. 


RULES   FOR   ENGINEERS,   &C. 


RATIO  OT  COMBUSTION  PER  HOUR  UNDER  VARIOUS  BOILERS.— Com 
Dish,  =  3£  Ibs.  per  square  foot;  land  boilers  =  10  to  201bs.  (English)  13 
to  14  Ibs.  ;  marine  boilers  (natural  draught),  10  to  18  Ibs.  :  (blast).  30  to 
60  Ibs.  ;  locomotive  boilers,  80  to  120  Ibs. 

To  FIND  HORSE  POWER  OF  ENGINE  TO  RAISE  WATER  TO  A  GIVI  x 
HEIGHT. — Weight  of  column  of  water  X  by  its  velocity,  in  feet,  per  min- 
ute, product  -s-  33,000  =  H.  P. 

To  FIND  THE  VELOCITY  REQUIRED  TO  DISCHARGE  A  GIVEN  VOLUMB 
OF  WATER  IN  ANY  GIVEN  TIME.— Number  of  cubic  feet  X  144  ;  pro- 
duct -r  by  area  of  pipe,  or  opening  in  inches  =  Velocity. 

To  ASCERTAIN  THE  BREADTH  OF  THE  PORTS.— Half  the  throw  of  the 
ralve  should  be  at  least  equal  to  the  lap  on  the  steam  side  added  to  the 
treadth  of  the  port.  If  this  breadth  does  not  give  the  required  area  of 
port,  increase  the  throw  of  valve  until  the  area  is  attained. 

PROPER  LIFT  OF  POPPET  VALVES. — The  best  results  from  poppet  of 
eonical  valves  are  obtained  by  giving  them  a  lift  equivalent  to  one  hall 
the  semi-diameter  of  a  circle,  or  £  the  diameter  of  the  valve.  This  will 
afford  an  opening  equivalent  to  the  area  of  the  port  and  the  eccentrics  and 
the  lifting  toes  should  be  adjusted  so  as  to  produce  this  effect. 

To  FIND  DIMENSIONS  OF  CHIMNEY  FOR  A  LAND  ENGINE. — Multiply 
number  of  Ibs.  of  coal  consumed  under  the  boiler  per  hour  by  12 ;  divide  the 
product  by  square  root  of  the  height  of  chimney  in  feet.  Q'uotient  is  area 
of  chimney  at  smallest  point  in  square  inches. 


WIT 

er. 

Alt.  of  Chimney 
in  Feet. 

Interior  Diameter 
at  Top 

H.  P.  of 
Boiler. 

Alt.  of  Chimney 
in  Feet. 

Interio*  Diameter 
at  Top. 

60 

14  inches. 

70 

120 

30  inches 

75 

14      " 

90 

120 

Si      " 

90 

16      " 

120 

135 

38      " 

99 

17      " 

160 

150 

43      " 

105 

21      " 

200 

165 

47      " 

120 

26      « 

250 

180 

52      " 

120 

27      " 

380 

195 

57      " 

To  CLEAN  GREASY  COTTON  WASTE. — Boil  it  in  a  strong  solution  of 
common  soda  in  water,  and  save  the  resultant  soapy  liquid  to  keep  your 
drills  and  reamers  lubricated  when  drilling  iron. 

To  CLEAN  GREASE  FROM  BOLTS.— Moisten  with  benzine,  roll  in  saw. 
dust,  and  brush  afterward. 

CALCULATIONS   REGARDING   DIMENSIONS,  POWER,    &c.,  OF   STEAM 
BOILERS  . — Good  authorities  consider  it  quite  a  safe  practice  t«  allow 
9  square  ft.  heating  surface  for  Cylinder  boilers  per  H.  P. 
12        "        "        "        "        "        flue        u        "        " 
15        "        "        "        "        "        tubular 

One  half  the  circumference  of  the  boiler  multiplied  into  the  length  and 
reduced  to  square  feet  will  give  the  heating  surface  in  cylinder  boilers  ; 
or,  the  heating  surface  in  the  shell  of  flue  and  tubular  boilers.  To  find 
the  heating  surface  in  the  tubes  or  flues,  multiply  their  external  circum- 
ference by  their  length  and  reduce  to  square  feet.  The  heating  surface 
of  the  tubes  or  flues  added  together  and  then  adding  the  heating  surface 
in  the  shell,  will  give  the  total  heating  surface.  This  divided  by  12  or  15 
as  the  case  may  be  will  give  the  horse  power  of  any  particular  boiler  in 
terms  of  heating  surface  as  given  above.  This  is  to  be  understood  as 
being  purely  conventional  and  arbitrary,  and  not  the  actual  horse  power, 
which  can  only  be  determined  by  an  experimental  test,  made  by  a  com- 
petent expert 


HEATING    SURFACE,   AC.,    OF    BOILERS.  663 

Th«  following  Tables  will  serve  as  a  guide  iu  the  selection  of 
•d  may  be  quite  serviceable  to  millwrights  and  others. 

TABLE  I.— H.  P.  OF  CYLINDER  BOILER  AT  9  FEET. 
IIP. 
10 
12 
15 
18 
20 

TABLE  II. — H.  P.  OF  2  FLUE  BOILERS  AT  12  FEET. 

H  P.  Diam.  Boiler.  Diam.  Flues.  Length.  Heat  Sort 

15  34  in.  10  in.  18ft.  176  sq.  ft 

18  36  12  20  222 

20  40  14  20  254 

22  44  16  18  260 

25  46  17  20  302 

TABLE  III. — H.  P.  OF  5  FLUE  BOILERS  AT  12  FEET. 
H.  P.        Diam.  Boiler.        Diam.  Flues.        Length.        Heat  Surf. 


Diam. 
36  in. 
38 
40 
44 
46 

Length. 

19ft. 
22 
26 
28 
30 

Heating  Surfaoa 
90  sq.  ft 
108 
135 
162 
180 

20 

44  in. 

J3—  8 

14ft 

245  sq.  ft 

25 

46 

{  1—13 
\2—  9 
(2—  8 

13 

•  1—14 

30 

50 

^2—10 

18 

356 

U-8 

s  IV—  M. 

P.  OF  BOILERS  WITH  6-iNCH  LAP  WELDED  TUBES  A 

12  FEET. 

H.P. 

Diam. 

Length. 

No  of  Flues. 

Heat  Surf. 

15 

42  in. 

12ft 

6 

179  ft 

20 

42 

16 

6 

239 

25 

44 

18 

7 

302 

30 

46 

18 

9 

363 

36 

46 

20 

10 

434 

42 

48 

20 

12 

503 

TABLE  V.— H.  P.  OF  BOILERS  WITH  S-IKCH  TUBES  AT  15  FEET. 

H.  F.  Diam.  Length.  No  of  Tubes.  Heat  Surf. 

15  36  in.  8  ft.             30  227  ft 

19  36  10                   30  283 

22  36  12                  30  339 

27  40  12                  36  402 

31  44  12                   42  465 

36  44  14                   42  543 

42  48  14                  50  638 

j.n  regard  to  the  diameter  and  length  of  a  boiler,  it  might  be  observed 
that  cylinder  boilers  are  usually  made  from  18  to  30  feet  in  length,  and 
from  30  to  48  inches  in  diameter.  Flue  boilers  from  18  to  24  feet  in 
length,  and  from  36  to  60  inches  in  diameter.  Tubular  from  8  to  18  feel 
in  length,  and  from  30  inches  to  5  ieet  in  diameter, 


666 


ON   BOILERS,   POWER   OF   EXPLOSIVES. 


Boilers  having  lap-welded  tubes  increase  in  extra  cost  when  thalf 
lengths  exceed  18  feet  These  tubes  would  have  to  be  made  to  order, 
•which,  in  case  of  repairs,  might  cause  considerable  loss  of  time  in  having 
to  wait  for  them  to  be  made.  It  is  better  to  keep  the  diameters  of  boilers 
below  4  feet  than  go  over  it,  using  two  or  more  boilers  as  may  be  needed 
to  furnish  the  requisite  amount  of  steam. 

In  large  and  important  works  the  subjects  of  boilers,  engines,  etc., 
ought  to  be  referred  to  a  competent  mechanical  engineer,  who  will  ad- 
vise as  to  the  kind,  size,  and  number  to  be  employed.  The  Mill  Stone. 

To  find  the  contents  of  cylinder  boilers  multiply  the  area  of  the  head 
in  inches  by  the  length  in  inches  and  divide  the  product  by  *1728  ;  the 
quotient  will  be  the  number  of  cubic  feet  of  water  the  boiler  will  con- 
iaiu.  Example  :  Diameter  of  head,  36  inches  ;  area  of  head,  1017.87 
inches  ;  length  of  boiler,  20  feet  or  240  inches.  Now  multiply  1017.87  by 
240  and  the  product  will  be  244,283.80  ;  divide  this  by  .1728  and  the  re- 
suit  will  be  141.37  cubic  feet,  which  will  be  the  contents  of  the  shell. 

In  flue  boilers,  multiply  area  of  the  head  in  inches  by  the  length  of  the 
shell  in  inches  ;  multiply  the  combined  area  of  the  flues  in  inches  by 
their  length  in  inches,  subtract  this  product  from  the  first  and  divide  the 
remainder  by  '1728  ;  the  quotient  will  be  the  number  of  cubic  feet  of 
water  the  boiler  will  contain. 

To  FIND  THE  LENGTH  OF  BELTING  WHEN  CLOSELY  ROLLED.— The  sura 
of  the  diameters  of  the  roll  and  the  eye  in  inches,  multiplied  by  the  num- 
ber of  turns  made  by  Jie  belt,  and  this  product  multiplied  by  the  decimal 
.1309,  will  be  the  length  of  the  belt  in  feet.  Auchinchloss. 

To  MEASURE  SCANTLINGS,  JOISTS,  PLANK,  SILLS,  &c.—  Jfr/?e.— MultU 
ply  the  width,  the  thickness  and  the  length  together  (the  width  and  thick- 
ness in  inches  avd  the  length  in  feet),  and  divide  the  product  by  12  ;  the 
result  will  be  the  square  feet.  To  Measure  Boards— Multiply  the  lengtX 
(in  feet)  by  the  width  (in  inches)  and  divide  the  product  by  12  ;  the  re- 
sult will  be  the  number  of  square  feet  it  contains. 
EXPLOSIVE  FORCE  OP  VARIOUS  SUBSTANCES  USED  FOR  FIRK 
ARTILLERY,  BLASTING,  &C. 


Heat. 

Volume 
of    Gas. 

Esiimaiea 
Explosive 
lorce. 

Blasting  Powder 

509 
608 
641 
764 
972 
590 
687 
578 
1420 
1424 
1422 
1320 

0.173  liter. 
0.225 
0.216 
0.248 
0.318 
0.801 
0-780 
0.585 
0.484 
0.408 
0.337 
0.710 

88 
137 
139- 
190 

soa 

472 

536 
680 
680 
582 
478 
939 

Artillery      « 

Sporting       " 

Powder,  Nitrate  ol 
Powder,  Chlorate  < 

Soda  for  its  base  

)f  Potash  for  its  base  .  . 

Picric  Acid       

Picrate  Potash  

Gun  Cotton  mixed 
Picric  Acid         " 
Picrate                " 
Nitro-Glycerin  

with  Chi.  Potash.  .  . 

«           « 
«           « 

The  above  instructive  table  is  by  the  celebrated  M.  Berthelot,  wh» 
further  describes  nitro-glycerin  as  "  really  the  ideal  of  portable  force. 
It  burns  completely  without  residue  ;  in  fact,  gives  an  excess  of  oxygen ; 
it  developes  twice  as  much  heat  as  powder,  three  and  a  half  tinWmore 
gas,  and  has  seven  times  the  explosive  force,  weight  for  weight,  and, 
taken  volume  for  volume,  it  possesses  twelve  times  more  energy."  From 
the  extreme  danger  of  the  work,  none  but  a  competent  checks*  should 
»tt«mpt  to  manufacture  it. 


GOLD    MINING,    SPEED    OF   BODIES. 


667 


Many  other  explosives  derive  their  energy  from  nitro-glycerin.  Dy- 
Samite  is  nitro-glycerine  compounded  with  rotten-stone,  or  silicieus,  or 
hifuso:  '_il  earth,  tripoli,  &c. ;  a  compound  of  nitro-glycerin  and  saw-dust 
*ias  been  sold  under  the  name  of  dual  in ,-  a  mixture  of  plaster  of  Paris 
and  nitro-glycerin  has  been  sold  under  the  name  of  "  selenitic  powder;" 
And  fine  powder,  blended  with  nitro-glycerin,  has  been  vended  under  thai 
name  of  "  lithofracteur,"  or  "rendrock."  The  practical  miner  will  ba 
Interested  in  the  above,  as  well  as  in  the  following  : — 
FABLE  SHOWING  THE  QUANTITY  OF  GOLD  TO  THE  TON  OF  ORE,  COR- 
RESPONDING TO  THE  WEIGHTS  IN  GRAINS'  OBTAINED  FROM  40GT 
GRAINS  OF  MINERAL. 


If    400   grains  o'. 
Ore  give 
Fine    Gold, 

One    ton    of 
Ore 
.will  yield, 

If  400  Grains  of 
Ore  give 
Fine   Gold, 

v 

One    ton    ct 
Ore 

will  yield, 

Grains. 
.OO1        .... 

Ozs. 

o 

Dwts. 
} 

Grs. 
15 

Grains. 
200 

Ozs. 
16 

Dwts. 

g 

Grs. 

16 

.002  

o 

3 

6 

300       .  . 

24 

10 

o 

.003         

o 

4 

21 

400 

32 

13 

g. 

,004  

o 

Q 

12 

.500  

40 

16 

16 

005  

o 

g 

4 

600 

49 

o 

o 

.006  

o 

9 

19 

.700  

57 

3 

g. 

.007  

o 

11 

10 

.800  

65 

g 

16 

008 

o 

13 

1 

900 

73 

10 

0 

.009  

o 

14 

16 

1  000  

81 

13 

8 

010         .... 

o 

16 

g 

2  000 

163 

16 

16< 

020 

1 

12 

16 

3  000 

245 

o 

0* 

.030         

2 

9 

o 

4  000 

326 

13 

s 

040 

3 

5 

g 

5  000 

408 

g 

16> 

.050  

4 

1 

16 

6  000         .... 

490 

o 

0> 

OfiO 

4 

18 

o 

7  000 

570 

13 

g 

070  

5 

14 

g 

8.000       

653 

g 

1& 

080 

6 

10 

16 

9  000 

735 

| 

Qi 

090  

7 

7 

0 

40-000  

816 

13 

g' 

JOO... 

g 

3 

g     j 

20.000 

1633 

g 

16= 

Mr.  Black,  of  San  Francisco,  estimates  that  in  mining  operations  the 
average  cost  of  handling  a  cubic  yard  of  auriferous  gravel  with  the  pan 
fe  $20  ;  with  the  rocker,  $5  ;  with  the  long  torn,  $1  ;  and  with  the  hy« 
draulic  process,  20c.  See  other  items  for  miners  on  page  451.  An  eat* 
eellent  compilation  on  this  subject  is  "  The  Miner's  Hand-Book,"  by 
Julius  Silvermith,  for  sale  by  D.  Van  Nostrand,  New  York. 

TABLE  SHOWING  THE  AVERAGE  VELOCITIES  OF  VARIOUS  BODIES., 


Per  hour. 
A  man  walks  .........................................    Smiles, 

A  horse  trots  .......  .................................    7  " 

Ahorseruns  .......  .  .................................  20  " 

Steamboat  runs  ......................................  18  " 

Sailing  vessel  runs  ...................................  10  " 

Slow  rivers  flow  .....................................     3  " 

Kapid  rivers  flow  ........................  ............     7  " 

A  moderate  wind  blows  ..............................    7  " 

A  storm  moves  .......................  .  ...............  36 

A  hurricane  moves  ...................................  80  " 

Arifleball        "     .................................  1000  " 

Sound  "      ...................................  743  " 

Light 
E.ectrivt?' 


Per  neft 

or       4  feet 

or      10  " 

or      20  '    ' 

or      26  , 

or      14  •• 

or        4  '" 

or      10  "• 

or      10  * 
or     52 

or    117  '*• 

or  1466  * 

or  1142  * 

192000  miles  per  sec. 

288000 


Parker's  Philosophy 


ON  SUGAR   MILLS,   AC. 


ENORMOUS  RESULTS  OF  STEAM  POWER. — The  aggregate  steanvpowef 
ffc  use  in  the  world  is  at  present  three  and  one-half  millions  horse-power 
employed  in  stationary  engines,  and  ten  millions  horse-power  in  locomo-  ' 
*ive  engines.    This  force  is   maintained  without  the  consumption   of 
animal  food,  except  by  the  miners  who  dig  the  coals,  and  the  force  main- 
'/ained  in  their  muscles  is  to  the  force  generated  by  the  product  of  their 
labor  about  1  to  1,080.     This  steam-power  is  equal  to  the  working  force  - 
It  25  millions  of  horses,  and  one  horse  consumes  three  times  as  much  , 
food  as  one  man.     The  steam-power,  therefore,  is  equivalent  to  the  sav- 1 
Ing  of  food  for  75  millions  of  human  beings.    Further,  three  power-loomt  \ 
attended  by  one  man,  produce  78  pieces  of  cotton  fabric,  against  4  pieces  I 
produced  by  one  hand-loom,  worked  by  one  man  in  the  year  1800.      A 
Carpenter's  planing  machine  does  the  work  of  twenty  men* 


SUGAR    MILL. 

SUGAR  MILL.— The  sugar  canes  are  crushed  in  a  press  consisting  of 
three  hollow  cast  iron  rollers,  represented  in  the  cut  by  a  be,  placed 
horizontally  in  a  cast  iron  frame.  By  means  of  the  screws,  i,  i,  the  ap- 
proximate distance  of  the  rollers  is  adjusted.  One  roller  is  half  as  large  as 
the  others,  and  is  moved  by  three  cogged  wheels  fitted  on  to  the  axis  of  the 
tollers.  The  sugar  canes  are  transferred  from  the  slate  gutter,  d,  d,  to  the 
rollers,  a,  c,  which  press  them  a  little,  and  from  thence  they  are  carried 
to  the  arched  plate,  n,  to  the  rollers  c,  6.  The  pressed  sugar  canes  fall 
over  the  gutter/,  the  expressed  juice  collecting  in  .</,  //,  and  running  off 
through  h.  The  middle  roller  is  termed  the  king  roller  ;  the  side  cylin- 
ders are  individually  the  side  roller  and  macasse. 

SUGAR  MILL.—  For  Expressing  20,000  Ibs  of  Cane  Juice  per  day. 
Non-condensing  Engine.  Cylinder  15  ins.  in  diameter  by  4  ft.  stroke. 
Pressure,  50  Ibs.  per  sq .  in.,  cut  off  at  £  the  stroke  of  the  piston.  Revolu- 
tions. 36  per  minute.  Boiler.  One  of  62  ins.  diam.  by  30  ft.  in  length, 
with  2  18-in.  return  flues.  Grates.  36  Square  ft.  Rolls  Two  sets  of  three 
each,  of  244ns.  diam.  by  5  ft.  in  lenjfth  ;  geared  2^  to  36  of  engine,  giving 
a  speed  of  periphery  of  15|  ft.  per  minute.  Fly-  Wheel.  18  ft.  diam. : 
weight  5  tons. 

This  arrangement  of  a  second  set  of  rolls  is  a  late  improvement  ;  its 
object,  that  of  expressing  the  cane  a  second  time.  An  increase  ot  20  }*f 
cent,  is  effected  by  it. 


RULES    FOR    MACHINISTS,    AC. 


66* 


FOR  A  CROP  OF  3000  BOXES  OF  SUGAR  OF  500  LBS.  EACH.— Cylinder. 
10  ins.  in  diam.  by  4  ft.  stroke.  Pressure,  60  Ibs.  per  square  in.  Revo- 
lutions 48,  driving  Tset  of  rolls,  24  ins  by  4  ft.,  at  a  speed  of  periphery  of 
36  ft  per  minute.  Boiler.  52  ins.  by  24  ft,  with  2  16-in  return  flues. 
1  Grate  Surface.  25  square  ft.  Fly  Wheel.  16  ft.  diam. ;  weight.  4  tons. 
Engineers'  and  Contractors'  Pocket  Book. 

COTTON  PRESS.  Non-rondensing  Engine.  For  1000  Bales  in  12  hours. 
Cylinder  14  in.  in  diam.  by  4  ft.  stroke.  Pressure.  40  Ibs.  per  sq. .  at  full 
Stroke,  Revolutions.  60  per  minute.  Boilers.  Three,  plain  cylmdical, 
without  flues,  30  in.  in  diam.  by  26  ft.  in  length.  Grates.  32  square  ft 
.Presses.  Four,  geared  6  to  one,  with  2  screws  each  of  7i  in.  diam.,  by  If 
'in.  pitch.  Shaft  (Wrought  Iron).  Journal,  8£  in.  fly-wheel.  16  it 
diameter,  weight,  4  tons. 

RULES  TO  ASCERTAIN  THE  PRESSURE  ov  SLIDE  VALVES.— Multiply 
the  unbalanced  area  of  the  valve  in  inches  by  the  pressure  of  steam  in 
Ibs.  per  square  inch,  and  the  weight  of  the  valve  in  Ibs.,  a»d  multiply  the 
sum  by  0  15 

To  GET  AN  ENGINE  INTO  LINE  AND  SQUARE  THE  SHAFT. — Set  up 
two  lines,  one  parallel  to  the  axis  of  the  cylinder,  or  through  the  cylinder, 
if  possible,  ana  the  other  perpendicular  to  the  first,  in  the  same  plane. 
These  are  reference  lines  to  measure  from,  to  bring  the  shaft  and  guide- 
into  line. 

HINT  TO  MACHINISTS.— In  turning  steel  or  other  hard  metal,  use  a  drip 
composed  of  petroleum  2  parts,  and  turpentine  1  part.  This  will  ensur* 
easy  cutting  and  perfect  tools  when  otherwise  the  work  would  stop  owing 
to  the  breakage  of  tools  from  the  severe  strain. 

To  MELT  BRASS  TURNINGS  AND  FILINGS  WITH  LITTLE  WASTE  — 
Compress  firmly  in  a  crucible  until  it  is  full  ;  then  cover,  and  lute  the 
top  with  pipe  or~ fire-clay.  Brass  scraps  maybe  melted  with  new  brass, 
putting  it  in  with  the  zinc  after  the  copper  is  melted. 

To  TEMPER  ANVILS.— Heat  the  anvil  and  immerse  it  in  a  tank  of 
cold  water  to  a  depth  of  two  or  three  inches,  or  play  a  stream  of  cold 
water  from  a  hose  on  its  face. 

PROPER   SIZE.  SPEED,  &C.,  OF  EMERY  WHEELS. 


Diam.  of  Wheel 
in  inches. 

Rev.  per 
miuute. 

Number  of 
Emery. 

Grade 
of  Cut. 

2  

5600  

....     8  to    10  .     . 

Wood  Rasp. 
Rasp  File. 
Rough  File. 
Bastard  File. 
Second  Cut  F.Ue. 
Smooth  File. 
Superfine  File. 
Dead  Smooth  File. 

.  16  to    20 

6 

OQOO     

.  24  to    30 

g 

1500 

36  to    40 

10...             

1200  

46  to    60.     . 

12 

1100         .   .. 

70  to    80 

14=  

900  

...  90  to  100.     . 

16 

750  

120 

so  . 

600  

22:::::::: 

550  

J4  

500  

26.   .. 

450     .. 

30  

400  

56  

325  .... 

Emery  wheels  may  be  trued  by  means  of  a  diamond  tool,  a  red  hot 
Iron,  or  by  a  file  applied  to  the  wet  periphery  of  the  wheel.  For  emery 
cement,  see  page  424.  In  using  emery  paper  or  cloth  for  finishing,  the 
paper,  although  the  easiest  to  destroy,  imparts  the  smoothest  polish  fc» 
the  metal,  and  the  longer  it  is  used  the  better  it  polishes. 


WEIGHT,    DIMENSIONS,    &C.,    OF   TIN   PLATES. 


NUMBER,  WEIGHT,  SIZE,  LENGTH,  AND  BREATH  OP  TIN  PLATBS. 


BBAKV  MARK. 

No.  o1 
Sheet 
inBox 

Length   and 
Breadth. 

Weight  per 

Inches.  Inchet. 

Cwt.  qr.  Ibs 

i  C 

225 

14  by  10 

100 

1  x 

225 

14  by  10 

110 

Ixx 

225 

14  by  10 

1     1    21 

Each  1  x  advanMf 

Ixxx 

225 

14  by  10 

1     2    14 

j-              $1.75  to  $2.00 

1  xxxx 

225 

14  by  10 

137 

1    XXXIX 

225 

14  by  10 

200 

J   XXXXXX 

225 

14  by  10 

2     0   21 

PC 

100 

17  by  12i 

0     3    14 

ffW 

D  X 

100 

17   by  12i 

1     0    14 

*-*  ~.S  2 

D  xx 

.100 

'  17   by  12J 

117 

?  g  o  rt 

D  xxx 

100 

17  by  12\ 

120 

fcw 

D  xxxx 

100 

17   by  12i 

1     2   21 

es.5  «2 

D  xxxxx 

100 

17   by  12| 

1     3    14 

*%£  £ 

D  xxxxxx 

100 

17   by  12| 

207 

ts  &S      ,5 

CJ   00  -jz  S3  ^ 

.S  D  C 

200 

15   by  11 

1     1   27 

•*jr\ 

:S  D  x 

200 

15   by  11 

1     2   20 

S  D  xx 

200 

15   by  11 

1     3    13 

o'S"-^  §*3 

S  D  xxx 

200 

15   by  11 

206 

S  "g  35  Q? 

S  D  xxxx 

200 

15    by  11 

2     0   27 

2  a^-ji 

S  D  xxxxx 

200 

15   by  11 

2     1    20 

«  Ss  5  » 

IS  D  xxxxxx 

200 

15   by  11 

2     2    13 

5  s  111 

about 

TTT  Taggers, 

225 

14  by  10 

100 

1  C 

225 

12   by  12 

Ix 

225 

12   by  12 

1  XX 

225 

12   by  12 

I  xxx 

225 

12    by  12 

1 

1  xxxx 
1C 

1  X 

225 

112 
112 

12    by  12 

14    by  20 
14   by  20 

1  About  the  same  weight 
L  per  Box,  as  the  plat«i 
f  above  of  similar  brand- 
14  to  10. 

1  XX 

112 

14    by  20 

1  xxx 

112 

14   by  20 

1  xxxx 

112 

14   by  20 

Leaded  or  \  1  C 
Temp*    j  1  x 

112 
112 

14   by  20 
14  by  20 

100 
110 

For  Roofing. 

UIL  CANISTERS,  (from  2i  to  125  galls.)  WITH  THE  QUANTITY  ANB 
QUALITY  OF  TIN  REQUIRED  FOR  CUSTOM  WORK. 


.Galls. 

Quantity  and  Quality. 

Galls. 

Quantity  and  Quality. 

8 
10 
.IB 

2 
2 
2 

1s 

Plates,  IX 
"    SDX 
"        DX 
"        IX 
"       DX 
"       DX 

in  body. 

33 

45 
60 
90 
125 

20 

Plates,    IX  in  body,  I 
breadths  high. 
Plates,  S  D  X  in  body 
DX       "     ' 
DX      "  *    • 
BT      * 

'  The  bottom  tier  oy  olates  to  be  placed  lenethwiaa. 


DIAGRAM   FOR    BEVEL    COVERS,    AC. 


671 


TARNISHES  FOR  PIPES  AND  IRON- WORK.— -Coal  tar,  30  gals.  ;  tallow, 
6  Ibs.  ;  rosin,  1^  Ibs.  ;  lamp-black,  3  Ibs. ;  fresh  slaked  lime,  finely  sifted, 
30  Ibs.  Stir  all  thoroughly  together,  and  apply  hot.  Another.—  Tar  oil, 
:20  Ibs.  ;  asphaltum,  5  Ibs.  ;  powdered  rosin,  5  Ibs.  Heat  all  together  iq 
an  iron  kettle,  very  carefully,  to  prevent  ignition. 


To  STRIKE  OFT  CAN  TOPS  AND  BEVEL  COVERS  FOR  VESSELS.— 
S)escribe  the  angle  M  A  C,  and  from  the  point  F,  the  altitude  height 
you  desire  the  breast,  erect  a  perpendicular  line  H  ;  then  on  the  line  C, 
mark  the  point  E  one-half  the  diameter  of  the  can,  and  on  the  line  H 
mark  the  point  G  one-half  of  the  opening  in  the  top  of  breast ;  draw  the 
line  B  to  cross  through  the  points  E  and  G  to  intersect  the  line  M  ;  place 
one  foot  of  the  compasses  at  the  point  I  and  the  other  on  the  point  E,  and 
'delineate  the  circle  E  N  L  ;  next,  span  the  compasses  from  point  I  to 
point  G  and  outline  the  circle  G  D  K  ;  then  span  from  A  to  E,  and  step 
ithe  compasses  six  times  on  the  circle  E  N  L,  which  gives  the  dimensions 
T>f  the  breast.  The  allowance  for  the  locks  is  represented  by  the  dotted 
lines. 

BEAUTIFUL  BRONZE,  APPLICABLE  TO  ALL  METALS. — Take  10  parts 
aniline  red  (fuchsine),  and  5  of  aniliuepuiple,  and  dissolve  in  100  parts  of 
95  per  cent,  alcohol,  taking  care  to  help  the  eolation  by  placing  the  vessel 
in  a  sand  or  water  bath.  As  soon  as  the  solution  is  effected,  5  parts  of 
•benzoic  acid  are  added,  and  the  whole  is  boiled  from  five  to  ten  minutes 
mntil  the  greenish  color  of  the  mixture  is  transformed  into  a  fine  light- 
colored,  brilliant  bronze.  Apply  with  a  brush. 

IMITATION  NICKEL  PLATING. — Coarse  rasped  granulated  zinc  is  boiled 
*for  some  time  in  a  mixture  of  3  parts  by  weight  of  sal  ammoniac,  and 


«72 


FRUSTRUMS,    ELLIPSES,    NA/LS,    &0 


10  of  water,  the  objects  immersed  and  stirred  up  with  a  zinc  rod,  Thfc 
deposit  is  silvery  bright,  and  resists  mechanical  action  as  well  as  a  coat- 
ing of  nickel.  The  process  can  be  recommended  for  goods  which  are 
meant  for  a  second  coating  of  some  other  metal,  since  any  other  is  easily 
deposited  on  zinc, 

A 


How  TO  STRIKE  OUT  THE  FRUSTRUM  OF  A  CONE.— -In  the  figure  I 
G  H  D  represent  the  desired  frustrum  ;  continue  the  lines  D  E  aiid  G  H 
until  they  meet  at  the  apex  C  ;  then  from  C  as  a  centre,  with  ti.e  radius- 
C  H,  lay  off  the  arc  H  B  ;  also  from  C,  with  the  radius  C  G,  describe  the 
arc  G  A  ;  make  G  A  twice  the  length  of  E  F  G,  drawing  the  line  C  A,. 
and  G  H  A  B,  is  the  desired  outline  of  the  plate  you  require. 

TO  FIND  THE  AREA  OF  AN  ELLIPSE. 

Rule, — -Multiply  the  longer  diameter  by  the  shorter  diameter,  and  by 
•7854,  and  the  product  will  be  the  area. 

J?xamp?e.— Required  the  area  of  an  ellipse  whose  longer  diameter  is  6 
inches  and  shorter  diameter  4  inches  ? 

6  -f  4  -j-  •  7854  =  18-8495,  the  area. 

To  FitfD  THE  SURFACE  OF  A  SPHERE  OR  GLOBE. — Multiply  the  diameter 
by  the  circumference  ;  or  multiply  the  square  of  the  diameter  by  3-1416  ; 
or  multiply  four  times  the  square  of  the  radius  by  3'1410. 

No.     OP  AMERICAN  MACHINE  MADE  CUT  NAILS  IN  A  POUND  AS 

VERIFIED  BY  ACTUAL  COUNT. 


SIZE. 

|      NUMBER. 

SIZE. 

NUMBER. 

SlZE.        | 

NUMBER. 

3  penny. 

403 

6  penny  

8    " 

...150 
100 

12  penny.  . 

l)0     " 

52 

32 

275 

5    "    .. 

227 

10  "     

.  ..  6(3 

30     "     ... 

.     .        25 

No.  4... 
No.  5... 
No.  6.  .  . 
Ko.7... 

SP 
Boat. 
...1-4    in  13  to  lib. 
...5-16  in  8      " 
...3-8    in  5      " 
...5-8   in  4     " 

IKES. 

No.    4. 
No.    5. 
No.    6. 

.   ...5- 
3- 

.    ...3- 

Ship. 
16  in  

8   in 

.8  to  lib. 
6      " 

8    iu  

.5      " 

No.    7. 
No.    8 
No.   9. 
No.  10. 

3- 
3- 
9- 
9- 

3    in  

8    in  

.3      " 

16  in  
16  in  

.2      << 

NOTE  ON  FORCINGS.—  Iron,  while  heating,  if  exposed  to  air,  will 
oxydize ;  when  at  white  heat,  if  in  contact  with  coal,  it  will  carbonize,  or 
become  steely.  Iron  should  be  heated  as  rapidly  as  possible. 

To  RESTORE  BURNT  IRON.— Give  a  smart  heat,  protected  from  the 
ir  ;  if  injured  by  cold  hammer  toy,  anneal  slowly  and  moderately  ;  if 


air 


bard  or  steely,  give  one  or  more  smart  heats,  to  extract  the  carbon. 


COST    OF   CARS,    CAR  BUILDIK&,   AC.  €73 

COST  en?  A  PENNSYLVANIA  RAILROAD  PASSENGER  CAR.— The  Lon- 
don Engineering  gives  in  detail  the  cost  of  constructing  one  first-class 
Standard  Passenger  Car,  at  the  Altoona  shops  of  the  Pennsylvania  R.R., 
the  total  cost  being  $4,423.75.  The  principal  items  are  as  follows  :— 

Labor $1263  94 

Proportion  of  Fuel  and  Stores     28  61 

2480  feet  Poplar 86  80 

3434feet  Ash 127  08 

1100  feet  Pine  2090 

2350  feet  Yellow  Pine 70  50 

500feetOak  1000 

450  feet  Hickory 13  50 

700  feet  Michigan  Pine 49  00 

400  feet  Cherry 16  00 

439  feet  Maple  vuieer . . . . 24  14 

4  pairs  Wheels  and  Axles. . .     332  85 


57  Sash  Balances 4461 

61  Lights  Glasses 6583 

2  Stoves 77  56 

25  Sets  Seat  Fixtures 50  5u 

3  Bronze  Lamps 13  50 

2  Bronze  Door  Locks 15  2ft 

Butts  and  Hinges 1568 

13  Basket  Racks 7735 

12  Sash  Levers 42  00 

61  Bronze  Window  Lifts 24  40 

61  Window  Fasteners 16  47 

238  Sheets  Tin 41  44 

2  pairs  Passenger  Car  Trucks    533  62  273  Ibs.  Galvanized  Iron 2531 

13  gallons  Varnish 52  34   96  yards  Scarlet  Plush 228  87 

45  Ibs.  Glue 14  33 j  44  yards  Green  Plush 109  99 

f025  Ibs.  Iron 87751  61  yards  Sheeting 1030 

792  Ibs.  Castings 16  99243  Ibs.  Hair 72  95 


Screws 5188 

Gas  Regulator  and  Gauge  25  25 

2  Two-Light  Chandeliers . .  50  72 

2  Gas  Tanks 8400 

1  Air-Brake,  complete ....  131  79 


12  Springs 22  86, 

12  Spiral  Elliptic  Springs. . .  20  29 

1  Head  Lining 8063 

2  packets  Gold  Lea' 14  58 

Various  small  items . .  261  44 


§4,423  75 

COMPARATIVE  COST  OF  FREIGHT  BY  WATER  AND  RAIL. — The  Mis- 
eissipi  Transportation  Co.  have  proved  by  actual  test  that  a  single  Tow- 
boat  can  transport  at  one  trip  from  the  Ohio  to  New  Orleans,  29,000 
tons  of  coal  loaded  in  barges.  They  estimate  that  in  this  way  the  boat 
and  its  tow,  worked  by  a  few  men,  carries  as  much  freight  to  its  destina- 
tion as  3,000  cars  and  100  locomotives,  manned  by  600  men,  could  trans- 
port, and  they  propose  to  undertake  the  shipment  of  wheat,  pork,  and 
other  produce  on  the  same  plan . 

A  standard  locomotive  of  the  New  York  Central  Railroad,  32A  tont 
•weight,  with  cylinders  16  inches  diameter,  24-inch  stroke,  60-inch  drivers 
\rith  four  drivers  and  four  truck  wheels,  will  haul  over  the  Central  Rail- 
road, with  its  level  grades  and  straight  line,  1,000  tons,  or  say  50  loaded 
cars.  Tne  same  locomotive  would  work  as  follows  : 

20-foot  grade 460  tons or  say  23    loaded  carfc 

40-foot  grade 290  tons or  say  14J4  loaded  can. 

60-foot  grade 205  tons or  say  10    loaded  car*. 

80-foot  grade 150  tons or  say    8    loaded  cars. 

100-foot  grade 120  tons or  say  6    loaded  car*, 

PASSENGER  CARS — 4  FEET  8£  INCHES  GAUGE.— For  60  persons  ;  Body 
48  ft. ;  length  over  platform,  54  ft. ;  width,  9  ft.  6  ins. ;  height  at  sides,  7 
ft.  10  ins. :  »t  dome,  10  ft  3  ins . ;  saloon,  6  ft.  X  2  ft.  9  ins . ;  passage  be- 
tween peats,  1  ft.  10  ins. ;  seats  1  ft.  4  ins.  wide,  3  ft.  2  ins.  long  inside,  1 
ft.  4  ins  from  floor ;  sash'  lights,  2  ft.  x  2  ft.  7  ins. ;  doors,  2  ft.  3  in.  x  6  ft. 
4  ins.;  framing— 2  side  sills.  5^x  9  ;  4  inside  do.,  4x9  ;  end  do.,  6x9 ; 
transom  beams,  9x14  ;  pillars,  2X3  ;  end  do.,  5  ins.  rad.  ;  flooring  1$ 
ins.,  double,  laid  diagonal,  crossed  at  angle  of  45°  ;  2  truss  rods,  1£  ins., 
iron  ;  dome  braced  by  iron  knees,  2x|  ins. ;  platforms,  2  ft.  6  ins.  wide  ; 
(  bumper  beam,  7x8  at  centre,  4x3^  at  ends  ;  weight,  empty.  39,000  Ibs.  ; 
dead  weight  per  passenger,  650  Ibs. ;  weight,  loaded,  46,980  Ibs.  ;  load  on 
each  wheel,  light,  3,250  Ibs. ;  if  loaded,  3,915  Ibs. 

SLEEPING  COACH. — For  64  passengers  :  Body  61  ft.  long,  8  ft.  10  uxs, 
wide  insid*.  7  ft.  10  ins,  high  at  sides,  9  ft  7  ins.  at  dome ;  carried  or 


•7<  DIMENSIONS    OP   CARS,   &C. 

twelve  33-in.  wheelg,  16  elliptic  springs,  36-in.  centres,  5  leaves,  5-16  in».f 
1  do.,  |X3J,  steel— weight,  93f  Ibs.  each— and  8  rubber  springs  ore! 
axles,  8x7  ;  dead  weight,  without  passengers,  26  tons,  or  812.5  Ibs.  pel 
passenger  ;  if  loaded,  945.5  Ibs.  per  passenger  ;  load  on  each  wheel—  ] 
£.042  Ibs.  Western  Palace  Cars,  on  16  wheels,  loaded,  weigh,  78,500 Ibs., 
or  4,907  Ibs.  load  on  each  wheel. 

Box  CARS.— 27  ft.  5  ins.  long,  8  ft.  6  ins.  wide,  7  ft  3  ins.  high  at  sides, 
,  fi  ft.  at  roof  ;  doors,  5  it.  X5  ft.  10  ins. ;  track  to  top  of  car,  10  ft.  10  ins. ; 
limbers— 2  side  sills,  4^X8  ;  4  inside  do.,  3^x8  ;  end  do.,5x8^  ;  transoms, 
6x12  ;  pillars  for  doors,  3ix4  ;  end  do-,  3tx4i  ;  plates,  5x3J  ;  ridge 
'beam,  2*X3i;  rafters— l|x  31,  at  sides,  If  x  12  at  centre;  intermediates  1$  X 
2^  ;  weight,  17,800  Ibs.  ;  do.,  loaded,  37,800  Ibs.;  dead  weight  for 
each  ton  carried,  if  loaded,  1,780  Ibs.  ;  load  on  each  wheel,  if  light.  2,225 
Ibs. ;  if  loaded  to  capacity,  4,725  Ibs. 

BAGGAGE  CARS. — 45  ft.  long,  9  ft.  4  ins.  wide,  7  ft.  4  ins.  at  sides,  9  ft. 
at  crown  of  roof  ;  end  doors,  2  ft.  2  ins.x6  ft.  4  in.  ;  end  side  doors,  3  ft. 
X6  ft.  2  ins. ;  centre  doors,  3  ft.  10  ins.  x  6  ft.  2  ins. ;  timbers— 6  longitu- 
dinal sills,  5Jx9£  ;  4  truss  rods,  1£  ins.,  iron  ;  weight  of  car,  27,000  Ibs.; 
capacity,  12  tons  ;  total  weight,  if  loaded,  51,000  Ibs. ;  carried  on  8  wheelg 
«r6,375  Ibs.  on  each  wheel. 

COAL  CABS— 8  WHEELS.— 10-ton,  8-wheel  cars  :  Body,  20  ft.  long,  21 
It.  10  in.  over  all  ;  7  ft.  wide,  7  ft.  8  in.  over  allx4  ft.  high  ;  from  top  of  . 
rail  to  body,  2  ft.  6^  ins. ;  rail  to  centre  of  buffer,  2  ft.  7^  ins. ;  buffers,  10  x 
12  ins. :  2  ft.  1  in.  centre  to  centre  ;  total  weight,  empty,  13,440  Ibs. ; 
loaded,  35,840  Ibs.  tper  wheel=4,480  Ibs. 

COAL  CARS— 4  WHEELS.— 6  tons,  4  wheels  :  Body,  11  ft.  long  ;  over 
all,  13  ft.x6  ft.  7  ins.  wide  ;  7  ft.  5  ins.  over  allx4  ft.  3  ins.  high  ;  frame 
of  oak,  4£X8£  ;  end  sills,  8^x9^  ;  body  carried  on  4  oak  springs,  each  2 
X6f  ;  at  ends,  2^x.6fx9  ft.  long,  bolted  together  •  wheels,  5  ft.  centre  to 
centre  ;  journal  boxes  bolted  to  the  springs  ;  weight,  empty,  6,720  Ibs., 
loaded,  20,160  Ibs.  ;  on  each  wheel=5,040  Ibs. 

ENGLISH  RAILWAY  CARRIAGES — 4  FEET  8|  INCHES  GAUGE. — Extreme 
length  over  buffers,  22  ft. ;  frame,  17  ft.  if  ins.  Iongx6  ft.  8  ins.  wide  ; 
body,  18  ft.  long  x  7  ft.  4  ins.x6  ft.  2  ins.  high  ;  compartments,  each  6  ft. 
long  ;  sides  and  ends  of  under  framing,  11x4  ;  transoms,  9x3x11x3 ; 
framing  of  body,  3x2^x2^x2^  ;  flooring,  2  thicknesses  of  f  boarding, 
laid  diagonally  ;  roof,  f  thick  on  ribs,  2£xlf,  2  feet  apart ;  doors,  1  ft.  11  - 
ins.  x5  ft.  5  his.  high  ;  seats,  1  ft.  6  ins.  from,  floor  ;  wheels,  36  ins.  diam 
9  ft.  centre  ;  journals,  6  ft.  4  ins.  apart. 

FREIGHT  WAGONS.— Bodies,  7  ft.  6  ins.  widex!6  ft.  long,  20  ft.  over  buf- 
fers ;  open  wagons,  sides,  2  ft.  to  4  ft.  6  ins.  high  ;  covered  goods  wag* 
tms,  sides,  6  ft  9  ins.  high. 

MECHANICAL  MOVEMENTS. 

f N  the  construction  of  models,  or  machinery,  the  skilful  mechanic  and 
Inventor  will  study  to  avoid  clumsiness  in  the  arrangement  of  parts,  and 
vrill  naturally  take  pride  in  selecting,  as  far  as  possible,  the  simplest  and 
best  forms  of  mechanical  movements.  As  suggestive  for  this  purpose  we 
have  Drought  together  and  condensed  an  extensive  series  of  mechanical 
movements.  .  Here  the  mechanic  may  find  at  a  glance  the  movement 
euited  for  his  purpose,  and  may  see  the  separate  parts  best  adapted  to 
any  special  combination  of  mechanism. 

The  following  is  a  brief  description  of  the  various  movements  a» 
numbered  : 

1.  Shaft  coupling.  2.  Claw  coupling.  3.  4.  Lever  couplings.  On  the 
driving  shaft,  a  disk  with  spurs  is  mounted,  and  to  the  shaft  to  be  driven 
*  lever  is  hinged.  By  causing  this  lever  to  catch  in  the  spurs  of  the  disk 


MECHANICAL    MOVEMENTS. 


675 


Ifce  coupling  is  effected.    5.  Knee  or  rose  coupling,  of  which  26  is  a  sidt 
view. 

6.  Universal  joint    7.  8.  Disk  and  spur  coupling.    9.  Prong  and  spuj 
frver  coupling. 


•  " 


10.  Fast  and  loose  pulley.  11.  Sliding  gear,  the  journal  boxes  of  one 
•f  the  wheels  being  movable.  12.  Friction  clutch.  By  tightening  or  re- 
leasing a  steel  band,  encircling  a  pulley  on  the  shaft,  the  machinery  is 
thrown  in  or  out  of  gear.  13.  14.  Shoe  and  lever  brakes.  15.  16.  Change 
of  motion  by  vsheaves.  17.  Spiral  flanged  shaft.  18.  Connected  with  the 
rod  are  pawl  links,  catching  into  ratchet-teeth  in  the  wheel  to  which 
rotary  motion  is  to  be  imparted.  When  the  rod  moves  in  one  direction, 
<me  of  the  pawls  acts  ;  and  when  the  rod  moves  in  the  opposite  direction 


MECHANTCAL    MOVEMENTS. 


the  other  pawl  acts  in  the  same  direction  as  the  first.  19.  The  recipe* 
eating  motion  of  a  rod  is  converted  into  rotary  motion  of  the  fly-wheel  by 
a  weight  suspended  from  a  cord,  which  passes  over  a  small  pulley  thai 
•onnects  with  a  treadle,  from  which  the  motion  is  transmitted  to  the  fly 


20.  "Flying  horse,"  used  in  fairs  for  amusement.  By  pulling  tht 
Cords  radiating  from  the  crank,  the  persons  occupying  the  seats  or  horses 
on  the  ends  of  tne  arms  are  enabled  to  keep  the  apparatus  in  motion.  21. 

22.  Bow-string  arrangements  to  connect  reciprocating  into  rotary  motion. 

23.  Same  purpose  by  differential  screw.     24.  The  same  by  double  rack 
and  wheels.    25.  Coupling  for  square  shafts.     26.  Sid 3  view  of  Fig.  *5. 
27.     Sliding-spur  pulley  coupling.    28.    Lever   w't.b  bearing   roller  to 
tighten  pulley  bands.    29.  Chain  wbeeL 


MECHANICAL    MOVEMENTS. 


677 


90.  Reciprocating  rectilinear  into  reciprocating  rotary  motion  by  tw« 
fmeks  and  cog-wheel.  31.  Oblique-toothed  wheels.  32.  Worm  and  worm- 
wheel.  33.  34.  Claw  coupling  with  hinged  lever.  33.  GO.  Disk  couplings,' 
with  lugs  and  cavities.  37.  Disk  coupling  with  screw  bolts.  S8.  39. 
40.  Shaft  couplings. 


41.  Face  view  of  Fig.  12.  42.  Friction  cones.  43.  Friction 
14.  Self-releasing  coupling.  Disks  with  oblique  teeth. 
io  the  driven  shaft  increases  beyond  a  certain  point,  the  disks  separate. 
45.  Hoisting  blocks.  46.  Elbow  crank,  for  changing  motion.  47.  Re- 
ciprocating into  rotary  motion  by  zigzag  groove  on  cylinder.  48.  An- 
other form  of  Fig.  29.  49.  Reciprocating  into  a  rotary  motion. 

50.    Same  purpose.      51.    Same  purpose,  by  double  rack  and  two 
-  «*«iious.     When  the  double  rack  moves  in  one  direction,  on* 


678 


MECHANICAL    MOVEMENTS. 


pinion  is  rigid  with  the  shaft :  when  the  rack  moves  in  the  opposite 
direction,  the  other  pinion  is  rigid,  and  a  continuous  rotary  motion  is-. 
imparted  to  the  fly-wheel  shaft.  52.  Reciprocating  into  oscillating.  53. 
JBotary  into  reciprocating.  By  the  action  of  the  wheel-pins  the  carria#«- 


hmored  in  one  direction,  and  by  the  action  of  said  pins  on  an  elbow* 
lerer,  it  is  moved  in  the  opposite  direction.  54.  Stamp  rod  and  lifting 
cam.  55.  For  giving  reciprocating  motion  to  rack.  56.  Same  motion 
to  a  bar  with  slot,  by  means  of  an  eccentric  pin,  projecting  from  a  re- 
volving disk,  and  catching  in  the  slot.  57.  Walking-beam  and  fly-wheel. 
68.  Reciprocating  motion  to  pump  or  other  rod  bv  means  of  eccentric  disk 
ftnd  friction  rollers.  See  81  and  104.  59.  Hoisting  crane. 


MECHANICAL 


879 


60.  Friction  gears.  See  43.  61.  Rotary  into  reciprocating  by  rising 
wfld  falling  pinion  acting  on  endless  rack.  62.  By  the  revolving  cam,  a 
rising  and  falling  or  a  reciprocating  rectilinear  motion  is  imparted  to  a 
(drum.  63.  Reciprocating  motion  to  a  frame  by  means  of  endless  rack 
and  pinion.  Ai.  Reciprocating  rectilinear  motion  to  a  toothed  rack  by  ». 


toothed  segment  on  a  lever-arm,  which  is  subjected  to  the  action  of  * 
weight,  and  of  an  eccentric  wrist-pin,  projecting  from  a  revolving  disk.  65. 
Reciprocating  motion  to  a  rod.  The  wheels  are  of  different  diameters,  an<i 
consequently  the  rod  has  to  rise  and  fall  as  the  wheels  revolve.  (See  110.) 
66.  Cam  and  elbow-lever.  67.  Rod  reciprocates  by  means  of  cam.  68. 
Eevolving  into  reciprocating  motion,  by  an  endless  segmental  rack  and«. 


680  MECHANICAL    MOVEMENTS. 

pinion,  the  axle  of  which  revolves  and  slides  in  a  slot  towwd  and  fro* 
the  rack.  This  rack  is  secured  to  a  disk,  and  a  rope  round  said  disk  ex« 
tends  to  the  body  to  which  a  reciprocating  motion  is  to  be  imparted.  69. 
Elliptic  gears. 

70.    Bevel  gear.      71.    Worm  and  worm-wheel.      72.    Transmitting^ 
motion  from  one  axle  to  another,  with  three  different  velocities,  by  means)* 
of  toothed  segoieuts  of  unequal  diameters.     73.  Continuous  revolving 
into  reciprocating,  by  a  cam-disk  acting  on  an  oscillating  lever.    74.  In- 
termittent revolving  motion  to  a  shaft  with  two  pinions,  and  segment  gear'  . 
frheel  on  end  of   shaft.      75.  Oscillating  lever,   carrying  pawls  which 
engage  teeth  in  the  edges  of  a  bar  to  which  rectilinear  motion  is  imparted 
76.  Oscillating  lever,  connects  by  a  link  with  a  rod  to  which  a  recti- 
linear motion  is  imparted.     77.  Oscillating  lever  and  pawls,  which  gear 
in  the  ratchet-wheel.     78.  Common  treadle.     79.  Describing  on  a  re- 
volving cylinder  a  spiral  line  of  a  certain  given  pitch  which  depends 
upon  the  comparative  sizes  of  the  pinion  and  bevel-wheels. 

80.  Marking  a  spiral  line,  the  graver  moved  by  a  screw.  81,  (See 
Fig.  58.)  82.  Plunger  and  rods.  83.  Crosshead  and  rods.  84.  Recip. 
rocating  rod  guided  by  friction  rollers.  85.  Revolving  into  reciprocating 
motion,  by  meana  of  roller-arms,  extending  from  a  revolving  shaft,  and 
acting  on  lugs  projecting  from  a  reciprocating  frame.  86.  Crank  motion. 
87.  Reciprocating  motion  by  toothed  wheel  and  spring  bar.  88.  The 
shaft  carries  a  taper,  which  catches  against  a  hook  hinged  to  the  drum, 
so  as  to  carry  said  drum  along  and  raise  the  weight  on  the  rope.  When 
the  tappet  has  reached  its  highest  position,  the  hook  strikes  a  pin,  the 
hook  disengages  from  tha'tappet,  and  the  weight  drops.  89.  Reciprocat- 
ing motion  to  a  rod  by  means  of  a  groove  in  an  oblique  ring  secured  to 
a  revolving  shaft. 

90.  Double  crank.  91.  Cam  groove  in  a  drum,  to  produce  recipro- 
cating motion.  92.  Belts  and'  pulleys.  93.  Pulleys,  belts,  and  internal 
gear.  t>4.  As  the  rod  moves  up  aria  down,  the  teeth  of  the  cog-wheel 
come  in  contact  with  -a  -pawl,  and-  an -intermittent  rotary  motion  is  im- 
parted to  said  wheel.  95.  By  turning  the  horizontal  axles  with  different 
velocities,  the  middle  wheel  is  caused  to  revolve  with  the  mean  velocity. 
?6.  Oscillating  lever  and  cam  groove  in  a  disk.  97.  L'azy  tongs.  98. 
Occillating  segment  and  belt  over  pulleys.  99.  Converting  oscillating 
into  a  reciprocating  motion  by  a  cam-slot  in  the  end  of  the  oscillating  lever 
which  catches  over  a  pin  projecting  irom  one  of  the  sid.es  of  a  parallelo- 
gram which  is  connected  to  the  rod  to  which'  reciprocating  motion  is  im- 
parted. 

100.  Oscillating  motion  of  a  beam  into  rotary  motion, ,  101.  Motion  of 
It  treadle  into  rotary  motion.  102.  Double-acting  beam.  103.  Single- 
acting  beam.  104.  (See  Figures  58  and  81.)  105.  Device  to  steady  a 
i  piston  by  a  slotted  guide-piece,  operated  by  an  eccentric  on  the  driving- 
8'iaft  106.  Rod  operated  by  two  toothed  segments.  107.  Two  cog- 
vheels  of  equal  diameter,  provided  with  a  crank  of  the  same  length,  and 
connected  by  links  with  a  cross-bar  to  which  the  piston-rod  is  secured. 
108.  Device  for  a  rectilinear  motion  of  a  pist«ii-rod  based  on  the  hypocy- 
eloidal  motion  of  a  pinion  in  a  stationary  wheel  with  internal  gear.  If  the 
diameter  of  the  pinion  is  exactly  equal  to  one  half  the  diameter  of  the  in- 
ternal gear,  the  hypocycloid  becomes  a  sighl  line.  109.  Same  purpose 
as  56. 

110.  Action  similar  to  65.  111.  Revolving  motion  by  a  circular  slid- 
ing pinion  gearing  in  an  elliptical  cog-wheel .  112.  Similar  to  96.  113. 
Carpenter's  clamp.  The  jaws  turn  on  their  pivot-screws,  and  clamp  the 
board.  114.  An  irregular  vibratory  motion  is  given  to  the  arm  carrying 
the  wheel  A,  by  the  rotation  of  the  pinion  B.  115.  Intermittent  rotary 


MECHANICAL   MOVEMENTS.  68? 

fBtotion  of  the  pinion-shaft,  by  the  continuous  rotary  motion  of  the  larg* 
wheel,  The  part  of  the  pinion  shown  next  the  wheel  is  cut  on  the  saint 
carve  as  the  plain  portion  of  the  circumference,  and,  therefore,  serves  as 
H  loek  whilst  the  wheel  makes  a  part  of  a  revolution,  and  until  th«  pirn 
jipon  the  wheel  strikes  the  guide-piece  upon  the  pinion,  when  the  pinion* 
Bhaft  commences  another  revolution.  116.  Stop-motion  used  in  watchea 
to  limit  the  number  of  revolutions  in  winding  up.  The  convex  curved 
part,  a,  b,  of  the  wheel  B,  serving  as  the  stop.  117.  Several  wheels,  by 
Connecting-rods,  driven  from  one  pulley.  118.  Intermittent  circular  mo* 
tiou  is  imparted  to  the  toothed  wheel  by  vibrating  the  arm  B.  When  the 
srm  B  is  lifted,  the  pawl  is  raised  from  between  the  teeth  of  the  wheel, 
and  travelling  backward  over  the  circumference  again,  drops  between 
two  teeth  on  lowering  the  arm,  and  draws  with  it  the  wheel.  119.  Re- 
ciprocating rectilinear  motion  is  given  to  the  bar  by  the  continuous  motion 
cf  the  cam.  The  cam  is  of  equal  diameter  in  every  direction  measured 
across  its  centre. 

120.  Mechanism  for  revolving  the  cylinder  in  Colt's  fire-arms.  When 
the  hammer  is  drawn  back  the  dog,  a,  attached  to  the  tumbler,  acts  on 
the  ratchet, 6,  on  the  back  of  the  cylinder,  and  is  held  up  to  the  ratchet  by 
«  spring,  c.  121.  Alternate  increasing  and  diminishing  motion,  by  meani 
of  eccentric  toothed  wheel  and  toothed  cylinder.  122.  Oscillating  or 
pendulum  engine.  The  cylinder  swings  between  trunnions  like  a  pendu- 
lum. The  piston-rod  connects  directly  with  crank.  123.  Intermittent 
rotary  motion.  The  small  wheel  is  driven,  and  the  friction  rollers  on  its 
«tuds  move  the  larger  wheel  by  working  against  the  faces  of  oblique 
grooves  or  projections  across  the  face  thereof.  124.  Longitudinal  and 
TOtary  motion  of  the  rod  is  produced  by  its  arrangement  between  two 
rotating  rollers,  the  axles  of  which  are  oblique  to  each  other.  125.  Fric- 
tion indicator  of  Roberts.  Upon  the  periphery  of  the  belt-pulley  a  loaded 
carriage  is  placed,  its  tongue  connected  with  an  indicator.  With  a  given 
load  the  indicating  pointer  remains  in  a  given  position,  no  matter  what 
velocity  is  imparted  to  the  pulley.  When  the  load  is  changed  the  indi- 
cator changes,  thus  proving  that  the  friction  of  wheels  is  in  proportion  to 
load,  not  velocity.  126.  Circular  intermittent  rectilinear  reciprocating 
motion.  Used  on  sewing-machines  for  driving  the  shuttle ;  also  on  three- 
revolution  cylinder  printing-presses.  127.  Continuous  circular  into  in- 
termittent circular  motion.  The  cam  is  the  driver.  128.  Sewing- 
machine,  four-motion  feed.  The  bar  B  carries  the  feeding-points  or 
spurs,  and  is  pivoted  to  slide  A.  B  is  lifted  by  a  radial  projection  on  cam 
C,  which  at  the  same  time  also  carries  A  and  B  forward.  A  spring 
produces  the  return  stroke,  and  the  bar,  B,  drops  by  gravity.  129. 
"Patent  crank  motion,  to  obviate  dead  centres.  Pressure  on  the  treadlf 
moves  the  slotted  slide  A  forward  until  the  wrist  passes  the  centre,  when 
the  spring  B  forces  the  slide  against  the  stops  until  next  forward  move- 
ment. 

130.  Four-way  cock.  131.  One  stroke  of  the  piston  gives  a  complete 
tevolution  to  the  crank.  132.  Rectilinear  motion  of  variable  velocity  is 
given  to  the  vertical  bar  by  rotation  of  the  shaft  of  the  curved  arm.  133. 
JPantagraph  for  copying,  enlarging,  and  reducing  plans,  etc.  C,  fixed 
point.  B,  ivory  tracing  point  A,  pencil  trtice,  the  lines  to  be  copied 
with,  and  B,  the  pencil,  will  reproduce  it  double  size.  Shift  the  slide  to 
•which  C  is  attached,  also  the  pencil  slide,  and  size  of  the  copy  will  b« 
varied.  134  Ball-and-socket  joint  for  tubing.  135.  Numerical  register- 
ing device.  The  teeth  of  the  worm  shaft-gear  with  a  pair  of  worip- 
*vheels  of  equal  diameter,  one  having  one  tooth  more  than  the  othei. 
If.  the  first  wheel  has  100  teeth  and  the  second  101,  the  pointers  will ' 
4kate  respectively  101  and  10,100  revolutions.  136.  Moutgolfier'f  f 


682 


MECHANICAL   MOVEMENTS. 


hydraulic  ram.  The  right  hand  valve  being  kept  open  by  a  weight 
or  spring,  the  current  flowing  through  the  pipe  in  the  direction  of  th« 
arrow,  escapes  thereby.  When  the  pressure  of  the  water  current 


overcomes  the  weight  of  the  right  valve,  the  momentum  of  the  wat«t 
opens  the  other  valve,  and  the  water  passes  into  the  air-chamber.  On 
equilibrium  taking  place,  the  left  valve  shuts  and  the  right  valve  opens. 
By  this  alternate  action  of  the  valves,  watetf'iis  raised  into  the  air-cham- 
ber at  every  stroke.  137.  Rotary  engine.  Shaft  B  and  hub  C  are  ar 


KNOTS,    AND    HOW    TO    TIE    THEM. 


68» 


tanged  eccentric  to  the  case.  Sliding  radial  pistons,  a,  a,  move  in  and 
lout  of  hub,  C.  The  pistons  slide  through  rolling  packings  in  the  hub  C. 
138.  Quadrant  engine.  Two  single-acting  pistons,  B,  B,  connect  with  crank 
D.  Steam  is  admitted  to  act  on  the  outer  sides  of  the  pistons  alternately 
through  valve  a,  and  the  exhaust  is  between  the  pistons.  139.  Circular 
into  rectilinear  motion.  The  scolloped  wheel  communicates  motion  to  the 
horizontal  oscillating  rod,  and  imparts  rectilinear  movement  to  the  up* 
right  bar.  140.  Rotary  motion  transmitted  by  rolling  contact  between ; 
two  obliquely  arranged  shafts.  Scientific  American  Reference  Book.  ( 

SPECIAL,  NOTE  TO  INVENTORS.— For  full  and  complete  information 
relating  to  the  obtaining  of  Patents,  Inventors,  and  others  interested,  are 
referred  to  ihe  Scientific  American  Hand-Book,  forwarded  free  by  mail  on 
-  application  to  Munn  &  Co.,  37  Park  Row,  New  York. 

Information  can  also  be  obtained  by  addressing  Coyne  &  Co.,  office 
Western  Manufacturers  Chicago,  Ills. 

THE  knots  represented  on  the  proceeding  page  of  engravings  are  a§ 
follows  : 

KNOTS,  AND  HOW  TO  TIE  THEM. 


1.  Simple  overhand  knot 

2.  Slip-knot  seized. 

3.  Single  bow-knot 

4.  Square  or  ruf-knot 

5.  Square  bow-knot 

6.  Weaver's  knot 

7.  German  or  figure-of-8  knot. 

8.  Two  half-hitches,  or  artificer's 
knot. 

9.  Double  artificer's  knot 


#).  Simple  galley  knot 

11 .  Capstan  or  prolonged  knot 

12.  Bowline-knot 

13.  Rolling-hitch. 

14.  Clove-hitch. 

15.  Blackwall-hitch. 

16.  Timber  hitch. 

17.  Bowline  on  a  bight 
18   Running  bowline. 

19.  Catspaw. 

20.  Doubled  running-knot 

21.  Double  knot 

22.  Six-fold  knot 

23.  Boat-knot 
,24.  Lark's  head. 
MB.  Lark's  head. 

^26.  Simple  boat-knot         > 

27.  Loop-knot 

28.  Doable  Flemish  knot 

29.  Running-knot  checked 

30.  Crossed  running-knot 

31.  Lashing  knot. 

The  principle  of  a  knot  is,  that  no  two  parts  which  would  move  in  th» 
«&me  direction  if  the  rope  were  to  slip,  should  lie  alongside  of  and  touch-- 
ing each  other. 


32.  Rosette. 

33.  Chain-knot 

34.  Double  chain-knot 

35.  Double     running-knot,     witfc 
check-knot. 

36.  Double  twist-knot 

37.  Builders'  knot. 

38.  Double  Flemish  knot 

39.  English  knot 

40.  Shortening-knot 

41.  Shortening-knot 

42.  Sheep-shank. 

43.  Dog-shank. 

44.  Mooring-knot 

45.  Mooring-knot 

46.  Mooring-knot 

47.  Pigtail  worked  on  the  end  of  * 
rope. 

48.  Shroud-knot 

49.  A  bend  or  knot  used  by  sailor* 
in  making  fast  to  a  spar  or  a 
bucket-handle     before     casting 
overboard  ;     it    will    not    run. 
Also  used    by  horsemen  for   a 
loop  around  the  jaw  of  a  colt  in. 
breaking  :  the  running  end,  af- 
ter passing  over  the  head  of  the 
animal   and    through   the   loop, 
will  not  jam  therein. 

50.  A  granny' s  knot. 

51.  A  weavers  Knot 


CAPACITIES    OP    VAKIOUS    IRON    WORKS 

COST  OF  IRON  PRODUCTION.— In  Staffordshire,  the  making  of  ban 
marked  "best,  best,  best,"  corresponds  to  a  consumption  of  5  tons  of 
Coal  per  ton  of  Iron  made  from  the  forge  pigs,  which  themselves  require 
from  2  to  2^  tons  of  Coal  for  their  production.  Calculating  waste  of  iron 
in  puddling,  &c.,  one  ton  of  the  best  brands  of  Staffordshire  bars  repre- 
sent 8  to  9  tons  of  good  coal  consumed. 

GABTSHEKRIE  IRON  WORKS,  SCOTLAND. — Furnaces,  16.  Proportion 
of  charges,  about  32  cwts.  of  calcined  ore  are  used  to  the  ton  of  iron,  6 
cwts.  of  pure  limestone,  or  10  cwts.  of  limestone  containing  a  high  per- 
centage  of  alumina,  which  is  sometimes  preferred,  forming  a  surplus  of 
quickly  melted  slag.  The  charges  are  made  up  with  the  coal  in  quan- 
tities of  about  30  cwts.  each,  and  are  hoisted  to  the  top  of  the  furnace  by  a 
very  simple  contrivance.  Temperature  of  blast  800°.  Weekly  production 
of  each  furnace  about  160  tons. 

COLTNESS  IRON  WORKS  :— Furnaces,  12.  The  calcined  ironstone 
contains  from  60  to  65  per  cent,  of  iron,  and  the  furnaces  are  charged 
with  an  addition  of  12  cwts.  of  unburnt  limestone,  and  48  cwts.  of  coaA  for 
every  ton  of  iron  made.  The  make  per  furnace  varies  from  12  to  15  tons 
at  a  cast,  the  furnace  being  tapped  once  in  every  12  hours.  From  8  to  12 
tuyeres  are  in  each  f urnace  arranged  in  groups  of  3  in  each  arch  formed 
by  the  square  foundation.  The  tuyeres  are  usually  1^  in.,  diam.  at  the 
nozzle,  temperature  of  blast  is  between  600°  and  700°.  Power  is  furnish- 
ed by  a  pair  of  condensing  beam  engines,  worked  with  32  Ibs.  steam  pres^ 
sure  and  a  vacuum  of  26  ins.  The  steam  cylinders  are  48  ins.  diam.  and 
the  blowing  cylinder  100  ins.,  pressure  of  blast  in  the  blast  main  is  3£  ins. 
The  blowing  cylinder  in  the  lower  row  of  furnaces  is  120|  ins. 
•-  GOVAN  IRON  WORKS,  GLASGOW. — Furnaces,  6  ;  height  50  ft.  The 
charges  are  made  up  in  loads  of  15  cwts.  of  ore  and  limestone  for  every 
load  of  10  cwts.  of  coal.  Consumption  of  coal  for  every  ton  of  iron  made 
is  about  50  cwts.  Blowing  Cylinders  2  ;  pressure  of  blast  2f  Ibs.  The 
make  of  each  furnace  is  about  12  to  15  tons  per  cast,  tapped  every  12  hours. 
The  blowing  engine  is  supplied  with  steam  by  7  double-flued  Cornish 
boilers  fired  with  coal  slack,  and  placed  below  the  ground  level  close  to 
the  engine  house.  The  charge  of  gray  iron  for  each  refinery  is  24  cwts., 
and  6  or  7  charges  are  made  per  day  with  ordinary  coke  for  fuel. 

BARROW-IN-FURNISS  IRON  WORKS  : — Furnaces,  11.    The  charge  per 
ton  of  iron  is  34  cwts.  of  ore,  6^  cwts.  of  limestone,  and  from  10  to  21 
cwts.  of  coke.     Ore  yields  57  per  cent,  of  iron,  wreekly  production  4000 
tons.     The  dimensions  of  the  larger  furnaces  which  form  the  second 
•  group,  are,  height  56  ft.,  diam.  at  the  boshes,  7  ft.,  greatest  inner  diam. 
16  ft.  6  ins.,  diam.  at  top,  11  ft.  6  ins.,  they  are  tapped  every  6  hours  an 
give  about  20  tons  at  each  cast.    The  blast  pressure  varies  from  3  to  3 
Ibs.,  each  furnace  has  6  tuyeres,  diam.  of  tuyeres  is  from  2i  to  3\  ins. 
temperature  of  blast  600°  to  650°.    Forty-two  boilers,  all  fired  with  gas, 
supply  tne  steam  to  the  different  engines;  of  these,  22  work  up  to  25  Ibs.. 
And  12  to  35  Ibs.  pressure.     The  first  set  of  engines  comprise  3  vertical 
beam  engines  :  diam.  of  one  steam  cylinder  is  52  ins.,  of  the  other  two 
48  ins.,  each  blowing  cylinder  placed  at  one  end  of  the  corresponding 
beam,  is  100  ins.  in  diam.  with  9  ft.  stroke. 

IRON  FOUNDING.— In  dimensions,  the  McKenzie  cupola,  so  extensively 
used  in  America,  is  from  the  drop  bottom  to  the  bottom  of  the  charging 
door,  9  ft.  high.  The  longer  diameter  outside  is  5  ft.  4  ins.,  and  the  short- 
er diameter  4  ft.  4  ins.  The  blast  is  admitted  through  an  annular 
tuyere  or  opening  which  extends  completely  round  the  bottom  part.  The 
blast  is  led  into  a  chamber  surrounding  the  boshes  of  the  cupola,  and 
from  this  chamber  it  escapes  through  the  annular  tuyere.  The  cupola 
is  fitted  with  a  drop  bottom.  A  cupola  of  that  kind  is'charged,  with  1408 
Ibs.  of  coal,  then  4000  Ibs.  of  iron,  400  Ibs.  of  coal-  *000  Ibs/of  iron  again, 


CAPACITIES   OP  VARIOUS   IRON   WORKS.  685 

»nd  the  alternate  charges  of  400  Ibs.  of  coal  and  4000  Ibs.  of  iron  are  *e-, 
peated  for  the  necessary  height.  The  blast  is  supplied,  when  the  furnace 
is  at  work,  at  the  extremely  high  pressure  of  2^  Ibs.  per  sq.  inch  ;  but 
when  the  furnace  is  first  started  the  slight  resistance  met  with  by  th» 
'blast  does  not  permit  a  pressure  of  more  than  £  Ib.  to  be  obtained.  The 
blast  is  applied  in  about  40  minutes  alter  the  fire  is  lighted,  and  the  iron 
begins  to  run  in  about  20  minutes  after  the  blast  is  turned  on.  When 
the  furnace  is  fairly  at  work  the  melting  p:oceeds  at  the  rate  of  almost  4 
ions  per  hour.  One  of  the  McKenzie  cupolas  at  Morris,  Tasker  &  Co.'g 
tube  works,  at  Philadelphia,  measures  7  by  4  it,  and  is  blown  with  a 
pillar  of  blast  of  about  24  ins.  of  water.  The  regular  day's  work  is  22 
,tons  of  metal  run  down  in  2^  h^urs,  the  iron  beginning  to  melt  in  15 
,minutes  from  the  time  the  bias':  is  turned  on,  and  running  at  the  rate  of 
|10  tons  per  hour.  It  is  charged  about  4*  ft.  deep  with  iron  and  anthia- 
cite  coal,  and  about  1  ton  of  the  letter  is  burned  for  every  9  tons  of  metal 
melted.  In  melting  small  quantities,  in  say,  a  No.  3  McKenzie  cupola, 
a  good  proportion  is  to  put  m  a  bed  about  £00  Ibs.  coal,  and  charge  from 
,4000  to  5000  Ibs.  of  iron,  then  150  to  200  Ibs.  coal,  and  charge  100C  to  200Q 
libs,  on  the  top  of  it.  In  Ireland's  Cupola,  the  furnace  should  be  filled  with 
coke  to  the  top  of  the  boshes,  and  four  separate  cwts.  of  ircn,  alternated 
with  three  cwts.  of  coke,  should  then  be  introduced  to  fill  it  up  to  the 
charging  door.  In  these  furnaces  a  ton  of  freely  running  iron  has  been 
run  down  by  l£  cwt.  of  coke,  but  more  usually  from  2  to  2^  cwts.  are  re- 
quired. The  furnace  should  be  kept  in  careful  repair  and  each  charge 
•**ell  levelled  off.  In  the  Woodward  cupola  a  steam  jet  is  need  instead 
of  a  fan,  and  the  steam  required  for  the  jet  to  create  the  draught  is  only 
equal  in  quantity  to  the  requirements  of  an  engine  for  driving  a  fan  ol 
uufflcient  power  to  work  the  same  size  of  ordinary  cupola  ;  and  the  con- 
[sumption  of  coke  in  melting  is  l£  cwt.  per  ton  of  iron. 
)  BLOWING  OB  BLAST  ENGINES.  —  Iron  works  at  Mt.  Savage,  Md.  For; 
blowing  4  furnaces,  14  feet  diarn.,  each  making  100  tons  of  pig  iron  per 


*     Engine  (  Condensing}  .    Diameter  of  cylinder,  56  in.  ;  length  of  stroktL 
10  ft. 

Revolutions.  15  per  minute.  Pressure.  60  Ibs.  per  square  in.,  cut  oft 
pt  i  of  the  stroke. 

Boilers.  Six  of  60  in.  in  diameter,  and  24  ft.  in  length,  with  one  22-in. 
flue  in  each,  double  returned.  Grates.  198  square  ft. 

Blast  Cylinder  .  126  in.  hi  diameter  by  10  ft.  stroke.  Revolution*.  15 
per  minute. 

Pressure  of  Blast.    4  to  5  Ibs.  per  square  in 

Area  of  Pipes.    2300  square  in.,  or  £  that  of  the  cylinder. 
FOB  BLOWING  Two  FURNACES  AND  Two  FINERIES,  MAKING  240  TONS 

OF  FOBGE  PlG  PER  WEEK. 

Engine  (Non-condensing).  Diameter  cf  cylinder,  20  in.  ;  length  ot 
Stroke,  8  ft.  Revolutions.  28  per  minute.  Pressure.  50  to  60  Ibs.  peri 
square  in.  (full  stroke). 

Boilers.  Six  of  36  in.  in  diameter,  and  28  ft.  in  length  (without  flues). 
Grates.  100  square  ft. 

Blast  Cylinders.  Two  of  62  in.  in  diameter,  by  8  ft.  stroke.  Revolution** 
22  per  minute.     Pressure  oj  Blast.    2i  Ibs.  per  square  in. 
Area  of  Pipes.    3  ft.  or  £  that  of  the"cylinders. 

One  blast  furnace  has  two  3-in.,  and  one  3^  in.  tuyeres,  the  other  ha* 
three  of  3  in 

.       One  finery  has  six  tuyeres  of  l£  in.  ,  and  the  other,  four  of  1|  in. 
f       The  ore  yields  from  40  to  45  per  cent,  of  iron.    The  temperature  of  the 
^  blast 


686 


RULES    FOR    MECHANICS,    AC. 


=  50  tons 

tons 

23 

Cohesive    Str.   of   ash    =  8 

7£ 

Beech          5.5 

15 

Oak             5.5 

8 

seasoned     6 

.75 
10 

pitch  pine  6 
Chestnut    5 

Fir               5.5 

DOWLAIS  IRON  WORKS.— Furnaces  17.  Weekly  production  about  180 
tons  per  furnace,  total  annual  production  of  pig  iron  about  150,000  tons, 
total  annual  consumption  of  coal  about  1,000,000  tons .  The  furnaces  an* 
.•blown  by  6  beam  engines.  The  largest  has  a  55  in.  steam  cylinder  and 
13  ft.  stroke  of  steam  piston,  while  the  blowing  cylinder  is  12  ft  diam., 
and  the  blast  piston  has  a  stroke  of  12  ft.,  the  great  beam  being  divided 
,  unequally  ;  weight  of  working  beam  44  tons,  of  fly  wheel  35  tons.  Blast 
jis  discharged  into  a  main  5  ft  diam.  and  about  140  yards  long.  No  fur- 
nace is  more  than  18  ft.  in  diam.  at  the  boshes,  and  few  are  as  much  as 
50  ft.  high,  square  at  the  base  and  assuming  the  circular  form  about  hall 
way  up.  They  are  tapped  3  times  in  24  hours,  are  fed  with  raw  coal,  and 
consume  30  cwts.  of  coal  per  ton  of  iron  made.  Temperature  of  blast  612°, 
pressure  of  blast  3  to  3£  Ibs. 

The  furnaces,  mines,  forges,  Bessemer  steel  works,  &c.,  employ  in  all 
nearly  100  steam  engines,  9000  work  people  (of  which  about  5500  are 
under  ground  and  3500  above),  Mid  700  horses. 

COHESIVE  STRENGTH  OF  TIE-BARS,  SUSPENSION  RODS,  &c. — Breaking 
weight  in  tons,  equal  area  of  section  of  rod  in  square  inches,  multiplied 
by  cohesive  force  per  square  inch  in  tons. 

Cohesive  strength  of  steel  = 

Wrought  iron 

Cast-iron 

"  Wr'ght  copper  15 

«  Cast-brass 

"  Lead 

"  Boxwood 

In  use,  take  ^bf  the  above  as  breaking  -weight. 

A  mixture  of  30  per  cent,  of  wrought  iron  with  cast-iron,  carefully 
Jused  in  a  crucible,  increases  strength  of  cast-iron  one  third.  Chilling 
the  under  side  of  cast  iron  materially  increasee  its  strength.  Chilled  bars 
of  cast  iron  deflect  more  readily  than  unchilled.  Girders  cast  with  face 
tip  are  stronger  than  when  cast  on  side,  as  1  to  .96  ;  also  strongest  when 
cast  with  bottom  flange  up.  Cast-iron  and  wrought  iron  beams,  having 
similar  resistances,  have  weights,  as  2.44  to  1. 

To  TEST  THE  QUALITY  OF  IRON. — If  fracture  gives  long  silky  fibres 
of  leaden-gray  hue,  fibres  cohering  and  twisting  together  before  breaking, 
may  be  considered  a  tovyh  soft  iron.  A  medium,  even  grain,  mixed  with 
fibres,  a  good  sigi  A  short  blackish  fibre  indicates  badly  refined  iron. 
A  very  fine  grain  uenotes  a  hard  steely  iron,  apt  to  be  cold-short,  hard  to 
Work  with  a  file.  Coarse  grain,  with  brilliant  crvstallized  fracture,  yel- 
low or  brown  spots,  denote  a  brittle  iron,  cold-short,  working  easily 
when  heated  ;  welds  easily.  Cracks  on  the  edge  of  bars,  sign  of  hot- 
Chort  iron.  Good  iron  is  easily  heated,  soft  under  the  hammer,  throws 
cut  but  few  sparks. 

To  FIND  THE  WEIGHT  OF  TIMBER  BEAMS,  POSTS,  AND  JOISTS. — Mul- 
tiply length  in  feet  by  the  breadth  in  inches  and  the  depth  in  inches,  and 
the  product  by  one  of  the  following  factors  :  For  elm,  2.92  ;  yellow  pine, 
2.85  ;  white  pine,  2.47  ;  dry  oak,  4.04. 

WEIGHT  OF  TIMBER  WORK,  TIMBER  FLOORING.— Multiply  breadth 
in  feet  by  length  in  feet  by  the  thickness  in  inches  and  by  one  of  the 
.following  factors,  according  to  the  material  :  For  elm  use,  3.50  Ibs.  ; 
lor  yellow  pine,  3.42  ;  for  white  pine,  2.97  ;  for  dry  oak,  4.85. 

NICKEL  PLATING  WITHOUT  A  BATTERY. — To  a  solution  of  from  5  lo 
10  per  cent  chloride  of  zinc,  as  pure  as  possible,  add  enough  sulphate  oi 


SUNDRY    USEFUL    ITEMS.  687 

jaickel  to  produce  a  strong  green  color,  and  bring  to  a  boil  in  a  porce- 
lain vessel.  The  piece  to  be  plated,  which  must  be  perfectly  bright  and 
free  from  grease,  is  introduced  so  that  it  touches  the  vessel  as  little  as 
possible.  Boiling  is  continued  from  thirty  to  sixty  minutes,  water  being 
added  from  time  to  time  to  replace  that  evaporated.  During  ebullition 
nickel  is  precipitated  m  the  form  of  a  white  and  brilliant  coating.  The 
boiling  may  be  continued  for  hours  without  increasing  the  thickness  of 
this  coating.  As  soon  as  the  object  appears  to  be  plated  it  is  washed  in 
water  containing  a  little  chalk  in  suspension,  and  then  carefully  dried. 
The  chloride  of  zinc  and  sulphate  of  nickel  must  be  free  from  metals 
precipitable  by  iron.  If,  during  the  precipitation,  the  liquid  becomes 
colorless,  sulphate  of  nickel  should  be  added.  The  spent  liquid  may  be 
used  again  by  exposing  it  to  the  air  until  the  iron  is  precipitated,  filtering 
and  adding  the  zinc  and  nickel  salts  as  above.  Cobalt  also  may  be  de- 
posited the  same  way. 

To  REMOVE  IRON  MOULD  FROM  MARBLE. — Take  butter  of  antimony 
1  oz.,  oxalic  acid  1  oz.  ;  dissolve  them  in  Ipt.  water,  add  flour,  and  bring 
the  composition  to  a  proper  consistence.  Then  lay  it  evenly  on  the 
stained  part  with  a  brush,  and,  after  it  has  remained  for  a  few  days, 
vrash  it  off,  and  repeat  the  process  if  the  stain  is  not  quite  removed. 

GREEN  TRANSPARENT  VARNISH  FOR  METALS.— Grind  a  small  quan- 
tity of  Chinese  blue  with  double  the  quantity  of  finely-powdered  ehro- 
mateof  potassa Cit  requires  the  most  elaborate  grinding)  ;  add  a  suffl- 
•cient  quantity  of  copal  varnish  thinned  with  turpentine.  The  tone  may 
be  altered  by  more  or  less  of  one  or  the  other  ingredients.  Green  bronze 
liquid  :  One  quart  of  strong  vinegar,  ^  oz.  of  mineral  green,  £  oz.  raw 
Timber,  ^  oz.  sal-ammoniac,  ^  oz.  gum  arabic,  2  oz.  French  berries,  £  oz. 
•copperas  ;  dissolve  ovpr  a  gentle  fire,  allow  to  cool,  and  then  filter. 

PROFITS  OF  MANUFACTURERS. — In  the  State  Census  of  Massachusetts, 
of  1875,  Col.  Wright,  of  Boston,  separates  the  value  of  the  raw  material 
from  the  value  added  by  work  done.  Thus  we  have  under  the  head  of 
boots  and  shoes,  not  the  value  of  the  boots  and  shoes,  but  the  value 
addedto  the  leather  by  the  work  done  to  convert  it  into  boots  and  shoes. 
This  is  stated  to  amount  to  $89,375,792,  for  which  the  employes  received 
$18,727,124,  or  $455.05  each  on  an  average,  and  the  employers  appro- 
priated $70,648,668 .  Cotton  and  other  industries  show  similar  results. 

PROCEEDS  OF  ONE  TON  OF  COTTON  SEED. — A  correspondent  of  Lef- 
fel's  Xews  reports  cotton  seed  as  worth  now,  delivered  at  the  mills  in  New 
•Orleans,  $11  per  .ton,  the  mills  furnishing  the  bags  it  is  put  up  in.  From 
that  ton  of  seed  will  be  gotten  : 

250  Ibs.  lint  worth  Set*,  per  tt>.,  or , $12.50 

About  500  Ibs.  hull  worth. .. .; 2.50 

•     About  from  40  to  45  galls,  oil.  Pay  40  galls,  at  50  cents £0.00 

Say  800  Ibs.  oil  cake,  worth  ll/2  cent  per  lb.. 12.00  > 

Or,  $11  worth  of  seed  works  to.  value  of. $47.00 

ARRANGEMENT,  PROPORTION,  CAPACITY,  &c.,  OF  GRA^K  ELEVATORS. 
—On  this  subject  Pallett  rules  that  the  pulleys  should  bfeat  least  24  inches 
diameter,  and.  about  one  inch  thicker  than  the  width  of  the  belt,  and 
nearly  half  an  inch  higher  in  the  middle  than  at  the  sides,  to  make 
the  strap  keep  on.  These  pulleys  should  have  a  motion  of  twenty- 
five  revolutions  per  minute.  The  buckets  should  be  about  fifteen  inches 
apart.  One  hundred  and  twenty-five  buckets  will  pass  per  minute, 
carrying  162  quarts  and  hoisting  300  bushels  per  hour.  If  this  is  not 
iast  enough,  make  the  strap  wider  and  the  buckets  larger,  increase 
the  velocity  of  the  pulley  (not  above  35  revolutions),  nor  place  mor* 
buckets  than  one  for  every  twelve  inches,  or  they  will  not  empty. 


S&b 


OK    FARM    BblLDINGS. 


ON  FARM  BUILDINGS. 

The  following  plan  for  a  barn  appeared  in  the  columns  of  the  Country 
Gentleman,  ai.d  is  of  a  size  suitable  for  about  75  acres  of  land  under  cul- 
tivation on  the  system  of  mixed  husbandry;  but  the  size  may  be  either 
expanded  or  diminished  to  answer  all  possible  requirements  in  any  given 
case. 

The  size  is  42X60  ft.  Fig.  1  shows  the  common  or  principal  floor,  and  is 
so  constructed  that  a  loaded  wagon  can  be  driven  in  at  one  end,  unloaded, 
and  then  pass  out  at  the  other.  The  contrivance  for  this  purpose,  so  aag 
not  to  interfere  with  the  cellar  or  basement,  is  shown  in  the  perspective 
view  at  the  head  of  this  article,  an  embankment  being  made  at  each  end, 
•which  would  be  facilitated  if  the  building  wre  placed  between  two  slight 
knolls  or  IB  a  moderate  hollow,  in  which  case  ample  drains  should  b* 


I 


Tvl 


i..AJ 
FLQOR.'/JXfiff. 


1 


Fig.l. 


provided  round  the  whole.  In  the  plan  fig.  1,  V  V  represent  ventila- 
tors or  hay  shutes  ;  A  trap  door  for  throwing  down  chaff  or  straw,  G 
granary,  and  S  stairs.  The  bay  contains  950  square  feet,  and  will 
hold  about  40  tons  of  compact  hay  of  about  500  cubic  ft.  to  the  ton  when 
well  settled.  In  addition,  there  is  room  on  the  platforms  over  the  floor 
and  horse  stables  to  hold  about  20  tons  more.  By  marking  off  a  scale"  of 
feet  on  one  of  the  ventilators,  the  owner  may  at  any  time  gain  an  appro**- 
Inaate  idea  of  the  quantity  of  hay  on  hand. 


ON   FARM   BUILDINGS, 


685 


Fig  1  represents  the  basements.  The  roots  are  drawr  in  on  the  ban 
floor  and  dumped  down  the  trap  A,  shown  in  fig.  1.  In  fig.  2,  AAAA  r* 
present  calf  pens,  or  boxes  for  cows  in  calf. 


Fig.  2. 

RULES  FOR  FARMERS. — The  prime  auxiliaries  to  good  farming  are  : 
1.  Sufficient  capital  to  buy  the  farm  and  stock  it  well.  2.  The  proper 
selection  of  a  farm  commensurate  with  these  requisites.  3.  The  selection 
of  good  land  and  the  reiection  of  barren,  no  matter  how  cheap.  4.  To  lay 
it  out  in  good  style,  and  provide  it  with  good  buildings,  fences,  and  gates. 
5.  Stock  it  with  the  best  animals  and  implements  at  a  reasonable  price, 
and  provide  good  shelter  for  both.  6.  Bring  the  soil  into  good  heart  by 
draining,  killing  of  weeds,  manuring,  deep  ploughing,  and  a  proper  rota- 
tion of  crops  covering  every  part  of  it.  7.  Diligence  and  careful  oversight 
of  all  operations,  correct  accounts  in  the  matter  of  wages,  buying,  selling, 
weighing,  measuring,  cost  of  crops,  animals,  net  returns  of  each,  ac- 
cumulation and  preservation  of  manure,  &c.  8.  Early  rising,  remembering 
that  "  He  that  would  thrive  must  rise  at  five.  He  that  has  thriven  may 
lie  till  seven."  9.  Regular  and  careful  feeding  of  stock  with  considerate 
and  merciful  treatment  of  horses,  cattle,  &c.,  at  all  times. 

Touching  the  rotation  of  crops  the  following  courses  have  proved  well 
adapted  to  most  of  the  Eastern  and  Middle  States  : 

I.  1st  year,   com  and  roots,  well  manured.    2nd  year,  wheat,  sown 
with  clover  seed,  15  Ibs.  per  acre.    3rd  year,  clover,  1  or  more  years, 
according  to  fertility,  and  amount  of  manure  on  hand. 

II.  1st  year,  corn  and  roots  with  all  the  manure.    2nd  year,  barley 
and  peas*.    3rd  year,  wheat,  sown  with  clover.    4th  year,  clover  one 
or  more  years. 

The  next  illustration  represents  the  frame  of  an  improved  stable  and 
barn  which  appeared  not  long  ago  in  the  columns  of  the  Globe  and  Canada 
Farmer,  concerning  which  the  owner  furnished  the  folio  wing  particulars  to 
that  journal;  "  Barn  56x80  feet,  outside  posts  20feethigh,  the  purline  posts 
33  feet ;  has  five  bents,  20  feet  spans,  framed  according  to  cut.  The  size  of 
timber  used  is  from  6  to  8  inches  ;  the  sills  are  3  x  12  in.  plank  bedded  on 
the  stone  waiL  The  barn  proper  is  56  x  60,  leaving  20  x  56  feet  for  a  straw 
house.  The  driving  floor  is  16  feet  wide,  the  bays  on  each  side,  loft,  all 
floored  over  with  double  inch  boards.  The  double  doors  work  011  rollers. 
There  is  a  ventilating  door  in  each  gable  end,  working  with  a  small  pulley 
from  the  floor  :  also  one  on  the  roof,  all  very  useful  in  the  time  of  thresh- 
ing to  allow  dust  to  escape.  On  each  side  of  the  driving  floor  is  a  ladder 
reaching  to  the  top  of  the  barn.  The  granary  is  20  feet  square.  The  bius 
are  six  feet  deep  on  each  side,  leaving  8  x  20  feet  to  keep  the  mill  in  for 
clearing  IIP.  The  barn  is  well  lighted.  If  stone  is  scarce,  the -wall  need 
be  no  higher  than  to  clear  the  ground,  as  shown  in  the  cut.  No.  1  cut 
pine  shingles  are  best  for  roof.  This  stable  is  in  three  parts.  1st.  25  feet 


€90  ON    FARM   BUILDINGS. 

is  taken  from  on©  end  and  divided  in  three  parts  ;  the  centre  ia  &  feef 
room  20  x  25  feet  ;  stables  18  feet  deep,  with  five  stalls  in  each  part.  2d. 
There  is  a  yard  30  x  56  for  young  stock.  There  is  a  trap  door  at  the  side 
«f  the  drive  floor  to  drop  down  straw.  If  water  can  be  had  a  well  is  pre- 
ferable in  this  yard.  There  is  a  large  door  on  each  side  to  drive  in  and 
take  out  the  manure.  3d.  The  cow  stable  is  directly  under  the  straw 
bouse,  25x56  feet,  divided  into  three  parts:  the  centre  is  the  feed  room,  25 
%  26  feet,  with  trap  door  above  to  let  down  the  chaff.  The  stables  are  15 


<eet  deep,  with  six  stalls  on  each  side.  There  will  be  sufficient  light  to 
all  the  stables,  feed  room  and  yard  ;  outer  doors  for  stables  and  inner 
doors  leading  into  the  centre  yards.  Height  of  stables,  8£  and  9  feet 
The  advantages  over  old  style  of  building  are  as  follows  :— Lighter  and 
shorter  timber.  There  are  two  rows  of  central  posts  run  to  the  top  of 
building,  forming  the  purline  work,  and  the  whole  building  being  framed 
into  these  posts  makes  a  much  stronger  frame  ;  is  handier  for  storing  -t 
lor  forks  working  ;  for  threshing  ;  is  better  ventilated  ;  all  straw  inside  ; 
All  stock  inside  ;  manure  all  under  cover,  and  when  a  farmer  has  one  of 
these  barns  he  has  all  the  outbuildings  he  requires." 

WEIGHT  OP  HAY.— Hay,  well  settled  in  mows  or  stacks,  fifteen  cubic 
yards  make  a  ton.  Rule  for  long  or  square  stacks  :  Multiply  the  length 
in  yards  by  the  width  in  yards,  and  then  by  half  the  height  in  yards,  and 
divide  by  fifteen.  Rule  for  circular  stacks  :  Multiply  the  square  of  the 
circumference  in  yards  by  four  times  the  height  in  yards,  and  divide  by 
100  ;  the  quotient  by  fifteen. 


AGRICULTURAL   FACTS.  69t 

•UNDR?  ITEMS  OF    INTEREST  TO  FARMERS. 

A  BUSHEL  OF  WHEAT,  60  Ibs.,  should  yield,  of  flour,  about  48  Ibs., 
ehorts,  8  Ibs.,  brau  4  Ibs.  Wheat  flour  is  of  the  best  quality  from  grain  that 
has  been  cut  before  it  comes  to  full  maturity,  being  whiter  and  softer,  and 
such  flour  carries  a  better  figure  in  the  market.  Coarse  or  thick-husked 
grain  will  yield  more  bran  and  less  flour  than  the  kind  noted  above. 

PROCEEDS  OP  GRISTS. — On  this  subject  a  correspondent  of  the  Country 
Gentleman  remarks  :  "  The  product  and  waste  in  grinding  depend 
much  upon  the  quality  and  cleanness  of  the  wheat.  I  have  had  winter 
wheat  turn  out  40  pounds  of  flour  and  12f  pounds  of  bran,  middlings,  etc., 
to  the  bushel.  The  '  waste  '  in  grinding  clean  wheat  should  be  not  more 
than  a  pound  to  a  pound  and  a  quarter.  Spring  wheat  will  not  make  as 
much  flour.  The  following  from  a  '  grist'  of  the  last  c/op  of  spring  wheat 
is  a  good  average  of  a  dozen  more  that  I  have  noted. 

Weight  of  wheat, -      1,486  Ibs. 

"          flour, 95211)8. 

bran, 240 

screenings,         _--.„.         32 
middlings  (canaille)     .--.--      88 

toll, 148 

waste,   -       -       -       ......       -       -       -26     '-1,486 Ibs. 

Here  is  24|  bushels,  and  the  yield  of  flour  is  38.45  pounds  per  bushel, 
find  the  offal  amounts  to  14.54  pounds  per  bushel,  while  the  waste  is 
only  1.05  pounds  per  bushel.  It  is  proper  here  to  state  that  I  sent  a  '  grist ' 
out  of  the  same  bin,  to  a  new  mill  a  few  weeks  before,  and  the  retusn  was 
only  36  pounds  in  flour  and  the '  waste'  or  wheat  stuck  to  the  mill,  besides 
the  toll,  5|  pounds  to  the  bushel.  I  did  not  repeat  my  experiment  at  that 
mill. 

A  miller,  writing  to  the  Mill  Stone,  claims  that  he  can,  on  custom  work, 
make  from  38  to  42  Ibs.  of  flour  to  the  bushel  of  wheat,  besides  his  seventh 
for  toll,  and  on  merchant  work  he  can  make  1  barrel  of  fancy  flour  ou* 
of  4i  bushels  of  wheat.  This  he  cites  as  good  work,  and  right  here  it 
may  "be  remarked  that  many  farmers  raise  an  outcry  against  the  miller, 
because  he  fails  to  give  first  class  flour  and  ample  returns  from  badly 
damaged  or  improperly  cleaned  grain.  In  a  canticle  descanting  on  the 
hard  times,  composed  by  a  rural  poet  of  the  writer's  acquaintance,  the 
versifier  sought  to  immortalize  his  name  by  a  burlesque  on  the  fair  fame 
of  every  tradesman  in  the  town.  The  stanza  reflecting  on  the  honest 
miller  was  as  follows  : 

And  there's the  miller,  he  grinds  for  his  toll, 

And  he  ought  to  do  right  for  the  sake  of  his  soul. 
But  still,  there,  lie  goes,  with  the  dish  in  his  fist, 
He  gives  you  the  toll  and  he  keeps  the  grist. 

^  Millers,  as  a  general  rule,  are  fair-dealing  men.  From  time  immemorial 
they  have  been  called  "honest,"  and  it  is  no  more  than  fair  that  they 
Should  be  honestly  dealt  with.  If  you  wish  first  class  returns  bring  first- 
class  grain  to  the  mill. 

Estimating  the  produce  of  an  acre  in  oats  at  50  bushels,  they  will 
contain  450  pounds  of  flesh-forming  food,  and  672  pounds  of  fat-forming 
food  ;  while  three  tons  of  hay  off  the  same  acre  will  carry  480  pounds  of 
flesh-formers  and  2790  pounds  of  fat-formers.  Hay  is  a  standard  iood 
for  cattle.  , 

MEASURING  HAY  IN  BULK.— To  find  the  number  of  cubic  feet  in  a 
mow,  multiply  the  length,  width  and  depth  together.  Five  hundred 
cubic  feet  of  ordinary  clover  and  timothy  hay,  packed  under  ordinary 
circumstances,  will  make  a  ton.  Generally,  so  many  things  have  to  bff 
taken  into  consideration,,  in  calculating  the  weight  of  hay  in  bulk,  & 


€92 


AGRICULTURAL    FACTS. 


tnakes  it  difficult  to  ascertain  it  precisely.  For  instance,  fine  new-mown 
hay,  like  red-top  or  herds  grass,  would  probably  not  require  quite  500 
cubic  feet  for  the  ton  ;  timothy  alone,  requires  about  550  ;  clover  050  ; 
coarse  meadow  hay  700  or  more.  After  being  stacked  thirty  days,  the- 
bulk  would  be  decreased  from  five  to  ten  per  cent.  Again,  hay  will  vary 
somewhat  iu  measurement  according  to  the  time  it  is  cut. 

The  government  standard  for  a,  ton  is  7i  feet  ;  this  gives  422  cubic  feet 
To  find  the  number  of  cubic  feet  in  a  stack,  multiply  the  area  of  the  base 
jy  one  third  the  perpendicular  height  ' 

"it  is  estimated  that  25  cubic  yds.  of  common  meadow  hay  in  the  wind- 
ow compose  a  ton,  and  10  cubic  yds.  of  baled,  or  pressed  nay,  the  same 
weight. 

A  truss  of  new  hay  is  60  Ibs. ,  of  old,  5b  Ibs. ,  a  load  of  hay,  30  trusses  j 
a  bale,  300  Ibs.  A  truss  of  straw  is  40  Ibs. 

TABLE  EXHIBITING  CAPACITIES  OF  GRAIX  BIXS,  &c.,  10  FT.  HIGH. 


H 

Bin 

6  ft. 
Long. 

Bin 
7  <t. 
Lowg. 

Bin 

8  ft. 
Long. 

Bin 
9  ft. 
Long. 

Bin 

10  ft. 
Long. 

Bin 
lift. 
Long. 

Tin 
12  It. 
Long. 

Lin 

1:5  It. 

Long. 

Ein 

Hit. 
-<ong. 

Ein 
1,5  It. 
Long. 

Ein 
1C,  ft. 
Long. 

Ein 
2<i  It. 
Long. 

Bin 

22  it. 
Long. 

Bu. 

B*. 

Bu. 

Bu. 

Bu. 

Bu. 

Bu. 

Bu. 

Bu. 

Bu. 

Bu. 

Bu. 

Bu. 

3 

145 

1S9 

192 

217 

241 

265 

289 

313 

338 

3C2 

386 

482 

530 

4 

193 

225 

257 

289 

321 

354 

386 

418 

450 

482 

514 

643;  708 

6 

241 

282 

321 

362 

402 

442 

482 

522 

563 

603 

643 

804 

884 

6 

290 

338 

38C 

434 

482 

530 

579 

627 

675 

723 

771 

964 

1060 

7 

338 

394 

450 

d06 

563 

619 

675 

731 

788 

844 

900 

1125 

1238 

8 

386 

450 

514 

579 

643 

707 

771 

836 

900 

9&4 

1029 

128« 

1414 

9 

434 

507 

579 

651 

723 

796 

868 

940 

1013 

1086 

1157 

1446 

1592 

10 

482 

563 

643 

723 

804 

884 

964 

1045 

1125 

1205 

1286 

1607 

1768 

11 

531 

619 

707 

7% 

884 

972 

1061 

1149 

1238 

1326 

1414 

1768 

1944 

12 

579 

675 

771 

86* 

1>64 

1061 

1157 

1254 

1K50 

1446 

1543 

1929|  2122 

MEASURING  CORN  IN  THE  CRIB. — Many  rules  are  given  by  which  the 
cumber  of  bushels  of  corn  in  a  crib  may  be  ascertained,  but  all  of  them 
trust  be  more  or  less  unreliable,  from  the  fact  that  they  assume  that  two 
bashtls  of  ears  are  equal  to  one  of  shelled  corn— some  corn  wiJl  not  make 
it,  while  some  will  more  than  do  it.  We  give  several  such  rules,  any  one 
of  which  will  be,  probably,  sufficiently  accurate. 

1.  Measure  the  length, 'breadth  and  height  of  the  crib,  inside  the  rail ; 
multiply  them  together  and  divide  by  two,  the  result  is  the  number 
of  bushels  of  shelled  corn. 

2.  Level  the  corn  so  it  is  of  equal  depth  throughout,  multiply  the  length, 
breadth  and  depth  together,  and  this  product  by  four,  and  cut  off  one 
figure  to  the  right  of  the  product.    The  others  will  f  epresent  the  number 
of  bushels  of  shelled  corn, 

3.  Multiply  length  by  height  and  then  by  width,  add  two  ciphers  to  the 
'result  and  divide  by  124.    This  gives  the  number  of  bushels  of  ears. 
Another  rule  is  to  proceed  as  above  to  obtain  the  cubic  feet,  and  then 
issume  that  1  1-5  cubic  feet  make  one  bushel  of  ears. 

4.  Multiply  length  by  breadth  and  the  product  by  the  height,  all  in 
inches,  divide  this  by  2,748,  and  the  quotient  will  be  the  number  of  bushels 
of  ears.    From  two-thirds  to  one-half  of  this  will  be  the  number  of  bushels 
of  shelled  corn,  depending  upon  the  kind   and  quality.  ^  The  first  of 
these  rules  is  the  one  generally  used  as  an  approximate  estimate. 

To  MEASURE  GRAIN  IN  THE  GRANARY.— Divide  the  cubic  feet  by  56 
and  multiply  by  45,  and  the  result  will  be  struck  measure. 

Loss  FROM  'SHRINKAGE.— It  is  said  that  corn  loses  one-fifth  and 
*rheat  one-fourteenth  by  drying.  From  this  estimate  it  seems  that 
it  would  be  more  profitable  to  the  farmer  to  sell  unshelled  com  in  the  full 
«t  75  cents  per  bushel,  than  to  keep  it  until  ^Spring  and  sell  it  at  $1,  and 


AGRICULTURAL    FACTS. 


693 


that  wheat  at  $1.25  in  December,  is  equal  to  $1-50  the  succeeding  June. 
In  cases  of  potatoes,  taking  those  that  rot  and  are  otherwise  lost,  together 
with  the  shrinkage,  there  is  little  doubt  that  between  October  and  June 
the  loss  to  the  owner  that  holds  them  is  not  less  than  33  per  cent. 

The  English  Quarter,  at  which  wheat  is  quoted  in  the  English  repoiK 
is  560  pounds  or  one-fourth  of  the  ton  gross  weight  of  2240  pounds.  Tue 
English  legal  bushel  is  70  pounds,  and  consequently  8  of  those  bushels  i' 
a  quarter — equal  to  9£  of  our  statute  bushel  of  60  pounds. 

JABLE  EXHIBITING  CONTENTS  OF  CORN-CSTBS;  CONTAINING  CORN  JN  TMI 
EAK,  COMPUTED  ON  A  BASIS  OF  3,840  CUBIC  INS.  PER  BUSH.  HEIGHT 
OF  CKIB,  10  FT. 


Lgth 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

18 

20 

22 

24 

26 

28 

80 

c3 

135 

149 

162 

175 

189 

202 

216 

243 

270 

297 

324 

351 

378 

403 

a  3% 

158 

173 

189 

205 

221 

236 

258 

284 

315 

347 

378 

410 

441 

4T3 

*4 

180 

198 

216 

234 

252 

270 

288 

324 

360 

396 

432 

468 

504 

6iO 

|4ya 

203 

223 

243 

263 

283 

304 

324 

365 

405 

446 

486 

527 

567 

608 

Is 

225 

248 

270 

292 

315 

337 

360 

405 

450 

495 

540 

585 

630 

67t> 

«5tf 

248 

272 

297 

322 

347 

371 

396 

446 

495 

545 

594 

644 

693 

743 

6 

270 

297 

324 

351 

378 

405 

432 

486 

540 

594 

648 

702 

756 

810 

6tf 

293 

322 

351 

380 

410 

439 

468 

627 

685 

644 

702 

761 

819 

87$ 

7 

315 

347 

378 

409 

441 

472 

504 

567 

630 

693 

756 

819 

882 

945 

7% 

338 

371 

405 

439 

473 

506 

540 

608 

675 

743 

810 

878 

945 

1013 

8 

360 

396 

432 

468 

504 

640 

576 

648 

720 

792 

864 

936 

1008 

1080 

8K 

383 

421 

459 

497 

536 

574 

612 

689 

7651  842 

918 

995 

1071 

1148 

9 

405 

4461  486 

526 

567 

607 

648 

729 

810   891 

972 

1053 

1134 

1215 

.10 

450 

495  540 

585 

539 

675 

720 

810 

900   990 

1080 

1170 

1260 

1350 

11 

495 

545  594 

643 

693 

742 

792 

891 

990  1089 

1188 

1287 

138ft 

1485 

12 

540 

5941  648 

702 

756 

810 

864 

972 

1080|  1188 

1296 

1404 

1512 

1620 

EXAMPLB.— Under  28  and  opposite  8  is  1,008,  representing  the  number  of 
fonshels  of  corn  in  the  ear  contained  in  a  crib  28  ft.  long,  8  ft.  wide,  and  10  ft 
high.  This  apace  would  contain  1,800  bushels  of  shelled  corn. 

RULE  WHEN-  THE  CRIB  is  FLAKED  AT  THE  SIDES.— Multiply  half  tht 
cum  of  the  bottom  breadths  in  feet  by  the  perpendicular  height  in  feet, 
and  the  same  again  by  the  length  in  feet,  multiply  the  last  product  b^  '63 
for  heaped  bushels  of  ears,  and  by  '42  for  the  number  of  bushels  in 
shelled  corn.  This  rule  is  based  on  the  generally  accepted  estimate  that 
3  heaped  half  bushels  «f  ears,  or  4  even  full,  form  1  of  ghelled  corn. 

ANOTHER  RULE  WITH  EQUAL  SIDED  CRIBS.— Multiply  the  length  in 
feet  by  width  in  feet,  and  this  last  by  the  height  iu.  feet,  multiply  the 
resulting  product  by  '63  and  the  proceeds  will  show  the  heaped  bushels  of 
«ars.  To  get  the  number  of  bushels  in  shelled  corn  multiply  **y  '42. 

MEMORANDA. — A  barrel  of  corn  is  5  bushels  shelled.  By  this  latter 
measure  crops  are  estimated,  and  corn  be-Tight  and  sold  throughout 
most  of  the  Southern  and  Western  States.  At  New  Orleans  a  barrel  o' 
et>rn  is  a  flour  barrel  full  of  ears.  In  some  parts  of  the  west  it  is  common 
j«o  count  100  ears  to  the  bushel. 

ANOTHER  WAY  TO  MEASURE  CORN  IN  THE  CRIB. — Multiply  tha 
length,  breadth,  and  height  together  in  feet,  to  obtain  the  cubic  feet ; 
multiply  this  product  by  4  and  strike  off  the  right  figure,  and  the  reauii 
will  be  shelled  bushels,  nearly. 

To  FIND  THE  CONTENTS"  OF  A  BARREL  OR  CASK. — Multiply  thtf 
square  of  the  mean  diameter  (in  inches)  by  the  length  of  the  barrel  (alst> 
Iri  inches),  divide  this  product  by  29.5  and  point  off  on«  figure  to  the 
ffight;  the  result  will  be  the  answer  in  wine  gallons. 

It  .may  be  necessary  to.  add  that  to  find  the  mean  diameter,  we  add 
together  the  greatest  and  least  diameters  and  divide  by  2. 


2,000      "  "  "       3,000 


694  AGRICULTURAL    FACTS. 

To  FIND  THE  NUMBER  OF  BUSHELS  OF  APPLES,  POTATOES,  &c.,  m 
A  Box  OR  BIN.— Multiply  the  length,  breadth  and  depth  together  (all  ia 
feet),  and  this  product  by  8,  pointing  off  one  figure  ia  the  product 
for  decimal. 

STORAGE  OF  ROOTS  IN  CELLARS,  &c. — It  will  require  about  15  cubic 
feet  of  space  to  hold  10  bushels  of  roots.  At  this  rate  the  following  table 
will  serve  to  estimate  the  dimensions  of  a  root  house  or  cellar  required 
for  the  storage  of  various  quantities  of  roots. 

1,000  Bushels  of  roots  will  require  1,500  cub.  ft. ,  or  J  ^J  ^0^.  9  4  x"f  h'i  h. 

i  KOO      «  «  «'       2  250      «  I  2°'x  12-6  x  9  hiSh> 

1>5W  ^^  i  or,  20  x  14.0  x  8  high. 

20x16.8x9  high, 
or,  20x18.9x8  high. 

o  ono     ««  "  "A  'ioo     "  I  20  x  25-°  x  9  hi&h> 

W  4'50C  i  or,  20  x  28.0  x  8  high, 

4000      "  "  "       6000      "  j  20  x  33.4  x  9  high, 

W  b>U(*  f  or,  20  x  37.6  x  8  high 

7000      »  «  »      10500      »  ( 20  x  58.4  x  9  high, 

7'000  10)50(  J  or,  20  x  65. 7  x  8  high 

,0000       "  «  "      15000       "  J  20  x  83.4  x  9  high, 

10'00(  15'00(  i  or,  20  x  93.9  x  8  high. 

CAPACITY  OF  WACON-BEDS.— Rule  I.— It  the  opposite  sides  are 
parallel,  multiply  the  length  inside  in  inches  by  the  breadth  inside  in 
inches,  and  that  again  by  the  depth  inside  in  inches,  and  divide  the 
product  by  2,150.42  (the  number  of  cubic  inches  in  a  bushel),  and  the 
quotient  will  be  the  capacity  in  bushels. 

EXAMPLE. — What  is  the  capacity  of  a  wagon-bed  10  ft.  long,  4  ft.  wide, 
and  15  inches  deep. 

WORK.— 120  inches,  length,  x  48  inches,  width,  x  15  inches,  depth. 
=  86,400  -r  2,150.42  =  40  bushels.  Am. 

Rule  2. — Should  the  head  and  tail  boards,  or  either  of  them,  be  set  in 
bevelling,  add  the  top  and  bottom  lengths  together  and  divide  by  2  for  the 
mean  length,  and  proceed  by  the  foregoing  rule.  Should  the  sides 
be  sloping  add  the  top  and  bottom  widths,  and  divide  by  2  for  the  mean 
width,  and  proceed  by  the  foregoing  rule. 

Should  the  contents  be  required  in  cubic  feet,  divide  the  product  by 
1,728  (the  number  of  cubic  inches  in  a  cubic  foot),  instead  of  2,154.42,  and 
the  quotient  will  be  the  contents  in  cubic  feet. 

GROSS  AND  NET  WEIGHT  AND  PRICE  OF  HOGS. — A  short  and  simple 
Tiethod  for  finding  the  net  weight  or  price  of  hogs,  when  the  gross 
weight  or  price  is  given,  and  vice  versa. 

Note. — It  is  generally  assumed  that  the  gross  weight  of  hogs,  dimin- 
ished by  one-fifth  or  20  per  cent,  of  itself  gives  the  net  weight,  and  the 
act  weight  increased  by  one-fourth  or  25  per  cent,  of  itself  equals 
the  gross  weight. 

To  find  the  net  weight,  or  grosi  price  :  Multiply  the  given  number  by 
•8  '.tenths). 

(       3651 

Example.— A  hog  weighing  305  Ibs.  gross,  will  weigh  292  Ibs.  j         .8 

net,  and  pork  at  $3.65  net,  is  equal  to  $2.92  gross.  {    

I    292.0 

To  find  the  gross  weight,  or  net  price  :  Divide  the  given  number  by  '8 
.tenths). 

Example.— A  bog  weighing  348  Ibs.  net,  weighs 436  Ibs.  gross;  (  %  ;*_! 
tad  pork  at  $3.48  grogs,  is  equal  to  $4.36  x*t  42£ 


AGRICULTURAL   FACTS. 


695 


To  FIND  THE  NUMBER  OF  SHINGLES  REQUIRED  IN  A  ROOF.— Rule. 
—Multiply  the  number  of  square  feet  by  8,  if  the  shingles  are  exposed  4| 
Ins. ,  or  by  7  1-5  if  exposed  5  ins.  To  find  the  number  of  square  feet, 
multiply  the  length  of  the  roof  by  twice  the  length  of  the  rafters. 

To  find  the  length  of  the  rafters  at  one  fourth  pitch,  multiply  the  width 
of  the  building  by  .56  (hnndredths)  ;  at  one-third  pitch,  multiply  it 
by  '6  (tenths)  ;  at  two-fifths  pitch,  by  '64  (huudredths. )  This  gives 
the  length  of  the  rafters  from  the  apex  to  the  end  of  the  wall,  and  what- 
ever projects  must  be  taken  into  consideration. 

jVrofe. — By  i  or  J  pitch  is  meant  that  the  apex  or  comb  of  the  roof  is  to 
be  J  or  ^  the  width  of  the  building  hiyfier  than  the  walls  or  base  of  the 
rafters. 


Example. — How  many  shingles  are 
required  to  cover  a  building  42  feet 
long  and  30  feet  wide  ;  the  roof  to 
have  ^  pitch,  and  to  project  1  foot  on 
each  end,  and  1  foot  on  each  side  for 
the  eaves — the  shingles  to  Iie4^  inches 
to  the  weather. 


f     For  £  pitch,  30  X  .6  =  la 
With  1    foot  projection  =  19 
2  times  19  =  3& 
42  and  2  =  44r 

1672  sq.  feet  * 

8 


Ans.  13,376 
Capacities  of  Cisterns. 

For  a  circular  cistern,  take  the  diam.  in  feet,  square  that  (see 
table  on  page  612),  and  multiply  by  -785398  ;  that  gives  the  area  in  feet  ; 
multiply  this  by  1.728  and  divide  by  231,  and  you  will  have  the  number 
of  gallons  capacity  of  one  foot  in  depth  of  the  cistern  ;  from  this  calculate 
the  depth. 

If  for  a  Square  Cistern,  multiply  length  by  breadth,  and  proceed  to 
multiply  the  result  by  1,728  and  to'divide  by  231,  as  before;  Calculated 
in  this  way  we  find  that  each  foot  in  depth  of  a 

Circular  Cistern.  Square  Cistern. 


5  i«et  in  diam.  holds  4.66  bbls. 
6.71 


5  feet  by  5  feet  holds  5-92  tbls. 
"      6.71      "  6     •'  6      ••        "       8.54      « 

T    •«  "  "      9.13      "  7     "  7      **        "     11.63      « 

8  "  "  "     11.93      "  8     "  8      **        "     15-19      * 

9  '«  "  "     15.10      "  9    "  9      "        "     19.39      "• 
10    «                "            "     18.65      "               10    "          10      '*        •*     23.74      w    s 

In  calculating  the  capacity  of  cisterns,  &c.,  31  £.  gals,  are  estimated1  fo>  1 
barrel,  and  63  gals,  to  1  hogshead. 

To  COMPUTE  THE  WEIGHT  OF  LIVE  CATTLE;    For  cattle  of  a  girth 

of  from  5  to  7  feet,  allow  23  Ibs.  to  the  superficial  foot.     For  a  girth  of 

from  7  to  9  ft. ,  allow  31  Ibs.  to  the  superficial  foot.     For  small  cattle  and 

4  calves  of  a  girth  of  from  3  to  6  ft.  allow  16  Ibs.  to  the  cubic  foot.     For  pigs, 

sheep,  and  animals  measuring  less  than  3  ft.  girth,  allow  11  Ibs.  to  the 

\  superficial  foot. 

RULE. — Measure  the  girth  in  inches  back  of  the  shoulder,  and  the 
length  in  inches  from  the  square  of  the  buttock  to  a  point  even  with  the 
point  of  the  shoulder  blade.  Multiply  the  girth  by  the  length,  and  di- 
vide the  product  by  144  for  the  superficial  feet,  and  then  multiply  the 
superficial  feet  by  the  number  of  Ibs.  allowed  as  above  for  cattle  of  Ta- 
rious  girths,  and  the  product  will  be  the  number  of  pounds  of  beef,  veal, 
or  pork  in  the  four  quarters  of  the  animal.  To  find  the  number  of  stout;, 
divide  the  number  of  Ibs.  by  14. 

EXAMPLE.— What  is  the  estimated  weight  of  beef  in  a  steer,  whose  grrtfc 
is  6  ft.  4  ins.,  and  length  5  ft.  3  ins. 

WORK.— 76  ins.  girth,  x  63  ins.  length,.  =r  4788  ~  144  =  33|  squax* 
«e«t,  x  23  *=  764|  Ibs.,  or  64|  stone.  An*. 


896 


AGRICULTURAL   TABLES. 


When  the  animal  is  but  half  fattened,  a  deduction  of  14 1\>».  in 
880,  or  1  stone  in  every  20  must  be  made  ;  and  if  very  fat,  1  stone  fol 
•very  20  must  be  added.    See  other  rules  on  page  558. 

These  rules  are  a  very  close  approximation  to  the  truth,  subject  to  very 
•light  variations  owing  to  the  condition,  breed,  &c.,  of  various  animals. 
The  following  Table  is  compiled  from  two  English  authorities  on  th« 
pubject : 


Girth, 
ft.  in. 

f    0     

Length, 
ft.  in. 
3    6     

Renton's  Table, 
stone  Ib. 
21    0     

Cary'a  Tabl«.. 
•tone  Ib. 
21     0& 

£    0 

4    0 

.     24    0     ... 

...     .     24     00 

5    6     

3    9     

27    1     .    .   .   . 

27    00 

6    0     

4    6     .... 

38    g     

38    11 

60. 

5    0 

43    1     .     . 

43    00 

6    6     

40.. 

6    6 

4    9 

48    0 

48    00 

7    0     . 

.     5    6     .... 

64    6 

64    07 

7    0     

6    0     

70    5     , 

,  70    0* 

8    0 

6    6 

99    8     . 

.     99    1  " 

6    0    . 

.70. 

..107    5     . 

..  107    0 

In  reference  to  the  very  important  item  of  Sheep  Husbandry,  the  fol 
lowing  valuable  Table  presents  the  results  of  numerous  experiments  b> 
De  Raumer  : 

TABLE    SHOWING  THE    EFFECTS    PBODUCED    BY  AW    EQUAL    QUANTITY  O9 
THE  FOLLOWING  SUBSTANCES  AS  FOOD  FOB  SHEEP, 


Increased  weight  of 
liring  animal  in 
Lb«. 


Produced 

Wool 
Lbi. 


Produced 
Tallow 
Lba. 


Lhs.  Designation. 

1000  potatoes  raw  with  salt . .  46V3 

"          "  without  salt  44 

mangel- wurtzel,  raw.. . .  38% 

wheat 155 

oats 146                       10                       42% 

barley 136                        11%                     60 

peas 134                        14H                     41 

rye,  with  salt 133                       14                       35 

"      without  salt 90                        12                        43 

corn  meal,  wet 129                        13%                     17% 

buckwheat 120                        10                        33 

The  following  Table,  from  Delisser's  Horseman's  Guide,  exhibits  the 
percentage  of  different  nutritive  elements  in  the  various  kinds  of  food 

•upplied  to  horses  in  this  and  other  countries  : 


Description  of  Food. 

Wood 
Fibre. 

Sugar    t 
Starch 

Black  Butter  Corn. 

none. 

53.5 

Oats. 

30.0 

43.0 

In  dian  Corn, 

8.0 

53.0 

Linseed. 

19.0 

35.0 

Beans. 

145 

40.0 

Peas. 

9.0 

48.0 

Barley. 

14.0 

52.0 

Old  Hay. 

30.0 

40.0 

Clover. 

25-0 

40.0 

Barley  Straw. 

46.0 

340 

Oat  Straw. 

50.0 

31.0 

Wheat  Straw. 

55.0 

27-0 

Bran. 

54.0 

2.0 

<Janota> 

3.0 

10.0 

15.5 
11.4 
14.0 
20.0 
26.0 
24.0 
13.5 

7-0 

9.0 

1.5 

1.0 

0.5 
20.0 

1.5 

.  1  pt.  of  Black  Butter-Corn  as  imported  from  the  Indies,  and  sold  ia 
tnanv  of  the  feed  stores,  is  considered  equivalent  to  12  qts.  of  oats  fot 
nourishing  qualities  when  fed  to  a  horse :  Hard  working  horses  can  bt 


Fattv  Mat- 
ter. 

Saline  Mut- 
ters. 

Water. 

10.5 

9.2 

11.2 

0.6 

2-5 

12.5 

6.0 

M 

14.0 

8.0 

6.0 

12.0    « 

2-5 

3.0 

14.0     , 

2.0 

3.0 

14.0     J 

2.5 

3.0 

15.0 

2.0 

7.0 

14.0 

3.0 

9.0 

14.9 

none. 

6.5 

12.0 

a  trace. 

5.5 

12.5 

none. 

5.5 

12.0 

4.0 

7.0 

13.0 

none. 

1.5 

84.0 

AGRICT7LTTTKAL   TABLES. 


697 


kept  hi  prime  order  by  feeding  them,  1st,  At  Night  after  work, 
oats,  and  i  pt.  black  butter  corn,  with  8  to  10  Ibs.  pood  hay.    2d, 


peck 
In  th& 


Morning,  |  peck  oats,  1  pt.  Indian  meal,  with  say,  2  Ibs.  hay.  3d,  'During 
the  day,  %  peck  of  oats  with  a  little  nay.  4th,  On  Saturday  Night  a 
good  warm  bran  mash.  5th,  On  Sunday,  an  extra  allowance  of  hay. 

These  rules  followed  out,  will  ensure  to  a  horse  a  weekly  allowance  Df, 
Fibrine  and  Albumen,  22  Ibs.  ;  FaJ.  5£  Ibs.  ;  starch  and  sugar,  85  Ibs,  so 
that  the  relative  proportion  of  nitrogenous  to  carbonaceous  food  is  as  1 
to  4  ;  while  for  a  fattening  animal  it  is  as  1  to  5.  Horses  should  be  water* 
cd  before  feeding. 
TABLE,  SHOWING  THB  RESULTS  OF  EXPERIMENTS  IN  THE  FEEDING  o* 

GOOD  HAY  AND  tlTHER  SUBSTANCES,  AS  FOOD  FOR  STOCK. 


10  Ibs  of  hay  are  equal  to 
8  to  10  Ibs.  clover  hay. 


45  to  50 
40  to  50 
20  to  40 
20  to  40 
10  to  15 
20  to  25 
25  to  30 
40  to  45 


green  clover, 
wheat  s+raw. 
barley  straw, 
oat  straw, 
pea  straw, 
potatoes, 
carrots  (red), 
(white). 


10  Ibs.  of  hay  are  equal  to 
30  to  35  Ibs.  mangold  wurtzel. 


45  to  50 
20  to  30 

3  to    5 

5  to   6 

6  to    6 

4  to   7 
6  to    7 
2  to   4 


turnips. 

cabbage. 

peas  and  beans. 

wheat. 

barley. 

oats. 

Indian  corn. 

oil  cake. 


NOTE. — In  calculations  of  this  kind,  due  allowance  must  be  made  for 
variations  caused  by  the  condition,  age,  digestion,  breed,  &c.,  of  the 
animal,  and  the  variety  or  mixture  of  the  food  dispensed.  The  same  re- 
marks are  eminently  true  of  the  following. 

TABLE,  SHOWING  THE  DIFFERENCE  BETWEEN  GOOD  HAY  AND  THE 
SUBSTANCES  NOTED  BELOW,  AS  FOOD  FOR  STOCK,  BEING  THE  MEAN 

CF  EXPERIMENT  AND  THEORY. 


100  Ibs.  of  hay  are  equal  to 

275  Ibs.  green  Indian  corn, 

442  "  rye  straw. 

360  "  wheat  " 

164  "  oat       «' 

180  "  barley" 

153  "  pea      " 

200  "  buckwheat  straw. 

201  "  raw  potatoes. 
175  "  boiled  potatoes. 
339  "  mangold  wurtzel. 
BOi  "  turnips. 

300  "  carrots. 


100  Ibs  of  hay  are  equal  to 
64  Ibs.  rye. 


46 

59 
45 
64 

57 

G8 
105 
109 
167 
179 


wheat. 

oats. 

peas  and  beans  "mixed. 

buckwheat. 

Indian  corn. 

acorns. 

wheat  bran. 

rye        " 

wheat,  pea,  and  oat  chaff. 

rye  and  barley,  mixed. 


The  following  Table  shows  the  amount  of  hay  or  its  equivalent  per  day, 
required  by  each  100  Ibs.  of  live  weight  of  various  animals  : 

Working  rforses 3.08  lb§. 

"         Oxen 2.40   «« 

Fatting  Oxen 5.00   " 

«        «'       wheiifat 4.09   «' 

Milch  Cows from  2.25  to  2.40  « 

Dry        "      2.42    « 

Young  growing  cattle  3.08   " 


Steers. 


2.84 


Pigs  3.00   " 

Sheep 3.00    • 

WINTER  TREATMENT  OF  HENS. — Hens  will  produce  an  abundance  oi 
eggs  during  winter  if  they  are  provided  with  a  warm  comfortable  roost 
during  the  night,  and  a  sheltered  sunny  exposure  during  the  day.  Give 
them  plenty  of  dry  ashes,  gravel,  and  sand  to  roll  in  ;  a  box  of  slacked 
or  old  lime  to  nibble  at,  with  an  allowance  of  finely  chopped  meat  every 
other  day,  and  plenty  of  corn  and  oats,  boiled  soft,  and  spiced  wito 
cayenne  pepper.  Add  the  table  crumbs,  potato  parings,  &c.,  with  plenty 
of  lukewarm  water,  and  they  will  render  ample  returns.  No  living  thing 
kept  on  a  farm  pays  better  than  hens  if  they  are  only  well  used. 


698 


AGRICULTURAL    TABLES. 


NUTRITIVE  VALUE  OF  VARIOUS  CROPS,  AS  TO  STARCH,  GUM,  GLUTEI% 
ALBUMEN,  CASEIN,  OIL,  SALINE  MATTER,  &C. 


DESIGNATION. 

Bushels. 

lb«. 

Husk  or  woody 
fibre 

I 

li 

•su 

Glnten,  Abumen, 
and  casein. 

Oil. 

| 

Wheat 

25 

1500 

225 

825 

IfeO 

45 

30 

Barley  

35 

1800 

270 

1080 

230 

50 

50 

Oats 

50 

2100 

420 

1050 

300 

100 

75 

Peas  

25 

1600 

130 

900 

380 

34 

48 

Beans 

25 

1600 

160 

640 

420 

40 

50 

Indian  Corn  

30 

1800 

100 

1260 

220 

130 

30 

Potatoes         

12  tons 

27000 

1080 

4800 

540 

45 

240 

Turnips  

30 

67000 

1340 

6000 

1000 

200 

-150 

Wheat  Straw  .  ... 

114 

3000 

1500 

900 

40 

80 

150 

Meadow  Hay  
Clover  Hay 

"1 

3400 
4500 

1020 
1120 

1360 
1800 

240 
420 

120 
200 

220 
400 

Cabbage  

20 

45000 

430 

2300 

1300 

130 

600 

In  the  following  table,  by  Sprengel,  the  grain,  leaves,  peas,  straw,  and 
hay,  are  estimated  after  they  have  been  dried  in  the  air,  the  roots  after' 
they  have  been  taken  from  the  field.  The  potato  loses  in  drying  69  per 
cent,  of  water  ;  the  turnip,  91 ;  the  carrot,  87 ;  the  turnip  leaf,  86  ;  tht~ 
carrot  leaf,  parsnip,  and  parsnip  leaf,  each  87,  and  the  cabbage  93. 
TABLE  SHOWING  THE  QUANTITY  AND  KINDS  OF  INORGANIC  MATTEB- 
REMOVED  FROM  THE  SOIL  IN  1000  LBS.  EACH  OF  THE  FOLLCT7JNG 

CROPS. 


1 

. 

| 

phoric  Acid. 

V 

c 

1 

"o 

•  of  Man- 

•flllOKC. 

I* 

1 

i 

i 

1 

j3 

I 

1" 

1 

c 

1 

i 

"5S 

"51"4 

(2 

& 

a 

s 

3J 

X 

CG 

pi 

8 

O 

i 

H 

Wheat—Grain  . 

2.25 

2.40 

0.96 

0.90 

0.26 

4.00 

0.50 

0.400.10 

trace 

11.77' 

"         Straw. 

0.20 

0.29 

2.40 

0.32 

0.90 

28.70 

0.37 

1.700.30 

35.18- 

Barley—  Grain. 
'•        Straw. 

2.78 
1.80 

2.90 
0.48 

1.061.80 
5.540.7C 

0.25 
1.46 

11.  Mi 
38.56 

.59 
1.18 

2.100.19 
1.60J0.70 

trace 
0.14 

23.49 

0.20  '32.42 

Oats—  Grain  .   . 

1.50 

1.32 

0.86 

0.67 

0.  14119.76 

0.35 

0.700.10 

0.40 

25.80 

"    Straw  .   . 

8.70 

0.02 

1.52 

0.220.06 

45.880.79 

0.12 

0.05 

0.02 

0.02  57.4C 

Eye—  Grain  — 

5.32 

1.220.44 

0.24 

1.64 

0.23 

0.46 

0.09 

0.42 

0.34  10.40 

"      Straw  .  .  . 

0.32 

0.11 

1.780.12 

0.2522.97 

1.70 

0.510.17 

^27.93 

Field  )  Bean.  .  . 

4.15 

8.16 

1.65  1.58|0.34 

1.26 

0.89 

2.920.41 

121.36 

Bean)  Straw... 

16.56 

0.50 

6.24 

2.090.10 

2.200.34 

2.26 

0.80 

0.07 

0.0531.2L- 

Field  )  Pea  .... 

8.10 

7.39 

0.531.36 

0.20 

4.10,0.53 

1.90 

0.38 

0.10 

24.64V 

Pea  )  Straw  .  . 

2.35 

27.303.42 

0.60 

9.9613.37 

2.40 

0.04 

0.20 

0.07  49.71 

Pota,s(  Roots  ..4.028 
PotasiTops...    8.19 

2.334 
.09 

.331 
12.97 

.324 
1.70 

.050 
.04 

.084  .540 

4.94     .42 

.401 
1.97 

.160 
.50 

.032 
.02 

'8.284 
,30.84^ 

~T      (Roots     2.386 

1.048    .752 

.254 

.036 

.388  .801 

.267 

.239 

.032 

6.303 

Tui-    {Leaves. 

3.23 

2  22 

6.20 

.59 

.03 

1.28 

2.52 

.98 

.87 

.17 

18.09 

Carrots  

3.533 

.922 

.657 

.384 

.0391    .137 

.270 

.514 

.070 

.033 

.060  16.619 

Parsnips  ... 

2.079 

.702)   .4681.270 

.024'    .162 

.192 

.100  .178 

.005 

?  4.180- 

Rye  Grass  

8.81 

3.94|  7.3410.90 

0.3127.72 

3.53 

0.250.06 

52.86^ 

Red  Clover  

19.95 

5.2927.803.330.14*  3.61 

4.47 

6.57i3.62 

74.78 

White  Clover.. 
Lucerne  

31.05 
13.40 

5.79  33.  48!3.  05  1.90  14.73  3.53 
6.15  48.31'3.  48JO.  30,  3.304.04 

5.05,2.11 
13.073.18 

0.63 
0.30 

91.32 
95.52- 

Jainfoin  

20.57 

4.  37121.95  2.  88|0.66i  5.(X)l3.41 

9.161.57 

69.ffT.' 

AGRICULTURAL    TABLES,    *C. 

As  a  means  of  enabling  the  farmer  to  form  an  approximate  estimate  oft 
fke  amount  removed  from  the  soil  by  his  crops,  we  append  the  following 
\  valuable  tables  by  Prof.  Johnston  :— 

TABLE  SHOWING  THE  AMOUNT  OF  ORGANIC  SUBSTANCES  REMOVED  FROM 
THE  SOIL,  IN  1000  LBS.  EACH  OF  THE  FOLLOWING  CROPS  WHEN  PER* 
FECTLY  DRY. 

Carbon.        Hydrogen.        Oxygen.          Nitrogen.  Ash. 

Lbs.  Lbs.  Lbs.  LI*.  .Lbs. 

Hay.  about... 458  50  387  15  CO 

Red  Clover  Hay..  474  50  378  21  77 

Potatoes 440  58  447  15  40 

Wheat 461  58  434  23  23 

Wheat  Straw 484  53  389%  33%  70 

Oats 507  64  367  22  40 

Oat  Straw 601  54  390         .          4  51 

TABLE  SHOWING  INORGANIC  MATTER  REMOVED  FROM  THE  SOIL  IN  1000 
LBS.  EACH  OF  THE  FOLLOWING  CROPS  IN  THEIR  ORDINARY  STATB 
OF  DRYNESS. 


Wheat  about  20lbs. 

Wheat  straw "  50    " 

Barley "  30    " 

Barley  straw "  50    " 

Oats "  40    " 

Oat  straw . 


Rye "         20 

Rye  straw "         40 

Indian  Corn "         15 


Beans about    30  Ibs. 


Peas. 
Pea  straw.  . . . 
Meadow  H»y. 
Clover  Hay . . . 
Rye  Grass  Hay. 


30     "        «. 
56    " 
50  to  lOtf 
90  Ibs. 
95    " 


Potatoes "  8  to  15 

Turnips "  5  to    8 

Carrots "          15  to  20s 


Indian  Com  Stalk....  "         60 

GRAND  IDEA  FOB  FARMERS  :  BEST  FODDER  AT  $1.00  PER  TON— Mr. 
Francis  Morris  of  Howard  Co. ,  Ind. ,  thus  recounts  a  very  unusual  ex- 
perience in  preparing  and  using  corn  fodder.  The  system,  if  carried  out 
to  its  ultimate  results,  would  render  almost  any  farm  a  fair  equivalent  to 
a  gold  mine,  so  far  as  profit  is  concerned. 

"  About  the  1st  of  last  August,  I  planted  five  acres  of  ordiuarv  wheat 
land  in  Indian  corn,  and  I  allowed  it  to  grow  until  the  1st  of  October, 
when  it  was  in  tassel.  I  then  had  it  cut  down  with  a  reaper  and  passed 
through  the  ordinary  process  of  chopping,  using  for  that  purpose  an  or- 
dinary feed-cutter.  The  fodder  thus  produced  was  mixed  with  straw  in. 
proportion  of  four-fifths  corn  fodder  to  one  fifth  straw.  It  was  then  put 
in  trenches,  trampled  down,  and  covered  with  earth.  The  fodder  re- 
mained in  this  state  until  last  Christmas  day,  when  the  trenches  were 
opened  and  the  fodder  taken  out  and  fed  to  the  cattle.  The  fodder  wag 
found  to  be  in  as  perfect  a  state  of  preservation  as  when  it  was  first  put  in, 
and  the  cattle  seemed  to  relish  it  from  the  first,  and  now  prefer  it  to  any 
other  kind  of  food.  The  cost  of  producing  this  fodder  was  only  Si  a  ton, 
which  is  only  one-twentieth  as  much  as  the  cost  of  timothy  hay,  which: 
is  not  equal  to  it  in  any  respect.  If  the  land  is  planted  early  in  the  spring, 
20  or  30  tons  can  be  raised  to  the  acre,  but  in  France  the  land  is  highly 
manured  and  the  corn  is  sowed  only  two  feet  apart,  which  often  makes 
the  yield  as  high  as  80  tons  to  the  acre.  The  same  land  can  afterwards 
be  planted  in  barley,  and  loses  none  of  its  strength  by  the  planting  of  the 
com,  as  it  is  a  principle  in  agriculture  that  the  strength  of  the  land  is  only 
lost  in  the  formation  of  the  grain.  By  the  use  of  this  fodder  every  farm 
of  100  acres,  planted  with  10  acres  of  this  fodder,  would  be  able  to  fatten 
100  head  of  cattle  during  the  winter,  which  would  yield  a  profit  of  50  per 
cent.,  besides  the  immense  advantage  of  having  such  an  amount  of  stable; 
manure,  which  in  itself,  if  utilized,  would  pay  for  the  fodder  thus  used." 

The  advantages  of  this  method,  Mr.  Morris  states,  ar«  best  shown  \a* 


TOO 


AGRICULTURAL    FACTS,    AC. 


comparison  between  the  cost  of  production  of  this  fodder  and  the  cost  ol 
timothy  hay. 

Phosphate,  10  acres,  at  $16 5160 

Team  and  plow  for  30  days 60 

Man  to  tena  the  team  15 

Cutting 15 

Hauling  and  preserving 250 

Total  cost ,$500 

"  A  fair  estimate  of  the  crop  of  these  ten  acres  would  be  500  tons. 
Five  hundred  tons  of  timothy  hay  would  cost  $10,900,  and  as  this  500  tons 
of  chopped  fodder  will  answer  the  same  purpose  as  the  timothy  hay,  it  is 
easily  seen  that  every  community  can  thus  raise  its  own  meat  at  about 
half  the  cost  to  import  it." 

Of  all  the  vegetable  products  used  as  food,  it  is  to  be  noted  that  in  their 
dry  state,  carbon  forms  almost  ^  the  weight,  oxygen  a  little  over  J, 
hydrogen  a  little  more  than  5  per  cent,  nitrogen  from  1|  to  4  per  cent,  and 
•arthy  matter  from  1  to  20  per  cent. 


A  SIMPLE  STUMP   PULLER. 

The  above  cut  represents  a  simple  stump  machine  illustrated  in  the 
columns  of  the  American  Agriculturist.  It  is  worked  by  a  lever,  moved 
preferably  by  a  stout  yoke  of  oxen.  The  end  of  the  lever  is  supplied 
with  a  strong  clevis,  sufficiently  long  to  pass  around  so  as  to  be  used  on 
either  side.  The  fulcrum  of  the*  lever  consists  of  a  chain  which  is  to  b« 
fastened  to  the  largest  stump  near  (o)  ;  on  each  side  of  this  is  a  clevis, 
with  a  short  chain  and  hook  attached.  To  work  the  machine,  fix  a  chain 
to  the  stump  to  be  pulled,  hook  on  to  one  of  the  short  chains  of  the 
machine  (6),  draw  up  the  oxen  until  that  chain  is  tight  ;  hook  on  the 
other  chain  (c),  turn  the  team,  and  draw  up  as  far  as  they  can  go  ;  hook 
the  chain  (&),  turn  and  draw  again,  and  so  repeat  until  the  stump  is 
drawn  out  Then  fasten  on  to  another,  and  repeat  the  process  until  all 
the  stumps  are  out  within  reach  of  the  one  the  machine  is  anchored  to. 
The  machine  will  then  have  to  be  moved  to  another  anchoring  place,  and 
BO  on  until  the  field  is  cleared.  The  last  stump  left  must  be  grubbed 
Wit.  It  will  be  necessary  to  remember  that  the  power  of  thu  lever  id 


DYNAMITE    YS.    STEMPS,    AC.  70V 

terr  great;  and  stump  pulling  requires  stout  implements  and  chains.  A 
breakage  may  not  only  cause  delay,  but  a  blow  from  a  snapping  chain 
may  very  easily  be  fatal ;  it  is  therefore  absolutely  necessary  for  safetj 
that  the  chains  be  made  of  the  best  iron,  with  the  best  workmanship,  ana 
strong  enough  to  hold  against  all  the  resistance  they  may  meet.  The 
lever  should  be  strengthened  with  iron  plates  in  those  parts  vhere  the 
holes  are  bored  for  the  clevis  bolts. 

DYNAMITE  vs.  STUMPS  AND  ROCKS. — Late  experiments  by  John  O'Don- 
Hell,  of  Jamacia,  L.  I. ,  before  an  invited  party  of  farmers,  prove  con- 
clusively that  stumps  and  rocks  can  be  eent  flying  by  means  of  dynamit/ 
at  a  very  low  cost.  The  stronger  and  fresher  the  stump  is  the  further  h 
flies.  Five  stumps  were  attacked.  The  first  was  of  oak,  partly  decayed. 
The  men  employed  punched  a  hole  with  a  crowbar  between  two  project- 
ing roots,  but  not  being  experts,  did  not  insert  the  instrument  fully  under 
the  stump.  Consequently,  only  two-thirds  of  it  was  blown  out.  The 
partial  decay  of  the  wood  was  another  hindrance.  It  did  not  offer  the 
necessary  resistance.  A  partially  rotted  chestnut  stump  was  blown  to 
fragments.  The  crowbar  was  badly  inserted  under  an  apple-tree  stump, 
and  that,  like  the  oak,  was  shattered  to  the  extent  of  two-thirds.  With, 
a  sound  and  sturdy  oak  stump,  however,  the  dynamite  was  fully 
triumphant.  The  stump  was  blown  out  utterly. 

A  charge  was  plact  under  a  rock  weighing  about  two  tons.  It  was. 
thrown  from  its  bed  and  shattered  to  pieces.  A  rock  half  its  size  was. 
thrown  twenty  feet,  but  not  broken.  A  hole  about  a  foot  deep  was  then 
drilled  into  a  well-embedded  rock,  and  charged  with  four  ounces  of 
dynamite.  It  was  much  broken,  and  the  pieces  not  dislodged  were  easily 
pried  out  with  the  crowbar. 

About  two  inches  of  a  cartridge  an  inch  in  diameter  had  hitherto  been 
used  upon  the  stumps,  but  the  closing  experiment  was  made  with  an 
entire  cartridge  eighteen  inches  long  upon  a  fresh  oak  stump  twenty 
Inches  in  diameter.  Many  of  the  fragments  were  thrown  125  feet. 

The  dynamite  is  put  up  in  packages  of  oiled  muslin,  shaped  like  • 
candle,  and  impervious  to  water.  One  end  is  opened,  and  a  hole  is  madf 
in  the  powder  with  a  stick  for  the  insertion  of  the  percussion  cap,  whicfc 
is  an  inch  long,  and  loaued  for  half  its  length  with  fulminate  of  mercury. 
A  fuse  is  inserted  in  the  cap,  which  is  squeezed  with  nippers  that  it  may 
£t  tightly.  The  little  interstices  must  be  filled  with  soap,  to  render  the 
«ap  waterproof.  After  the  cap  is  in  position  in  the  powder,  the  top  of 
fce  cartridge  must  be  tied  tight  around  the  fuse,  so  that  no  -water  may 
JPtor.  On  the  cartridge  being  placed  against  the  stump,  water  must  be 
poured  into  the  hole  and  the  ground  around  thoroughly  soaked  and 
f  ressed  that  it  may  offer  a  strong  resistance.  A  little  semi-circular  dam 
should  then  be  heaped  around,  within  which  more  water  should  be 
poured,  by  way  of  adding  to  the  resistance.  The  fuse,  which  should 
project  outside  of  the  dam,  is  then  lighted.  It  reaches  the  cap  in  less  than 
two  minutes,  which  affords  ample  time  for  the  operators  to  reach  a  safe 
distance.  The  explosion  makes  little  noise,  and  after  viewing  a  dance  in 
the  air  of  a  myriad  of  fragments,  spectators  find  a  large  hole,  with  a  lew 
loose  roots  around  and  the  ground  ready  for  the  plough. 

COCKROACH  DESTROYER.— To  destroy  cockroaches,  mix  finely 
powdered  borax  and  fine  sugar,  half-and-half,  and  spread  around  wher* 
the  roaches  are  most  troublesome.  For  a  few  days  it  may  seem  that  the 
remedy  is  doing  no  good,  but  soon  the  roaches  will  begin  to  die.  and  in  a 
short  time  you  will  be  rid  of  them.  This  is  said  to  be  an  infallible  rem- 
edy. Cayenne  pepper  will  keep  the  pantry  and  storeroom  free  Iron* 
cockroaches  and  ants. 


702 


AGRICULTURAL    TABLES. 


QUANTITIES  OP  SEED  REQUIRED  TO  THE  ACRE,  &<\ 
TABLE  SHOWING  THE  QUANTITY  OF  GARDEN  SEED  FOR  A  GIVEN  SFACB, 


Designation. 


Space  and  quantity  of  seeds. 


Asparagus 1  oz.  produces  1000  plants  and  requires  a  bed  12  ft.  sq. 

"  Roots.  1000,  plant  a  bed  4  feet  wide,  225  long. 

Eng  .Dwarf  Beans  1  quart  plants,  from  100  to  225  of  row. 
.French  "        *'  "     from  100  to  150  feet  of  row. 

Beans,  Pole,  large  "      "  "     100  hills. 

"         "     small  «      ".  "     300  hills,  or  250  feet  of  row. 

Beets (10  Ibs.  to  the  acre  ;  1  oz.  plants  150  feet  of  row. 

Broccoli  and  Kale  1  oz.  plants  2500  plants,  and  requires  40  sq.  ft.  of  ground. 

Cabbage Early  sorts  same  as  broccoli,  and  require  60  sq.  ft.  ground* 

Cauliflower The  same  as  cabbage. 

Carrot 1  oz.  to  150  of  row. 

Celery 1  oz.  gives  7000  plants,  and  requires  8  sq.  feet  of  ground. 

Cucumber 1  oz.  f or  150  hills. 

Cress 1  oz.  sows  a  bed  16  feet  square. 

Egg  Plant 1  oz.  gives  2000  plants. 

JEndive 1  oz.  gives  3000  plants,  and  requires  80  feet  of  ground. 

Xeek 1  oz.  gives  2000  plants  and  requires  60  feet  of  ground. 

Xettuce 1  oz.     "     7000      "      and  requires  seed  bed  of  120  feet. 

Melon 1  oz.  for  120  hills. 

Nasturtium 1  oz.  sows  25  feet  of  row. 

Onion loz.     "    200    "  " 

Okra loz.    "    200    "  " 

parsley loz.     «    200    "  " 

Parsnip loz.    "    250    "  «« 

Peppers 1  oz.  gives  2500  plants. 

Peas 1  quart  sows  120  feet  of  row. 

Pumpkin 1  oz.  to  50  hills. 

Radish 1  oz.  to  100  feet. 

Salsify  1  oz.  to  150  feet  of  row. 

Spiuage 1  oz.  to  200  feet  of  row. 

iSquash 1  oz.  to  75  hills 

Tomato 1  oz.  gives  2500  plants,  requiring  seed  bed  of  80  feet. 

'Turnip 1  oz.  te  2000  feet. 

Water  Melon ....  1  oz.  to  50  hills. 

TABLE  SHOWING  THE  QUANTITY  OF  SEED  REQUIRED  xo  THE  ACRE. 

Designation.  Quantity  of  seed.  Designation.  Quantity  of  seed, 

•Wheat: * iy4  to  2     bush.    Broom  Corn 1  to    1%  buafc, 

Barley \y2  to  2%     "        Potatoes..... 5  to  10       " 

-Oats 2     to4         "        Timothy 12  to  24  quarts. 

Rye 1      to2         "        Mustard 8  to  20        " 

Buckwheat...' %  to  1%     "        Herd  Grass 12  to  16        " 

Millet ...1     tol^     "        Flat  Turnip. 2  to   3  Ibs. 

Corn V^tol         "        Red  Clover 10  to  16    « 

Beans 1     to  2         "        White  Clover. 3  to   4    '* 

Peas 2%tv3%     "        Blue  Grass 10  to  15    «' 

Hemp..'....... 1     to  \%     "        Orchard  Grass 20  to  30    " 

.Flax %  to  2         '•'        Carrots   4  to   5    •' 

Rice 2     to  2^     «•        Parnenips 6  to   8    " 

TABLE  SHOWING  THE  QUANTITY  PER  ACRE  WHEN  PLANTED  IN  BOWS  o9 
DRILLS. 

Broom  Corn l     to  1%  bush.    Onions 4  to  5     lb^ , 

Beans 114  to  2       "          Carrots 2to2J£" 

Peas IVa  to2        "         Parnsnips 4  to  5      " 

Beets 4  to  6      " 

To  ESTIMATE  THE  QUANTITY  OF  PEAT. — Peat,  as  ordinarily  in  the  bed, 
•will  weigh  2,100  to  2,400  Ibs.  per  cubic  yard,  if  drained  in  the  bed. 
1,340  to  1,490  ;  when  air-dried,  320  to  380  Ibs.,  when  it  will  shrink  to  | 
*>r  1-6  its  original  bulk, 

VITALITY  OF  SEEDS.— Beans  will  retain  vitality  for  2  years,  bee*t  7, 
cabbage  4,  carrot  2,  sweet  corn  2,  cucumber  10,  lettuce  3,  melon  10,  onio» 
1,  peas  2,  parsnip  1,  radish  3,  squash  10,  tomato  7,  turnip  4. 


AGRICULTURAL    TABLES. 


70S 


•£ABLK  SHOWING  GERMINATION  OF  WHEAT  SOWED  AT  VARIOUS  DEPTHS. 

Appeared  above       No.  of  plant* 
ground  in  that  came  up. 

Seeds  sown  to  the  depth  of %  inch.  11  days  % 


23 


In  sowing  wheat  the  rule  is  to  give  it  a  thinner  covering  in  a 
Jieavy  soil,  than  in  one  that  is  light,  gravelly,  and  sandy. 
TABLE,  SHOWING  THE  PERIOD  OF  REPRODUCTION  AND  GESTATION  of 

DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 


DESIGNATION  . 

Proper  age 
for  reproduc- 
tion. 

Period  of  the 
power  of  re- 
productionin 
years. 

No.  of 
Females  for 
one  Male. 

PERIOD    OF     GESTATION    AND    I.V 
CUBATION. 

Shortest  pe- 
riod, days. 

Mean  peri 
od,  days. 

Lo.igest 
period,  dy» 

jMare        

4  years. 
5     " 
3     «« 
3     " 
2     » 
2     " 
1      « 
1      " 
2     '• 
2      " 
4      " 

5     " 
(• 

2      " 
2      " 
1      << 

6  months 
6     " 
6      " 

10  to  12 
12  to  13 
10  to  14 
8  to  10 
6 
7 
6 
6 
6 
5 
10  to  12 
12  to  15 
8 
8  to    9 
8  to     9 
5  to    6 
9  to  10 
5  to    6 
5  to    6 
5  to    6 
3  to    5 

20  to  30 
30  to  45 
40  to  50 
6  to  10 
20  to  40 

5  to    6 

30 
12  to  15 

322 
240 
146 
109 
150 
365 

281 
55 

48 
20 

19 
24 
28 
27 
16 
25 
20 
40 

347 
283 
154 
115 
156 
380 

308 
60 

50 
28 

21 
26 
30 
30 
18 
28 
33 
42 

419 
321 
161 
143 
16* 
391 

335 
63 

M 

35 

24 
39 
32 
33 
20 
3* 
25 
45 

f5talli<*i   

<;0w       '  

Bull,  

JCwe        

Sow,          

He  Goat  '     .... 

She  Ass' 

He  Ass  '      

She  Buffalo,... 
Bitch 

Dof* 

She  'Cat,  ...... 
He  Cat  

Doe  Rabbit,.... 
Buck  Rabbit,  .  . 
Cock       

Hen,  

Puck       .... 

•Goose,  

Pigeon,  
Pea  Hen,  
Guinea  Hen,  .  .  . 
fjwan,  .  .  =  

GROWTH  AND  LIFE  OF  ANIMALS. 


Man     grows     for     20   years,  and 
The  Camel      "           "         8 

lives 
tt 

90 
40 

or 

100  years. 

The  Horse 

"           «         5 

« 

« 

«< 

25 

« 

The  Ox 

«           < 

4 

« 

« 

« 

15 

to 

20 

M 

The  Lion 

«           i 

4 

<« 

«« 

M 

20 

H 

The  Dog 
The  Cat 

«           < 
«<           < 

2t 

« 
«« 

«« 
« 

« 
<« 

12 
9 

to 
or 

14 
10 

N 

« 

The  Guinea  pig 

7  months, 

and  lives 

8 
6 

or 

7 

« 

To  RID  A  HOUSE  OF  RATS. — Wet  a  few  pounds  of  unslacked  lime  with 
airong  lye  made  from  potash  ;  let  it  be  quite  soft ;  spread  it  around  the 
holes  so  that  the  rats  cannot  avoid  treading  in  it  ;  let  it  remain  a  week  or 
•BO,  and  if  it  gets  dry  scrape  it  off  and  moisten  again.  The  mixture  burns 
their  feet,  and  they  will  not  be  likely  to  make  a  second  visit.  Do  not  let 
it  come  in  contact  with  oil  cloth  or  paint.  . 


704 


LAND  MEASUREMENT. 


ON  LAND  MEASUREMENT. 

To  aid  farmers  in  arriving  at  accurate  results  in  the  measurement  oi 
afi  acre,  we  append  the  following  table.  A  field  of  any  of  these  dimen* 
•ions  contains  one  acre : 

5  yards  wide  by  968  long.  j  10  yards  wide  by  483  long. 


242 
60] 

161 
97 

303 


121 
69 
88 

103 

82 


THE  SIDE  OF  A  SQUARE  TO  CONTAIN 

208.71  feet ;  12.65  rods  ; 

147.58  feet ;  8.94  rods  ; 

120.50  feet ;  7.30  rods  ; 

104.3<j  feet;  6.32  rods  ; 

73.79  feet:  4-47  rods; 

fjLSLJi  FOR  FARMERS,  SURVEYORS,  &C.,  GIVING  EXACT  PROPORTIONS  O7 

AN  ACRc],  IN  SQUARE,  FEET  IN  A  LOT  LESS  THAN  AN  ACRE. 


One  acre, 
acre, 
acre, 
acre, 
acre, 


paces, 
paces, 
paces, 
paces. 


Il 
r 

"3 

2^ 

f! 

lOOths 
of  acre. 

grf 

V 

%" 

lOOtb.8 
of  acre  . 

If 
^ 

lOOths 
of  acre-  1 

436 

.01 

11326 

.26 

2221G 

.51 

33106 

.76 

871 

.02 

11761 

.27 

22651 

.52 

33541 

.77 

Y307 

.03 

12197 

.28 

23087 

.53 

33977 

.78 

1742 

.04 

12632 

.29 

23522 

.54 

34412 

.79 

2178 

.05 

13068 

.30 

23958 

.55 

3-1848 

.80 

2614 

.06 

13504 

.31 

24394 

.56 

35384 

.81 

3049 

.07 

13939 

.32 

24829 

.57 

3'819 

.82 

3485 

.08 

14375 

.33 

25265 

.58 

3C255 

.83 

8920 

.09 

14810 

.34 

25700 

.59 

36690 

.84 

1356 

.10 

15246 

.35 

26136 

.60 

37026 

.85- 

4792 

.11 

15C82 

.36 

26572 

.61 

37462 

.86 

6227 

.12 

16117 

.37 

27007 

.62 

37897 

.87 

5663 

.13 

16558 

.38 

27443 

.63 

38333 

.8* 

6098 

.14 

16988 

,39 

27878 

.64 

38768 

.89 

6534 

.15 

17424 

,40 

28314 

.65 

39204 

.90 

6970 

.16 

17860 

,41 

28750 

.66 

30640 

.91 

7465 

.17 

18295 

.42 

20185 

.67 

40075 

.92 

78*1 

.18 

18731 

.43 

29621 

.68 

40511 

.93- 

8276 

.19 

19166 

.44 

30056 

.69 

40946 

.94 

8712 

.20 

19602 

.45 

304P2 

.70 

41381 

.95 

9148 

.21 

20038 

.46 

30928 

.71 

41818 

.96 

9583 

.22 

20473 

.47 

313G3 

.72 

42253 

#1 

10019 

.23 

20909 

.48 

31799 

.73 

42689 

.98 

10454 

.24 

21344 

.49 

32234 

.74 

43124 

.99 

10690 

.25 

21780 

.50 

32670 

.75 

43560 

i.eo 

LOTS. — In  laying  off  small  lots  the  following  admeasurement* 
bo  Iwund  to  be  both  accurate  and  useful  : — 

52 J  feet  square,  or   2,722  %  square  feet,=  ,V  of  an  acre. 
5,445  «  = 

10,890  «'  = 

14,520  '«  = 

21,780  "  = 

„.,.  43,560  "  =1  acre. 

To?rND  THE  NUMBER  OF  ACRES  IN  A  BODY  OF  LAND.— Rule.— Mur 
ttply  the  length  by  the  width  (in  rods),  and  divide  the  product  by  160  ; 
the  result  will  be  the  answer  in  acres  and  hundredths. 

Whan  the  opposite  sides  of  a  piece  of  land  are  of  unequal  length,,  adc. 
them  together  and  take  one-half  for  the  mean  length  or  width.  Multiply 
this  by  the  depth,  and  divide  by  31J.  This  will  give  the  result .  eciuirede 


LAND    MEASUREMENT.  705 

SURVEYOR'S  LONG  MEASURE  FOR  MEASURING  DISTANCES,  BOUNDARIES, 

AREAS,  RAILWAYS,  &C. 
V*  inches  ......................  1  link.  I  4  rods  ........................  1  chain. 

26  links  ........  .  ................  1  rod..  |  80  chains  ......................  1 


EQUIVALENTS. 

Mil«.               Chains.               Rods.                    Links.  Inches. 

4            »            80            =            320            =            8,000            «=  63,360 

1            =•<               4            =               100            =  792      I 

=                25            •=  198 

1  7.8J-   I 
Surveyor's  long  measure,  scale  of  units,  7.92,  25,  4,  80.  , 

TABLE  OF  MISCELLANEOUS  LINEAR  MEASURE. 

3    inches  1  palm. 

4inr>ViPC  1    VinnH   ?  Used  in   measuring  the    height* 

n  ana  .  $        horseg  at  the  8houider.  ' 

9    inchep  1  span. 

3    feet  1  pace  or  step. 

3.28  feet  1  metre. 

6    feet  1  fathom.  )  TT 

«80    fathoms  1  mile.       JU      °  -*'-<*  <^-««~ 

3    geographical  miles  1  league. 

60  "  "  )    i    J0_r_0     <  Of  latitude: 

(591  statute  ")  e-  *  Of  longitude  on  the  equator. 

SURVEYOR'S  SQUARE  MEASURE,  FOR  MEASURING  THE  CONTENTS  OF 

FARMS,  FIELDS,  &C. 
625  square  links  (sq.  I.)  .................................  1  pole,  P. 

16  poles  ................................................  1  square  chain,  sq.  ch. 

10  square  chains  ........................................  1  acre,  A. 

640  acres  ................................................  1  square  mile,  sq.  mi. 

36  square  miles  (6  miles  square)  .......................  1  township,  Tp. 

EQUIVALENTS. 

Tp.     Sq.  Mi.  A.  Sq.  Ch.  P.  Sq.  Links. 

1      -.M      36      =«        2304        «b        230,400        =        3,686,400        =      2,304,000,000 

1      —          640        =»  6,400        =  102,400        =*          64,000,000 

10        =  160        -=  1»,000 

1        =  16        =  1,00ft 

j  625 

Surveyor's  square  measure,  scale  of  units,  625,  16,  10,  640,  36. 
An  ACRE  is  the  unit  of  land  measure,  and  is  10  square  chains  (10,OCK> 
links),  or  a  piece  of  land  3  chains  16^  links  (or  about  69£  yds.  ),  on  each 
of  the  four  sides,  or,  if  of  a  different  shape,  as  much  land  as  is  embraced 
In  that  compass. 

A  ROOD  is  a  quarter  of  an  acre,  or  40  perches,  and  contains  25,00ft 
eqtiare  links  ;  if  square,  it  should  measure  1  chain  and  58  links,  or  about 
,    34|  yds.  on  each  side. 

•  A  PERCH  (sometimes  called  a  pole  or  ro.I)  is  the  160th  of  an  acre,  and 
I/-  jontains  30^  square  yds.,  or  625  square  liaks,  and  embraces  5£  yds.,  or 
|  2£  running  links  of  the  chain,  on  each  of  the  four  sides. 

'J-UNTER'S  CHAIN,  the  unit  of  measure  used  by  surveyors,  ;s  a  metallic 

chain  22  yds.  in  length,  and  is  divided  into  100  links  of  7  T9<&  inches  each. 

Measurements  are  calculated  in  chains  aud  hundredths.      As  a  substi- 

;    tute  for  the  chain,  some  engineers  use  a  steel  measuring  tape  100  feet 

'    long,  with  each  foot  divided  into  tenths.  It  takes  10,000  links  to  make 

\  square  chain,  as  100  times  100  is  10,000.     An  acre  embraces  10  aquar* 


roe 


LAND    MEASUREMENT. 


chatos,  or  100,000  square  links.  The  outside  measurements  of  Und  k 
estimated  by  running  chains  and  links,  the  contents  by  square  chains 
and  links  (being  a  regular  system  of  decimals),  the  latter  being  a  multi- 
ple of  the  former.  In  land  measurement,  the  chain  is  drawn  straight  over 
Lills  and  hollows.  Correctness  in  the  measurement  is  ensured  by  the  use 
of  a  compass  (sustained  by  a  tripod)  resembling  a  quadrant. 

Farmers  and  others  not  possessed  of  a  G miter's  chain  or  metallic 
measuring  tape,  may  effect  correct  measurements  by  the  use  of  a  notched 
pole  16^  feet  long,  containing  25  divisions,  formed  by  24  notches,  each  of 
them  a  trifle  over  7§  inches  apart.  The  25  spaces  will  represent  25  links, 
-and  the  pole  £  of  a  chain  ;  be  careful  to  get  the  spaces  correctly  laid  off 
and  accurately  numbered  on  the  pole  with  pen  and  ink. 

IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  GOVERNMENT  LAND  measurement  a  town- 
ship consists  of  36  sections,  each  1  mile  square,  a  section  contains  640 
acres,  a  quarter  section,  £  mile  square — 160  acres,  an  eighth  section,  \  a 
mile  long,  north  and  south,  and  |  mile  wide— 80  acres,  and  a  sixteenth 
«ection,  £  mile  square — 40  acres.  In  the  surveys  of  the  Public  Lands  of  the 
United  States  they  are  laid  out  in  ranges  of  townships  which  run  longi- 
tudinally, and  are  numbered  on  the  maps  in  Roman  characters,  or 
<»pital  letters,  according  to  their  proximity  to  the  northern  border  of 
A  State.  The  ranges  of  townships  run  from  west  to  east,  the  extreme 
northern  line  of  townships  in  any  State  would  be  all  number  1,  the  next 
number  11  and  so  on  down.  In  a  township  the  sections  are  ah  numbered 
1  to  36,  beginning  at  the  north-east  corner,  as  shown  in  the  diauram. 

In  drawing  out  deeds  the  area  or  contents  of  the 
land  is  described  in  acres,  roods,  and  perches,  the 
extent  of  each  boundary  is  expressed  by  chains  and 
links  ;  if  the  land  is  of'  extra  value,  the  odd  yards 
and  links  are  noted  in  describing  the  contents.  In 
laying  off  arms,  less  than  half  a  perch  is  not 
reckoned,  while  a  half  percl:  or  more  is  counted  a 
full  perch.  The  description  of  landed  property  as 
detailed  in  deeds  should  be  definite  and  explicit  as 
to  contents  and  boundaries.  Illustration— The  dia- 
gram exhibits  a  piece  of  land,  embracing,  say  20 


6 

5 

4 

3 

2 

NW  |NE 

SWTSE 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

18 

17 

16* 

15 

14 

13 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

30 

29 

28 

27 

26 

25 

31 

32 

33 

34 

35 

36 

acres  fronting  on  the  west  of  Stanley  road, 

Land  o€  John  Reid, 


"5       28 

H» 

1    111 

Length, 
25  chains. 

s£          Land 
&&             of 
«  S.         Daniel 

§    111 

S         Wilson, 

0!            » 

8 

Land  of  A.  Rodgars. 
"ine  land  of  John  Reid  is  on  the  south  side  ,  that  of  Alex.  Rodgers  on  th« 
north  side  ;  that  of  Daniel  Wilson  on  the  west  side  ;  and  the  Stanley  road 
•on  the  east  side.  In  the  Deed  the  lot  should  be  described  as  follows  : 
"  Beginning  at  a  post,  stake,  or  tree,  on  the  west  side  of  the  Stanley 
road  at  the  north-east  corner  of  land  owned  by  John  Reid,  running 
westerly,  parallel  with  the  land  of  said  Reid,  twenty-five  chains,  to  land 
Taelouging  to  Daniel  Wilson,  thence  northerly,  parallel  with  the  land 
of  said  Wilson,  sixteen  chains  and  sixty  links,  to  land  of  Alex.  Rodgers, 
then  easterly,  parallel  with  the  land  of  said  Rodgers,  twenty-five  chains 
to  the  Stanley  road,  then  southerly,  along  said  road,  sixteen  chains  and 
«ixty  links  to  the  place  of  beginning, — containing  twenty  acres  of  land, 
vbe  the  same  more  or  less." 


LEGAL    WEIGHT    OF    A    BUSHEL. 


707 


An  English  acre  is  a  square  of  about  70  yds.  each  way  ;  a  Scotch  of 
77$  yds. ;  and  an  Irish  of  88^  yds.  Every  mile  of  mere  hedge  and  ditch 
is  about  an  acre.  Roads  and  fences,  1  rod  wide,  occupy  1  acre  for  every 
mile  of  length. 

NOTE.— An  English  acre  comprises  4,840  square  yds.  ;  the  Scotch, 
6,150  ;  the  Irish,  7,840  ;  the  French  (hectare),  11,950  ;  the  Dutch,  9,722  ; 
the  Prussian  (morgen),  3,053  ;  the  Dantzic,  6,650  ;  that  of  Amsterdam, 
9,722  ;  that  of  the  United  States  is  English  measure. 

FOR  TABLE  OF  SURFACE  MEASUREMENTS,  SEE  PAGE  12& 

EQUIVALENTS. 

Sq.  Mi.        A.         Sq.  Rod.         Sq.  Yd.              Sq.  Ft.  Sq.  Ins. 

1    =    640    r=    102,400    =    3,097,600     =    27,878,400     —  4,014,489,600 

1    =           160      rr           4,840     =            43,560      =  '        6,272,640 

1      =               30>/4=               2721/4=  39,204 

1     =                    9  *  -  1,296 

1      =  144 

"ABLE  OF  AVOIRDUPOIS  POUNDS    IN  A  BUSHEL,  AS  PRESCRIBED  B* 

STATUTE  IN  THE  SEVERAL  STATES  NAMED. 
The  letter  m  signifies  sold  by  measure. 


COMMODITIES. 

i 

I 

=2 

^ 

1 

^ 

** 

4 

Maine. 

1 

•sj 

o 

J» 

1 

1 

S 

*i 

>: 

•i 

1 

I 

«£ 

*>0 

48 
60 
14 
40 
46 
60 
24 
33 

-.*; 

44 

V2 
To 
is 
32 
57 
60 
54 

48 
60 
14 
50 
46 
60 
25 
33 

r,t; 
44 
56 

C8 

is? 

41 
60 
56 

48 
60 
14 
52 
46 
60 
24 
33 
56 
44 
.~>r> 
68 

35 
57 
60 

56 

48 
60 
14 
52 

60 

56 
44 

56 

32 

46 

48 

48 

48 
60 

4848 

OR 

48 

46 

47 

..46 

Blue  Grass  Seed  

40 

45 

11 

" 

46 

42 

42 

52 
16 

50 

48 

42 

58 

..  46 

Clover  Seed  

.. 

;; 

m 

60 
1> 
28 
in 

56 

60 

2* 
28 

56 

60 
24 
33 
56 
14 
52 

44 

55 

56 

60 
55 

» 

60 

" 

56 

60 

28 

28 

56 

Dried  Peaches  ... 

56 

..  56 

Indian  Corn  

52 

56 

28 

56 

•  • 

56 

Indian  Corn  in  ear... 
Indian  Corn  meal  

50 

8?* 

60 

58 

32 
32 

50 
30 

60 

*,!) 

50 

:;o 

52 
S 

!> 

56 

50  . 
.    32 
50  .. 
6060 
..  56 
50 

Oats 

32 

32 

56 

32 
56 

35 

57 
(iO 
56 

30 

60 
56 

32 

60 
56 

32 
56 

34 

60 

5H 

: 

54 

60 

56 

Hye            

gait        

5050 

4545 
60:60 
20 

50 
45 
60 
?0 

60 

,n 

m 

m 

60 

60 

50 
45 
(50 

"0 

60 

56 
44 
60 

» 

60 

60 

'.'.  60 

Timothy  Seed 

50 

45 
»5i> 
w 

Wheat    

60 

Wheat  Bran  .  . 

In  Pennsylvania  80  Ibs.  coarse,  70  Ibs.  ground,  or  62  Ibs.  fine  salt  make 
1  Lushel,  and  in  Illinois,  50  Ibs.  common,  or  55  Ibs.  fine  salt  make  1  bushel. 
In  Tennessee  100  ears  of  corn  are  a  bushel.  A  heaping  bushel  contains 
2815  cubic  inches. 

In  Maine  04  Ibs.  of  ruta  baga  turnips  or  beets  make  1  bushel. 

A  cask  of  lime  is  240  Ibs.  Lime  in  slacking  absorbs  2^  times  its  volume, 
and  2J  times  its  weight  in  water. 

The  United  States  Standard  bushel  contains  2150. 42  cubic  inches.  A 
cubic  foot  contains  1728  cubic  inches,  so  that  a  bushel  is  to  a  cubic  foot, 
as,  say  2150  to  1728,  or  about  the  proportion  of  4  to  5  ;  hence  to  convert 
cubic  feet  to  bushels,  multiply  by  $. 

TO  FIND  THE  CONTEXTS  OF  A  B IN  IN  CUBIC  FEET.— Abate  tfc  3  COntCBtS 

one-fifth,  and  the  result  will  be  the  contents  in  bushels. 


708 


AGRICULTURAL  TABLES. 


ON  FENCES. 

As  the  maintenance  of  fences  is  a  most  important  consideration  09 
every  farm,  we  present  the  following 

TABLE  SHOWING  THE  NUMBER  OF  BAILS,  RIDERS,  AND  STAKES  REQUIRED 

FOR  EVERY  TEN  RODS  OF  ZIG-ZAG  FENCE. 


Length 
of  rail. 

Deflec- 
tion from 
right  line. 

Length 
panel. 

Num- 
ber of 
panels. 

No.  of  rails  for  eachlO  rods 

Number  of 
stakes. 

o 

Feet. 

Feet. 

Feet. 

Feet. 

5  rails 
high. 

6  rails 
high. 

7  rails 
high. 

12 

14 

6 

7 
8 

8 
10 
12 

1 

103 
83 
69 

123 
99 

84 

144 
116 

95 

42 
34 

28 

21 
17 
14 

For  longer  distances  than  10  rods,  the  proper  number  of  rails.  &c , 
may  be  computed  by  multiplying.  For  instance  :  If  for  50  rods  of: 
fence,  multiply  the  above  nuniber  by  5  ;  if  for  100,  multiply  by  10,  &c. 
The  like  rule  will  apply  to  the  next 

TABLE,  SHOWING  THE  NUMBER  OF  RAILS  AND  POSTS  REQUIRED  FOR 
EACH  TEN  RODS  OF  POST  AND  RAIL  STRAIGHT  FENCE. 


Length  of 
rail  —  feet. 

^ 

o  £ 

31 

Number  of 
panels. 

•3 
s« 

I1 

Number  of  rails  for  each  10  rods. 

5  rails 
high. 

6  rails 
high- 

7  rails 
high. 

8  rails 
high. 

10 
12 
14 

WA 

8 
10 
12 

14^ 

20% 
16% 

i 

21 
17 
14 
12 

103 
83 
69 
57 

123 
99 
84 
69 

144 
116 
95 
81 

165 
133 
109 
93 

APPROXIMATE  COMPARATIVE  COST  OF  ZIG-ZAG  AND  STRAIGHT 

FENCES. 

Zig-zag  rail  fence- 
Twelve  rails,  at  $25  per  thousand 30cent«. 

Ground  covered  by  fence,  with  total  worm  from  stake  to  stake, 

in  alternate  panels  of  six  feet,  at  $50  per  acre 78 

Two  stakes,  at  two  cents  apiece 4     ' 

•1.12  per  12  ft. 
Straight  rail  f  ence— 

Eight  rails,  at  $25  per  thousand 20  cents. 

Ground  covered  by  fence,  two  feet  wide . .  26      " 

Twostakes 4     " 

Wire 2     " 

$0  52  per  12  ft, 

A  board  fence,  4  ft.  6  ins.  high,  with  cedar  posts  6  ft.  apart,  4  boards, 
respectively,  6  inches,  6  inches,  9  inches,  and  12  inches  broad,  with  a 
coping  board  and  vertical  board  covering  the  joints  against  the  posts, 
may  be  constructed,  when  lumber  costs  not  over  $1(5  per  1000,  at  a  cost 
of  not  more  than  SI  for  every  12  ft.  in  length,  without  counting  labor. 

The  cheapest,and  everything  considered, the  most  efficient  fence  a  farm- 
er can  construct,  is  one  made  of  wire ;  such  fences  vary  in  cost  according 
*c  the  number  of  wires  used,  the  number  of  posts,  size  of  wire,  &c,  Tb« 


AGRICULTURAL   TABLES. 


709 


following  table  exhibits  the  length  of  wire  of  each  number  that  a  given 

weight  will  make,  from  which  may  be  computed  the  cost  of  a  wire  fence. 

63  Ib*.  01  No.  6  runs  223  yards,  and  costs  $3  45  or  84  cents  per  rod. 

7    "     229     "  "        3  55  or  7i 

«  8    "     322     "  "        3  65or6| 

Cost  of  materials  of  a  wire  fence,  posts  eight  feet  apart,  with  a  bottout 
board  twelve  inches  wide,  and  a  scantling  three  by  four  on  top: 

H  posts,  at  5  cents 7£  cents.  -> 

12  feet  of  inch  board,  at  $16.00  per  thousand  feet.  19    '  ' 

Scantling,  12  feet,  at  $16.00  per  thousand  feet. ...  19    ' 

6  wires=60  ft.  of  No.  6,  at  8£  cents  per  rod 30    ' 

75£  cents  per  12  ft. 

In  view  of  the  increasing  scarcity  of  timber  in  many  parts  of  the 
country,  it  would  be  well  for  fanners  to  exercise  greater  care  for  the 
preservation  of  their  standing  trees,  and  as  occasion  offers,  plant  out 
more.  Nature  never  fails  to  respond  generously  to  all  such  investments. 
For  interesting  facts  regarding  the  growth  of  forest  trees,  consult  pp.  84 
and  118.  This  subject  reminds  the  writer  of  the  advice  given  by  a  Scotch 
laird  to  his  son  and  heir  on  his  death  bed.  The  laird's  ruling  passion 
during  a  long  life  had  been  to  set  out  trees,  and  when  the  closing  scene 
arrived,  the  son  was  called  to  his  father's  bed-side,  and  while  standing 
there  anticipating  salutary  counsel  befitting  the  solemnities  of  the  oc- 
casion, the  dying  laird  exclaimed  ;  "  Now  Jock,  mind  what  I'm  gaun  to 
tell  ye,  when  I'm  gane  be  aye  stickin'  in  a  tree,  for  it'll  grow  when  you'r 
sleepin'!" 

THE   CHEMICAL,  INGREDIENTS  OF  PLANT  FOOT),  IN  POTTNDS  AVOIRDUPOIS, 
CONTAINED  IN  ONE  TON  OF  THE  FOLLOWING  MANURES. 


Manures. 

Chlorine  . 

Sulphu- 
-ic  Acid. 

Phospho- 
ric Acid. 

Soda. 

Ma?- 

nesia. 

Potash 

Am- 
monia. 

Farm  Yard  Manure.  .  . 
Ifight  Soil  

b.        oz. 
1  9 
3  0 

bs.      oz. 
1  4 
2  3 

Ibs.      oz. 
5     1 
1°0    0 

Ibs.      oz_ 
1  10 
4  10 

Ibs.  or. 
18  3 
2  7 

Ibs.oz. 
2  4 
6  7 

Ibs.    oz. 
13    5f 
47  151 

fresh  Bones  

580    0 

145    5 

Dry  Blood  

444    3 

Guauo  

62  0 

93  8 

283    9 

36  15 

66  8 

221     Ql 

Soot 

22  91/ 

194  3V* 

51937 

2113/ 

811V 

71V 

Krt      n 

Salt,  Common  

1344  0 

833    0 

1/4 

Oypsum  

1317  0 

Mxd.  Urine  p.  100  gals 
^Nitrate  of  Soda  

1  6 

3  8 

2    6 

5    9 

8    3 



2  0 

18    3V4 
364    0 

Sulp.  of  Arnica  

1357  0 

470    0 

A  dragoon-horse  kept  in  a  box-stall  with  1  hour's  exercise  each  day  for 
a  week,  was  fed  as  follows  : — 

Oats  each  day  10  Ibs.  =  70  Ibs.  per  week 
Hay      "      "   12    "   =  84    "     "        " 
Straw   "      "     8    "  =  56    "     "        " 

He  drank  within  the  week  27  gals,  of  water  ;  during  the  time  of  his 
«xwrcise  the  loss  of  manure  is  supposed  to  be  4  Ibs.  daily,  or  28  Ibs.  pet 
tfeek,  yet  althogh  the 

Total  forage  consumed  amounted  to  210  Ibs., 
The  manure  and  litter  produced  was  327^  Ibs. 

Thus  if  lost  manure  be  added,  yielding  with  "the  addition  of  the  moisture 
imparted  to  the  litter  by  urine,  an  increase  of  two-thirds  beyond  the  weight 
of  the  food  consumed.  Experiments  prove  that  a  cow  of  average  size  voids 
aibout  60  Ibs.  of  manure,  or  about  1$  cubic  feet  per  day,  or  more  than  3 
«ords,  weighing  over  10  tons,  per  year.  Composted  with  peat  or 


710 


AGRICULTURAL    TABLES. 


muck,  three  parts  to  one  of  manure,  it  would  form  12  cords  of  excellent 
compost.  It  is  further  estimated  that  the  liquid  manure  is  equally  valuable 
with  the  solid,  and  if  this  also  is  utilized  by  the  peat  absorbents,  either 
under  the  stable  or  in  it,  24  cords  of  an  excellent  fertilizer  is  secured. 
This,  applied  to  2  acres  of  worn-out  meadow,  producing  say,  1  ton  of 
hay  or  less  per  acre,  would  increase  the  crop  to  3  tons  to  the  acre  the  first 
year,  besides  greatly  increasing  the  crops  for  5  years  longer.  In  every 
case  never  fail  to  save  your  liquid  manure,  for  it  is  well  worth  every  effort 
that  can  be  made. 

TABLE  SHOWING  THE  COMPARATIVE  INCREASE  OF  CORN  BY  VARIOUS 
FERTILIZERS. 


2 

02 

3 

2 

£"3 

"3 

rt  K' 

.=, 

jj 

O  rj 

h*® 

i 

CM 

•3 

QUANTITY  OF  FERTILIZES. 

If 

1 

= 

SS 

IP 

«J3 

2 

2 

£ 

.*  s 

S 

C 
— 

0 

£.2 

«a 

28 

$ 

46 

18 

12  50 

1437 

690  "    Guano                    .... 

19  00 

1 

6 

300  "    Superphosphate  Lime  &  640  Ibs.  Guano  ... 
320  "    Guano  and  640  Ibs  dissolved  Bones 

58 
51 

30 
23 

25  10 
18  40 

i 

e% 

1040"    Guano  and  400  Ibs.  Superphosphate  Lime 
16  loads  Stable  Manure 

74% 
3514 

7  il 

38  60 
16  00 

l 

i!* 

32     «                «<                      

14% 

32  00 

14*^ 

16    "               "       &  200  bus.  leached  Ashes  

44 

8 

12  00* 

22^ 

16     "                "       &  640  Ibs.  Super  P  Lime  

49  14 

14^ 

17  80* 

?8 

32     "                "       &  320  Ibs.  Guano  &  1320  Ibs.  ) 

Superphosphate  Lime        j 
Hoc  manure  from  108  bus.  corn.  .  . 

60 
4?, 

171/4 
15 

16  80* 
16  20 

1 

30% 

*  Only  the  increase  over  the  experiments  7  and  8  with  stable  manure  alone. 

TABLE  EXHIBITING  THE  NUMBER  OF  LOADS  OF  MANURE  AND  THE 
NUMBER  OF  HEAPS  IN  EACH  LOAD  REQUIRED  TO  AN  ACRE,  THE 
HEAPS  AT  GIVEN  DISTANCES  APART. 


NUMBER  OF  HEAPS  IN  A  LOAD. 


2   I 


I  7 


9   | 10 


J* 


538 
395 
203 
239 
194 
160 
131 
115 
99 
86 


60 
53  J* 

48% 


168 
151 
120 

97 

80 

67 

57  * 

49 

43 


134 
99 


33  % 
28% 
24% 
21J4 
19 

B* 

if 


108 
79 

60^ 

47% 

3834 

32 

27 

23 


54 


EXPLANATION.— The  left  hand  column  gives  the  distance  in    yards 
batween  the  heaps  each  way  in  each  row  ;  at  the  top  of  the  columns  are 


AGRICULTURAL    FACTS,    AC.  71J 

indicated  the  number  of  heaps  in  each  load,  and  the  number  of  loads  re« 
quired  per  acre  will  be  found  at  the  point  where  the  two  lines  meet. 

MEMORANDA. — 1  cubic  ft.  of  half  rotten  stable  manure  will  weigh  56 
Ibs. ;  if  coarse  or  dry,  48  Ibs.  A  load  of  manure  is  about  36  cubic  ft.,  and 
if  of  the  first  quality  will  weigh  2,016  Ibs. ;  if  of  the  second,  1728  Ibs.  8 
loads  of  the  first  kind  spread  over  an  acre  will  give  108  Ibs.  to  each  square 
rod,  and  about  3|  Ibs.  to  each  square  yard. 

To  apply  guano,  mix  it  thoroughly  for  a  few  days  with  5  times  its  bulk 
of  vegetable  mould  or  loam,  and  some  charcoal  or  gypsum,  after  break- 
ing the  lumps  and  sifting  in  alternate  layers.  Avoid  the  use  of  ashes  or 
lime,  as  they  tend  to  expel  the  ammonia,  and  keep  under  cover,  dry, 
until  used.  '  It  may  then  be  scattered  broadcast  upon  meadows  or  grain, 
or  placed  near  the  seeds  of  young  plants  in  the  hill.  Use  from  200  to  500 
Ibs.  guano  to  the  acre,  the  latter  quantity  to  the  more  barren  soils. 

The  following  Table  shows  the  composition  of  Bone  dust.  In  100 
parts,  there  are  of 


Lime 55.5 

Phosphate  of  Magnesia 2. 

Soda,  and  Common  salt 2.5 


Carbonate  of  lime 3.75 

Fluoride  of  calcium. , 3. 

Gelatine  (the  substance  of  horn)  33.25 


Analysis  of  a  manure  heap  in  the  condition  usually  applied  to  a  field 
Fresh.  Dried  at  212°. 


Water 64.96 

Organic  matter 24.71 

Inorganic  salts 10.33 


Carbon .37.40 

Hydrogen. . .  5.27 

Oxygen 25.52 


Nitrogen 1.76 

Ashes  (inorganic  matter) 30.05 

The  urine  voided  from  a  cow  during  one  year  contains  900  Ibs.  solid 
matter,  and  compared  with  Peruvian  guan*  at  $50  per  ton  is  worth  $20. 
It  will  manure  l|  acres  of  land,  and  is  more  valuable  than  its  dung,  in 
the  ratio,  by  bulk,  of  7  to  6,  and  in  intrinsic  value  as  2  to  I.— Dana. 

The  Urine  of  the  Cow  contains  of  water 92.6  per  cent. 

"  •«          Horse      "  "     94.         " 

«  "          Sheep     "  " 96.         " 

"  «          Hog        "  «      92.6       " 

"  '«          Human"  "     93.3       "  ' 

The  remainder  is  composed  cf  salts   and  rich  food  for   vegetables.— 
JSprengel. 

ANALYSIS  OF  BOLIVIAN  GUANO  BY  PROF.  JOHNSTON. 

Water 6.91 

Organic  Matter,  containing  Ammonia •••...  55.52 

Common  Salt  and  Sulphate  of  Soda 6.31 

Carbonate  of  Lime 3.8T 

Phosphate  of  Lime  and  Magnesia » 25-6S 

Silicious  Matter  or  Sand 1.71 

ANALYSIS  OF  PERUVIAN  GUANO  BY  PROF.  JOHNSTON. 

Water 13.0fr 

Organic  Matter,  containing  Ammonia 53.  IT 

Common  Salt  and  Sulphate  of  Soda 4.63 

Carbonate  of  Lime 4.18 

Phosphate  of  Lime  and  Magnesia 23.54 

Silicious  Matter  or  Sand 1.99 

PROF.  JOHNSTON'S  TESTS  FOR  GOOD  GTTANO.—  The  drier  the  better, 
there  is  less  water  to  pay  for  and  transport.  The  lighter  the  color  the 
better,  it  is  the  less  completely  dissolved.  If  it  has  not  a  strong  am- 
moniacal  smell  it  ought  to  give  off  such  a  smell  when  a  spoonful  of  it  i« 
mixed  with  a  spoonful  of  lime  in  a  wine-glass.  When  put  into  a  turn  bier 
of  water  and  stirred  well,  and  the  water  and  fine  matter  poured  off, 


712 


AGRICULTURAL    TABLES. 


to  leave  but  little  sand  or  stones.  When  heated  to  redness  over  a  fir*  of 
A  bright  flame,  until  the  animal  matter  is  burnt  away,  the  ash  should 
nearly  all  dissolve  in  dilute  muriatic  acid. 

ANALYSIS    OF    FISH 


iWa*er  expelled  by  212*  heat. 


GUANO. 

8.06  Sulphate  of  Magnesia 0-71 

0.33          "  Potash 2.01', 

Oil       2.40          "  Soda 2.42 

Organic  Matter 50.72  Chloride  of  Sodium 1.12 

Super-Phosphate  of  Lime 9.85  Sulphate  of  Ammcmia 2.72 

Sulphate  of  Lime,  Hydrated 19.62  Dr.  Upjohn. 

TABLE,  SHOWING  THE  EFFECT  PRODUCED  UPON  THE  QUANTITY  OF  THIS 
CROP  BY  EQUAL  QUANTITIES  OF  DIFFERENT  MANURES  APPLIED  TO 
THE  SAME  SOIL,  SOWN  WITH  AN  EQUAL  QUANTITY  OF  SEED. 

Return  in  Bushels  for  each  Buahel  of  Seed* 
Wheat.  I  Barley.        Rye.  Oats. 


Manure  applied. 


Blood 14  16  14 

UightSoil 14  ..  13V3 

Sheep  Manure 12  16  13  14 

Horse         "       10  13  11  14 

Pigeou       "      10  9  12 

Cow  "      7  11  9  16 

Vegetable"       3  7  6  13 

Without  Manure ,.445 

Analysis  of  fresh  farm-yard  manure,  composed  of  horse,  cow,  and  pig 
•excreta,  about  14  days  old,  by  Dr.  Augustus  Voelcker,  Professor  of  Chem- 
istry in  the  Royal  Agricultural  College,  Cirencester,  England.  Accord- 
ing to  this  analysis  one  ton  (2,000  Ibs. )  farm-yard  manure  contains — 

Soluble  silica  (silicic  acid) 24    Ibs. 

Ammonia  (actual  or  potential) 15 

Phosphate  of  lime 13 

Lime 23/ 

Magnesia 3 

Potash 13 

Soda Ig 

Common  salt 

Sulphuric  acid 2% 

Water 1323§ 

Woody  fibre,  &c 579 

Of  course  no  two  samples  of  farm-yard  manure  are  exactly  of  the 
«ame  composition.  That  analyzed  by  Dr.  Voelcker  was  selected  with 
much  care,  as  representing  a  fair  average. 

Note. — In  estimating  the  value  of  barn-yard  manure  the  value  of  the  differ- 
ent excreta  will  always  range  in  value  according  to  the  kind  of  food  pro- 
<9id«d  tor  the  stock.  See  last  column  of  Table  on  page1 716. 

TABLE  SHOWING  THE  COMPARATIVE  VALUE  OF  ANIMAL  MANURES, 

FARM- YARD  MANURE  AS  THE  STANDARD. 


100  Ibs.  farm-yard  manure  are  equal  to 
125  Ibs.  solid  excrement  of  the  Cow 


73 
91 
16 
9B 
64 
38 
M 


liquid 
Mixed 


Horse 

Cow. 

Horse. 

Cow, 

Horse. 

Sheep. 

Pig. 


3  Ibs.  Drv  Flesh. 


Pigeon  Dung. 
Liquid  Blood. 
Dry  Blood. 
Feathers. 
Cow  Hair. 
Hair  Shavings.    ' 
Dry  Woollen  rag» 
Johnston, 


AGRICULTURAL    TABLES.  713 

TABLE  SHOWING  THE  RELATIVE  VALUE  OF  DECOMPOSED  VEGETABLE 
MANURES,  FROM  THE  INORGANIC  MATTER  THEY  CONTAIN. 

Inorganic  Matter. 

Ibs.       lb§. 

1  ton  Wheat  Straw  made  into  manure  return*  to  the  soil 70  to  3&) 

1  "    Oat  "  "          lOOtolS* 

1   "    Hay  «  "  «  «          100  to  200 


Barley 
Pea 
Bean         « 
Rye  " 

Dry  Potato-tops 
Dry  Turnip-tops 
Rape  Cake 
Malt  Dust 


.100  to  120 
.100  to  110 
.100  to  130 
.  50  to  IOC 
.400 


370 

120 


Dried  Seaweed       "  •'  "          560 

Johnston. 

TABLE  SHOWING  THE  RELATIVE  VALUES  OF  DECOMPOSED  VEGETABLJM 

AS  MANURES,  FROM  THE  NITROGEN  THEY  CONTAIN. 
100  Ibs.  of  farm-yard  manure  is  equal  to 


130  Ibs.  Wheat  Straw  Manure. 


150 
180 
85 
45 
50 
*0 
75 


Oat 

Barley  « 
B'kwh't  " 
Pea 

Wheat  Chaff 
Green  Grass 
Potato  Tops 


80  Ibs.  Fresh  Seaweed          Manure. 

20  "  Dried       •«  « 

26  "  Bran  of  Wheat  or  Corn  " 

13  "  Malt  Dust  '« 

8  "  Rape  Cake  " 

250  "  Pine  Sawdust  «* 

180  "  Oak        "  " 

25  "  Coal  Soot  " 


Boussingault. 

MOISTURE  ABSORBED  BY  VARIOUS  MANURES. 
1000  parts  horse-manure,  dried  at  a  temperature  of  100uFahr.,  ab- 
sorbed by  exposure  to  the  air  at  a  temperature  of  62*  Fahr.: 


cow-manure,  under  same  circumstances  

130 

pig-dung,                                                       

120 

sheep-dung,        "         "                               

81 

pigeon-dung,      "          "               "                

50 

rich  alluvial  soil,         "              "               

14 

f  rash  tanners'  bark,    "               "                

115 

putrified,                                                       

145 

refuse  marine  salt,      "                              

49% 

soot,                                              "               

36 

burnt  clay,                    "              "               
coal  ashes,                      «               «                

29 
14 

lime,                              ««                              

11 

sediment  from  salt-pans,                             
crushed  rock-salt,        "                               

10 
10 

gypsum,                        "              "               
chalk,                             '«              «               

9 
4 

Everything  on  a  farm  should  be  utilized,  even  the  outflow  of  the 
kitchen  slops  should  be  discharged  on  a  bed  of  swamp  muck.  Good  wood 
a§hes  weigh  about  60  Ibs.  to  the  bushel  ;  of  this  Gf  Ibs.  are  soluble  in 
warm  water.  They  are  worth  to  the  farmer  from  60  to  70c.  per  bushel 
as  a  fertilizer,  if  leached,  they  are  worth  perhaps  a  quarter  of  that  sum. 
They  are  excellent  for  all  crops,  altogether  unequalled  for  fruit  trees,  and 
in  a  most  unfavorable  season  250  bushels  of  potatoes  have  been  raised 
from  1  acre  dressed  with  them. 

The  products  of  the  water  closet,  both  liquid  and  solid,  should  be  deo- 
dorized and  composted  by  mixture  with  dried  peat,  ashes,  or  dry  earth 
-o/  a  loamy  nature.  The  privy  vault  or  box  should  be  easily  accessible 
«t  all  times,  and  ought  to  be  kept  well  supplied  with  a  mixture  of  these 


714 


AGRICULTURAL    TABLES. 


absorbents.  No  better  fertilizer  than  this  exists  under  the  sun  ;  about  id- 
bushels  of  the  compost  will  be  a  good  dressing  for  an  acre.  In  China  no 
other  fertilizer  is  used,  and  about  400,000,000  of  people  exist  on  the  crops 
nourished  by  it.  The  dry  earth  closet  introduced  into  England  by  the 
Rev.  Mr.  Moule,  and  the  Wakefield  closet  in  the  United  States,  are  "most 
powerful  auxiliaries  of  the  agriculturist,  and  deserve  the  highest  commend- 
ation. 

SHOWING  AMOUNT  OF  SEED  POTATOES  REQUIRED,  WHEN  CUT  OR 

UNCUT,  AND  WHEN  SET  AT  DIFFERENT  DISTANCES  APART,  IN  DRILLS 

TWENTY-EIGHT  INCHES  FROM  CROWN  TO  CROWN. 


Whole,  and  planted 6  inches  apart 

9 


Cut   into    two    sets 

M 
II 

Out    into  four    sets 

H 

Cut    into    five    sets 
Cut    into     six    sets 


77  bushels  per  acre. 

50 

38  " 

26 

19  " 

38 

25  " 

19 

13 

19  " 

13  " 

10  " 

15  « 

10  " 

13  « 


TABLE    SHOWING  THE  QUANTITY  OF  LAND,  IN  ACRES  AND  TENTHS, 

PLOUGHED  BY  A  TEAM  AND  PLOUGH  MOVING  AT  THE  RATE  OF  TWO 
MILES  PER  HOUR,  PER  DAY  OF  10  HOURS. 


Width  of 
iorrow   in 
inches. 

Acres  and 
tenths. 

Width  of 
furrow    in 
inches. 

Acres  and 
tenths. 

Width  of 
furrow    in 
feet. 

Acres  and 
tenths. 

Width  of 
furrow    in 
feet. 

Acres  and 
tenths. 

5 

1.0 

12 

2.4 

2 

4.8 

5% 

13.2 

6 

1.2 

14 

2.8 

21/3 

6.0 

6 

14.4 

7 

1.4 

16 

3.2 

3 

7.2 

6V2 

15.f 

8 

1.6 

18 

3.6 

3y3 

8.4 

7 

16.8 

9 

1.8 

20 

4.0 

4 

9.6 

W 

18.0 

It 

2.0 

22 

4.4 

4V2 

10.8 

8 

19.2 

11 

2.2 

5 

12.0 

ARGUMENTS  IN  FAVOR  OF  SOILING  CATTLE.— By  soiling  is  understood 
the  feeding  of  cattle  in  yards  or  in  stables,  with  grass  or  other  green  fod- 
der cut  in  the  fields,  and  hauled  to  them.  The  Hon.  Josiah  Quincy,  a 
high  authority,  states  the  following  as  the  main  advantages  of  the 
system  :  1st.  The*  saving  of  land.  2nd.  The  saving  of  fencing.  3rd. 
The  economizing  of  food.  4th.  The  better  condition  and  greater  comfort 
of  the  cattle.  5th.  The  greater  product  of  milk.  6th.  The  attainment  of 

'manure.     See  page  47. 

In  reference  to  the  3rd  item,  the  economy  of  food,  he  says  :    "  There 

•are  six  ways  by  which  beasts  destroy  the  article  destined  for  their  food — 
1.  By  eating  ;  2.  By  walking  ;  3.  By  dunging  ;  4.  By  staling  ;  5.  By  lying 
down  ;  6.  By  breathing  on  it.  Of  these  six,  the  first  only  is  useful.  Ail 
the  others  are  wasteful."  He  asserts  that  a  milch  cow  may  be  kept  by 
this  method  during  the  ordinary  pasturing  season  on  the  product  of  \ 
acre  of  land,  while  at  least  2  acres  of  the  same  land  would  be  necessary 
on  the  pasturage  system,  and  some  place  the  proportion  in  favor  of  soil- 
ing as  high  as  1  to  7.  By  this  system  interior  fences  may  be  abolished 
in  every  case,  weedy  head-lands  got  rid  of,  and  the  plough  performs  its 
healthy  work  from  one  side  of  the  farm  to  the  other,  without  let  or 


ON   SOILING   CATTLE.  715 

The  system  recommended  by  Mr.  Quincy  is  as  follows  :— • 

"1.  As  early  in  April  as  the  state  of  the  land  will  permit,  which  is 
usually  between  the  5th  and  the  10th,  on  properly  prepared  laud,  sow 
oats  at  the  rate  of  4  bushels  to  the  acre. 

"  2.  About  the  20th  of  the  same  mouth,  sow  oats  or  barley,  at  the  same 
rate  per  acre,  in  like  quantity  and  proportions. 

"  3.  Early  in  May,  sow,  in  like  manner,  either  of  the  above  grains. 

"  4.  Between  the  10th  and  loth  o.f  May,  sow  Indian  corn  (the  flat 
Southern  being  the  best)  in  drills,  3  bushels  to  the  acre,  in  like  quan- 
tity and  proportions. 

"  5.  About  the  5th  of  June  repeat  the  sowing  of  corn. 

"7.  After  the  last  mentioned  sowing  barley  should  be  sown  in  the 
above-mentioned  quantity  and  proportions,  in  succession,  on  the  15th 
and  25th  of  June,  and  on  the  1st  of,  or  early  in  July  ;  barley  being  the 
best  qualified  to  resist  the  frosts." 

Mr.  Quincy  relied  on  the  mowing  of  his  best  grass  land  to  carry  his  stock 
through  the  month  of  June,  or  from  the  earliest  pasturing  season  to  the  1st 
of  July,  when  he  anticipated  fodder  from  his  first  sowing  of  oats,  and  after 
the  first  severe  frost  he  relied  on  the  tops  of  12  acres  of  root  crops  for  the 
supply  of  15  cows. 

The  plan  adopted  by  Geo.  E.  Waring,  Jr.,  another  eminent  agricultur- 
ist, for  12  Cows,  is  as  follows  : — 

"  1.  Early  in  the  autumn  sow  3  acres  of  winter  rye  to  be  cut  from  May 
15th  to  June  15th. 

"  2.  Early  in  April,  3  acres  oats,  to  be  cut  from  June  15th  to  July  1st. 

"  3.  Late  in  April,  2  acres  oats  or  barley,  to  be  cut  from  July  1st  to 

"    15th. 

Early  in  May,  2  acres  oats  or  barley,  to  be  cut  from  July  15th  to 
August  10th. 

"5.  Middle  of  May,  2  acres  corn,  to  be  cut  from  August  10th  to 
September  1st. 

"  6.  Middle  of  June,  the  3  acres  from  which  rye  has  been  cut  to  b« 
sown  with  corn,  to  be  cut  from  September  1st  to  September  20th. 

"  7.  Early  in  July,  the  first  three  acres  sown  with  oats  to  be  re-sown  with 
barley,  to  be  cut  from  September  20th  until  the  harvest  of  roots  and 
cabbages  furnish  a  stock  of  green  refuse,  which  will  suffice  until  winter 
feeding  commences. 

"8.  In  September,  3  acres  of  the  4  comprising  Nos.  4  and  5.  should  be 
sown  with  rye  for  the  following  spring's  use,  and  the  rotation  should 
follow  in  regular  order.  The  latter  end  of  the  season  should  be  helped 
out  with  root  crops.  The  reason  alleged  by  Mr.  Wearing  for  this  ap- 
portioning 12  acres  for  12  cows,  is  the  bad  condition  of  the  land,  but  he  is 
satisfied,  that  if  all  the  manure  made  in  the  soiling  season  were  to  be 
applied  to  the  ground  year  after  year,  that  they  might  be  made  in  time  to 
support,  during  the  whole  of  the  usual  pasturing  season,  30  milch  cows,  or 
5  cows  to  each  acre.  He  urges  that  in  the  Northern  States  the  earliest 
abundant  food  will  be  secured  by  the  use  of  winter  ry,e,  and  that  the  best 
and  most  abundant  food  for  the  late  summer  and  earlier  autumn  wiii  be 
secured  by  the  use  of  Indian  corn. 

To  CONSTRUCT  AN  ICE-HOUSE.— This  indispensable  appendage  to  the 
farm-house  and  dairy  may  be  constructed  at  a  small  cost.  One  writer 
remarks  :  "  Last  January  I  drew  1  large  load  of  sawdust  and  spread  it  on 
the  ground  on  the  north 'side  of  my  horse-barn,  then  drew  the  ice  (sawed 
in  square  cakes)  and  built  up  a  square  pile  some  8x10  ft.  and  7  or  8  ft. 
high,  filling  up  the  spaces  between  the  cakes  with  pounded  ice.  I  then 
set  up  scantling  and  built  a  board  house  around  it  2  feet  larger  each  way 
than  the  ice  ;  then  filled  in  sawdust  around  and  2  to  3  ft.  on  top,  and 
iovered  with  boards  and  slabs.  We  have  used  freely  through  the  season, 


JnJyi 


716 


COMPONENTS  OF  FARM  PRODUCE. 


«old  to  pic-nic  parties,  given  away  to  sick  neighbors,  and  have  plenty  df 
ice  yet. 

Another  writer  reports  his  method  as  follows  :  "  I  set  posts  in  th« 
ground,  so  as  to  make  a  house  12  ft.  square  (three  posts  on  each  side), 
then  board  or  plank  it  up  8  ft.  high,  on  the  inside.  The  surface  earth  is 
now  dug  out  6  ins.  deep,  and  sawdust  filled  in  1  ft.  deep,  making  it  6  ins. 
above  the  level  of  the  earth.  The  ice  is  carefully  packed,  9  ft.  square  and 
<6  ft.  high,  leaving  a  space  of  18  ins.  between  ice  and  boards,  closelj 
packed  with  sawdust,  and  the  same  thickness  of  sawdust  placed  on  top. 
I  have  an  old  fashioned  board  roof  over  this  ice-house.  The  space  abov» 
the  sawdust  is  left  open,  so  that  the  air  can  circulate  through  and  the 
«un  shine  in.  The  result  is  that  we  have  used  ice  daily  and  have  a  plenty 
yet.  As  to  the  cost,  four  men  with  one  team,  cut,  hauled  and  packed  the 
ice,  and  filled  in  the  sawdust  in  less  than  2  days,  notwithstanding  we  had 
to  haul  the  ice  over  £  mile." 

AVERAGE  COMPOSITION,  PER  CENT.  AND  PER  TON,  OP  VARIOUS  KINDS  OF 
AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCE,  &C. ,  BY  JOHN  B.  LAWE9,  OF  ROTHAMP- 

STEAD,  ENGLAND. 


PER  CENT. 

LBS.  PER  (LONG)  TON- 

:*„ 

s 

«•=§ 

r-* 

19.72 
27.86 
21.01 
15.65 
15.75 
13.38 
16.75 
16.51 
18.21 
4.81 
6.65 
7.08 
6.32 
6.65 
7.70 
13.53 
14.36 
14.59 
9.64 
6.43 
3.87 
3.74 
2.68 
2.25 
2.90 
1.07 
0.91 
0.89 
1.50 
0.89 
1.1* 

1 
1 

| 

* 

a 
g 

1? 
P 

ii 

.g=l 
III 
ftl 

1 

a 

.-§ 

g 

i 
S 

I 

if 

gS 

!!i 

•c«s 
HI 

* 

j 

f 

itinseed  cake  .  .  . 

88.0 
89.0 
89.0 
90.0 
84.0 
84.5 
84.0 
P8.0 
94.0 
85.0 
88.0 
85.0 
84.0 
95.0 
86.0 
86.0 
86.0 
86.0 
84.0 
84.0 
82.5 
82.0 
84.0 
85.0 
83.0 
12.5 
11.0 
8.0 
24-0 
13.5 
15.0 

7.00 
8.00 
7.00 
8-00 
4.00 
3.00 
2.40 
2.00 
3.00 
8.50 
1.75 
1.30 
2.20 
2.60 
2.85 
5.60 
6.20 
6.60 
7.50 
6.00 
5.55 
5.95 
5.00 
4.50 
5.50 
1.00 
0.68 
0.68 
1.00 
0.70 
1.00 

4.92 
7.00 
5.75 
3.38 
2.20 
1.84 
1.63 
1.89 
5.23 

.'is 

.87 
.35 
.60 
.17 
6.44 
7.52 
7.95 
1.25 
0-88 
0.90 
0.85 
0.55 
0.37 
0.48 
0.09 
0.13 
0.11 
0.32 
0.13 
0.42 

1.65 
1.12 
3.76 
1.37 
1.27 
0.96 
0.66 
0.96 
2-12 

0.35 
0.50 
0.55 
0.65 
0.50 
1.46 
1.49 
1.45 
1.30 
1.50 
.11 
0.89 
0.65 
0.63 
0.93 
0.25 
0.18 
0.29 
0.43 
.23 
.36 

4.75 

6.50 
5.00 
3-80 
4.00 
3.40 
4.20 
4.30 
4.20 
1.25 
1.80 
1.80 
1,65 
1.70 
.00 
.60 
.58 
.55 
.50 
1.50 
0.90 

o.'eo 

0.50 
0.60 
0.25 
0.22 
0.18 
0.35 
0.20 
0.22 

1971 
1994 
1994 
2016 
1882 
1893 
1892 
1971 
2106 
1904 
1971 
1904 
1882 
2128 
1926 
1926 
1926 
1926 
1882 
1882 
1848 
1837 
1882 
1904 
1859 
280 
246 
179 
537 
302 
336 

156.8 
179.2 
179.2 
89.6 
67.2 
53.8 
44.8 
67.2 
190.4 
39.2 
29.1 
38.1 
49.3 
58.2 
63.8 
125.4 
138.9 
147.8 
168.0 
134-4 
124.3 
133.3 
112.0 
100.8 
123.2 
22.4 
13.4 
15.2 
22.4 
15.7 
22.4 

110.2 
156.8 
128.8 
75.7 
49.3 
41.2 
3C.5 
42.3 
117.1 

*25.3 
42.0 
30.2 
35.8 
26.2 
144.2 
168.4 
178.1 
28.0 
19.7 
20.2 
19.0 
12-3 
8.3 
10.7 
2.0 
2.9 
2.5 
7.2 
2.9 
9.4 

37.0 
70.0 
39.4 
30-7 
28.4 
21.5 
14-8 
21.5 
47.5 

*7.8 
11.2 
12.3 
14.6 
11.2 
32.7 
33.4 
32.5 
29.1 
33.  (5 
24.9 
19.P 
14.6 
14.1 
20.8 
5.6 
4.0 
6.5 
9.6 
5.1 
8.1 

106.4 
145.6 
112.0 
85.1 
89.6 
76.2 
94.1 
96.3 
941 
28.0 
40,3 
40.3 
37.0 
38.1 
44.8 
58.2 
57.8 
57.1 
56.0. 
33.6 
20.2 
20.2 
13.4 
11.2 
13.4 
5.6 
4.6 
4.0 
7.8 
4.5 
4.9 

Cotton  seed  cake.. 

linseed     

pea8      

Lentila      

Malt  dust 

Locust  beans  
Indian  meal  
"Wheat 

Barley  
Malt             .       .   . 

Oats 

Fine  pollard*  
'Coarse  pollardt  .... 
Wheat  bran  
Clover  hay 

Meadow  hay  . 

Bean  straw 

Pea  straw  

rWTieat  straw  
Barlev  straw  

Oat  straw  
Mangel  wurtzel  
Swedish  turnips  .  . 
Common  turnips.  .  . 
Potatoes  

Carrots      

Parsnips  

*  Middlings,  Caniett*. 


t  Skipstnif . 


EQUIVALENTS    OF    VARIOUS    FOODS. 


717 


TABEL  SHOWING  NUTRITIVE  EQUIVALENTS  OF  VARIOUS  FOODS. 


FOOD. 

Amount    ot 
flesh-form- 
ing    matter 
in 
100  Ibs. 

Amount    of 
fat  -forming 
matter 
in 
100    Ibs. 

Total  nutri- 
tive   matter 
in 
100  Ibs. 

llutritive 
equivalents, 
of    100    Ib* 
best 
English  hay; 

Irish  potatoes 

1.4 
0.6 
1.2 
1.0 
0-9 
1.0 
0.9 
1.0 
0.9 
2.7 
0.2 
1.9 
0.7 
1.8 
1.0 
1.0 
4.0 
3.3 
13.5 
2.0 
1.5 
1.9 
22.5 
18.7 
12.7 
14.7 
11.0 
14.3 
13.0 
18.0 
9.0 
23.1 
23.9 
24.0 
25.7 
22.1 
22.2 

18.9 
6.6 
7-0 
18.8 
13.6 
5.2 
3.3 
12.6 
7.9 
2.3 
4.7 
2.6 
4.7 
2.3 
2.7 
8.5 
9.7 
8.7 
36.3 
3.6 
2.7 
3.6 
18.7 
40.0 
38.0 
66.4 
66.7 
55.8 
52.0 
51.1 
52.1 
41.9 
39.3 
39.7 
38.9 
51.0 
48.6 

20.3 
7.2 
8.2 
19.8 
14.5 
6.2 
4.2 
13.6 
8.8 
•5.0 
4.9 
4.5 
5.4 
4.1 
3.7 
9.5 
13.7 
12.0 
49.8 
5.6 
4.2 
5.5 
41.2 
58.7 
50.7 
81.1 
77.7 
70.1 
65.0 
69.1 
61.1 
65.0 
63.2 
63.7 
64.6 
73.1 
70.8 

245.3        , 
691.6 
607.? 
251.  L 
336.5 
803.2 
1185T 
367.5 
565.9- 
960.0 
1016.5 
1106.5 
922.2 
1212.1 
1345.P 
524J 
363.4 
415.0 
100.0 
907-1 
"185T 
905.4 
120.* 
84.5 
98.2 
61.4 
64.2 
71.0 
76.0 
72.0 
81.5 

76.e 

78.; 

78.2- 
77.0 
68.0 
70.3 

Carrots  

Parsnips.   .. 

Jerusalem  artichoke  
Sugar  beet  

Turnips  (Swede) 

Common  white  turnip..  .  . 

Green  pea  straw  

Green  buckwheat  stalks  .  . 
Common  vetch  (green)... 
French  vetch  (green)  
Green  stalks  white  lupin. 
Green  stalks  white  bean. 

Timothy  grass  (green)  — 
Red  top       "          "      ..-. 
Superior  English  hay  — 
Red  clover  (green)  

White  clover  (green)  

R*>d  '*1/^ver  (hay)           ... 

Whit*  clover  (hay)  

Buckwheat  meal  

T>eas                     ... 

Kidney  beans  

White  field  beans  . 

Lentils        

English  linseed  cake  
American  linseed  cake. 

BEE  FLOWERS. — The  following  select  list  of  bee-flowers,  plants,  trees, 
&c.,  is  commended  to  the  attention  of  bee  keepers  on  the  high  authority 
of  Mr.  King,  Editor  of  the  Bee  Keepers'  Maf/azine,  New  York,  as  one  of 
the  most  accurate  and  reliable  ever  published.  Those  plants  marked 
with  an  asterisk  are  prime  favorites  of  the  bees,  and  yield  large  quantities 
of  honey. 

Bee  keepers  would  almost  double  the  product  of  their  hives  by  taking 
advantage  of  the  grand  modern  discovery  of  artificial  comb  foundations. 
These  foundations  are  made  of  wax,  or  other  suitable  materials,  by 
ineans  of  a  machine,  are  sold  at  a  very  reasonable  price  by  the  pound, 
and,  when  placed  in  hives,  are  the  means  of  saving  the  tees  a  vast 
amount  of  time  and  work  in  the  construction  of  comb,  every  pound  of 
which,  estimated  in  honest  bee  labor  represents  at  least  20  Ibs.  of  honey. 
Another  notable  discovery  is  the  use  of  salicylic  acid  for  curing  foul 
brood  and  other  useful  purposes.  The  mixture  is  compounded  as  fol- 
lows :  Mix  together  128  grs.  salicylic  acid,  128  grs.  of  soda  borax,  and 
16  ozs.  of  distilled  water.  To  use,  uncap  the  brood  in  all  the  frames  that 


718 


LIST    OF   BEE   FLOWERS,   AC. 


•how  any  diseased  cells,  and  thoroughly  spray  the  bees,  brood, 
and  all,  with  an  atomizer  filled  with  the  solution. 

Spring. 

Erica  Carnea*  Almond  Turnip* 

Winter  aconite*  Wallflower*  (single)     Cabbage,  &c.* 

Rosemary*  Borage*  Strawberry 

Laurustmus  Onion  Tulip* 

Hazel*  Gooseberry  Hawthorn. 

Snow-drop.  Apricot  Gorse  or  furze 

Crocus*  Peach  Columbine 

Willow*  Apple*  Laburnum 

Osier*  Gooseberry*  Barberry* 

Primrose  Currant*  Ribes  Sanguineuia 

Hepatica  Laurel*  Dutch  clover* 

Violet  Linden  or  basswood  Sycamore  maple* 

Summer. 
White  clover* 


Alsike  clover* 

Silverleaf  buckwheat*  Catnip 


Syringa 
Helianthemum 
Annual  poppy* 
Sea- kale 
French  willow* 
Sweet-briar 
Bean 
Yellow  lupin 

Michaelmas  daisy 
Winter  savory 
Purple  houseleek 
Ivy 
Honeysuckle 


Lucerne  clover* 

Spanish  needle 

Yellow  vetch 

Sainbois 

Broom 

Wheat 

Viper's  bugloss* 

Raspberry* 

Symphora 

Racemosa 


Heath* 
Sunflower 
Lemon  thyme* 
St.  John's  wort 
Melilotus  leucantha* 


Mignionette* 

Blackberry 

Chesnut 

Mallow 

Lime* 

Hyssop 

Teazle* 

Nasturtium 

Autumn. 
French    buckwheat* 

sowed  at  midsum- 
mer 

Spanish  broom* 
Hollyhock* 

CUCUMBER  PICKLES. — Select  nice,  firm  cucumbers  ;  pour  on  them,  fot 
three  successive  mornings,  boiling  water  enough  to  cover  ;  add  a  hand- 
ful of  coarse  salt.  The  night  before  pickling  throw  on  cold  water  and 
drain  ;  put  into  jars  with  ground  spices  in  a  bag,  sugar  and  salt  enough 
to  taste,  alum  size  of  an  English  walnut  to  each  jar  ;  pour  vinegar  hot  in 
each  jar,  and  cover  tight  while  hot. 

TO  FIND  THE  SIZE  OF  A  BlN  TO  HOLD  A  CERTAIN  NUMBER  OF  BUSHELS. 

Augment  the  number  of  bushels  J,  and  the  result  will  exhibit  the  number 
of  cubic  feet  the  bin  will  comprise.  Then,  when  two  dimensions  of  the 
bin  are  known,  divide  the  last  result  by  their  product,  and  the  quotient 
•will  be  the  other  size. 

PER  CENTAGE  OF  OIL  IN  SEEDS,  GRAIN,  &c. 

Oil  per  cent* 

Oats 5  to  8  iay  6i 

Indian  Corn 5  "  9    "    7 

Wheat  Bran :..3"5    "   4 

Potatoes,  turnips  and  cab- 
bage    14 

Wheat  Straw 2  "  3*  «    3 

Oat  Straw 4 

Meadow  Hay 2 


Linseed    

0 
11  1 

il  per 
o  22  s, 
25 
70 
38 
64 
46 
50 
'    4 
'    3 

cent. 
iy  17 
19 
15 
37 
47 
37 
45 
3 
2i 

Hempseed 

14 

Rapeseed  

.40 
.36 
.40 

.28 

White  Mustard  
Sweet  Almond  
Bitter  Almond 

Turnip  Seed  

.40 
2 

Wheat  Flour  

Barlev   .  , 

fl 

Clover  H»y 3  "  5 


FACTS    FOB    DAIRYMEN. 


719 


TABLE  SHOWING  THE  AMOUNT  OF  BUTTER  AND  CHEESE  OBTAINABLE  FBO* 

MILK. 

100  Ibs.  milk  contains  about  3   Ibs.  pure  butter. 
100    "        '«  "  "      7.K  Ibs.  cheese. 

100    "        "     averages      "      3.5  Ibs.  common  butter. 
100    "        "  "  "    11.7  Ibs.  common  cheese. 

100    "  skim  milk  yields   "    13.5  Ibs.  skim  milk  cheese. 

TABLE    SHOWING    THE    INGREDIENTS    CONTAINED    IN  TABIOUS    KINDS    O» 
MILK.     IN  IOC   PARTS  THERE  ARE  OF— 


Woman. 

87.9 
6.5 
3.6 
1.5 


Cow. 

87-0 
4.8 
3.1 
4.5 


Ass. 

91.7 
6.1 
0.1 
1.3 


Goat. 

86.7 
5.3 
3.3 
4.1 


Ewe 

85.6 
5.0 
4.2 
4.5 


Water, 
Milk  Sugar, 
Butter, 
Casein, 

The  quantity  and  quality  of  cows'  milk  varies  according  to  the  food  sup- 
plied, breeds,  &c. 

IN  EVERY   1000  PARTS   OF  MILK  THERE  ARE  OF— 


Chloride  of  potassium ,     9  parts. 
Phosphate  of  magnesia,  4 
Free  soda, 
Common  salt,  3      " 


Water,  840  parts. 

Milk-Sugar,  45      " 

Butter,  or  oil,          40      " 
-Casein,  40      " 

Phosphate  of  lime,  17      " 

The  time  required  for  the  full  amount  of  cream  to  rise  to  the 
of  new  milk  at  different  temperatures  may  be  seen  from  the  following 
table  :— 

10  to  12  hours  if  the  temperature  of  the  air  is  77°  Fahr. 
18  to  20        "  "  "          68°        " 

24  "  «  '<  "         55°        " 

36  «<  "  "  "          50°        " 

.1  gal,  of  milk  weighs  10  Ibs.  4  ozs  ;  being  heavier  than  water  in  the  pro- 
portion of  103  to  ICO.  The  best  temperature  at  which  to  churn  cream  it 
from  55°  to  60y  Fahr.  ;  for  milk  65°  Fahr.  Milk  will  produce  scarcely 
any  cream  even  in  the  space  of  a  month  if  it  is  kept  at  33°  to  38°  Fahr. 
Milk  turns  sour  by  the  fermentation  of  the  sugar,  and  its  transformation 
into  lactic  acid,  thus  causing  the  milk  to  curdle  ;  vinegar  or  rennet  will 
produce  the  same  effect.  Good  cream  will  produce  about  i  of  its  weight 
of  butter  ;  cheese  made  from  good  milk  contains  nearly  33  per  cent  vf 
water;  that  from  skim-milk  about  60  per  cent 


720  DIBECTIONS   FOB   CHURNING,   ETC. 

The  perfection  of  milk  keeping  is  attained  when  a  stream  of  pu*» 
spring  water  flows  through  the  room  where  it  is  kept,  where  fresh  air 
circulates  freely  through  slatted  windows  or  doors  uncontamiuated  by 
the  odor  of  decaying  vegetables  or  animal  matter,  and  when  the  tempera- 
ture ranges  from  55°  to  65°  Fahr.  During  winter  great  profit  would  re- 
sult from  bringing  the  temperature  of  the  milk  to  about  120°  Fahr.  pre- 
vious to  setting,  and  during  all  seasons  the  greatest  amount  of  cream  will 
be  collected  when  the  milk  in  the  pans  is  not  over  2  inches  in  depth. 
During  warm  weather  the  milk,  after  being  drawn  from  the  cow,  should, 
as  soon  as  possible,  be  cooled  down  to  62°.  This  may  be  done  by  setting 
the  pail  in  cold  w^ater,  or  by  putting  a  little  pulverized  ice  in  the  pail  pre^ 
vious  to  straining.  A  small  pieae  of  crystallized  soda  about  the  size  of  a 
marble,  dissolved  in  a  little  water  and  added  to  a  pail  of  freshly  drawn 
milk,  will  increase  the  amount  of  cream,  improve  the  butter,  and  correct 
acidity.  Milk  vessels,  strainers,  churns,  &c. ,  should  be  kept  scrupulously 
clean  and  free  from  taint  of  every  kind  by  frequent  scaldings  with  boil- 
ing water.  During  very  hot  weather  the  milk  room  may  be  cooled  by 
hanging  wet  linen  sheets  near  the  doors  and  windows,  with  the  lower 
parts  of  the  sheets  immersed  in  cold  water,  and  during  cold  weather  th» 
temperature  may  be  raised  by  means  of  a  fire  in  a  stove,  on  which  a 
vessel  of  water  may  be  placed  to  prevent  too  much  dryness  of  air. 

In  skimming  the  milk,  deposit  the  cream  in  clean  stone  crocks,  or  tin 
pails,  and  after  sprinkling  a  handful  of  fine  salt  over  the  surface,  set 
away  in  a  cool  place,  to  remain  until  churned.  In  filling  the  churn  leave 
out  whatever  milk  may  be  found  at  the  bottom  of  the  cream  crock  as  its 
eour  taste  will  be  sure  to  promote  acidity  in  the  butter.  Churning  should 
occupy  from  ^  to  f  of  an  hour  ;  rapid  churning  should  be  avoided,  as  it 
affects  the  quality  and  lessens  the  quantity  of  the  butter  ;  if  it  should  be 
hard  and  granular,  refusing  to  come  together  well,  throw  in  a  little  warm 
water,  churning  all  the  while,  and  the  butter  will  be  gathered  and  ready- 
to  take  up. 

As  the  question  of  correct  temperature  is  all  important  in  the  manu- 
facture of  butter  and  cheese,  frequent  use  should  be  made  of  a  good 
thermometer.  Great  loss  is  certain  to  result  if  this  useful  instrument  i» 
dispensed  with. 

In  churning,  use  care  to  keep  the  cream  well  washed  down,  so  that  the 
whole  will  granulate  with  regularity ;  and  when  the  butter  has  formed  in 
email  lumps,  pour  off  the  buttermilk,  leaving  the  butter  in  the  churn  ; 
pour  in  a  pailful  of  pure  cold  water  and  well  wash  the  butter  in  it,  gather- 
ing it  into  a  solid  compact  mass  and  working  it  to  squeeze  out  the  butter- 
milk. Next,  remove  it  to  the  butter  dish  and  again  well  wash,  at  a 
temperature  not  higher  than  55°  or  58°,  until  the  milk  is  utterly  removed 
from  the  butter  and  the  water  quite  clear,  then  salt,  with  the  best  Ashton 
salt,  at  the  rate  of  £  Ib.  to  10  Ibs.  butter  :  work  the  salt  well  in  and  use 
*  every  effort  to  rid  the  butter  of  water  and  milky  brine,  for  depend  upon  it, 
the  product  will  not  be  first  class  unless  this  is  done. 

In  packing  butter  use  neat  firkins,  tubs,  or  pails  made  of  white  oak  ; 
purify  each  by  filling  with  a  strong  solution  of  bicarbonate  of  soda  boil- 
ing hot,  allowing  the  water  to  stand  for  24  hours.  Avoid  packing  butter  in 
vessels  containing  undissolved  salt  at  the  bottom  ;  unless  covered  with  a 
cloth  the  butter  will  be  damaged  by  coming  in  contact  with  it.  Take  great 
precautions  to  remove  all  rancid  or  suspicious  butter  from  firkins  that 
are  to  be  refilled.  All  butter  made  during  the  early  part  of  *he  summer 
should  be  shipped  and  sold  without  loss  of  time,  as  it  will  only  keep 
sweet  for  a  short  period.  Butter  made  during  warm  weather  should  be 
packed  in  firkins  and  kept  in  a  dry  cool  place.  To  preserve  it  from  the 
air,  cover  the  butter  to  the  depth  of  half  an  inch  (or  deep  enough  to'ex- 
olude  the  air^-  with  strong  brine  containing  in  solution  2  tablespoonfuls  of 


ON   CHEESE    MANUFACTURE.  721 

white  sugar  and  a  piece  of  saltpetre  double  the  size  of  a  pea.    In  the  fall 
the  butter  may  be  repacked  in  pails  and  tubs,  to  market  as  fresh  butter. 

If  butter  is  too  soft  while  being  worked  and  salted,  allow  it  to  stiffen 
for  3  or  4  hours  in  a  cool  place,  then  begin  again  and  finish  the  work .  la 
packing  never  mix  even  the  smallest  amount  of  poor  butter  with  good  :  it 
is  certain  to  taint  and  ruin  the  whole  package.  The  rancidity  of  buttet 
may  be  prevented  by  thoroughly  washing  and  salting  before  the  cheesy- 
particles  and  milky  matter  is  acidified  by  exposure  to  the  air,  and  by 
/Using  due  caution  to  exclude  air  from  the  package  by  a  covering  of  water 
uell  saturated  with  salt. 

The  oil  of  butter  is  a  substance  of  peculiar  richness,  unlike  tiny  other 
known  oil,  and  the  fat  of  butter,  when  compacted  by  expressing  the  oO, 
is  identical  with  the  solid  fat  of  the  human  body.  Chemical  analysis  and 
numerous  experiments  prove  that  the  butter  in  cow's  milk  comes  direct 
from  the  fat  of  the  animal.  The  fatty  globules  are  carried  into  the  circu- 
lation, deprived  of  stearine  by  respiratory  combustion,  and  the  oil  is  then, 
«ent  to  the  udders,  where,  under  the  influence  of  mammary  pepsin  it  is 
changed  into  the  components  of  butter.  It  is  on  this  principle  that  the 
oleomargarine,  now  being  vended  in  such  immense  quantities  in  the 
United  States  and  Europe,  is  manufactured  from  cow's  fat  or  beef  suet. 

First  class  butter  is  free  from  every  trace  of  a  rancid  taste  or  smell. 
When  cut  with  a  knife  it  should  neither  soil  the  blade,  exude  any  dew  or 
milky  brine,  should  be  neither  sticky  nor  greasy,  but  should,  in  summer, 
possess  a  rich  yellow  color,  with  a  granular,  waxy  composition ;  in  winter 
the  color  should  be  of  whitish  cast  or  of  a  pale  yellow  tint.  A  plentiful 
clover  pasture  surpasses  all  other  food  for  producing  the  best  quality  of 
inilk  and  butter. 

ON  CHEESE  MANUFACTURE.— The  following  practical  directions  are 
by  an  experienced  manufacturer: 

"  When  two  milkings  are  united,  strain  the  evening's  milk  and  coo-1  by 
means  of  pieces  of  ice  dropped  into  the  pails  before  straining.  In  the 
morning  take  off  all  the  cream,  mix  it  with  twice  the  quantity  of  ne^» 
milk.  Add  warm  water  enough  to  raise  it  to  the  temperature  of  98*- 
Rub  annatto  through  a  silk  cloth  sufficient  to  make  the  curd  the  eeloj  of 
rich  cream.  Into  this  put  rennet  sufficient  to  curd  in  35  minutes.  Stir 
the  whole  into  the  milk  previously  raised  to  the  temperature  of  85°.  The  • 
milk  should  be  warmed  by  means  of  a  pail  of  hot  water  set  into  it,  bat 
never  by  putting  it  over  the  fire,  for  the  least  burning  of  the  milk  will 
•poil  the  cheese.  While  the  curd  is  setting,  cover  with  a  cloth  to-  pie- 
Tent  the  surface  from  cooling.  The  method  of  cutting,  scalding,  and 
pressing  depends  r.pon  the  varieties  of  cheese  to  be  manufactured. 
About  I  of  a  pound  of  the  best  Ashton  salt  is  sufficient  for  20  Ibs.  of  curd. 
Care  should  be  taken  that  the  whey  be  entirely  expressed." 

Calves  may  be  raised  in  first  class  order  at  a  cost  of  not  more  tharr  one- 
tenth  of  the  value  of  the  butter  made  from  the  milk  saved,  by  the  use  of 
oil  meal,  the  cheapest  molasses,  and  skim  milk.  The  right  quantity  fora 
young  calf,  is  a  tablespoonful  of  oil  meal  (oil  cake)  and  the  same  of 
molasses,  divided  into  3  parts,  for  2  days'  feed,  added  to  the  skim  milk. 
At  the  end  of  the  first  week  each  may  be  increased,  and  at  10  itays  a 
spoonful  of  molasses  and  the  same  of  oil  meal  may  be  given  at  each  feed. 
At  the  commencement  of  the  third  week  a  spoonful  of  oat  or  luirley 
meal  may  be  added  to  each  feed,  but  this  should  be  cooked.  The  oS 
meal  should  be  scalded  and  allowed  to  form  a  thick  mucilage  before 
being  mixed  with  the  skim  milk,  the  molasses  may  be  added  direct,  and 
the  whole  given  milk  warm.  Calves  raised  on  this  food  have  weighed 
125  Ibs.  at  4  weeks  old.  Hav  tea  is  sometimes  used  to  bring  up  a  calf  ? 
this  is  the  soluble  constituents  of  the  hay,  obtained  by  cooking. 


722 


FATTENING   POWER    OF   FOODS. 


At  the  noted  agricultural  college  of  Hohenheim,  Germany,  probably 
the  best  conducted  institution  of  the  kind  in  the  world,  they  raise  calvet 
ealirely  by  hand,  and  the  daily  allowance  of  food  is  as  follows  : 


1st  week  

MILK. 

Ibs. 
...   12   

OATMEAL. 

Ibs. 
,  0  

FIKSHAT 
Aft. 

o 

2nd    «         

...   16  

o  

Q 

3rd.    «     

...  20  

0     

4th     «                 

...  22  

o  

,  .                0 

5th  6th  and  7th  weeks  .  .  . 

...  22  

4th  week      

...  21  

V 

V 

...  20  

1 

1 

10th     <*     

...  16  

2  

3 

Hth     "     

...  12  

2  

,..  g 

12tl>      "                      

8  

—  2  .   .. 

10 

13th     "     . 

..   4  .. 

..  3  .. 

...10 

lu  the  ninth  week  the  milk  is  first  mixed  with  water,  and  a  little  fine 
oatmeal  is  stirred  in.  The  meal  is  afterwards  mixed  with  the  dry  fodder 

After  three  months  the  milk  is  withheld,  and  then  the  young  animals 
receive  daily,  till  two  and  one-half  years  old,  from  twenty  to  twenty-two 
pounds  of  hay  or  its  equivalent.  But  the  calves  never  after  receive,  even  in 
summer,  any  dry  food  till  they  are  nine  months  old.  The  average  feed- 
ing is  so  divided  that  the  younger  portion  receives  less,  the  older  more, 
till  t-'jfo  and  one-half  years,  when  they  begin  to  receive  the  regular  rations 
of  the  older  cattle,  including  the  grain  fodder  as  indicated  above.  The 
growth  with  this  treatment  is  such  that  these  animals  (not  Shorthorns) 
attain  the  following  weights  at  various  ages  : — 

HEIFERS.  BULLS. 

Average  weight  of  calves  at  three  months 233  Ibs 353  Iba. 


six  months 351 

"  "  "  "     twelvemonths 640 

"  "  "  "     two  years 1184 

Dally  increase  of  calves 1.5 


472 
,  750  " 
,1300  " 

1.8  " 
,   1.5  " 


in  second  year 1.4 

.  FATTENING  POWER  OF  FOODS,  PRODUCTION  OF  PORK,  BEEF,  &c.-* 
Carefully  conducted  experiments  prove  that  1  bushel  of  corn,  weighing 
56  Ibs.,  will  produce  10^  Ibs.  of  pork.  Throwing  off  J  to  come  at  the  net 
weight,  gives  8  2-5  Ibs.  of  pork  as  the  proceeds  of  1  bush,  corn,  01  1  Ib. 
of  pork  as  the  product  of  6§  Ibs.  of  corn.  1  Ib.  of  pork  is  made  by  3  4-5 
Ibs.  of  cooked  corn  meal.  Experiments  made  by  C.  M.  Clay,  of  Kentucky, 
showed  that  one  bushel  of  dry  com  made  5  Ibs.  10  ozs.  of  pork  ;  of  boiled 
corn,  14  Ibs.  7  ozs.,  and  boiled  meal,  16  to  13  Ibs.  The  following  TaO1* 
•hows  the  relation  which  the  price  of  corn  bears  to  that  of  pork  on  the 
assumption  that  it  requires  6§  Ibs.  of  corn  to  produce  1  Ib.  of  pork. 

TABLE  SHOWING  THE  PRICE  OF  PORK  PER  POUND  AT  DIFFERENT 
PRICES  PER  BUSHEL  FOR  CORN. 


Corn  per  bush. 
Cents. 

Pork  per  pound. 
Cents. 

Corn  per  bush. 
Cents. 

Pork  per  pound.     n 
Cents.              i 

12  l/o 

.   .     1  50 

38... 

4.52 

15*  

1  78 

40 

4.76 

17          

2  00 

42      

5.00 

5*0 

2  38 

45        .     . 

5.35 

22 

2  62 

50  

5.95 

25 

2  96 

55 

6.54 

30                     ; 

3  57 

60  

7.14 

33 

3-92 

65         

7.T4 

3B     

4.00 

70  

8.0T 

FATTENING  POWER   OP   FOODS.  723 

By  reversing  the  preceding  Table  we  obtain  the  price  of  corn  at  different 
prices  per  Ib.  for  pork.  The  utility  of  the  Table  is  apparent.  For  in- 
stance, if  corn  is  selling  at50c.  per  bushel  and  pork  for  only  tic.  per  Ib., 
it  would  be  most  profitable  to  sell  the  corn  ;  but  should  corn  be  selling  at 
40c.  per  bushel  and  pork  for  6c.  per  Ib.,  it  would  be  the  most  profitable  to 
sell  the  latter.  The  Table  must  be  regarded  as  an  approximation 
merely,  as  the  results  will  vary  according  to  the  sample  of  grain,  breed^ 
constitution,  age,  digestion,  condition,  habits,  health,  &c.,  of  the  animal. 

In  fattening  pigs,  peas  to  begin  with  are  the  most  valuable  food  to  fill 
tip  the  flesh  on  the  bones  ;this  well  accomplished,  corn  is  the  most  efficient; 
in  the  formation  of  fat.  A  mixture  of  peas  and  corn,  or  peas  and  barley, 
will  give  better  results  than  either  of  these  grains  fed  separately.  Peas 
contain  in  1,000  parts — 

264  parts  gluten,  and  496  of  starch,  gum  and  sugar. 

Corn 123    "          "         "    716 

Barley 64    "          "          "    684          "          " 

Gluten  and  albumen  are  flesh-i orming,  starch,  gum,  and  sugar,  are/ort- 
iorming  elements.  From  numerous  experiments,  Mr.  Harris,  in  his  work 
on  the  pig,  deduces  the  following  :  that 

A  moderately  fat  heifer  or  steer  will  dress  59i  percent,  meat. 
"  "  mutton  sheep     "      "     5i9        "         " 

"  "  pig  "       "     82|        "         " 

The  preponderance  in  favor  of  the  pig  is  immense.  It  is  remarked  by 
an  eminent  cattle  feeder,  Mr.  Clyde,  "that  an  ox  requires  two  per  cent 
of  his  live  weight  per  day :  if  he  works,  2i  per  cent  ;  a  milch  cow  3  per 
cent;  a  fattening  ox,  5  per  cent  at  first,  and  4^  per  cent  when  half  fat,  and 
4  per  cent  when  fat ;  grown  sheep,  3£  per  cent  to  keep  them  in  their 
store  condition."  An  ox,  to  replace  the  daily  loss  of  muscular  fibre,  re- 
quires from  20  to  24  ozs.  of  dry  gluten  or  vegetable  albumen  daily.  This 
would  be  supplied  by — 

120  Ibs.  of  turnips  or  17  Ibs.  clover  hay. 
115    "          wheat  straw  or  12  Ibs.  peas. 
75    "          carrots  or  12  Ibs.  barley. 
67    '          potatoes  or  10  Ibs.  oats. 
20    "         meadow  hay  or  5  Ibs.  beans. 

The  Society  of  Shakers,  at  Lebanon,  N.  Y.,  noted  for  pork  raising,  say  : 
'*  For  fattening  animals,  swine  particularly,  we  consider  three  of  cooked, 
equal  to  four  of  raw  meal." 

"  Unless  food  be  thoroughly  deprived  of  its  vegetative  powers  before  it 
enters  the  stomach,  the  whole  nourishment  which  it  is  capable  of  afford- 
ing cannot  be  derived  from  it.     The  most  effectual  mode  of  destroying 
the  living  principle  is  by  the  application  of  heat,  by  steaming  or  boiling. 
'~-Louden's  Encyclopedia  of  Agriculture. 

"  As  to  the  steaming  of  food  for  cattle,  there  is  abundant  experience  to 
recommend  it.  The  process  of  cooking  renders  soluble  that  which  would 
otherwise  be  imperfectly  digested.  It  removes,  in  some  cases,  what 
would  otherwise  be  unwholesome,  and  it  renders  savory  what  would 
otherwise  be  distasteful." — Morton's  Cyclopedia  of  Agriculture. 

If  30  Ibs.  of  hav  is  required  per  day  to  keep  1  cow  in  passable  order 
during  a  Canadian  winter,  numerous  experiments  establish  the  fact 
that  22  Ibs.  of  steamed  hay  will  answer  the  same  purpose  equally  well. 
This,  with  20  head  of  cattle,  will  effect  a  saving  of  160  Ibs.  per  day,  or 
$150  during  5  winter  months,  with  hay  at  $10  per  ton. 

Augustus  Whitman,  in  the  Country  Gentleman,  writes  :  "  While  28 
ibs.  per  day  of  good  hay  are  required  to  keep  dry  cows  (weighing  from 
1.150  Ibs.  to  1,450  Ibs.)  in  an  even  condition  of  flesh,  upon  20  Ibs.  of 
steamed  food  a  handsome  gain  is  made,,  The  trial  that  furnished  the 


RESULTS    OF    COOKED    FOOD. 

data  for  the  statement  was  made  a  year  since,  when  six  dry  cows,  in  coo* 
iition  as  nearly  alike  as  could  be  found,  were  divided  into  three  pair?, 
and  each  pair  led  differently  from  the  others  for  3  weeks  ;  note  was  then- 
made  of  the  result,  and  the  trial  continued  another  3  weeks,  giving  to 
each  pair  what  another  pair  had  previously  been  allowed.  The  result 
was,  that  upon  28  Ibs.  per  day  of  good  dry  hay,  two  cows  weighing  1,184^ 
IDS.  and  1,456  Ibs.  respectively,  just  about  held  their  own  ;  while  another 
pair  weighing  1,362  Ibs.  and  1,120  Ibs.  respectively,  upon  20  Ibs.  per  day 
of  steamed  feed,  gained  54  Ibs.  and  36  Ibs.  Reversing  the  feed  for  the 
second  three  weeks,  the  last  named  barely  held  their  own,  while  the  first 
gained  40  Ibs.  and  30  Ibs.  respectively. 

'*'  I  should  say  that  the  cattle  on  long  hay  had  all  they  would  eat  at  the 
three  regular  feeds,  and  the  quantity  consumed  was  found  to  be  at  the? 
close  of  the  trial  equal  to  28  Ibs.  per  day,  as  above  stated.  You  will  very 
properly  ask,  what  is  the  mixture  made  of  ? 

"  My  steam  box  (in  three  divisions)  holds  enough  to  fill  200  feed  boxes 
of  about  one  bushel  each,  and  requires  to  pack  it  well  900  Ibs.  of  dry 
fodder.  This  is  made  np  of  300  Ibs.  good  hay  and  600  Ibs.  of  corn  stover, 
dried  fodder,  corn  or  oat  or  barley  straw.  This  is  cut  tolerably  fine  and 
well  mixed,  and  when  packed  in  layers  for  steaming  is  thoroughly  wet 
and  seasoned  with  180  quarts  wheat  shorts,  60  quarts  cotton  seed  meal, 
and  60  quarts  com  meal. 

';  The  rule  for  feeding  now  observed,  and  thai  has  been  used  for  the 
past  winter,  is  somewhat  changed  from  previous  years,  and  is  a  boxful 
of  steamed  feed  morning  and  noon,  and  5  Ibs.  dry  hay  at  night.  The  two- 
boxes  of  feed  contain  3  Ibs.  good  hay,  6  Ibs.  straw  (or  its  equivalent),  t 
lb.  shorts,  and  1|  Ibs.  meal  (half  each  cotton  seed  and  corn),  and  upon 
th.'s  good  gain  is  made,  as  the  monthly  record  shows." 

A  cheap  and  serviceable  steamer  may  be  improvised  by  making  a  box: 
of  well  jointed  2  in.  pine,  about  7  or  8  feet  long  by  2£  ft.  wide,  with  a 
bottom  of  No.  16  sheet  iron,  nailed  securely  on  to  the  lower  edge  of  the 
sides  and  ends,  and  turned  np  a  little  outside  of  them,  say,  £  an  inch. 
Place  a  false  bottom  perforated  with  numerous  holes,  about  3  ins.  above 
the  fast  bottom,  and  arrange  a  tight  fitting  cover  for  the  top.  Set  the 
box  on  brick  work  over  a  suitable  fireplace,  so  that  the  wooden  edges  of 
the  box  will  be  safe  from  the  fire,  and  give  a  proper  draught  by  a  suitable 
diimney  erected  at  the  opposite  end  from  fireplace. 

The  space  between  the  lower  and  false  bot'.om  being  partly  filled  with 
wr.ter,  the  cut  hay  or  other  provender  is  packed  tightly  in  above  the  fal?e 
bottom,  the  cover  is  shut  tight,  the  fire  is  lighted,  and  the  steam  enters 
the  perforations  in  the  false  bottom  and  cooks  the  contents  of  the  box. 

Hon.  G.  GEDDES,  of  Syracuse,  N.Y.,  says  : — "That  there  is  no  branch, 
3f  farming  that  was  less  understood  and  promised  more  advantaged,  than: 
ihe  preparation  of  food.  He  had  thoroughly  proved  years  ago  that, 
ccokng,  independent  of  grinding,  nt  least  DOUBLED  THE  VALUE  OF  FOOD." 

GEO.  A.  MOORE,  of  Erie  Co.,  said  he  had  fed  200  sheep  on  cooked  food, 
and  he  had  fully  satisfied  himself  that  the  value  of  food  was  TRIPLED  BY 

COOKING. 

Professor  MAPES  says  (Transactions  American  Institute^  1864,  p.  373)  : 
"  The  experiment,  often  tried,  has  proved  that  eighteen  or  nineteen  pound* 
of  cooked  corn  is  equal  to  fifty  pounds  of  raw  corn  for  hog  feed.  Mr.. 
MASON,  of  New  Jersey,  found  that  pork  fed  with  raw  grain  cost  12 J cent* 
per  pound,  and  that  from  cooked  4|  cents.  Cooked  corn  stalks  are  as- 
soft  and  almost  as  nutritious  as  green  stalks.  Cattle  can  be  fattened  at 
about  half  the  expense  upon  cooked  food  as  upon  uncooked." 

Experiments  made  by  Mr.  OWEN  MERCHANT,  of  Warsaw,  N. Y. ,  prc ved 
Jtat  a  yoke  of  poor  oxen,  valued  at  about  $40,  were  fatted  on  cooked 


RESULTS  OF  COOKED  FOOD. 

.potatoes  and  bran  in  five  weeks  and  three  days,  and  made  extra 
^hieh  was  sold  in  the  market  for  first  quality. 

JAMES  BUCKINGHAM  gave  in  the  Prairie  Farmer  an  experiment  with 
raw  and  cooked  meal,  and  found  that  a  hog  fed  on  1£  bushels  raw  meai 
gained  19  pounds,  and  another  fed  on  one  bushel  cooked  meal  gained  ^2 
pounds. 

S.  H.  CLAY,  of  Kentucky,  found  by  experiment  that  a  bushel  of  raw 
<x>rn  makes  5£  pounds  of  pork,  whilst  a  bushel  of  cooked  meal  makes  17£ 
pounds. 

Mr.  A.  AVERY,  of  Syracuse,  N.Y.,  says,  after  two  years' trial : — "I 
think  I  have  saved  $10  per  head  on  keeping  (say  $600  on  the  stock  feed), 
besides  having  the  milch  cows  in  better  condition  than  ever  before."  He 
says  again,  in  April,  1869,  "  This  you  see  gives  me  a  clear  profit  of 
.$537.25  on  4i  months'  feed. 

Messrs.  DEWEY  and  STEWART,  ot  Owosso,  Mich.,  says:- -We have  fed 
<>4  head  of  cattle,  7  horses, and  340  sheep,  fattened  22  head  of  cattle  and  70 
sheep.  We  think  we  have  saved  one-third  the  expense  in  wintering  this 
stock. 

By  Professor  VOELCKER'S  analysis,  1  ton  of  wheat  straw  contains:— 
35  Ibs.  of  oil,  26  Ibs.  albumen, 

390  "    digestible,  85  "    mucilage. 

Experiments  by  E.  W.  STEWART,  of  New  York,  proved  a  bushel  of 
wheat  straw  with  two  quarts  middlings  or  meal  was  equal  to  the  saire 
^weight  of  ci'.t  hay,  and  was  worth  25  per  cent,  more  than  uncut  hay.  It 
was  also  found  that  the  animals  would  eat  25  percent,  more  hay  unc-  t 
than  cut.  The  same  experiment  was  then  made  with  corn  meal,  and  1 V 
pints  was  found  to  make  a  bushel  of  straw  equal  to  ha^r. 

Mr.  SKINNER,  of  New  Yc-k>  says  he  "fed  44  head  of  milch  cows  en 
steamed  straw  and  shippings,  and  26  head  on  hay  not  steamed.  Ti:(* 
straw  was  cut  and  steamed  with  the  shippings.  Each  cow  received  lOlLs. 
of  straw  and  8  Ibs.  of  shippings,  and  the  expense,  including  labor  and 
fuel,  was  29  cents  per  head,  daily.  The  26  cows  01?  hay  cosi  35  cents  per 
head,  daily,  showing  a  balance  of  6  cents  per  day  each  in  favor  of  t!io 
straw  and  shippings.  Those  fed  on  the  straw  were  full  and  plump,  wero 
gaining  flesh,  and  doing  better  than  those  fed  on  hay." 

In  Alcsath,  Hungary,  similar  trials  were  made  about  the  year  1839  OB 
a  very  large  scale,  resulting  in  a  decided  success.  The  trials  were  made 

208  draught  oxen,  108  days— daily  profit  of  steaming    $13  00 
2,000  old  wethers,     120    "  "  12  50 

34  stud  horses      :SO    "  "  "  1  42 

The  profit  on  180  days'  winter  feeding  on  the  above  animals  being  $4,850 
an  amount  quite  worth  saving.   Cooking  largely  increases  the  bulk  of  th% 
grain,  a  great  advantage  in  preparing  it  for  feeding  cattle. 
4  measures  of  corn  have  been  increased  to  13 
t  •  4  "  barley  "  10 

4  "  bran  "  "  14 

THOMAS  J.  EDGE  writes  to  the  Practical  Farmer:— "I  found  that  5 
bushels  of  whole  corn  made  47|  Ibs.  of  pork.  Five  bushels  (less  miller's 
toll)  of  corn  ground  and  made  into  thick  slop  with  cold  ivater,  made  51.\ 
Ibs  of  pork.  The  same  amount  of  meal  well  boiled  and  fed  cold,  mado 
83^  Ibs.  of  pork.  The  corn  cost  $1.30  per  bushel;  the  pork  made  from  tl-.o 
whole  corn  barely  paid  for  the  corn,  while  the  same  amount  of  ground 
%  corn  cooked,  paid  the  whole  cost  of  the  cooking  and  a  little  more  than  £-i 
per  bushel  over."  In  this  instance  the  pork  sold  at  $14  per  cwt.  I*  a 
second  experiment  10  bushels  of  corn  on  the  cob,  fed  in  the  usual  wp,y,  on 
the  ground,  made  29£  Ibs.  of  pork,  while  the  same  amount  of 
bcrse-powei  »ud  well  boiled.  jiu*ae  64  Ibs.  of  pork. 


726 


RESULTS    OF    COOKED    FOOD. 


J.  D.  ISETT  reports  in  the  Practical  Farmer  that  "he  formerly  *•£ 
his  team  horses  70  Ibs.  of  chop  for  each  horse  per  week,  besides  the  hay 
they  would  eat,  and  that  by  cooking  his  chop  he  found  that  his  horsei 
did'  better,  and  looked  better,  kept  in  better  spirits,  and  in  every  way 
were  better,  fed  on  50  Ibs.  per  week  than  on  the  large  amount  uncooked, 
making  a  saving,  as  he  claims,  on  8  weeks,  of  $57.60. 

Note.— In  steaming  hay,  chaff,  straw,  &c.,  the  fodder  should  first  be  cut  \ 
and  then  moistened  by  a  large  sprinkling  pot  or  hose,  adding  water  at  the  rate 
of  at  least  3  gals,  to  5  bushels  of  feed  while  it  is  being  stirred  up  with  a  fork; 
then,  if  bran,  meal,  or  other  more  concentrated  food  is  to  be  fed  with  it,  It 
should  be  sifted  on  evenly,  and  mixed.  Sift  in  a  little  salt  at  the  same  time. 
Food  thus  prepared  and  fed  to  horses  affected  with  the  heaves  will  of  ten  effect 
a  thorough  cure.  The  steaming  process  has  also  a  wonderful  transforming 
power  in  rendering  mildewed,  musty,  smutty,  and  rusted  straw,  hay,  corn, 
fodder,  &c.,  into  first-class,  nourishing  fodder.  Every  offensive  odor  and  re- 
pulsive taint  is  completely  dissipated  by  the  steaming  process. 

In  the  Practicul  Farmer  for  Dec.,  1868,  "  Agricola  "  writes,  "  I  have 
demonstrated  to  my  own  satisfaction,  with  the  use  of  the  Prindle 
Steamer  *  and  careful  weighing,  that  while  5  bushels  of  boiled  mush  will 
make  84  Ibs.  of  pork,  3  bushels  of  meal  and  5  bushels  of  potatoes  will  makt 
72  Ibs.  of  pork." 


PRINDLE' s  AGRICULTURAL  BOILER. 

In  doing  business  on  a  large  scale,  it  is  much  the  best  way  to  nse  an 
Agricultural  Boiler,  like  that  of  Prindle' s,  represented  in  the  cut,  which 
illustrates  the  method  by  which  the  steam  is  transmitted  to  the  barrel  or 
box  containing  the  fodder  to  be  cooked.  The  uses  of  such  a  contrivance 
are  manifold.  It  may  be  used  to  great  advantage  as  a  smaH  still  for  dig 

*  Note— Farmers  will  be  pleased  to  learn  that  this  unequalled  Agricultural. 
Steamer  and  Farmer's  Boiler,  is  the  invention  of  DANIEL  R.  PBINDLE,  him- 
self a  practical  farmer,  of  East  Bethany,  N.Y.  It  was  victorious  at  the 
World's  Exhibition  at  Philadelphia  in  1876.  Full  information,  circulars,  &c., 
obtained  free,  by  addressing  tbe  inventor  as  above,  or  the  manultteturer% 
BABBOWS,  SAVEBY  &  Co.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 


TYMBEK   MEASUREMENT. 


tilling  essential  oils,  refining  coul  oil,  boiling  clothes,  warming  loath  tnt», 
heating  small  rooms,  scalding  hogs,  &c.  These  boilers,  made  by  Savery 
&  Co.,  Philadelphia,  are  provided  with  safety  valves,  flexible  pipes,  &c., 
and  may  be  procured  in  the  United  States  from  Robert  C.  Reeves,  dealer 
in  Agricultural  implements,  &c. ,  185  and  187  Water  Street,  New  York. 
Another  Boiler,  somewhat  similar,  is  sold  by  William  Remaie,  Torooto, 
Ont. 

XUMBER  OF  FEET  IN  LENGTH  OF  THE  FOLLOWING  DIMENSIONS  OF  TIMBEB 
REQUIRED  TO  MAKE  1000  FEET  OP  BOARD  AND  CUBIC  MEASURE  KB- 
'      8PECTIVELY. 


Sice. 

No.  of  ft.  in 
length    to 
make    1000 
ft.  cubic  m. 

Size. 

No.  of  ft. 
in  length 
to  make 
1000  feet 
board  m. 

Sire. 

No.  of  ft. 
in  length 
to  make 
1000  feet, 
board  m. 

To  MEASURE  LUMBER 
BY  THE  BOARD  RUJLK.  — 
Place  the    rule   across 
the  board  to  be  meas- 

6x5 

5,760 

2x6 

1,000 

6  x  10       200 

ured,  with   the  far  end 
flush  with  the  off  side  of 

6x6 

4,800 

2x7 

857.2 

6  X  111      181.10 

the  board,  and  note  the 

6x7 

4,114.3 

2x8 

750 

6  x  12       166.8 

width    in  inches;    then 

6x8 

3,600 

2x9 

666.8 

7x7       244.11 

measure   the  length  of 

6x9 

3,200 

2    xlO 

600 

7x8 

214.3 

board  and  turn  the  rule 

K  XlO 

2.880 

2    xll 

545.6 

7x9 

190.6 

to  same  length,  examin- 

6x11 

2,618-2 

2    x!2 

500 

7  xlO 

171.5 

ing  the   section  or  col- 

6 x  12 
6x6 

2,400 
4,000 

2£  x    5 

2(f  X    6 

960 
800 

7  xll 
7  x!2 

155.10 
142.10 

umn  of  that  length,  and 
the    contents    will    be1 

6x7 

3,428.7 

2|  X    7 

685.9 

8x8 

187.6 

found  indented  on  the 

6x8 

3,000 

2J  x    8 

600 

8x9 

166.8 

rule  just  over  the  nigh 

6x9 

2,666.8 

2|  x    9 

633.4 

8  xlO 

150 

edge  of  the  board. 

6  xlO 

2,400 

2$  xlO 

480 

8  xll 

136.4 

RULE      TO  *  MEASURK 

6  xll 

2,181.8 

3x5 

800 

8  x!2 

125 

LOGS  OR  ROUND-TIM- 

6 x  12 

2,000 

3x6 

666.8 

9x9 

148.2 

BER.—  Multiply   th« 

7x7 

2,938.9 

3x7 

571.5 

9  x  10 

133.4 

length,  taken  in  it.,  by 

7x8 

2,571.4 

3x8 

500 

9  xll 

121.3 

the  square  of  one  quar- 

7x9 

2,285.8 

3x9 

444.4 

9  x!2 

111.2 

ter  of   the  mean  girth. 

7  xlO 

2,057.3 

3    xlO 

400 

10  x  10 

120 

measured  in  inches,  ana 

7  xll 

1,870.1 

3    xll 

363.7 

10  xll 

109.1 

this  product  divided  by 

7  x!2 

1,714.3 

3    x!2 

333.4 

10  x!2 

100 

144  will  give  the  requir- 

8x8 

2,550 

4x5 

600 

11  xll 

99.2 

ed  contents  in  cubic  It.. 

8x9 
8  xlO 

2,000 
1,800 

4x6 
4x7 

500 

428.7 

11  x!2 
12  x!2 

90.9 
83.4 

In  measuring  tapering- 
timber   take    the  girtfii 

8  xll 

1,636.4 

4x8 

375 

12  x!4 

71.5 

about  one-third  the  dis^ 

8  x!2 

1,500 

4x9 

333.4 

12  x!6 

62.5 

tance  from  the  large  to. 

9x9 

1,777.9 

4    xlO 

300 

12  x!8 

55.6 

the  small  end. 

10  xlO 

1,600 

4    xll 

272.8 

12  x20 

50 

RULB    FOR  ANY  SlZK. 

9x11 

1,455.5 

4    x!2 

250 

16  x  18 

41.8 

—  Multiply  the  number 

9  x!2 

1,333.4 

5x6 

400 

20  x20 

30 

of  ft.  in  the  face  of  the 

10  xlO 

1,440 

5x7 

342.10 

20  x24 

25 

timber  to  be  measured. 

10  x!2 

1,200 

5x8 

300 

22  x24 

22.8 

by    the     thickness    fn. 

11  xll 

1,190 

5x9 

266.8 

18  x24 

27.10 

inches,  and    the  result, 

11  x  12 

1,091 

5    xlO 

540 

18  x20 

33.4 

will  be  the  contents  ink 

12  x!2 

1,000 

5    xll 

218.2 

14  x!6 

53.7 

ft.  of  board  measure. 

14  x!6 

642.10 

5    x!2 

200 

15  x!8 

44.5 

16  x!8 

500 

6x6 

333.4 

16  x20 

37.6 

18  x20 

400 

6x7 

285.8 

13  x!4 

66.11 

20  x22 

327.3 

6x8 

250 

30  x40 

10 

22  x24 

272.8 

6x9 

222.2 

36  x36 

9.3 

The  foregoing  table  will  be  found  extremely  useful  to  every  timber 
merchant,  mill  owner,  lumberman,  and  farmer.    For  other  tables  relat- 
ing to  Timber  measurement,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  series 
mencing  with  page  617. 


728 


GEOLOGICAL    FACTf. 


-    ."  VJUlQCCne.*  *  «-*    -^ : 

•;•>•;>.•-..-*-.••;:• 


GEOLOGICAL  FACTS  ;  AGE,  ORIGIN  AND  ULTIMATE 
DURATION  OF  THE  EARTH. 

Geology  is  a  noble  science  of  but  recent  origin; 
it  treats  of  the  structure  and  mineral  construc- 
tion of  the  earth's  crust,  the  varied  strata  which 
compose  it,  the  fossils  they  contain,  and  th« 
tremendous  forces  employed  in  their  formation.  « 
The  diagram  displays  the  order  in  which  the  differ- 
ent strata  are  super-imposed  on  each  other  ;  they 
extend  to  an  estimated  depth  of  82,600  feet  or  up- 
wards of  15  miles,  from  the  surface  down  to  the 
granite.  The  granite,  styled  by  geologists,  the 
primitive,  crystalline,  or  igneous  rocks,  owing  to 
their  evident  origin  from  the  action  of  fire,  forma 
the  foundation  of  the  stratified  rocks,  and  at  one 
period  the  surface  of  the  globe  was  entirely  com- 
posed of  these  rocks  in  an  incandescent  condition 
like  molten  iron.  Gradually  cooling  during  the 
lapse  of  ages,  a  crust  was  formed,  water  was  con- 
densed from  the  atmosphere,  and  the  formation 
of  the  stratified  or  aqueous  rocks  began.  As  an 
instrumentality  in  creation,  water  seems  to  have 
been  endowed  with  absolute  power,  for  its  irre- 
sistible potency  appears  to  be  omnipresent  in  the 
formation  of  everything  terrestrial.  Each  strati- 
fied layer  bears  manifest  proof  of  having  at  one 
time  composed  the  surface  of  the  earth  on  which, 
we  dwell,  and  a  duration  of  time,  estimated  by 
Prof.  Agassiz  to  be  not  less  than  15,000,000  of 
years  have  been  required  to  produce  the  different 
strata  that  have  been  formed  since  first  the  dry 
land  appeared.  The  substances  of  which  the 
stratified  rocks  consist  have  al]  been  deposited  by 
the  action  of  water  ;  each  imbeds  in  its  rocky 
prison  enormous  quantities  of  the  fossil  remains 
of  organized  forms  of  animal  and  vegetable  life, 
which  at  one  time,  although  at  periods  inconceiv- 
bly  remote,  flourished  in  the  sunshine,  on  the 
blooming  surface  of  the  earth. 

The  following  table  shows  the  relative  position 
in  which  these  various  strata  exist  with  respect  to 
each  other,  computing  from  the  granite  upwards 
together  with  the  estimated  thickness  of  each,  but 
it  must  not  be  imagined  that  they  can  all  be  found 
in  any  one  particular  part  of  the  earth.  Some 
will  always  be  found  missing,  the  existence  and 
absence  of  such  deposits  being  caused  by  the 
alternate  submersions  and  dessications  which  have 
existed  at  different  times  on  every  part  of  the 
earth's  surface.  All  land  and  stratified  rocka 
have  been  formed  by  tidal  and  sub-marine  action, 
and  whatever  the  strata  may  be  in  any  given  place, 
the  order  of  their  succession  is  always  the  same. 
The  PRIMARY  comprises  the  Azoic  and  Cambrian 
or  bottom  rocks,  the  Silurian,  the  Devonian  or 
Old  Red  Sandstone,  the  Carboniferous  or  Coal 

JSysfcem.  and  the  Permian.    The  SECONDARY,  which  succeeds,  comprises 


GEOLOGICAL   FACTS.  729 

tfa«  Trias  and  Oolite,  and  the  cretaceous  or  Chalk  formation.  Tfc€ 
TEftriABr  consists  of  the  Eocene,  Miocene,  Pliocene  and  the  Pleistocene, 
or  superficial  deposits. 

FEET. 

( Azoic  (lifeless)  and  Cambrian  rocks     26,000 

|  Silurian,  Lower  and  Upper  30,000 

PRIMARY  Devonian,  or  Old  Red  Sandstone  9,000 

Carboniferous,  or  Coal  10,000 

Permian  2,000 

-,  ( Trias  and  Oolite  2,500 

SECONDARY         j  Cretaceous?  or  chalk  1,100 

( Eocene,  or  lower  tertiary 

_.  \  Miocene,  or  middle  tertiary  !    9  /yy> 

TERTiAR"k  <  pliocene>  or  Upper  tertiary 

[  Diluvium,  or  superficial  deposits      } 

86,600 

1st.  The  primitive  or  igneous  rocks  (granite)  contain  no  organic  re* 
aains,  they  bear  evidence  of  having  existed  at  one  time  in  a  molten  statft 
by  reason  of  intense  heat.  These  rocks  protrude  through  the  earth  in 
many  places,  forming  mountains,  &c.,  in  numerous  localities,  the  upheaval, 
as  many  suppose,  being  caused  by  volcanic  forces  operating  from  be- 
neath. 

2d.  The  Cambrian,  Azoic,  metamorphic  or  transition  rocks  are  partly 
crystalline,  but  manifestly  stratified,  and  composed  in  great  part  of  the 
disintegrated  material  of  the  underlying  granite,  with  slight  deposits  of 
sea  shells.  The  v4  Azoic  "  rocks  denote  those  devoid  of  all  traces  of  or- 
ganic life. 

3d.  The  Silurian  formation  resting  on  the  Cambrian,  contains  remains 
of  Zoophytes,  Mollusks,  and  Crustaceans,  all  of  them  submarine  inverte* 
brat.e  animals  of  a  very  low  order.  The  Zoophite  is  a  sort  of  starfish 
•fixed  on  the  top  of  a  slender  stalk,  rising  from,  and  adhering  to  the 
bottom  of  the  water,  supplied  with  long  tentacles  or  fingers,  armed  with 
guckers  stretching  forth  on  all  sides  to  seize  their  prey  and  convey  it  to 
a  stomach  of  a  simple  organism  with  one  orifice.  The  mollusks  are 
pulpy,  boneless  creatures  with  or  without  shells,  like  the  modern  oyster, 
muscle,  snail  or  slug.  Of  the  Crustaceans  the  most  highly  developed  were 
the  trilobite,<,  now  quite  extinct,  but  at  this  time  existing  in  great  profu- 
sion and  variety ;  the  nearest  existing  resemblance  to  the  trilobites  is 
to  be  found  in  the  lobster,  crab,  shrimp,  or  crayfish  families.  Of  the 
vegetable  creation  no  traces  are  to  be  found  in  this  formation  beyond 
the  casts  of  some  specimens  of  Fucoids  or  sea-weeds.  In  the  Silurian 
formation  no  vertebrated  animals  have  been  anywhere  discovered.  To  this 
class  belong  all  those  animals  furnished  with  a  vertical  spine  or  backbone^ 
with  connecting  skeleton,  as  Fishes,  Reptiles,  Birds,  Mammals  and  the 
Human  race.  No  dry  land,  or  land  vegetation  existed  during  this  epoch. 

4th.  The  Devonian  or  Old  Red  Sandstone  formation,  resting  on  the 
Silurian,  contains  the  fossil  remains  of  nearly  200  varieties  of  vertebrate 
iishes.  All  these  fishes  were  cartilaginous,  clad  in  strong  integuments  cf 
bone  compospa  of  enamelled  plates,  instead  of  the  scales  which  cover  the 
existing  races  of  the  deep.  Owing  to  the  intense  internal  heat  of  the  globe, 
the  water  composing  the  seas  during  this  period  were  in  a  tepid  or  warm 
condition,  hente  the  need  of  this  defensive  exterior  on  the  finny  tribes. 
As  the  jrlobe  cooled  down  and  the  alternations  of  summer  heat  and 
winter  ^old  set  in  (as  evidenced  by  the  appearance  of  annual  season  rings 
in  the  iossil  trees)the?e  fishes  disappeared  and  others  came  into  existence. 
The  dawn  of  the  Old  Red  Sandstone  epoch  was  heralded  by  tremendoui 


GEOLOGICAL    FACTS- 

and  tride  spread  volcanic  explosions  causing  the  upheaval  of  the  imde*Af- 
ing  granite,  lifting  with  it  the  super-imposed  Cambrian  and  Silurian  strate,T 
thertby  forming  mountains  and  dry  land  above  the  surlace  of  the  waters. 
J-aiMt  vegetation  soon  followed.  Vertebrate  fishes  were  created,  their 
armored  condition  attesting  a  very  high  temperature  on  the  earth  during 
tbe  whole  period.  This  formation  contains  67  species  of  Zoophytes,  4§ 
of  Crustacea,  88  of  conchifera,  82  of  mollusca,  &c.,  but  no  quadrupeds. 

5th.  The  carboniferous  system,  resting  on  that  of  the  Old  Red  Sandstone, 
contains  deposits  of  Shale,  Sandstone  and  Limestone,  interspersed  with 
Irocstone  and  coal.  The  internal  heat  of  the  earth  was  still  of  a  high  tem- 
perature during  this  epoch,  vast  volumes  of  carbonic  acid  gas  were 
•mitted  from  the  ground,  hot,  hazy,  damp  vapors  rilled  the  atmosphere, 
the  conditions  of  shade,  heat  and  humidity,  extending  even  into  the  frigid 
rones,  generated  a  growth  of  Ferns,  Calamites,  Lepidodendra,  Sigillaria 
and  Stigmaria  of  prodigious  extent  and  the  most  astonishing  dimensions. 
These  different  growths,  compared  with  which  the  most  luxuriant  tropical 
vegetation  of  modern  times  are  but  as  a  howling  wilderness  or  a  barren 
desert,  existed  at  widely  different  periods  ;  each  underwent  a  complete 
gubmersion  under  water,  sand  and  gravel,  and  it  is  to  the  great  masses  of 
vegetable  matter  which  composed  these  primeval  forests  that  the  coal 
measures  owe  their  origin.  The  transmutation  of  the  vegetable  into  tjie 
mineral  substance  of  coal  has  occupied  incalculable  ages,  but  on  close  in- 
spection the  vegetable  structure  is  plainly  visible,  and  no  doubt  can  exist 
of  its  organic  origin. 

The  fossil  remains  imbedded  in  the  limestone  sections  which  alternate 
with  coal  seams  mainly  resemble  those  of  the  preceding  ages.  Rep- 
tiles of  the  Batrachian  or  frog  species,  and  terrestrial  animals  in  the 
forms  of  insects  of  a  low  order,  chiefly  of  the  Scorpion,  Cockroach, 
Cricket  and  Beetle  tribes,  now  first  appear.  The  festering  heat  was  unsuit- 
able to  higher  organisms,  no  sunbeam  could  penetrate  the  dense  mists, 
silence  held  universal  sway,  while  a  profuse,  flowerless  and  almost  fruit- 
less vegetation,  unparalleled  in  immensity  by  anything  ever  known  in  the 
history  of  this  planet,  tenanted  the  sombre  and  death-like  solitudes.  These 
forests  grew  with  amazing  rapidity  until  the  soft  and  pulpy  masses  fell 
beneath  their  own  weight  and  succeeding  forests  sprang  from  their  pros- 
trate trunks.  A  terrible  revulsion  of  nature  takes  place ;  these  precious 
materials  are  destined  for  the  future  use  of  man.  Water,  the  main-spring 
of  all  terrestrial  activity,  the  irresistible  agent  of  creative  power,  comes 
upon  the  scene  with  overwhelming  force,  these  forests  are  submerged, 
and  covered  with  strata  of  sand  and  gravel,  long  since  transmuted  into 
sections  of  rock.  Thus  the  bosom  of  the  earth  was  made  the  store-house 
of  those  vast  treasures  of  coal  and  iron  which  daily  minister  to  the  wants 
of  man. 

6ft.  The  PERMIAN  system  is  superimposed  on  the  Carboniferous  forma- 
tion. Violent  subterranean  convulsions  appear  to  have  dislocated  the  coal 
beds  about  the  commencement  of  this  epoch,  and  on  the  broken  masses  the 
Permian  system  of  sedimentary  rocks  were  deposited.  The  ancient  order  of 
fishes  occur  in  this  formation  for  the  last  time,  the  Trilobite  disappears  from 
existence,  and  undoubted  traces  of  an  air-breathing  oviparous  reptile  of 
the  Saurian  (lizard)  family  appear.  Fossil  footsteps  of  four-footed  ani- 
mals, apparently  those  of  'tortoises,  exist,  and  for  the  first  time  we  dis- 
cover the  annual  season  rings  in  the  fossil  woods,  thus  attesting  that  the 
unclouded  sunbeam  had  free  access  to  vegetation.  This  formation  com- 
prises, 1st.  The  red  conglomerate.  2d.  The  magnesiaii  limestone.  3d. 
The  variegated  sandstone.  4th.  Muschelkalk  ;  and  5th.  Uppermost, 
Variegated  marl.  The  petrifactions  of  the  vegetables,  zoophytes,  Crus- 
tacea, fishes  and  fresh  water-shells  are  numerous.  With  the  Permian 


GEOLOGICAL    FACTS. 

system  closes  the  Primary  or  Palaeozoic  class  of  rocks  which  form  the 
•arth's  crust,  and  the  primeval  forms  of  organized  animal  life  disappear. 

7th.  THK  SECONDARY  PERIOD. — The  Trias  and  Oolite  system  rests  on  the 
Permian  formation.  The  Trias  is  a  deposit  of  shelly  limestone  and  varie- 
gated sandstones.  The  Oolite,  which  rests  on  it  is  also  a  series  of  calca- 
reous or  limestone  beds  principally  composed  of  conglomerate,  or  collec- 
tions of  small  round  grains  or  spheroids  resembling  a  cluster  of  minute 
eggs,  or  the  roe  of  a  fish.  This  epoch  has  been  styled  "  The  Age  of  Rep~ 
tiles"  from  the  enormous  number  of  fossil  remains  visible  in  this  form- 
ation. One  species  of  frog  seems  to  have  equalled  a  large  hog  in  size. 
The  Icthyosaurus,  an  amphibious  animal,  often  exceeded  30  feet  in  length, 
with  a  head  and  teeth  resembling  those  of  a  crocodile,  and  eyes  as  large 
as  a  man's  head,  with  a  huge  voracious  stomach,  and  four  fins  like  the 
paddles  of  a  whale.  The  half  digested  remains  of  fishes  and  other  rep- 
tiles found  in  its  stomach  attest  its  carnivorous  habits,  terrible  ferocity, 
and  tremendous  strength.  The  Piesiosaurus  "united  to  the  head  of 'a 
lizard  the  teeth  of  a  crocodile,  a  neck  of  vast  length  resembling  the  body 
of  a  serpent,  a  trunk  and  tail  having  the  proportions  of  an  ordinary  quad- 
ruped, the  ribs  of  a  chameleon,  and  the  paddles  of  a  whale."  The  struc- 
ture would  permit  it  to  plunge  downwards  at  the  fishes  below  it  or  seize 
birds  on  the  wing  above  it.  The  Meyilosaurus  was  an  enormous  reptile, 
measuring  from  40  to  50  feet  in  length,  resembling  the  crocodile  of  the 
present  day.  The  Iguanodon  was  still  larger,  attaining  a  length  of  from 
CO  to  70  feet.  The  Saurian  monsters,  the  Pterodactyles,  resembled  a 
gigantic  bat  or  vampire,  with  strange  dragon-like  wings,  extending  ia 
some  cases,  27  feet,  by  means  of  which  it  could  soar  aloft,  but  per  Cuvier, 
it  must  be  classed  in  the  Saurian  or  Lizard  tribe,  inasmuch  as  the  beaks 
are  armed  with  teeth."  Most  of  them  had  the  nose  elongated  like  the 
snout  of  a  crocodile,  and  armed  with  conical  teeth.  From  their  wings 
projected  fingers  terminated  by  long  hooks,  forming  a  powerful  paw,  and 
their  eyes  were  of  vast  size,  enabling  them  to  fly  by  jjjght.  In  the  lower 
Oolite,  fossil  remains  of  small  animals  of  the  Marsupial  family  have  been 
found.  Of  this  class  are  the  Kangaroo  and  Opossum  species,  forming  the 
connecting  link  between  the  reptile  and  mammal  tribes.  The  footprints 
of  birds  of  vast  size  have  been  found  in  quarries  of  laminated  flagstones, 
the  foot  of  the  largest  measured  18  inches  in  length,  distance  between  the 
footsteps  was  from  4  to  6  feet,  indicating  legs  about  7  feet  long.  Remains 
of  reptiles  in  immense  numbers  are  everywhere  abundant  ;  butterfliesy 
.dragon-flies,  ants,  &c.,  existed)Mi  swarms,  trees  of  Cypress,  Pal/n  and  Pine 
species  flourished  with  the  ferns,  conifers  and  calamites  of  the  coal 
period,  and  flowering  shrubs  and  fruit-bearing  plants  grew  in  profusion., 
The  extensive  coal  beds  existing  throughout  the  Oolite  system  afford 
evidence  of  a  rank  vegetation. 

8th.  The  Chalk  or  Cretaceous  system,  formed  by  deposits  in  deep  seas, 
constitutes  the  last  bed  of  the  SECONDARY  period.  It  is  largely  composed 
of  organic  remains,  calcareous  shells  of  animals  so  minute  that  a  cubic 
inch  would  embrace  ten  millions  of  them.  The  fossils  embrace  Birds, 
Reptiles,  Fishes,  Mollusks,  Zoophytes,  Crustaceans  and  marine  substances 
from  the  sponge  to  the  alligator.  The  existing  classes  of  fishes  are  found 
for  the  first  time  in  this  formation,  and  the  ancient  races  disappear. 

9th.  THE  TERTIARY  SYSTEM,  resting  on  the  chalk  formation,  has  been 
divided  into  three  eras,  viz  :  The  Eocene  or  Lower  Tertiary,  The  Mio- 
cene, or  Middle  Tertiary,  and  the  Pliocene,  or  Upper  Tertiary.  Some- 
times a  fourth  era  is  added  named  the  Pleistocene,  embracing  the  super* 
ficial  deposits.  The  Eocene,  or  lowest  layer  marks  the  origin  of  the 
recent  or  now  existing  races  of  quadruped  Mammals.  The  Palaetherium, 
now  extinct,  is  described  as  partaking  of  the  various  character  of  the 
Rhinoceros,  the  Horse,  and  the  Tapir  :  the  ^Anaplotherium-  evidently  & 


732  GEOLOGICAL    FACTS. 

marine  animal,  resembled  an  Ass  in  form,  and  embraced  seyeral  speciea 
The  Adapis  resembled  an  enormous  Hedgehog,  and  the  Cheiropotamus  a 
Peccary.  The  Miocene  or  middle  deposit  contains  the  remains  of  the 
extinct  Dinotherium  Giganteum,  an  enormous  herbivorous  animal,  which 
must  have  been  18  ft.  in  length,  furnished  with  a  trunk  like  an  elephant, 
and  tusks  like  those  of  a  walrus.  In  ascending  to  the  Pliocene  or  upper 
deposit,  we  find  the  organic  remains  of  the  Mammoth,  Mastodon,  Megal-  - 
onyx,  and  Megatherium,  all  of  immense  dimensions  and  quite  superioraS 
regards  size  and  strength  to  the  Elephant,  the  Rhinoceros,  the  Hippopota* 
inus,  and  the  Sloth,  which  represent  them  at  the  present  day.  Besides 
these,  bears,  tigers,  hyenas,  and  other  flesh  eating  animals,  some  of  them 
extinct,  abounded  in  vast  numbers,  and  the  Whale,  Seal,  and  Morse 
species  now  appear  for  the  first  time.  For  a  distance  of  10  or  12  miles 
around  Charleston,  S.C.,  there  exists  in  the  post  pliocene  beds  of  the 
tertiary  formation,  about  8  or  10  feet  below  the  surface,  and  in  the  beds 
of  rivers,  such  enormous  quantities  of  the  bones  of  animals  that  800  to 
1,000  tons  can  be  excavated  from  a  single  acre.  Over  300,000  tons  were 
shipped  from  that  locality  in  1876. 

According  to  Lyell,  there  are  now  50,000  species  of  fossils  recognized, 
but  they  are  believed  to  be  of  very  distant  epochs.  The  fossil  species 
distinct  from  living  species,  are  mammalia,  120,  birds,  25,  amphibia,  50, 
fishes,  400,  and  mollusca  3,100,  in  all  4795,  besides  vegetables  ;  the  number 
is  constantly  being  increased  by  new  discoveries,  miners  are  conversant 
with  an  immense  number  of  fossilized  vegetables,  none  of  them  resembling 
the  plants  of  present  growth.  If  coals  are  cut  into  thin  slices  their  vegetable 
structure  can  be  detected  with  the  microscope,  and  numerous  cells  per- 
ceived that  are  filled  with  a  yellow  bituminous  liquid  that  causes  the 
flame  seen  in  common  fires,  and  whose  gaseous  products  form  illuminating 
gas.  The  trunk  of  a  tree,  measuring  60  feet,  was  lately  found  in  a  quarry 
in  Lothian.  It  penetrated  through  10  or  12  strata  of  white  sandstone,  but 
its  back  had  become  pure  coal,  and  forests  of  standing  trees  have  been 
discovered  in  Yorkshire  and  in  Ireland,  in  stone. 

In  the  English  coal  measures,  300  sptcies  have  been  detected,  compris' 
ing  ferns,  palms,  calamites,  reeds,  cactae,  lepidodendrons,  &c.,  at  least 
50^000  years  old  :  the  last  named,  which  now  grow  no  higher  than  3  ft., 
were  in  the  lowest  coal  measures,  great  trees,  whose  fragments  are  45 
feet.  In  the  magnesian  limestone,  over  the  coal,  only  8  species  of  fuci, 
or  marine  plants,  have  been  found.  A  fossil  forest  has  been  discovered 
under  the  banks  of  the  Tiber,  petrified  with  calcsinter,  mixed  with  vol-  • 
canic  dust.  Below  the  coal  beds  a  large  tree  has  been  found  3  ft.  in  diam., 
and  36  ft.  long,  and  in  many  cases  the  entire  trunks  of  fossilized  trees 
form  roofs  over  the  coal  strata.  As  submersions  destroyed  the  primeval 
forests,  so  we  have  the  resulting  strata  ;  but  myriads  of  ages  have  failea 
to  render  all  of  them  perfect  coal,  hence  the  different  varieties  of  that , 
product.  f 

The  coral  r«efs  furnish  evidence  of  an  antiquity  of  the  globe  far  exceed- 
ing any  received  estimate.  The  formations  are  of  very  slow  growth,  nofe 
exceeding  6  inches  in  a  century,  and  are  composed  of  the  remains  of  dead- 
polypes  united  with  gluten,  forming  rocks  of  great  density  and  cohesion. 
The  great  coral  reef  of  New  Holland  is  350  miles,  continuously,  and  thert 
in  parts  1,000  miles,  and  from  20  to  50  in  depth.  East  of  New  South, 
Wales  is  a  reef  500  miles  long,  and  more  than  200  fathoms  perpendicular, 
yet  these  mountain  masses  of  limestone  in  the  ocean  are  formed  by  pol- 
ypes, insignificant  in  size,  but  infinite  in  numbers,  composed  of  simple 
.gelatinous  bodies,  or  small  stomachs  in  shells  of  carbonate  of  lime,  which 
cohere  together  with  great  tenacity  after  death.  Within  half  a  mile  of 
\nany  coral  reefs  there  are  no  soundings  to  the  depth  of  several  hundred 


GEOLOGICAL   FACTS.  735 

fhthoms.  The  Ammonites,  a  fossil  shell  in  a  spiral  form,  curved  like  a 
ram's  horn,  existed  in  various  shapes  during  the  secondary  and  transition, 
periods,  but  became  extinct,  perhaps,  100, 000  years  ago.  The  nummulite, 
a  fossil  Cephalapod,  resembling  a  coin,  were  so  numerous  as  to  form  im- 
inense  mountains  of  limestone,  and  yet  so  ancient  that  they  are  abundant 
in  the  stones  of  the  pyramids  and  sphinx,  yet  even  then  as'embedded  fos- 
sils. 1234  species  of  fossil  shells  have  been  described  in  France  and  Eng- 
land, mostly  extinct  species  :  other  thousands  have  been  found  in  otliet 
countaies,  mostly  extinct. 

The  Geological  Society  of  London  has  a  slab  2  ft.  square  in  which  iar. 
embedded  250  fishes.  Fossil  sea  turtles  have  shells  8  ft.  long.  There  are 
beds  of  sea  shells  2,000  ft.  high  on  Mount  Etna,  and  strata  of  grey  clay, 
filled  with  shells,  much  higher.  Shells  and  organic  remains  abound  in- 
Chili,  from  9  to  1,400  ft.  above  the  sea  level.  Workmen  near  Eureka, 
Nevada,  while  blasting  in  the  solid  rock,  40  ft.  below  the  surface,  found' 
imbedded  in  a  piece  of  it  a  petrified  wasp's  nest,  the  texture  of 
which,  though  turned  to  stone,  was  plainly  visible.  On  breaking  it  open,, 
some  cells,  larva,  and  two  perfectly  formed  wasps  were  found,  also  pet- 
rified. The  rock  is  of  a  granite  sandstone  of  sedimentary  formation. 
The  Atlantosaurus,  an  enormous  monster  from  Colorado,  is  per  Prof.. 
Marsh,  the  largest  land  animal  as  yet  discovered.  It  was  some  50  or  6P 
ft .  in  length,  and,  when  erect,  at  least  30  ft.  high.  It  doubtless  browsed 
upon  the  foliage  of  the  mountain  forests,  portions  of  which  are  preserved, 
with  its  remains. 

The  islands  of  the  Icy  Sea,  per  Pallas,  are  full  of  elephants  and  rhinoc- 
eros' bones,  and  the  islands  opposite  the  Lena  are  almost  composed  of  them, 
and  fossil  wood.  A  mammoth,  a  carnivorous  animal,  much  larger  than: 
an  elephant,  was  found  in  Siberia  in  the  ice,  perfect  in  its  eyes,  flesh,  hair, 
skin,  &c.,  with  long  mane  and  tail  of  stout  black  bristles  ;  many  others,, 
together  with  elephants,  have  been  found  in  Siberia,  and  Hudson's  Bay,. 
a  positive  proof  that  the  temperature  of  the  Tropics  existed  at  one  time  la 
these  regions.  The  bones  of  the  Mastodon  of  North  America,  as  arranged 
in  Peale's  Museum,  form  a  skeleton  18  ft.  long,  11  ft.  5  ins.  high,  with, 
tusks,  10  ft.  7  ins.  The  Imtafnadfm^  an  enormous  herbivorous  reptile, dis- 
covered by  Mantell,  is  70  ft.  long,  the  body  is  4  ft.  9  ins.  in  diam.,  with  a  horn 
of  bone,  and  a  tail  52^  ft.  The  bones  of  the  Mammoth  are  quite  numerous 
in  the  United  States  ;  the  molar  tooth  weighs  8  Ibs. ,  and  the  joint  of  the 
bone  of  the  leg  is  a  foot  in  diam. 

THE  ERA  OF  SUPERFICIAL,  DEPOSITS.— This  may  be  called  the  modenr 
age  of  geology,  but  what  human  being  will  presume  to  say  when  it  began? 
The  formations  of  gravel,  sand,  clay,  peat,  marl,  coral  reefs,  &c.,  have 
been  formed  since  this  epoch  commenced,  and  vast  changes  caused  by 
submersions  and  convulsions  have  taken  place  all  over  the  globe.  These- 
silent  but  irresistible  forces,  the  tools  of  creative  power,  are  incessantly 
at  work  rendering  the  world  a  fit  habitation  for  man,  and  as  we  approach 
this  momentous  period  of  the  world's  history  we  also  discover  for  the- 
first  time,  evidences  of  the  existence  of  those  plants  and  cereals  which- 
furnish  his  daily  bread.  Agassiz  has  recorded  his  opinion,  that  the  order 
of  the  Rosacese  to  which  belong  the  apple,  pear,  the  plum,  and  the  various 
'  fruits  of  that  description,  as  well  as  the  raspberries,  strawberries,  bram- 
'bleberries,  and  roses  in  all  their  varieties,  were  introduced,  contempora- 
neously with,  or  only  a  short  time  before,  the  first  appearance  of  the- 
human  race.  The  gradual  transformation  of  varieties  since  the  ferns  of 
the  coal  period,  is  indeed  immense. 

During  the  glacial  period,  in  which  the  climate  of  Greenland  extended1 
as  far  south  as  New  York,  the  world  was  covered  with  immense  moving 
of  ice,  which  in  their  progress  from  north  to  south  moved  rock» 


734  GEOLOGICAL   FACTS. 

hundreds  of  miles  and  remodelled  the  topography  of  various  countries. 
The  effects  of  these  glacial  movements  were  the  pulverization  of  the 
various  rocks,  thus  forming  sand  from  sandstone,  calcareous  soil  from1 
limestone,  and  clay  from  granite  and  gneiss,  transforming  barren  rock 
into  fertile  soil. 

The  alluvial  deposits  contain  remains  which  indicate  a  vast  antiquity. 
The  skeleton  of  a  whale  was  dug  up  in  the  vicinity  of  Niagara  a  few 
years  ago,  a  sure  indication  that  that  region  formed  at  one  time  the  bed 
of  an  ocean.  All  the  laud  about  the  Clyde  rests  upon  beds  of  shells, 
kones  of  stags,  elephants,  &c.,  and  at  Yealm  Bridge,  and  Ketley,  near 
Plymouth,  there  are  caves  containing  bones  of  rhinoceroses,  elephants, 
hyenas,  bears,  foxes,  wolves,  dogs,  horses,  oxen,  sheep,  &c.  Agasaiz 
describes  300  new  species  of  fossil  fish  found  in  England,  of  which  50 
exists  in  London  clay.  A  bed  of  oyster  shells  9  miles  long  and  18  feet  thick 
exists  in  the  interior  of  Norfolk ;  a  pair  of  stags'  horns  have  been  found  on 
the  shores  of  the  Mersey,  near  Liverpool,  at  30  feet,  and  pieces  of  timber 
Et  40  feet.  Palms  and  cocoa  nuts  have  been  found  imbedded  in  the 
London  clay,  clearly  indicating  the  existence  at  one  time  of  a  tropical 
climate  in  what  is  now  the  temperate  zone.  An  old  Roman  port  off 
Romney  marsh  is  now  several  miles  out  at  sea,  and  proofs  are  abundant 
that  Great  Britain  was  at  one  time  united  to  the  continent. 

No  doubt  exists  that  the  Falls  of  Niagara  were  at  one  time  precipitated 
into  an  ocean  over  Queenston  Heights,  and  Sir  Charles  Lyell  computes 
that  a  period  of  at  least  30,000  to  35,000  years  have  elapsed  while  the 
falls  have  been  cutting  their  way  through  seven  miles  of  rock  to  their  pre» 
sent  position  ;  the  retrograde  movement  is  still  going  on,  slowly  but  surely, 
••very  day. 

A  volcano  now  extinct,  near  Mount  D'Orr  in  the  interior  of  France, 
emitted  a  flow  of  lava  at  a  comparatively  recent  period,  which  filled 
up  the  channel  of  a  river  in  its  course.  The  water  rose,  passing  over 
the  impediment  in  its  course,  and  has  up  to  this  time  cut  a  channel 
.50  feet  deep  through  the  lava  bed.  From  the  remains  of  an  old 
Roman  bridge  known  to  have  been  constructed  about  2000  years  ago,  it 
appears  that  the  erosion  of  the  water  into  the  lava  has  been  con- 
siderably less  than  six  inches  during  that  period,  which  would  indicate 
that  it  has  required  over  200,000  years  to  cut  the  channel  to  its  present 
'depth  of  50  feet. 

Myriads  of  ages  have  elapsed  while  the  rushing  waters  have  been 
cutting  out  those  tremendous  ravines  in  the  hard  rock,  known  as 
the  Canyons  of  Mexico,  Texas,  Colorado,  and  the  Rocky  Mountains. 
The  great  Canyon  of  the  Colorado  river  is  298  miles  long  and 
the  sides  rise  perpendicularly  above  the  water  to  a  height  of  5000  or 
6000  feet. 

On  Oak  Orchard  creek  and  the  Genesee  river,  between  Rochester  and 
Lake  Ontario,  are  enormous  chasms,  worn  by  the  water,  7  miles  long. 
On  the  Genesee,  south  of  Rochester,  a  cut  exists  from  Mount  Morris  to 
Portage,  sometimes  400  feet  deep.  In  the  Rocky  Mountains,  near  the 
source  of  the  Missouri  river,  there  is  a  gorge  6  miles  long  and  1200  feet 
deep.  In  the  Mississippi,  at  St.  Anthony's  Falls,  the  river  has  eroded  a 
passage  through  limestone  rock  7  miles  long,  to  which  distance  tin 
cataract  has  receded.  In  the  passage  of  the  Connecticut  river  at  B.rattle- 
fcoro  and  Bellows  Falls,  it  can  be  proved  that  tb^  river  was  once  at  least 
700  feet  above  its  present  level. 

From  these  and  thousands  of  other  proofs  wYiich  might  be  cited,  thein- 
ierence  is  unavoidable  that  vast  periods  have  elapsed  since  the  beginning 
of  the  present  geographical  distribution  of  sea  and  land,  but  step  by  step, 
during  the  slow  but  majestic  march  of  Time,  we  cau  always  seeth 


ORIGIN     ETC.,    OF    THE    EARTH.  735 

Instrumentality  employed  by  creative  power  has  been  in  the  continual 
«ffort  to  bring  order  out  of  chaos  and  fit  the  earth  as  a  habitation  for  man. 


FIAT  LUX. 

GREAT  LIGHT  ON  A  DARK  SUBJECT. 

Ao«,  ORTGW,  AND  ULTIMATE  DURATION  OF  THE  EARTH.— More  than 
140  years  have  elapsed  since  Emanuel  Swedenborg  penned  the  startling 
announcement,  the  first  of  the  kind  ever  made,  that  our  earth,  together 
•with  her  sisterhood  of  planets,  derived  their  origin  from  matters  and  sub- 
stances evolved  from  the  atmospheres  and  solar  energy  of  the  sun  of  our 
.system.  In  his  Principia,  written  in  1734,  and  again  in  hisWorship  and 
Love  of  God,  in  1745,  he  remarks  that  the  sun  is  the  centre  of  a  vortex; 
that  it  rotates  upon  its  axis ;  that  the  solar  matter  concentrated  itself  into  a 
belt,  zone,  jr  ring,  at  the  equator,  or  rather  ecliptic;  that  by  the  attenua- 
tion of  the  ring  it  became  disrupted  ;  that  upon  the  disruption,  part  of  the 
matter  collected  into  globes,  and  part  of  the  matter  subsided  into  the  sun 
forming  solar  spots  ;  that  the  globes  of  solar  matter  were  projected  into 
«pace  ;  that  consequently  they  described  a  spiral  orbit;  that  in  proportion 
AS  the  igneous  matter  thus  projected  receded  from  the  sun  it  gradually 
•experienced  refrigeration  and  consequent  condensation  ;  that  hence  fol- 
lowed the  formation  of  the  elements  of  ether,  air,  aqueous  vapor,  &c., 
until  the  planets  finally  reached  their  present  orbit ;  that  during  this 
period  the  earth  experienced  a  succession  of  geological  changes  which 
•originated  all  the  varieties  in  the  mineral  kingdom,  and  laid  as  it  were 
the  basis  of  the  vegetable,  and  afterwards  of  the  animal,  kingdom. 

These  were  alarming  propositions  to  propound  at  a  time  when  it  was 
.almost  universally  accepted  as  a  literal  truth  that  the  world  was  created 
out  of  nothing  in  the  space  of  six  natural  days  about  6000  years  ago,  ye* 
; since  Swedenborg's  time  scientists  have  abundantly  demonstrated  the 
truth  of  what  he  taught,  and  this  so  clearly  that  at  this  day  no  enlighten- 
ed mind  will  dispute  the  facts. 

1  Swedenborg  asserted  that  the  whole  starry  heavens,  was  one  vast  sphere, 
and  its  suns  or  stars,  including  their  systems,  to  be  parts  of  a  sphere  con- 
nected with  each  other.  He  writes,  "  Possibly  there  may  be  innumer- 
able other  spheres,  and  innumerable  other  heavens,  similar  to  those  w« 
behold,  so  many  indeed  and  so  mighty,  that  our  own  may  be  respect- 
ively only  a  point. "  The  Essay  in  his  immortal  Principia,  expresslj 
called  "  the  Theory  of  the  Siderial  Heavens,"  giving  full  details  of  th« 
system,  was  published  in  1733,  long  before  the  advent  of  monster  tel*- 
•scopes,  twenty-two  years  before  Kant,  twenty-four  years  before  Lambert 
twenty-six  years  before  Boscovitch,  thirty-four  years  before  Mitchell^ 
*nd  forty-four  years  before  Herschel  gave  the  result  of  their  confirmatory 
•discoveries  to  the  world. 

The  grandest  and  latest  discovery  of  modern  astronomy  is  the  motion 
of  the  so-called  fixed  stars,  yet  long  before  this  discovery  WM  announced 


736  ORIGIN,   ETC.,   OP   THE   EARTH. 

Swedenborg  asserted  that  the  whole  universe  was  in  motion,  and  that  the 
paths  which  the  countless  suns  with  their  systems  were  traversing  was  the 
Milky-Way,  and  that  the  point  at  which  they  entered  was  at  the  south, 
and  that  at  which  they  emerged  was  at  the  north.  The  truth  of  this 
theory  has  been  demonstrated  and  accepted  within  the  last  thirty  years 
by  Humboldt,  Herschel,  and  other  eminent  observers.  The  knowledge  of 
these  movements  enable  astronomers  to  predict,  with  absolute  certainty, 
the  different  changes  the  various  constellations  will  undergo  during  the 
lapse  of  ages  to  come,  and  define  the  reasons  and  causes  of  such 
changes. 

The  fact  is  well  attested  that  our  sun  is  only  one  of  a  million  which  trav-' 
erse  the  Milky  Way.  In  thte  crowded  part  of  the  Milky  Way,  Sir  W.  Her- 
ftChel,  the  prince  of  astronomers,  had  fields  of  view  in  which,  during  a 
juarterof  an  hour,  he  saw  116,000  stars  pass  through  the  field  of  view  of  a 
telescope  of  only  15'  aperture;  and  at  another  time,  in  41  minutes,  he  saw 
258,000  stars  pass  through  the  field.  It  consists  mostly  of  stars  of  the 
10th  or  12th  magnitude,  but  too  numerous  to  be  seen  by  the  naked  eyer 
which  can  only  discriminate  stars  of  the  6th  or  7th  magnitude  ;  power- 
ful telescopes  reach  even  to  a  16th  magnitude.  He  calculated  the  length 
of  the  visual  ray  of  the  telescope  he  used.  It  reached  stars  497  times- 
the  distance  of  Sirius  ;  now  Sirius  cannot  be  nearer  than  100,000  X  190,- 
000,000  miles,  therefore  Dr.  Herchel's  telescope,  at  least,  reached  to  100,- 
900  -f-  190,000,000  -f  497  miles  =  9941  billions  miles.  He  saw  stars  42,000 
times  more  distant  that  Sirius  ;  and  a  cluster  11  trillions  of  miles  distant. 
He  says  there  are  nebulae  from  which  light  is  48,000  years  travelling  \ 
Light 'travels  192,000  miles  in  a  second,  or  6£  trillions  of  miles  per  annum, 
then  in  48,000  years  this  would  be  304,000,000.000  of  millions  of  millions 
of  miles  distant  ;  if  the  cluster  ceased  to  exist  we  should  not  know  it  for 
48,000  years  !  Such  distances  can  indeed  b^  written,  but  can  never  be 
conceived  by  the  mind  of  man. 

It  is  a  trifling  matter  to  reduce  these  figures  to  writing,  but  quite  an- 
other thing  to  realize  their  full  significance. 

To  assist  our  conception  of  what  constitutes  a  "billion,"  we  will  take 
as  a  unit  a  second  of  time,  of  which  60  flit  away  in  a  minute,  or  86,000  in* 
a  day.  Not  the  one-sixteenth  part  of  that  number  have  come  and  gone 
since  the  commencement  of  the  Christian  era  to  the  beginning  of  1878,  for 
it  takes  exactly  31,687  years,  17  days,  22  hours,  45  minutes,  and  5  seconds 
to  constitute  a  billion  of  seconds  of  time. 

The  immensity  and  grair1  «OT  of  the  Heavens  penetrates  every  enlight- 
ened mind  with  indescribable  emotions  of  awe  and  reverence  for  the 
Almighty  energies  of  that  Adorable  Intelligence  who  created  and  sus- 
tains the  whole. 

Touching  the  stability  of  the  solar  system,  it  was  feared  by  many, 
eminent  for  their  attainments  and  acquirements  in  every  branch  of 
human  learning,  that  owing  to  the  mighty  changes  and  apparent  derange- 
ments which  were  occurring  in  the  planetary  orbits,  that  impending  ruin, 
and  destruction  would  ultimately  render  the  earth  uninhabitable  for  man. 
At  a  time  when  the  belief  was  prevalent  that  certain  destruction  awaited 
the  whole  universe,  Swedenborg  announced  to  the  world  his  theory  that: 
"  As  the  solar  system  is  carried  along  through  the  Milky-Way,  and  after- 
wards compelled  to  diverge  therefrom,  the  planetary  orbits  will  change 
their  form  and  eccentricity  to  a  certain  amount,  and  then  return  to- 
their  original  condition,  when  they  will  again  change  and  again  return, 
and  so  on  to  eternity."  This  beautiful  and  harmonious  theory,  so  well 
calculated  to  terminate  every  groundless  fear,  has  since  been  proved  and 
demonstrated  by  La  Grange,^  and  this  doctrine  of  a  cyclar  return  of  the 
solar  By  stem  is  now  known  among  the  learned  as  La  Grange's  theory 


ETC.,   OF  THE   EABTH. 


737 


¥l  $he  stability  of  the  solar  system;  nevertheless  this  doctrine  was  «x« 
[x>inided  in  Swe^enborg's  Principia  forty-four  years  before  La  Grange 
put  his^forth,  seventy-one  years  before  Mayer,  and  ninety -one  yeae* 
before  Bessei. 

Irregularities  in  planetary  motions  correct  themselves,  because  every 
motion,  included  in  the  motion  of  the  Sun,  is  itself  subordinate,  and 
therefore  must  ultimately  conform.  The  planets  being  acted  upon  by  the 
T-ommon  force  of  the  sun,  they  often  interfere  on  the  same  side  with  the* 
sun's  force  on  that  side,  and  this  begets  irregularity  or  disturbance, 
oddly  called  their  own  attractions. 

La  Grange  proved  that  the  mass  of  each  planet  into  the  square-root  of 
She  line  of  Apsides,  and  into  the  square  of  the  eccentricity,  give  sums  that 
Are  invariable.  It  will  be  seen  from  the  preceding  article  that  the  work 
i/f  creation  has  been  progressing  during  incalculable  myriads  of  ages,  and 
*e  may  rest  satisfied  that  it  forms  no  part  of  the  Divine  economy  to 
destroy  what  it  has  been  millions  of  years  in  building  up.  The  agencies 
'employed  in  the  creation  of  the  universe  are  identical  with  those  which, 
now  exisit  for  its  preservation.  Harmony  and  perfection  are  everywhere 
real  entities;  derangement  and  disorder  are  apparent  only.  That  the 
sun's  apparent  path  through  the  ecliptic  is  really  caused  by  the  motion  of 
the  earth  in  its  orbit  around  the  sun,  may  be  seen  from  the  globes  in  the 
figure,  representing  the  earth  in  twelve  different  positions,  corresponding 


to  the  twelve  months.    In  the  various  globes,  N  is  the  north  pole,  DCL 
the  equator,  S  the  place  of  the  Sun,  and  C  S  and  all  lines  from  C  parallel 
to  this  the  direction  of  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic.    The  inclination  of  the 
earth's  axis  to  the  plane  of  its  orbit  is  23°  28',  and  this,  with  its  annual  • 
revolution  around  the  Sun,  causes  the  change  of  seasons  known  as  r 
Spring,  Summer,  Autumn  and  Winter.     Besides  the  diurnal  and  annual 
movements  of  the  earth,  there  is  also  an  onward  movement  of  the  whcld 
solar  system  tn  rough  space,  in  an  orbit  of  its  own,  at  the  rate  of  154-  ^00,- 
000  miles  per  annum. 

Swedenborg  asserts  that  there  is  an  internal  or  spiritual  sense  concealed 
«rithin  the  letter,  or  natural  sense  of  the  Word,  comparable  to  th» 
*oul  or  spirit  of  man,  which  fills  the  human  body  just  as  the  hand  fills  a. 
glove.  This  sense  he  unfolds  by  means  of  the  science  of  correspondences, 
the  knowledge  of  which  he  claims  was  revealed  to  him.  For  instance, 
wherever  the  end  of  the  World  is  foretold  or  predicted  in  the  Word,  he 
•ays  that  by  this  we  are  not  to  understand  the  end  of  the  natural  world, 
but  the  church  or  dispensation  existing  iu  the  world,  tha  latter  being 


ORIGIN,    ETC.,    OF    THE    EARTH. 

used  in  a  symbolic  sense  to  represent  the  former.     If  after  this  statement 
any  one  persists  in  adhering  to  a  literal  interpretation,  let  him  take  a 
good  concordance  and  examine  under  the  words  "ever"  and  "  forever";  » 
he  will  find  to  his  amazement  that  there  are  just  as  many  proofs  to  sustain « ' 
the  theory  of  the  everlasting  duration  of  the  earth  as  there  are  to  prove  * 
its  destruction  !    In  this  case  what  can  a  man  gain  by  refusing  his  assent 
to  the  truth  as  unfolded  by  Swedenborg  ? 

In  his  work  descriptive  of  the  Last  Judgment,  which  Swedenborg  avers 
has  already  taken  place,  not  in  this,  but  in  the  spiritual  world,  during  the 
year  1757,  the  following  passage  occurs  : 

"That  the  procreations  of  the  human  race  will  continue  to  eternity, 
is  plain  from  many  considerations,  and  of  which  the  following  are  thl 
principal : — I.  That  the  human  race  is  the  basis  on  which  heaven  is  founded, 
II.  That  the  human  race  is  the  seminary  of  heaven.  III.  That  the  ex- 
tension of  heaven,  which  is  for  angels,  is  so  immense  that  it  cannot  be 
filled  to  Eternity.  IV.  That  they  are  but  few  respectively,  of  whom 
heaven  at  present  is  formed.  V.  That  the  perfection  of  heaven  increases 
according  to  plurality.  VI.  And  that  every  Divine  work  has  respect  to 
Infinity  and  Eternity.  The  angelic  heaven  is  the  end  for  which  all  things 
in  the  universe  were  created,  for  it  is  the  end  on  account  of  which  man- 
kind exists,  and  mankind  is  the  end  regarded  in  the  creation  of  the  visible 
heaven,  and  the  earths  included  in  it;  wherefore  that  Divine  work, 
namely,  the  angelic  heaven,  primarily  has  respect  to  Infinity  and 
Eternity,  and  therefore  to  its  multiplication,without  end,  to*  the  Divine 
Himself  dwells  within  it.  Hence  also  it  is  clear,  that  tho  human  race  will 
never  cease,  for  were  it  to  cease,  the  Divine  work  would  be  limited  to  a 
certain  number,  and  thus  its  respectiveness  to  .oifinitj-  would  perish. 
The  Lord  did  not  create  the  universe  for  His  own  sake,  but  for  the  sake 
of  those  with  whom  He  will  be  in  Heaven  ;for  spiritual  love  is  such,  that 
it  wishes  to  give  its  own  to  another;  and  as  far  as  it  can  do  this  it  is  in  its 
being,  in  its  peace,  and  in  its  blessedness:  spiritual  love  derives  this  from 
the  Divine  Love  of  the  Lord,  which  is  infinitely  such  ;  from  hence  it  fol- 
lows that  the  Divine  Lovo,  and  henco  the  Divine  Providence,  has  for  its 
end  a  heaven,  which  may  consist  oi  men  made  angels,  to  ^hom  He  can 
give  all  the  blessed  and  happy  things  which  are  of  love  and  wisdom,  and 
give  them  from  Himself  in  them."  L.  J.  6. 

It  will  console  and  comfori  many  honest  but  simple-minded  thinkers 
•who  believe  otherwise,  to  be  told  that  although  these  startling  facts 
seem  to  jar  with  terrific  force  against  their  cherished  articles  of  faith, 
and  even  to  oppose  revealed  truth,  it  is  nevertheless  most  true,  that 
they  do  not,  even  in  the  slightest  degree,  enter  into  conflict  with  revela- 
tion. There  is  a  science  of  spiritual  truth  and  there  is  a  science  of  natural 
truth;  there  is  the  Book  of  Revelation  and  there  is  the  Book  of  Nature; 
the  same  Omnipotent  Hand  has  written  both,  each  must  be  understood 
in  a  sense  peculiar  to  itself,  and  when  30  understood,  there  can  be  no  con~ 
tradiction  between  them.  Wherever  contrariety  or  discordance  appears, 
the  error,  if  any  exists,  is  in  man  himself  and  in  his  natural  pronenesg 
to  receive  appearances  as  truths.  During  a  depth  of  time  not  to  be 
penetrated,  mankind  inferred,  from  the  apparent  motion  of  the  sun, 
planets,  and  stars,  that  they  revolved  around  the  earth  once  ia  24 
hours,  but  now  every  school-boy  knows  that  this  idea  is  a  fallacy,  and  an 
outrage  on  naturaf  truth,  the^  real  truth  being  that  in  every  passing 
hour  we  are  moved  by  the  earth's  rotation  on  its  axis  1,037  miles, 
and  in  its  orbit  66,092  miles,  the  diurnal  motion  causing  the  apparent 
motion  of  the  heavenly  bodies  around  the  earth.  Many  readers 
infer,  from  a  perusal  of  the  first  chapter  of  Genesis,  that  it  is 
limply  a  narrative  of  the  creation  of  the  world  ou  ;vhich  we  dwell,  yet 


ORIGIN,    ETC.,    OF    THE    EARTH.  739 

atill  it  mnst  be  said,  that  although  this  belief  is  all  but  universal  among 
the  great  masses  of  society,  it  is  nevertheless  as  gross  an  outrage  on 
spiritual  truth  as  the  first  noted  fallacy  is  on  natural  truth.  The  sublime 
narration  recorded  in  Genesis  does  not  treat  of  natural  creation,  for  being 
Divinely  composed  it  is  to  be  understood  in  a  sense  entirely  different 
from  merely  human  writings.  This  style  is  such  that  it  describee  spirit" 
ual  things  by  means  of  pure  correspondences,  similitudes,  types,  and 
symbolic  imagery  drawn  from  earthly  things.  The  subject  treated  oi  is 
indeed  concerning  a  new  creation,  but  one  more  momentous  by  far  than 
even  the  creation  of  a  world.  Many  modern  theologians  are  afraid  ;o 
enter  on  an  interpretation  of  this  chapter  on  account  of  its  alleged  conflict 
with  the  known  facts  of  science,  but  the  theology  that  could  be  endanger- 
ed by  such  an  investigation  is  worthy  of  no  man's  acceptance.  Under- 
stood naturally,  what  reflecting  mind  could  conceive  of  the  .existence  of 
light,  evening  and  morning;  day  and  night,  and  grass,  Before  the  creation 
of  the  Sun  ;  in  such  case  what  could  exist  but  universal  darkness  and 
Arctic  desolation  !  In  the  first  chapter,  v.  21,  "  every  living  thing  that 
moveth"  is  described  as  being  created  and  "brought  forth  abundantly 
aftev  their  kind,"  by  the  waters:  in  chap.  .1.  v.  19,  "  every  beast  of  the 
field  and  fowl  of  the  air  "  is  described  as  being  "  made  out  of  thegrouud." 
Understood  literally,  or  in  the  sense  of  the  letter,  these  statements  are 
contradictory  to  every  rational  idea,  but  when  interpreted  according  to 
the  law  of  correspondences  they  are  divinely  true  even  as  to  theii  minutest 
Details. 

At  this  day,  amidst  the  crash  of  creeds  framed  by  self -derived  intelli- 
gence, when  many  are  announcing  from  the  pulpit  the  impending  ruin 
of  our  planet,  when  brazen  infidelity  proclaims  from  the  platform  to  ap- 
plauding audiences  that  there  is  no  hereafter,  and  scoffs  at  sacred  things, 
it  mnst  gratify  every  lover  of  truth  to- learn  that  there  exists  in  Sweden- 
borg's  theological  writings  a  system  ot  doctrine  and  scriptural  interpreta- 
tion absolutely  impregnable  against  every  assault  of  the  enemy.  From 
the  wonderful  story  of  Genesis  to  the  sublime  visions  of  the  Apocalypse, 
the  searcher  niter  truth  wil  1  find  the  veil  of  mystery  lifted  from  a  thou- 
sand questions  which  have  for  ages  puzzled  the  wisest  commentators.  The 
system  of  interpretation  is  unerring  in  its  logic,  inflexible  in  its  allegiance 
to  truth,  and  astonishing  in  its  minuteness  of  detail.  In  an  article  in  a 
Decent  number  of  the  Galaxy,  in  relation  to  the  contest  between  science 
and  religion,  the  writer  says  :  "  The  modern  school  of  Free  Thought  haa 
found  its  one  serious  opponent,  and  its  only  one,  in  Emanuel  Swedeuborg, 
whose  writings,  first  issued  more  than  a  century  since,  have  had  an  ef- 
f e«t  on  the  whole  tone  of  thought  and  metaphysics,  such  as  few  peop!^ 
suspect,  and  hardly  any  realize. 

"  It  must  be  remembered  that  Swedenborg  published  >-V  first  (theolog-' 
ical)  book  in  1749,  and  that  his  theological  activity  covered  tho  very 
period  wherein  the  French  and  English  school  of  scientific  inquiry,  skep- 
ticism, and  free  thought,  was  beginning  to  be  most  active. 

"In  the  midst  of  this  period  of  intellectual  bustle  and  activity,  the 
Seer  of  the  North,  secluded  in  his  lonely  study  among  the  Swedish 
forests,  with  nothing  before  him  but  a  Hebrew  Bible  and  Greek  Testa- 
ment, was  calmly  writing  those  wonderful  bookc  ^hich  he  asserts  to  be 
the  result  of  direct  revelations  from  the  Deity. 

"  The  only  system  that  remains  abie  to-day  freejy  to  admit  the  most  un- 
compromising results  of  scientific  inquiry  without  fear  or  question,  and 
at  the  same  time  to  hold  to  the  absolute  truth  c*  Holy  Writ  in  every  jot 
Stud  tittle,  appears  to  be  that  proclaimed  by  Swedenborg. 

"  The  system  of  theology  it  propounds  is  purely  and  uncompromisingly 
Ziionotheistic,  Aa  Arab  could  not  quarrel  with  'it  on  that  score.  Itis. 


740  ORIGIN,    ETC.,    OF    THE    EARTH. 

at  the  same  time,  so  purely  Christian  that  the  most  zealous  evangelicriL 
of  the  extremest  type  can  find  no  fault  with  it,  making  as  it  does  the 
Saviour  and  Redeemer  its  grand  central  figure. 

"  Finally,  it  is  able  to  concede  to  the  boldest  of  materialists,  the  most 
acute  of  historical  critics,  the  most  ardent  evolutionist,  the  most  dogmatic 
of  palaeontologists,  the  most  abstruse  of  metaphysicians,  everything 
which  they  can  possibly  claim  to  have  proved,  every  truth,  however  con- 
trary to  current  theological  opinion,  which  they  can  establish,  while  a< 
the  same  time  it  holds  to  the  absolute  truth  of  every  word  of  Holy  Scrip- 
ture. 

"  Nothing  seems  to  shake  its  faith  in  the  slightest  ;  it  shuns  no  in- 
quiry  and  needs  no  explanation  of  any  fact,  everything  being  plain,  the. 
Bible  its  only  standard." 

In  the  Cyclopaedia  of  Biography,  by  Parke  Godwin,  we  read  :  "Swe- 
denborg was  no  impostor,  but  a  learned  and  pious  man,  and  his  books 
richly  repay  the  most  careful  study." 

The  Nonconformist  (English)  assures  us  that:  "He  (Swedeiiborg)  is 
received  by  all  thinkers  courteously,  and  by  very  many  cordially.  T  ri 
storm  of  violent  denunciation  or  angry  ridicule  which  waslaunched  again  t 
him  by  theologians  a  generation  ago,  is  scarcely  remembered  now,  aiul  in 
not  likely  to  be  revived.  All  are  agreed  that  he  was  a  genuine  and  sin- 
cere man,  who  believed  his  own  words,  and  did  not  wilfully  deceive  or 
invent." 

Hon.  Theophilus  Parsons,  late  Professor  in  the  Cambridge  Law  School, 
says  :  "  I  regard  him  (Swedenborg)  as  a  man  of  remarkable  ability,  and. 
great  and  varied  culture  ;  taught,  as  no  other  man  ever  was  taught, 
truths  which  no  other  man  ever  learned  ;  and  thus  instructed  that  he 
might  introduce  among  men  a  new  system  of  truth  or  doctrine,  excelling 
in  character  and  exceeding  in  value  any  system  of  truth  before  known." 

Speaking  of  Swedenborg  and  his  writings,  Henry  James,  ,the  author  of 
*' Substance  and  Shadow,"  says  :  "  Such  sincere  books,  it  seems  to  me, 
t»ere  never  before  written." 

Bishop  Hurd  (author  of  Lectures  on  Prophecies)  says  :  "  It  has  bee^ 
said  by  some,  and  received  implicitly  without  further  examination  by 
others,  that  Swedenborg,  after  receiving  his  extraordinary  commission, 
was  mad,  and  became  totally  deprived  of  his  natural  senses  ;  but  this  in- 
sinuation is  such  a  palpable  contradiction  of  truth,  and  such  an  insult  to 
common  sense — being  overruled  by  every  page  of  his  writings  as  well  as 
by  every  act  of  his  life  after  that  period — that  we  should  have  thought  it 
altogether  unworthy  of  notice  were  we  not  aware  that  it  operates  power- 
fully with  many,  even  at  this  day,  to  prejudice  them  against  a  character 
•which  otherwise  they  would  revere,  and  against  writings  from  which  they 
would  otherwise  receive  the  most  welcome  instruction." 

The  venerable  Thomas  Carlyle,  having  looked  upon  the  great  seer  all 
his  life  as  a  visionary  lunatic,  now  says  that  he  stands  rebuked.  He  looks 
pon  Swedenborg  as  one  of  the  loftiest  minds  in  the  realm  of  mind,  ono 
of  the  spiritual  suns  that  will  shine  brighter  as  the  years  goon  ;  andth-.t 
more  truths  are  compassed  in  his  writings  than  that  of  any  other  man. 
His  great  prescience  with  regard  to  modern  scientific  discoveries,  since 
made  known,  is  astonishing. 

George  Dawson,  M.  A.  -writes  :  "Emanuel  Swedenborg  had  the  privi- 
lege which  belongs  to  all  men  who  devote  their  lives  to  thought,  that  <\s 
•  the  world  grows  older,  they  get  more  reverenced,  better  known,  and 
/better  loved.    If  I  were  going  to  be  shut  up  in  prison  three  years,  Swe- 
(  denborg's  books  would  be  iny  choice,  and  at  the  end  of  three  years  it: 
would  be  six  more  before  I  should  find  them  uninteresting,  strange,  ot 
dry." 


ORIGIN,   ETC.,   OF   THE   EARTH.  741 

Dr  Porteous  writes  :  "The  incomparable  depth,  splendor,  and  vast- 
4Kss  of  Swedeuborg's  genius  are  shown  in  this,  that  he  alone  has  ever 
Blared  to  t»L,ad  the  threefold  realm  of  natural,  mental,  and  spiritual  phi- 
losophy. Few  men  have  approached  the  hem  of  his  garment  in  respect  to 
moral  purity,  his  teaching  and  example  are  calculated  to  make  men 
meek,  gentle,  and  charitable,  and  his  followers  catholic,  intelligent  and 
pious.  Examine  all  the  philosophical  systems  extant  and  take  all  the  re- 
ligious literature  of  the  last  century,  and  place  them  in  one  scale,  and' 
take  the  voluminous  works  of  Swedeuborg,  and  place  them  in  the  other 
scale,  and  the  philosophy  and  libraries  of  the  world  will  kick  the  beam." 
R.  M.  Patterson,  late  Professor  in  the  university  of  Pennsylvania,  says 
respecting  Swedenborg's  Principia  :  "  It  is  an  extraordinary  production  of 
one  of  the  most  extraordinary  men  that  has  ever  lived,  many  of  the  exper- 
iments and  observations  presented  in  this  work  are  believed  to  be  of  much 
irtore  modern  date,  and  are  unjustly  ascribed  to  much  more  recent  authors." 

"  There  is  in  Swedenborg's  writings  a  marvellous  insight,  a  vision  of 
the  higher  truths  of  philosophy  and  religion,  to  which  few  men  have  at- 
tained."— N.  Y.  Independent. 

"  The  majority  think  and  speak  of  Emaimel  Swedenborg  as  a  mystic 
and  dreamer,  when  in  fact,  he  was  a  practical  man,  an  inventor,  and  pub- 
lic benefactor.  The  metrical  system,  now  under  discussion,  was  first 
suggested  by  him,  and  the  Dutch  are  indebted  to  him  for  important  im- 
provements in  their  docks  and  dykes." — Literary  World. 

"  Swedenborg's  writings  teem  with  the  grandest  and  profoundest 
truths." — North  American. 

Count  Von  Hopken,  for  forty  years  an  intimate  friend  of  Swedenborg's, 
and  for  many  years  Prime  Minister  of  Sweden,  advised  the  king  "  that 
no  religion  could  be  better,  as.  the  prevailing  and  established  one,  than 
That  deduced  by  Swedenborg  from  the  Sacred  Scriptures,  and  this  on  the 
two  following  accounts  :  1st.  This  religion  in  preference  to,  and  in  a  high- 
«r  degree  than  any  other,  must  produce  the  most  honest  and  industrious 
subjects  ;  for  this  religion  places  properly  the  icorship  of  God  in  uses. 
Zd.  It  causes. the  least  fear  of  death,  as  this  religion' regards  death 
inerely  as  a  transition  from  one  state  into  another,  from  a  worse  to  a 
better  situation  ;  nay,  upon  his  principles,  I  look  upon  death  as  being  of 
LaKlly  any  greater  moment  than  drinking  a  glass  of  water." 

T.  S.  Arthur,  the  world  renowned  author,  writes  :  "  Only  in  the  reve- 
lations made  for  the  New  Church,  in  which  the  plenary  inspiration  and 
inner  and  Divine  Sense  of  the  Word,  and  the  true  doctrine  of  the  Lord  and 
tig  Providence,  are  fully  explained  and  made  known  for  the  salvation  of 
mankind,  can  be  seen  in  rational  light,  the  truths  on  which  Christian 
unity  ana  harmony  can  be  established,  and  by  which  the  growth  of  natu- 
Talism,  skepticism,  and  irreverent  infidelity  can  be  arrested  and  de- 
stroyed." 

The  Rev.  Prof.  Von  Gosrres  (Roman  Catholic)  writes  : — "  Swedenborg 
was  not  a  man  to  be  carried  away  by  an  unbridled  imagination,  still  less 
did  he  ever  manifest,  during  his  whole  life,  the  slightest  symptoms  of 
mental  aberration.  Throughout  the  entire  course  of  his  learned  re- 
searches and  activity,  we  everywhere  discover  the  pious  and  religious 
man,  who,  in  all  his  sayings  and  doings,  was  intent  upon  good." 

Edwin  Paxton  Hood,  in  the  preface  to  his  Life  of  tfwedenbora,  writes: 
*'  That  he  conceives  he  has  derived  much  benefit  from  the  study  of  the 
works  of  Swedenborg,  and  has  much  reason  to  be  grateful  to  that  illus- 
trious, venerable  and  much  misunderstood,  and  comparatively  unknown 
ms,n," 

Design  and  Work  (English)  says  of  the  Apocalypse  Revealed:  "A 
oaref  ul  perusal  of  many  of  its  900  and  odd  pages  has  led  us  to  cease  won- 


742  ORIGIN,    ETC.,    OF    THE    EARTH, 

dering  at  the  favor  -with  which  this  modern  edition  has  been  received, 
and  to  recommend  others  to  follow  our  example.  Many  a  sermon  have 
we  listened  to  on  the  Revelations.  Several  works,  dealing  with  the  gor- 
geous panorama  unfolded  before  the  internal  vision  of  the  Seer  of  Pat- 
mos,  how  we  travelled  through,  wondering  at  the  inventive  faculty  as 
displayed  by  commentator  and  preacher,  but  too  often  feeling  that  a 
stone  had  been  given  us  instead  of  bread.  Whoever  takes  earnestly  to 
the  consideration  of  the  pages  of  the  '  Swedish  Seer,'  wrill  find  that  there 
is  more  in  his  text-book  than  he  has  given  it  credit  for  ;  that  it  contains 
truths  illimitable  ;  that  in  their  expounding  no  meretricious  aids  are  re- 
quired ;  that  it  appeals,  not  to  the  eye  or  the  ear,  but  to  the  deepest 
depths  of  the  human  heart  and  mind.  Whosoever  will  read  it  patiently 
and  carefully  must  rise  up  from  its  perusal  a  wiser,  a  more  charitable,  al- 
together a  better  man."  n 

The  Chicago  Advance  writes  :  "  We  confess  to  having  read  for  years 
lome  portion  of  his  works  with  intellectual  and  spiritual  profit,  aiid  we 
imagine  at  least  that  we  can  trace  his  influence  in  the  conceptions  and 
reasoning  of  many  modern  authors  of  distinction,  who  do  not  always  give 
Swedenborg  the  credit  he  deserves." 

The  writer  of  this  book  has  no  pecuniary  interest  whatever  hi  the 
sale  of  Swedenborg' s  writings,  but  conceives  "it  to  be  his  duty  to  present 
these  testimonials  in  vindication  of  a  most  deserving  and  worthy  man, 
whose  writings  have  been  greatly  misrepresented  and  misunderstood. 
A  hundred  years  hence  such  a  vindication  will  be  unnecessary.  It  is  a 
veritable  truth  that  Swedeuborg  has  rendered  greater  services  to  man- 
kind than  any  other  man  ever  did  or  ever  can  render,  and  this  fact  is 
becoming  better  known  every  day.  When  he  began  to  write  and  pro- 
mulgate his  system  of  doctrines,  a  noted  Lutheran  bishop  and  doctor  got 
up  a  complaint  against  him .  The  doctor,  whose  name  was  Ekebom,  had 
the  honesty  to  say  of  himself,  that  he  was  very  careful  not  to  examine 
Swedenborg' s  works.  Swedenborg,  however,  was  a  man  of  good  character 
and  connections,  and  led  such  a  blameless,  quiet,  calm,  and  peaceful  life, 
that  it  was  found  impossible  to  arouse  popular  sentiment  against  him. 

Since  Swedenborg  s  day,  two  men,  who  have  all  the  animosity,  but 
lack  the  honesty,  of  Dr.  Ekebom,  viz  :  Dr.  Pike,  of  Derby,  Eng.,  and 
Enoch  Pond,  of  Bangor,  Me.,  Theological  Seminary,  have  rendered  them- 
eelves  notorious  by  the  publication  of  pamphlets  containing  the  most 
horrible  libels  on  Swedeuborg  and  his  writings.  These  detestable  publi- 
cations, which  have  been  answered  and  refuted  time  and  again,  present 
a  combination  of  reckless  assertion,  downright  lies,  malignity,  and  igno- 
rance, which  is  perfectly  amazing.  Each  publication  may  be  described 
in  the  expressive  language  of  Edwin  Paxton  Hood,  as  "a  fountain  of 
mud,"  and  both  combined  are  highly  flavored  with  the  peculiar  sanctity 
'w'hich  pervades  the  devotional  exercises  of  Holy  Willie. 

We  have  still  another  notable  detractor  in  Mr.  William  White,  who 
many  years  ago  wrote  a  Life  of  Swedenborg,  in  which  he  rendered  full 
justice"  to  the  subject  of  the  memoir.  Of  late  years  he  resumed  his  task 
"by  dipping  his  pen  in  ink  (or  rather  in  venom),  and  dashing  off  a  vast 
amount  of  trash  in  the  shape  of  baseless  absurdities  regarding  Swedenborg 
and  his  followers,  which  he  styled  a  "  Life  of  Swedenborg."  In  order  to 
understand  the  animus  which  pervades  this  work,  it  is  necessary  to  know 
that  Mr.  White  was  at  one  tim«  agent  for  the  London  Swedenborg  Society, 
and  while  thus  occupied  he  engaged  in  the  sale  of  the  so-called  spiritist  pub- 
lications. The  sale  of  these  books  is  held  by  the  Swedenborg  Society  to 
be  utterly  incompatible  with  the  objects  which  it  has  in  view,  but  Mr. 
White  resisted  the  efforts  of  the  Society's  Committee  to  remote  him 


ORIGIN,    ETC.,    OF    THE    EARTH.  743 

*flSce,  and  compelled  them  to  bring  a  suit  in  Chancery  to  effect 
their  ^ai-poee.  The  fiixil  judgment  was  decisive  against  him,  and  it  was 
while  smarting  under  this  reverse  that  his  two- volume  Life  of  Sweden- 
borg  was  written.  The  work  iu  question  is  composed  throughout  in  a 
vindictive  spirit,  and  the  malevolent  production  owes  its  origin  to  a 
malicious  feeling  of  the  worst  kind,  nevertheless  it  is  most  true  thai 
slander  has  greater  swiftness  than  truth,  and  the  groundless  assertions  of 
a  defamer  are  frequently  accorded  greater  credence  than  the  veritable 
assertions  of  a  truthful  man. 

In  an  elaborate  article  which  appeared  some  time  ago  in  the  columns  of 
the  Enr/lish  Mechanic,  the  editor  of  that  journal  presented  a  list  ot 
Swedenborg's  inventions,  which,  including  a  notice  of  his  mechanical  and 
philosophical  works,  occupied  nearly  two  quarto  pages.  The  following  is  a 
partial  list  of  the  latter: — 1.  An  Introduction  to  Algebra.  2.  Attempts  to 
find  the  Longitudes  of  places  by  Lunar  Observations.  3.  A  proposal  for 
a  Decimal  System  of  Money  and  Measures.  4.  A  Treatise  on  the  Motion  ' 
of  the  Earth  and  the  Planets.  5.  Proofs,  derived  from  Appearances 
in  Sweden,  of  the  Depths  of  the  Sea,  and  the  Greater  force  of  the  Tides 
in  the  Ancient  World.  6.  On  Docks,  Sluices,  and  Salt  Works.  7.  Some 
Specimens  of  Work  on  the  Principles  of  Natural  Philosophy,  comprising 
New  Attempts  to  explain  the  Phenomena  of  Chemistry  and  Physics  by 
Geometry.  8.  New  Observations  and  Discoveries  respecting  Iron  and 
Fire,  and  particularly  respecting  the  Elemental  Nature  of  Fire  ;  together 
with  a  New  Construction  of  Stoves.  9.  A  New  Method  of  Finding  the 
Longitude  of  Places  on  Land  or  Sea  by  Lunar  Observations.  10.  A  New 
Mechanical  Plan  of  Constructing  Docks  and  Dykes.  11.  A  Mode  of  Dis- 
covering the  Powers  of  Vessels  by  the  Application  of  Meclianical  Prin- 
ciples. 12.  Miscellaneous  Observations  connected  with  the  Physical 
Sciences — Pi.rts  1-3.  13.  Part  4.  Principally  on  Minerals,  Iron,  and 
Stalactites  in  Baman's  Cavern.  14.  On  the  Depreciation  and  Rise  of 
the  Swedish  Currency.  These  were  some  of  his  works  published  be- 
tween 1722— 1733. 

These  were  succeeded  by,  1.  The  Principia:  or,  the  First  Principles  of 
Natural  Things,  in  3  folio  Vols.  with  Plates.  2.  The  Economy  of  the- 
Animal  Kingdom  considered  Anatomically,  Physically,  and  Philosophi- 
cally, 2  Vols.,  with  Plates.  3.  The  Animal  Kingdom,  Parts  i.,  ii.,  iii.,  31 
Vols.  4.  The  Animal  Kingdom,  Parts  v.,  vi.  o.  Outlines  of  a  Philosoph- 
ical Argument  011  the  Infinite  and  the  Final  Cause  of  Creation.  6.  Some 
Specimens  of  a  Work  on  the  Principles  of  Chemistry,  with  other  Trea- 
tises, 8vo,  21  Plates,  comprising  159  figures.  7.  Miscellaneous  Observa- 
tions Connected  with  the  Physical  Sciences.  8vo,  9  Plates,  comprising 
86  Figures.  8.  Posthumous  tracts  on  various  subjects. 

In  1785,  the  Commissioners  appointed  by  the  King  of  France,  for  the 
examination  of  the  subject  of  animal  magnetism,  affirmed  that  there  did 
not  exist  any  theory  of  the  magnet ;  and  the  Count  de  Buffon,  in  his 
work  on  Natural  History,  affirmed  that  nothing  had  been  written  on  thftr 
formation  of  the  planets.  Both  these  errors  were  refuted  in  a  mo?^ 
scholarly  and  elegant  letter  addressed  to  the  Commissioners  by  the  Mar- 
quis  de  Thome',  in  which  he  directed  public  notice  to  Swedenborg's  elab- 
orate and  profound  works  on  these  subjects,  concluding  his  letter  as  fol- 
lows, "  This,  gentlemen,  is  what  I  thought  it  my  dtity  to  make  public  foi 
tf  ic  benefit  of  society,  from  a  regard  for  truth,  and  in  gratitude  to  him, 
to  whom  I  am  indebted  for  the  major  part  of  the  little  I  know  ;  though 
before  I  met  with  his  writings,  I  had  sought  for  knowledge  amongst 
almost  all  the  writers,  ancient  and  modern,  who  enjoyed  any  reputati«a 
tor  possessing  it  I  have  the  honor  to  be  &c. , 

"  Paris,  Aug.  4, 1785.  MABQUIS  DE 


744  ORIGIN,    ETC.,    OF   THE    EARTH. 

Raiph  Waldo  Emerson  writes: — "  Swedenborg's  writings  •&&$*  6*  9 
sufficient  library  for  a  lonely  and  athletic  student.  Not  every  ii^»n  can 
read  them,  but  they  will  richly  reward  him  who  can.  The  graudeur*of  the 
topics  makes  the  grandeur  of  the  style.  One  of  the  missourians  and 
mastodons  of  literature,  he  is  not  to  be  measured  by  whole  colleges  of 
ordinary  scholars.  He  anticipated  in  astronomy  the  discovery  of  the 
seventh  planet  ;  anticipated  the  views  of  modern  astronomy  in  regard  to 
the  generation  of  earths  by  the  sun  ;  in  magnetism  some  important  ex° 
periments  and  conclusions  of  later  students;  in  che/r.istry,  the  atomic 
theory,  in  anatomy  the  discoveries  of  Schlienting,  Mi  onro,  and  Wilson,, 
and  first  demonstrated  the  office  of  the  lungs."  ; 

The  celebrated  Berzilius  writes: — "  I  have  looked  through  the  Animal 
Kingdom,  and  am  surprised  at  the  great  knowledge  displayed  by  Sweden- 
borg  in  a  subject  that  a  professed  metallurgist  would  not'have  been  sup- 
posed to  make  an  object  of  study,  and  in  which,  as  in  all  he  undertook, 
he  was  in  advance  of  his  age. ' ' 

To  sum  up,  it  may  be  stated  that  his  mechanical  and  philosophical  works 
would  be  equivalent  to  about  25  volumes  of  500  pages  each.  This  genera- 
tion is  most  deeply  indebted  to  the  incomparable  genius  of  this  extraor- 
dinary man  for  very  important  improvements  in  the  construction  of 
docks,  blast  furnaces,  stoves,  the  smelting  of  metals,  and  a  host  of  inven- 
tions which  are  usually  credited  to  others. 

The  reader  may  infer,  from  a  perusal  of  the  foregoing  list  of  books, 
that  the  labor  involved  in  their  production  might  well  entitle  the  writer  to 
rank  as  a  first  class  literary  giant  in  any  age  or  nation,  but  wonderful  to 
say,  the  most  extraordinary  performances  of  this  most  remarkable  man 
are  still  to  be  recounted. 

In  the  year  1743,  Swedenborg  was  54  years  of  age,  and  here  we  find 
him  relinquishing  his  philosophical  pursuits,  and  devoting  himself  ex- 
clusively to  theology  and  to  the  unfolding  of  the  new  doctrines  which  he 
now  declares  were  first  revealed  to  him.  His  Worship  end  Love  of  God, 
published  in  1745,  seems  to  mark  the  commencement  of  this  new  t  ra  in 
nis  Life.  The  following  is  a  list  of  his  theological  works  arranged  ac- 
cording to  the  order  in  which  the  original  books  were  written  and  pub- 
lished by  the  Author. 

1.  1749-56.  Arcana  Ccelestia,  The  Heavenly  Arcana  which  are  contained 
in  the  Holy  Scriptures,  or  Word  of  the  Lord ;  unfolded :  beginning  with 
the  Book  of  Genesis;  together  with  the  Wonderful  things  seen  in  the 
World  of  Spirits  and  in 'the  Heaven  of  Angels.  English  Ed.  12  vols.  8 
TO.  £2  8s.,  any  vol.  separate,  4s.  American  Ed.  10  vols.  Si.  50  per  vol. 
2.  1758.  Concerning  Heaven  and  its  Wonders  •  and  concerning  Hell, 
being  a  Relation  of  things  heard  and  seen.  English  Ed.  3s.  American 
do.  $1.25.  3.  1758.  An  account  of  the  Last  Judgment  and  the  Destruction 
of  Babylon ;  showing  that  all  the  Predictions  in  the  Apocalypse  are  at  this 
day  fuljUled,  being  a  relation  of  things  heard  and  seen,  8  vo.  Eng.  Ed. 
Bd.  American  do.  75c.  4.  1758.  On  the  White  Horse  mentioned  in  the 
Apocalypse,  chap,  xix.,  with  References  to  the  Arcana  Cozlestia  on  the  sitb- 
iect  of  the  Word,  and  its  Spiritual  or  Internal  Sense.  With  an  Appendix. 
English  Ed.  4d.  American  do.  lOc.  5.  1758.  On  the  Earths  in  our  Solar 
System,  and  on  the  Earths  in  the  Starry  Heavens ;  with  an  account  of 
their  inhabitants,  and  also  of  the  Spirits  and  Angels  there,  from  what  has 
been  seen  and  heard.  Eng.  Ed.  8  vo.,  8d.  American  Ed.  60c.  6.  1758. 
On  the  NewJerusalem  and  its  Heavenly  Doctrine,  as  revealed  from  Heaven, 
to  which  are  prefixed  some  Observations  concerning  the  New  Heaven  and 
the  Neio  Earth.  Eng.  Ed.  8  vo.  Is.  American  do.  paper,  lOc.  7.  1763, 
Angelic  Wisdom  concerning  the  Divine  Love  and  the  Divine  Wisdom 
Rag.  Ed,  DemySvo.,  2s.  American  do.  $1.  8.1763,  The  Four  leafr 


ORIGIN,    ETC.,    OF   THE    EARTH.  f48 

ing  Doctrines  of  the  New  Church,  signified  in  Rev.  xxi.  by  the  New  Jeru* 
talem ;  being  these  respecting  the  Lord.  His  Divine  and  Human  Nature*, 
and  the  Divine  Trinity ;  the  Sacred  Scripture  ;  Faith ;  and  Life.  Eng 
Ed.  8  vo.  2s.  American  do.  $1.  9.  1764.  Angelic  Wisdom  concerning 
the  Diiine  Providence.  Eng.  Ed.  8  vo.  3s.  American  do.  $1.50.  10.,' 
1765.  The  Apocalypse  Revealed ;  in  which  are  disclosed  the  Arcana  there* 
in  foretold;  and  which  have  hitherto  remained  concealed.  2  vols.  Eng. 
Ed.  85.  American  do.  S3.  11.  1768.  Conjugal  Love  and  its  Chaste  De- ' 
lights ;  also  Adulterous  Love  and  its  Insane  Pleasures  Eng.  Ed.  4*. 
American  do.  $1.25.  12.  1769.  A  Brief  Exposition  of  the  Doctrines  of 
the  New  Church  meant  by  thi  New  Jerusalem  in  the  Apocalypse.  Engj 
Ed.  lOd.  American  do.  40c.  13.  The  Intercourse  between  the  Soul  and 
the  Body,  which  is  supposed  to  take  place  either  by  Physical  Influx,  or  by 
Spiritual  Influx,  or  by  Pre-established  Harmony.  Eng.  Ed.  4d.  Ameri- 
can do.  lOc.  14.  1771.  The  True  Christian  Religion ;  or,  the  Universal 
Theology  of  the  New  Church,  foretold  by  the  Lord  in  Dan.  vii,  13,  14>  and 
in  the  Apocalypse  xxi,  1,  2.  Eng.  Ed.  7s.  American  do.  $2.50. 

These  prices  include  postage  to  destination.  The  books  may  be  ob- 
tained by  addressing  the  Publishing  Society's  Manager,  E.  H.  SWINNEY, 
No.  20  Cooper  Union,  New  York,  or  the  London  Society's  Agent,  JAMEE 
SPIERS,  36 Bloomsbury  St.,  London,  W.  C.,  Eng. 

Swedenborg's  "True  Christian  Religion"  and  the  "  Apocalypse  Re- 
vealed," may  be  obtained  absolutely  free  by  any  Protestant  clergyman 
or  student  who  may  enclose  the  postage  for  same  to  the  celebrated  pub- 
lishing house  of  J.  B.  Lippincott  &  Co.,  of  Philadelphia.  The  requisite 
funds  for  this  purpose  are  supplied  by  a  retired  Philadelphia  merchant 
of  princely  means  and  large-hearted  liberality,  who  takes  an  ardent  in- 
terest in  the  work,  and  has  made  ample  provision  for  its  permanent  con- 
tinuance even  after  his  hands  have  laid  it  down.  No  clergyman  or 
student  need  hesitate  to  enclose  the  postage  and  send  for  these  bookg,  for 
they  will  be  sent  without  fail.  The  New  Church  Tract  and  Publication 
Society,  T.  S.  Arthur  (the  well-known  author),  President,  George  Burn- 
ham  (of  the  Baldwin  Locomotive  works),  Treasurer,  offer  Swedenborg's 
"Heaven  and  Hell,"  through  J.  B.  Lippincott  &  Co.,  to  clergymen  on 
the  same  terms.  In  ordering  these  books  in  this  way,  enclose  30c.  for 
postage  on  the  first  named,  18c.  for  the  second,  and  13c.  for  the  last 
noted  work,  and  forward  all  orders  to  J.  B.  Lippiucott  &  Co. ,  715  and 
717  Market  St.,  Philadelphia. 

Up  to  Jan.  1,  1878,  this  well-known  firm  have  received  and  filled 
tequests  from  clergymen  for  14,000  copies  of  the  "  True  Christian 
Religion,"  8,000  copies  of  the  "  Apocalypse  Revealed,''  and  12,000  copies 
of  "' ^ Heaven  and  Hell."  Req:iests  are  still  coming  in,  books  are  still  going 
out,  and  hundreds  of  letters  have  been  received  attesting  the  lively  grati- 
tude of  the  recipients  to  the  donors  of  these  books  for  their  inestimable 
gifts.  In  addition  to  Ais  unusual  traffic  of  supplying  costly  books  free  of 
charge,  J.  B.  LIPPINCOTT  &  Co.  publish  elegant  editions  of  many  of  Swe- 
aenborg's  theological  writings,  which  they  supply  to  purchasers  in  tbt 
fasnal  way  of  business,  Lists  and  prices  furnished  by  addreesing  oc 
fpplying  Ha  above, 


TAiii/ES,    ETC.,    FOR    PRINTERS. 


IMPORTANT  RULES,  TABLES,  &c.,  FOR  PRINTERS. 
A  THOUSAND  EMS,  MEASURING  TYPE  OB  MATTER. — This  is  dona  by 
multiplying  the  number  of  solid  ems  contained  in  the  length  of  any 
quantity  of  type,  by  the  number  contained  in  the  width  of  the  measure. 
The  gauge  for  measurement  is  an  em  of  the  type  in  which  the  matter 
calculated  is  set.  A  thousand  ems  is  the  space  that  so  many  letter  m's 
would  occupy.  It  takes  over  2,000  average  letters  to  occupy  the  space  of 
1,000  ems.  In  Britain  the  matter  is  measured  by  ens.  To  determine  the 
number  of  ens  in  a  line,  lay  as  many  of  the  letter  m  flat  wise  in  the  stick 
as  will  make  the  measure.  The  following  Table  shows  the  number  of 
ems  contained  in  a  pound  of  each  of  the  following  sizes  of  type. 


1  Ib.  Minion      contains 

"  Nonpareil       " 

•'  Agate  " 

"  Pearl  :  " 


356  ems. 
520        " 
690        « 
800        " 


1  Ib.    of     Pica    contains     130 

•'        "     S.Pica       «'  170 

"        "     L.  Primer"  200 

«'        "     Bourgeois"  270 

"        "     Brevier     "  290 

Table  showing  number  of  ems  in  100  square  inches  of  the  sizes  of  typt 
from  Pica  to  Agate  inclusive. 

pica 3,600(  Nonpareil 14,400|Minion 10,404 

Long  Primer 5,625  Small  Pica 4,900lAgate ..19,600 

Brevier 8,8361  Bourgeois 6,889| 

The  above  list  is  based  on  the  supposition  that  lines  of  the  length  of  6 

ems  pica,  7  ems  small  pica,  7.5  ems  long  primer,  8.3  ems  bourgeois,  9.4 

ems  brevier;,  10.2  ems  minion,  12  ems  nonpareil,  and  14  agate,  are  equal 

to  an  inch.     This  is  not  strictly  true,  but  the  variation  is  so  little  that  it 

<  will  not  make  a  difference  of  1,000  ems  in  100  ordinary  sized  pages. 

In  one  square  inch  there  are- 

38  ems  Pica,  72*4  ems  Bourgeois.         144  ems  Nonpareil. 

60      "    Small  Pica.  87        "    Brevier.  200^  "    Agate. 

M%  "    Long  Primer          113%  «     Minion.  225      "    Pearl. 

The  above  is  an  approximation  merely,  as  different  type  foundww 
tflightly  vary  the  size  of  their  type. 

METAL  FOR  BACKING  ELECTROTYPE  PLATES.— Lead  91  parts,  tin  4, 
antimony  1. 

To  MARK  WRITING  INK  INERASEABLE  EVEN  BY  ACIDS. — TQ  good 
gall  ink  add  a  strong  solution  of  Prussian  blue  in  distilled  water.  The 
ink  writes  greenish  blue  but  afterwards  turns  black,  and  cannot  bf- 
erased  without  destroying  the  pape 


TABLES,    ETC  ,    FOB    PRINTERS. 

ARRANGEMENT    OF    TYPE    IN    AMERICAN    UPPER   CASE. 


74? 


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ARRANGEMENT    OF    TYPE    IN    AMERICAN    LOWER    CASE. 


& 

fl 

5em 
§p. 

4em 
Bp. 

' 

kl 

1J2 

3    1   4 

5 

6    |   7 

8 

j 

C 

d 

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i 

s 

f 

g 

fl 

9 

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fl 

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qds. 

em 
qdi. 

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3  em 
spaces. 

a 

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2*3  em 
quadrats. 

q 

i 

Weight  of  leads  required  for  any  work.    These  calculations  apply  ta 
any  measure,  and  are  based  on  the  use  of  six-to-pica  leads.    The  first 
Table  is  for  SOLID  MATTER  which  requires  to  be  leaded. 
1,000  ems  Pearl  require  7%  ozs.  leads.  1,000  ems  Bourgeois,  13%  ozs.  leadi 
1,000    "    Agate        "       8%     "        "       1,000     "    L.  Primer,    IflU     "        « 
1,800    "    Nonpareil        9%     "        "       1,000     "    S.  Pica,         18%     "        " 
1,000    «    Minion      «    11^     "       «       1,000     "    Pica,  19         "       » 

1,000    "    Brevier     «    13        "       « 

EXAMPLE.— It  is  estimated  that  the  matter  to  be  set  will  make  20,000 
ems  Small  Pica  solid.  Required,  the  weight  of  leads  necessary  to  lead 
this  matter.  1,000  ems  of  solid  Small  Pica  require  16i  ounces  of  leads 
16i  X  20  =  330  ozs.  =  20  Ibs,  10  ozs. 

The  second  Table  gives  the  weight  of  the  leads  contained  in  1,000  ems 
of  leaded  MATTER. 


1,000  ems  Pearl  contains  5%  ozs.  leads. 


1,000  ems  Bourgeois  contains  11  ozs.  Ida 


1,000    "    Agate         "      6       "  1,000    "    L.  Primer       "       12V2 

1,000    "    Nonpareil  "     7V3    "        "       1,000    "    S.  Pica  "        14 

1,000    "     Minion        "     9        "        "       1,000    "    Pica  «       16V,    i4     ' 

1,000    "    Brevier        "    I0y2  "        "I 

EXAMPLE.— A  page  of  leaded  Long  Primer  contains  2,000  ems.  Re- 
quired, the  weight  of  leads  necessary  to  lead  thirty -two  pages.  1,000  ems 
of  leaded  Long  Primer  contain  12^  ounces  of  leads.  12 Jx  2  ==25  ozs. 
per  page.  25  X  32  =  800  ozs.  =-=  50  Ibs. 

Or,  a  column  of  Npnpareil  contains  8,000  ems.  Required  the  weight  of 
leads  necessary  to  lead  six  columns.  1,000  ems  of  leaded  Nonpareil  con- 
tain 7£  ounces  of  leads.  74  x  8  =  60  ozs.  per  column.  60  X  6  =  360  ozs. 
=  22  Ibs.  8  ozs. 

An  allowance  must  of  course  be  made  for  additional  leads  used  Io9 
blanking  out  and  in  standing  matter. 


TABLES,    ETC..    FOR   PRINTERS. 


The  following  table  gives  the  weight  of  leads  in  1000  ems  of  1 

flatter  :— 

LEADED   MATTER— 

1000  ems  Pearl 

1000 
,  WOO 
.  1000 
f  1000 

loop 

1000 
K>00 
1000 

TABLE  SHOWING  THE  QUANTITY  OF  PAPER  REQUIRED  JOR  AN! 
JOB  FROM  50  TO  10,000  COPIES.— No  allowance  for  waste  or  surplus 
copies.  For  any  number  not  noted  in  Table,  say  36  to  the  sheet,  use 
double  the  quantity  given  in  column  headed  18. 


..  1^4 

:.........  9 

Brevier                                " 

11 

12V 

Small  Pica          "        

14 

Pica...                                " 

...16% 

^ 

2 

3 

4 

6       8 

Q 

12 

15 

16     18 

2O 

24 

32 

*is 

tosht 

tosht 

tosht 

to  sht 

to  Bht 

to  sht  to  sht 

to  sht 

to  sht 

to  sht 

to  sht 

to  cht 

to  sht. 

<*! 

U 

ft* 

Bi 

Bj 

a! 

Bj 

Si 

U 

Bj 

il 

U 

o 

5*. 

to 

1—  1 

0—17 

0—13 

0—  9 

0-  7 

0-6 

0-5 

0—  4 

0-4 

0-  3 

0—  3 

0-3!    0-2 

100 

2—  a 

1—10 

1—  1 

0—17 

0—13 

0—12 

0—  9 

0—  7 

0—  7 

0—  6 

0—  5l  0—  5 

0~  4 

900 

4—4 

3—19 

2-  2 

1—10 

1-  1 

0—17 

0—14 

0-13 

0-12 

0-10  0-9 

0—  7 

150 

5-  1 

3—12 

2-15 

1—18 

1—  8 

1—  4 

0—21 

0-17 

0—16 

0—14 

0-13  O—ll 

0—  8 

300 

6-6 

4—  4 

3-3 

2-2    1-14 

1-10 

1—  1 

0—20 

0-19 

0—17 

0-15   0-13 

0—10 

400 

8—  8 

5-14 

4—  4 

2—19    2—  2 

1—21 

1—10 

1-3 

1—  1 

0-23 

0-20  0—17 

0—13 

300 

10-10 

«-23 

5-  5 

3-12    2-15 

2—  8 

1—18 

1-10 

1-8 

1-4 

1-  11  0-21 

0-16 

600 

18—12 

8-8 

6—  « 

4—  4    3—3 

2—19 

2-2 

1-16 

1—14 

1—10 

1-61    -  1 

0—19 

TOO 

14—14 

9-18 

7—  7 

4-21    3-16 

3—  6 

2—11 

1-23 

1-20 

1-15 

1_11     _  e 

0—22 

750 

15-15 

10—10 

7—20 

5-  5    3—22 

3—12 

2—15 

2-3 

1—23 

1—18 

1-14 

-8 

—  0 

800 

1«_16  11-  3 

8—  8 

5-14    4-4 

3—17 

2-19    2-  6 

2-2 

1-21 

1—15 

-10 

-I 

900 

18—18  1*-  13- 

9-  9 

6—  6    4—17 

4—  4 

3—  3    2-12 

2—  9 

2—  2 

1—21 

—14 

—  5 

1000 

20-30113-22 

10-10 

6-23    5—  5 

4-16 

3-12    2-19 

2-15 

2-8 

2—  2 

—18 

-8 

1250 

2«—  iji7—  9 

13-  1 

8—17    6-13 

5—19 

4—  9    3—12 

3-  7 

2—22 

2—15    2—  5 

—  1« 

1500 

3l_  6!30—  » 

15-15 

10—16    7-20 

6—23 

5—54—5 

3-22 

3—12 

3—  31  2—15 

—23 

1750 

38—  11J34—  8 

18-6 

12—4    9—3 

8-3 

6-  2    4—22 

4—14 

4—  2 

3-161  3-  1 

2-8 

9000 

41—16)27—19 

20-20 

13—22  10—10 

9-  7 

6-231   5-14 

5—  5 

4-16 

4—  4|  3-1? 

2—15 

•2500 
3000 

52—  2 

«2—  12 

34—18  26-  1  17—10  13—  1 
41-16  31—  6130—20  15—15 

11—15 
13—22 

8—17    7-  0 
10—10!    8—  8 

6-13 
7—20 

5-20 
6—23 

5_  5   4-  9,    3—  7 
6-6   6—5     8—22 

4000 
MOO 

83-  8  M-14141-16  27-19  20-20 
104-  4^9—  11  .52—  3  34—  18  26—  1 

18—13 
23—  4 

13-22  11-  3 
17—  9  13-22 

10—10 
13—  1 

0—  7 
10—14 

8-  8]  6-23     5-  « 
10—  JO    8—  IT     8—13 

10000 

908-  81188-221104-  4'69-ll  52—  2146-  8  34—18  27—19  26—  1123—  4  20—  10il7—  91  13—  1 

NAMES  AND  SIZES  OF  BOOKS  AS  CLASSIFEDBY  PUBLISHERS.—  Th* 
number  of  folds  and    aes  in  a  sinle  sheet  when  manufactured. 
Kameofbook. 


Folio    ...........................  2  leaves 

<Juartoor4to  .....................  4 

OctavoorSvo  ..............     ..8 

Duodecimo  or  12  mo  .............  12 

16mo*  ..............  .............  16 

18"       ............................  18 

24"        ...  .........................  24 

*•?  "        ........................  32 


pages. 
<? 


16 
24 
32 
.36 
48 
64 


BEST  PRINTERS'  INK.  —  Boil  3  gallons  best  clear  old  linseed  oil  dovrn  to 
»  thick  varnish  ;  add  while  hot  12  Ibs.  of  powdered  rosin,  3|  Ibs.  dry 
brown  soap  shavings,  5  ozs.  indigo  ;  5  ozs.  Prussian  blue,  and  10  Ibs.  best 
lampblack  ;  stir  all  well  together,  let  it  stand  a  week  and  grind. 

For  other  inks,  roller  compositions,  &c.  ,  see  pages  545-6  and  579.  For 
paper  tables  see  page  577.  __ 

*  Note.  —  This  book  is  a  16  mo.,  there  being  32  pages  to  the  sheet.  Th« 
terms  folio,  quarto,  octavo,  etc.,  denote  the  number  of  leaves  in  which  a  sheet 
Of  paper  is  folded. 

The  marks  A,  B,  C  ;  1,  2,  3  ;  1A,  2A  ;  1*,  2*,  etc.,  occasionally  found  at 
the  bottom  of  pages,  are  what  printers  term  signature  marks,  thus,  3*,  being 
oricted  for  the  direction  of  binders  in  folding  the  sheets. 


TABLES,    ETC.,    FOR    PRINTERS. 


One  pound  of  leads  or  slugs  covers  four  square  inches.    Hence,  whan- 

the  space  to  be  filled  by  leads  or  slugs  is  known,  it  is  only  necessary  to> 
divide  the  number  of  square  inches  by  four,  and  the  result  will  give  the 
required  weight  in  pounds.  —  Proof  Sheet. 

How  TO  ESTIMATE.  —  To  ascertain  the  quantity  of  plain  type  required 
ior  a  newspaper  or  magazine,  or  any  other  work,  find  the  number  of 
square  inches  and  divide  the  same  by  four,  the  quotient  will  be  the  ap« 
proximate  weight  of  matter  ;  but  as  it  is  impossible  to  set  the  cases  cleai; 

it  is  necessary  to  add  25  per  cent,  to  large  fonts,  to  allow  for  dead  letter. 

'      SCHKMK       FOR        ElTOLISl 

WOOD  TYPE.  —  The   followin 
able  will  be  useful  in  orderin 

'     BILL  OF  TYPE.—  English  type  founders  call  3.001 
''  lower  case  m's  a  bill,  and  proportion  all  other  sort* 

wood  type.    Wood  type  shoul 
always  be  ordered  by  the  "  a, 

-  by  them  ;  so  that  a  bill  of  pica,  including  accents 

f  for  large  Poster  letters,    i 
'  3  A,"  font  is  generally  su: 
flcient,  while  for  smaller'lcttei 

^  and  italic,  weighs  800  Ibs.     For  every  Ib.  of  italic 
B  there  are  10  Ibs,  of  Roman.     From  the  annexed. 

t  is  always  advisable  to  orders 
least  a  "  5  A"  font.    Of  con 

.  table  an  idea  can  be  obtained  of  the  number  of  let- 

densed  letters  especially  ther 
should  always  be  a  large  font. 

e  ters  contained  in  800  Ibs.  pica. 

j 

tj  . 

s.1  •' 

a     ...  8.500 

,      ....  4,500 

A   600 

A  300> 

£ 

y 

b     .  ..  1,600 

;     ....     800 

B  400 

B  200 

u 

— 

. 

U'  1 

c      ...  3,000 

:     ....     600 

C    500 

C  250: 

•^ 

•A 

^   «< 

^1  1  OS 

• 

d     ...  4,400 

2,000 

D  500 

D  250 

^ 

« 

•*  ^< 

«S    «5 

rt 

E          .    600 

E              300 

A 

« 

3 

4 

4 

Ij 

a 

f          '.'.  2*500 

?     ....     200 

f  400 

F  200 

B  <2 

2 

3 

3 

3       —      i 

T      ...  1.700 

!      ....     150 

G  ......400 

G  200- 

£   ? 

2 

8 

0 

3 

4 

m 

l      .   .!  6,400 

'      ....     700 

H  400 

H  200- 

£ 

•{, 
4 

2 
4 

5 

5 

6 

)      ....     300 

I    800 

I    400- 

F 

2    2 

3 

3 

3 

3 

G&C3 

'400 

]      ....     150 

J   300 

J   150 

g 

2 

2 

3 

3 

0 

3 

4 

k     .   .       800 

*     ....     100 

K  300 

K  150 

H 
I 

4 

2 
3 

4 

4 

5 

00 

1      .   .    4,000 

t     ....     100 

L  500 

L  250 

3 

2 

3 

2 

8 

m    .   .    3,000 

$     ....     100 

M  400 

M  200- 

K 

1 

2 

2 

2 

n     .  .    8,000 

§     ....     100 

N  400 

N  300- 

4 
2 

S 

3 

5 
a 

6 
4 

<3>C* 

o     .  .    8,000 

||      ....     100 

O   400 

0  200 

M 
N 

3 

4   4 

5 

p     .   .    1,700 

IT    ....     60 

P   400 

P  200- 

?8 

4 

4 

5 

oo  N 

q      .   .       500 

Q   180 

Q     •            dO" 

l« 

8 

3 

3 

r      .  ..  6,200!  1     ....11,300 

R  400 

K*.!  !'.'.'.  200 

Q:* 

2 

I 
4 

2 
5 

9      ...  8,000 

2     ....1,200 

S    500 

s   250 

S    4 

5 

5 

I 

b-0< 

t      .   .    9,000 

3     ....1,100 

T  650 

T  326- 

T13 

4 

4 

5 

u     .   .    3,400 

4     ....1,000 

U  300 

U  150 

U 

2 

3 

3 

4 

toe* 

V     .   .     1,200 

6     ....1,000 

V  300 

V  180- 

V 

w 

2 
2 

3 

3 
3 

3 

3 

W     .   .    2,000 

6     ....1,000 

W  400 

W  .......  200< 

2 

2 

2 

x      .           400 

7   1,000 

X              180 

X  ....      90* 

Y 

2 

2 

3 

3 

3 

3 

IOC4 

y     .    .  2,000 

8   1,000 

Y  300 

Z 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

2 

Z      .     .      200 

9   1.000 

Z   .    80 

z  !!.'!.'!  40- 

* 

1 
3 

2 
4 

2 

4 

•*c< 

&     .     .      200 

0   1,300 

JR  40 

1 

2 

2 

ff     .     .      400 

<E  30 

1 
3 

2 
4 

2 
4 

WN 

fi     .     .      500 
ffl    .     .      150 

Accents 

3  6IH  8DAC60                   IS  G(H)^ 

1 

1 

1 

m    .     .     100 

average  150 

4    «        '<       12*  Of  1 

i 

2 

2 

3 

C4C4 

ae    .    .     100 

each. 

,•><•'•                       8  0(-  1 

1 

1 

1 

oe    .     .       60 

Hair     "     3,00* 

ff 

1 

1 

—    .    ..      150 

em  Quads  2,500 

1 

1 

1 
i 

^  co 

90 

en  Quads  5,004 

ffl 

1 

1 

1 

1 

•"•*       tt 

Large  Quadrati  80  Iba.  _ 

Figures  are  usually 

A 

put  up  with  Fonts  o: 

08 

I   A    and    upwards 

oT  v 

and    always    with 

»«M 

Lower  Case,  so  that    3  ° 

when  a  Font  of  4  A    be  X 

is  ordered  the  Lower 

S  ^ 

Case,    and  Figures 
will    always  be  sent 
tiniest  otnerflte  or- 

1 

;U.MES    AND    SIZES    OF    TYPE. 
2NTAMES  AND  SIZES  OF  TYPE. 

GREAT  PRIME  RO— In  con  versa- 
tion,  study  purity  of  language: 
a  void  vulgar  dialects  like  the  fol* 
lowing  samples : 

ENGLISH.  -  -  English  Rustic.  Measter 
Goddin  used  to  zay  as  how  children  costed 
a  sight  o'  money  to  breng  um  cop,  and 
?twas  all  very  well  whilst  um  was  leetle, 
and  zucked  the  mother,  but  when  um 
begind  to  zuck  the  vather,  'twas  nati<m 
akkerd ! 

PICA. — Rector.  "  These  pigs  of  yours  are  in 
excellent  condition/'  Jarvis.  "  E'as,  sur,  they 
ibe.  Ah !  sur,  if  we  was  all  on  us  only  as  fit  to 
die  as  them  are  sur,  it  would  be  good  for  we/' 

SMALL  PICA. — Scotch  Elder.  "  O !  Sandy,  if  ye 
wad  only  tak'  soond  advice,  an'  drink  watter  instead 
o'  whiskey,  it  wad  be  better  for  your  puir  wife  an? 
bonnie  bairns  ;  d'ye  no  ken  whaur  a'  the  drunkards 
gang  tae  ?  "  Confirmed  Sot.  "  Yes,  Maister  Tamson3 
richt  weel  I  ken  that,  they  aye  gang  whaur  they  get 
the  best  whiskey." 

LONG  PRIMER. —  Cockney  Hair-Dresser,  "  They  say,  sii> 
that  the  cholera  is  in  the  Hair,  sir  !  "  Gent,  (very  uneasy) 
•"  Indeed !  ahem  !  then  I  hope  you  are  very  careful  about; 
the  brushes  you  use."  Hair-Dresser :  "  Oh,  I  see  you  don't 
^understand  me,  sir ;  I  don't  mean  the  'air  of  the  ed,  bui 
the  //air  hoi  the  ^atmosphere  !  " — Punch. 

Cockney  Servant  Girl.  "  Well  mam — Heverythmk  con« 
*idered,  I'm  afraid  you  won't  suit  me.  I've  always  been 
brought  up  genteel ;  and  I  couldn't  go  nowheres  where  there 
aint  no  footman  kep'.  "  Servant  Man,  Thompson  (who 
is  very  refined),  "  Ho  yes,  mum,  I  don't  find  no  fault  with 


NAMES   AND    SIZES    OF    TII'E.  751 

mum,  nor  yet  with  master — but  the  truth  his  mum,  the 
hother  servants  is  so  orrid  vulgar  and  hignorant,  and  speaks 
so   httngrammatical,   that  I  reely   cannot  live  in   the  same 
'ouse  with  'em,  aud  I  should  like  to  go  this  day  month,  if  so 
...  be  has  it  won't  illconweriience  you  !  " — Punch. 

BOURGEOIS. — Mrs.  Brown  (an  Aberdeen  widow  on  the  north 
iide  of  forty).  "  Hoo'sa'  wi'ye  this  mornin',  Mester  Miller  ;  coma 
in  an'  sit  doon,  I  was  just  thinkin'  o'  ye ;  some  lang-tongued 
hizzies  were  sayin'  that  it  was  a  perfec'  shame  that  a  man  like 
you,  wi'  grey  hair,  an'  a  long  fite  beard  should  mak'  a  feel  o' 
yerse)'  getting  married  fan  ye  should  be  thinkin'  o'  deein'.  Its 
a  peer  world  to  live  in  if  a  man  canna  tak'  a  wife  fanever  he 
likes.  Na,  na,  I  ken  plenty,  some  o'  them  no  far  aft,  that  wad 
be  prood  to  get  ye.  Eh,  sirs,  the  life  o'  a  peer,  lone  woman,  or  a 
lone  man  is  a  weary,  sail*  dree  o'  dool  an'  sorrow  ;  dinna  ye 
think  sae,  Mester  Miller  ?  "  Miller ;  (a  widower  on  the  look  out 
for  another  wife.)  "  In  my  long  pilgrimage  through  this  vale  or 
tears,  my  experience  has  been,  that  a  man  is  muckle  the  better 
o'  a  woman,  and  a  wojnan  is  muckle  the  better  o'  a  man  !  " 

BREVIER. —  Wilkins.  "  Well  Tumnias,  did  you  'ear  as  how  Measter 
Smith  hurled  hisself  on  the  leg  just  above  the  hancle."  Tummas, 
"  0  did  um,  that  be  very  bad  for  he,  and  I  be  very  zarry  to  'ear  it. 
Las'  week  my  son  Jan  war  a  drivin'  a  nail,  an'  the  'ammer,  he  flew 
out'n  'is  'and  an*  struck  I  very  'ard  on  the  nose,  the  blood  corned, 
an'  if  it  'ad  struck  much  'arder  it  would  'ave  killed  I  on  the  spot  sure." 

BLA.RWEY.  Yankee  (just  arrived).  "  Guess  your  legal  fare  is  just 
Sixpence."  Dublin  Carman  :  "  Shure,  me  Lord,  we  take  some  chape- 
Jacks  at  that — but  its  meself  wouldn't  dishgrace  a  gintleman  a'  your 
Lordship's  quality  by  dhrivin'  'm  at  a  mane  pace  through  the  public 
shtreets,  so  I  tuk  it  upon  myself  to  give  your  lordship  a  shittin's  worth 
both  of  shtyle  and  whip  cord." 

MINION. — Vermont  Tombstone  Agent  to  Smith,  in  the  backwoods  : — 

"  Good  morning',  Mister;  I  was  told  over  tew that  you  had  lost 

your  wife,  and  I  have  jest  cum  ten  miles  over  meowntains,  woods,  an' 
swamps  to  get  an  order  for  a  tewmstun'  for  her.  Was  awful  sorry  to 
hear  of  your  great  loss,  but  I  can  sell  you  the  cheapest  an'  best  tewmstun' 
•  in  the  hull  creation."  Smith.  "  Waal,  stranger,  I  reckon  I  can  stand  my 
loss  if  she  can  stand  her'n;  but  you  see  as  how  the  critter  isn't  ready  for 
a  tombstone  yet,  she's  only  scooted  with  another  man." 

NONPAREIL.—  English  Rustics.  Sam:  I  zay.Jack.be  you  a  politicianer? 
Jack.-  -'«  E'as  I  be."  Sam.— "  Wall  I  zay,  Jack,  what  be  a  politicianer  ? 
Jack.--"  Zounds,  Sam  !  doaut'ee  knaw  rethink  about  uii  ?  "  Sam.—  Naw  I 
doan't."  Jack.—  Wall,  I  doau't  knaw  as  I  can  tell'ee,  Sam,  fur  I  doan't 
exackerJv  knaw  mysel'  !  " 

PE.4  ^.-English  Showman.  Walk  in  to  the  ekow  mj  hearties,  walk  in  and  «ee  the  great 
Hafncan  Vans,  rhinoceros  and  helephants  as  was  caught  in  the  desert  about  U  mile*  from 
either  sea  or  land,  ir.d  the  great  'ippopotamus  and  catterwallapus  as  lives  in  the  hoeean.  Them 
as  don't  go  in  ca.'  i't  win.  and  them  a*  stays  out  there  harn'tin  here,  and  can't  see  the  great 
Hmdian  tiger,  leopard,  the  hanncondas  from  Brazil,  the  grizzly  bear,  the  buffalo  that  ?wmg» 
his  vast  preposterous  over  the  Rocky  Mountings  and  Western  prarers,  and  the  great  dens  of 
performing  hauimals  from  hull  hover  the  world  ! 

Do  yees  raily  think.  Squire,  that  there  is  annv  ch*pcce  of  war  wid  this  country  an'  Rooshaf 
.Squire.  Well  things  did  look  a  little  queer  lately  ;  but  why  do  you  ask  ?  Well,  me  raison  tot 
iixin1  is,  d'ye  moind  now,  wan  o'  these  days  I'll  have  to  be  afther  sellin'  me  pig,  and  if  there's 
«oic'  tc  be  HUD/  war,  bacon  'ill  roue  to  a  foine  price  as  thrue't  me  name's  Titr  O'Farrell  I 


752  TYPOGRAPHICAL   MARKS 

J^->.  JTEDTCH  »T^rIety  of  opinions  exist  sa  to 
ineindividuallbyWpimthe.art.of  printing  was'*  ^ 
^first  discovered;  yet)  nil  authorities  concur  m 
(Bdmltting  Peter _ Schoeffeiyto  be  tne  persons  q? 


invented  cast  metal  types,. having  learned 
Hie  artn&£  of  cutting  -the  letters  from  the  Gut" 
iembergsV  he  is  also  supposed  to  have  Ibeert 
the  first  whqengraved  on  copper* plates. 
following  testimony  is  jpreseved  in  the  family^     'i 
by^jJo.^red.^^Faustu^^l^Ascheffenburg: 
Peter   Schoefier,    of    GernsHeim,   perceiving 
w    his  -master  Faus^s  design^  and  being  himself 
(tdesirou3\ard  entljj)  to  improve  ihe  art,  found 
Oiifi    (by  'the   good  providence  of  God)  the 
method  of   cutting  (m&dendi)  the   characters  13 
|n  a*  mdlnx,  that  the  letters"  might  easily  be 
eingiy  casff  Snsiead,  of  bieng   cut.     He   pri-12 
vately*  ,cw^  malricss\  -for  the  whole   alpliabet :  A 
DFaust  was  so  pleased  "with  tne  contrivanp^; 
promised  Peter  'to  give  him  Hs^only 

Christina   In  marriage  ^/promise  3  ^ffi  S 
jjich  he  sooniafter  performed. 

there  were-  many  d^ffculties  afc   first 
-with  these  &tfe^  aa  iH^6  had  been  before 
M  .     with,  wooden  onga^' gt^! metal  being  too  Boft 

to  support  ihe'fbjj<fe  of  the  iraipregsion  s  bu6*^/ 
''Wa  defect  was   soon   remediedf  by  mixing 
substancrfwith  the  metal -which  sufficiently^1* 


„'   EXEMPLIFIED 


The  designated  errors  being  corrected,  the  foregoing  matter  will  tea* 
as  follows : 

Though  a  variety  of  opinions  exist  as  to  the  individual  by  whom 
printing  was  first  discovered ;  yet  all  authorities  concur  in  admitting 
PETER  SCHOEFFER  to  be  the  person  who  invented  cast  metal  types, 
having  learned  the  art  of  cutting  the  letters  from  the  Guttembergs;  he  i» 
also  supposed  to  have  been  the  first  who  engraved  on  copper-plates.  The 
following  testimony  is  preserved  in  the  family,  by  Jo.  Fred.  Fatistus,  of 
Ascheff  enburg : 

'  PETER  SCHOEFFER,  of  Gernsheim,  perceiving  his  master  Faust's  de- 
sign, and  being  himself  ardently  desirous  to  improve  the  art,  found  out 
(by  the  good  providence  of  God)  the  method  of  cutting  ( incidendi)  the 
characters  in  a  matrix,  that  the  letters  might  easily  be  singly  cast,  in- 
stead of  being  cut.  He  privately  cut  matrices  for  the  whole  alphabet: 
and  when  he  showed  his  master  the  letters  cast  from  these  matrices, 
Faust  was  so  ple;i»d  with  the  contrivance,  that  he  promised  Peter  to  give 
him  his  only  daughter  Christina  in  marriage,  a  promise  which  he  soon 
after  performed.  But  there  were  as  many  difficulties  at  first  with  these 
letters,  as  there  had  been  before  with  wooden  ones,  the  metal  being  too 
BO  ft  to  support  the  force  of  the  impression;  but  this  defect  was  soon 
remedied,  by  mixing  the  metal  with  a  substance  which  sufficiently  har- 
dened it.' 

EXPLANATIONS  OF  THE  CORRECTIONS. 

The  following  rules,  from  Mackellar's  American  Printer  (a  most  re- 
liable work),  will  be  found  of  inestimable  value  to  typographical  men  and 
all  who  write  for  the  press : 

A  wrong  letter  in  a  word  is  noted  by  drawing  a  short  perpendicular 
line  through  it,  and  making  another  short  line  in  the  margin,  before 
which  the  right  letter  is  placed.  (See  No.  1.)  In  this  manner  whole 
words  are  corrected,  by  drawing  a  line  across  the  wrong  word  and  mak- 
ing the  right  one  in  the  margin  opposite. 

A  turned  letter  is  noted  by  drawing  a  line  through  it,* and  writing  the- 
mark  No.  2  in  the  margin. 

If  letters  or  words  require  to  be  altered  from  one  character  to  another, 
a  parallel  line  or  lines  must  be  made  underneath  the  word  or  letter, — 
viz,  for  capitals,  three  lines;  small  capitals,  two  lines  ;  and  Italic,  on* 


754  ON    CORRECTING   PROOFS. 

line ;  and,  in  the  margin  opposite  the  line  where  the  alteration  occurs, 
Caps,  Small  Caps,  or  Ital.  must  be  written.    (See  No.  3.) 

When  letters  or  words  are  set  double,  or  are  required  to  be  taken  out, 
a  line  is  drawn  through  the  superfluous  word  or  letter,  and  the  mark  No. 
4  placed  opposite  in  the  margin. 

Where  the  punctuation  requires  to  be  altered,  the  correct  point,  mark« 
*d  in  the  margin,  should  be  encircled.  (See  No.  5. ) 

When  a  space  is  omitted  between  two  words  or  letters  which  should  be 
separated,  a  caret  must  be  made  where  the  separation  ought  to  be,  and 
the  sign  No.  6  placed  opposite  in.  the  margin. 

No.  7  describes  the  manner  in  which  the  hyphen  and  ellipsis  line  are 
marked. 

When  a  letter  has  been  omitted,  a  caret  is  put  at  the  place  of  omis- 
.eion,  and  the  letter  marked  as  No.  8. 

Where  letters  that  should  be  joined  are  separated,  or  where  a  line  is 
too  widely  spaced,  the  mark  No .  9  must  be  placed  under  them,  and  the 
correction  denoted  by  the  marks  in  the  margin. 

Where  a  new  paragraph  is  required,  a  quadrangle  is  drawn  in  the 
margin,  and  a  caret  placed  at  the  beginning  of  the  sentence.  (See  No.  10.) 

No.  11  shows  the  way  in  which  the  apostrophe,  inverted  commas,  the 
star  and  other  references,  and  superior  letters  and  figures,  are  marked. 

Where  two  words  are  transposed,  a  line  is  drawn  over  one  word  and 
fcelow  the  other,  and  the  mark  No.  12  placed  in  the  margin;  but  where 
several  words  require  to  be  transposed,  their  right  order  is  signified  by  a 
iigure  placed  over  each  word,  and  the  mark  No.  12  in  the  margin. 

Wkere  words  have  been  struck  out  that  have  afterward  been  approved 
of,  dots  should  be  marked  under  them,  and  Stet  written  in  the,  margin. 
(See  No.  13.) 

Where  a  space  sticks  up  between  two  words,  a  horizontal  line  is  drawn 
under  it,  and  the  mark  No.  14  placed  opposite,  in  the  margin. 

Where  several  words  have  been  left  out,  they  are  transcribed  at  the 
bottom  of  the  page,  and  a  line  drawn  from  the  place  of  omission  to  the 
•written  words  (see  No.  15)  ;  but  if  the  omitted  matter  be  too  extensive  to 
l>e  copied  at  the  foot  of  the  page,  Out,  see  copy,  is  written  in  the  margin, 
,and  the  missing  lines  are  enclosed  between  brackets,  and  the  word  Out 
:is  inserted  in  the  margin  of  the  copy. 

Where  letters  stand  crooked,  they  are  noted  by  a  line  (see  No.  16); 
but,  where  a  page  hangs,  lines  are  drawn  across  the  entire  part  affected. 

When  a  smaller  or  larger  letter,  of  a  different  fount,  is  improperly  in- 
troduced into  the  page,  it  is  noted  by  the  mark  No.  17,  which  signifies 
wrong  fount. 

If  a  paragraph  be  improperly  made,  a  line  is*  drawn  from  the  broken- 
off  matter  to  the  next  paragraph,  and  No  H  written  in  the  margin.  (See 
-No.  18.) 

Where  a  word  has  been  left  out  or  is  to  be  added,  a  caret  must  be 
made  in  the  place  where  it  should  come  in,  and  the  word  written  in  the 
margin.  (See  No.  19. ) 

Where  a  faulty  letter  appears,  it  Is  marked  by  making  a  cross 
under  it,  and  placing  a  similar  one  in  the  margin  (see  No.  20);  though 
some  prefer  to  draw  a  perpendicular  line  through  it,  as  in  the  case  of  a 
wrong  letter. 

PAPER  VARNISH. — All  varnished  gums  composing  the  same,  and  dis- 
solved in  turpentine,  have  a  greasy  nature.  Paper  must  be  first  sized,  or 
if  dissolved  by  any  other  spirit,  8  oz.  of  gum  sandarach,  2  oz.  of  Venice 
turpentine,  32  oz.  of  alcohol.  Dissolve  by  gentle  heat.  Or  a  harder  var- 
nish, reddish  cast,  5  oz.  of  shellac,  and  1  oa,  of  turpentine,  32  oz.  of  alco- 
hol, or  Canada  balsam  dissolved  in  turps. 


PERFORMANCE    OF~PRESSES,    ETC. 


755 


AVERAGB  DAILY  PERFORMANCE  OF  "PRESSES. —  Tke  estimates  of 
the  following  Tables  are  for  miscellaneous  work,  done  in  the  usual  man- 
ner, with  little  making  ready  and  under  the  favorable  conditions  of  a 
busy  season.  It  is  supposed  that  the  presses  are  at  work  full  10  hours ;  that 
feeders  and  pressmen  are  expert  and  diligent  ;  that  paper,  rollers,  steam 
power,  ink,  etc.,  are  in  perfect  order,  and  that  there  are  no  detentions  or 
accidents. 


Make 
Ready 
Time. 

Style  of  Press.—  No.  of  Forms. 

Time  of 
Press 
Work. 

Rate  per 
Hour. 

Perform-  1 
ance. 

Hours. 

Hours. 

Impr. 

Card  Press. 

1 

1  form  of   7,500  impressions. 

9 

833 

7,500 

4 

4      '•              1,000            " 

6 

666 

4,000 

6 

8      "                 250            « 

4 

500 

2,000 

Small  Machine  Press* 

1 

1  form  of    6.000  impressioni. 

9 

666 

6,000 

5 

5      "                500 

5 

500 

2,500 

8 

8      "                100            " 

2 

400 

800 

Hand  Press. 

1 

1  form  of  1,500  impressions. 

9 

156 

1,500 

4 

"                  250             " 

6 

166 

1,000 

Medium  Cylinder. 

1 

1  form  of   7,500  impressions. 

9 

833 

7,500 

5 

5      "               750            « 

5 

750 

3,750 

7 

8      "               250            " 

S 

666 

2,000 

Double  Medium  Cylinder. 

''         I 

1  form  of  5,000  impressions. 
3      "             1,000            " 

8 
5 

666 

600 

5,000 
3,000 

>. 

2      -                250             " 

3 

500 

1,500 

i    * 

L  f  „ 

1  form  of  <1.C3C  :  inyi-essions. 
2      "             I,'250 
4     «               250            «            : 

1      j  ' 

570 
500 
333 

4,00* 
2,500       \ 
1,000 

HOE  SEXTUPLE  PRINTING  PRESSo 

^<i£  H18?'  foy  ?obert  Hoe«  New  York,  but  since  2mproved  wpcn  ic 
f  oxie  extent  of  putting  two  together  in  combination  known  as  doubl 
sextuple  but  which  is  in  reality  more  that  this,  inasmuch  as  it  combine-, 
the  ability  to  do  printing  in  colors  as  well  as  in  black.  This  machine  is 
composed,  so  to  speak,  of  two  separate,  complete  printing  mechanisms, 
$acb_  -eci  ^rom  three  fcur-ne  wspaper-paere-v^d^  ^cl's  of  wp^r-  tbe  «ior>^ 


7C6  JOBBING  PRESSES. 

ratus  for  the  gathering  and  folding  of  these  webs  of  paper  after  printing: 
being  in  the  center  between  the  two  sections  of  the  machine.  Ihe  di~ 
mentions  of  the  double  sextuple  machine  are  as  follows:  Length,  3o 
feet;  height,  17  feet;  width,  9  feet;  the  weight,  about  225,000  pounds;  and 
the  number  of  parts  of  which  it  is  composed,  approximately  50,000.. 
Capacity,  96,000  twelve-page  papers  per  hour. 


GORDON'S  IMPROVED  FRANKLIN  PRESS. 

OONCINTRATED  INK   PASTES  TO    WRITE     WITH  WATER.  —1. 

Ink     Take  4  parts  of  bichromate  of  potash,  pulverized,  and  mixed  with  25- 
parts  of  acetic  acid,  50  parts  of  liquid  extract  of  logwood,  £  part  of  picric* 


ESTIMATES,  ETC.,  FOR  PRINTERS.          757 

meld,  10  parts  of  pulverized  sal  sorrel,  10  parts  of  mucilage,  and  £  part  of 
titrate  of  iron,  and  mix  well.  The  liquid  extract  of  logwood  is  prepared 
by  mixing  3  parts  01  an  extract  of  common  commercial  qzality  with  t\v« 
parts  of  water.  2.  Red  Ink.  Take  1  part  of  red  aniline  mixed  with  10 
parts  of  acetic  acid,  5  parts  of  citric  aoid,  and  25  parts  of  mucilage,  alt 
>  well  mixed.  For  use,  mix  1  part  of  the  paste  with  16  parts  of  water.  3. 
Blue  Ink.  Take  2  parts  of  aniline  blue  inixed  with  10  parts  of  acetic 
acid,  5  parts  of  citric  acid,  and  40  parts  of  mucilage,  all  well  mixed.  For 
use,  mix  1  part  of  the  paste  with  8  parts  of  water.  4.  Violet  Ink.  Use 
the  same  ingredients  in  the  same  proportions,  as  blue,  with  the  difier- 
ence,  that  violet  aniline  is  used  instead  of  blue  aniline.  5.  Green  Ink. 
Take  1  part  of  aniline  tlue,  3  parts  of  picric  acid  mixed  with  10  parts  of 
acetic  acid,  3  parts  of  citric  acid,  and  80  parts  of  mucilage.  For  use,  3 
part  of  this  paste  is  mixed  with  8  parts  of  water.  6.  Copying  Ink.  T.'sko 
6  parts  of  pulverized  bichromate  of  potash,  mixed  with  10  parts  of  acetic 
acid,  and  240  parts  of  liquid  extract  of  logwood,  and  add  a  pulverized 
mixture  of  35  parts  of  alum,  20  part?,  of  sal  sorrel,  and  20  parts  of  muci- 
lage. Mix  well.  For  use,  1  nart  of  this  paste  is  mixed  with  4  parts  of 
hot  water. 

These  inks  are  described  as  leaving  no  sediment,  as  drying  quicker  en 
paper  than  the  ordinary  inks,  and  as  being  non-corrosive. 

COLORED  INKS  FOR  RUBBER  AND  OTHER  STAMPS. — Red.  Dissolve 
\  oz.  of  carmine  in  2  ozs.  strong  water  of  ammonia,  and  add  1  dr.  of 
glycerine  and  £  oz.  dextrin.  Blue.  Rub  1  oz.  Prussian  blue  with 
enough  water  to  make  a  perfectly  smooth  paste  ;  then  add  loz.  dextiin, 
incorporate  it  well  and  finally  add  sufficient  water  to  bring  it  to  the 
proper  consistence.  Violet.  Alcohol  15  ozs.,  glycerine  15  ozs.,  aniline 
Tiolet  2  to  4  drs. ;  mix,  dissolve,  pour  the  solution  on  the  cushion  and  dab 
on  with  a  brush. 

The  following  estimates  relating  to  the  consumption  of  ink,  &c.,  are  se- 
lected from  De  Vinne's  Price  List,  a  work  of  incomparable  utility  to 
printers,  published  by  Francis  Hart  &  Co.,  New  York. 

BLACK  INKS. — On  common  news  and  rough  book  work,  the  value  of 
"black  ink  at  40  cents,  used  and  wasted  in  printing  a  wet-down  sheet  of 
size  24  X  38  inches,  or  thereabouts,  is  a  little  less  than  iT  cents  per  1CCO 
impressions,  or  about  4  cents  *  a  token  of  250  impressions.  If  the  sheet 
is  over-colored,  it  will  cost  6  cents ;  if  it  is  under-colored,  or  if  printed  on 
damp  calendered  paper  (an  unusual  quality  of  this  class  of  work),  it  will 
not  cost  3  cents  per  token. 

For  ordinary  book  work,  using  ink  at  60  cents,  on  smooth  paper  of 
size  24  X  38  inches,  the  average  cost  of  ink  used  and  wasted  will  be 
about  6  cents  per  token;  on  dry  and  rough  paper,  it  will  reach  10  or  33 
( cents. 

Fine  book  or  pamphlet  Pressworkon  damp  sheets  of  calendered  paper, 
'Of  size  24  X  38,  using  ink  at  $1.00,  should  have  its  average  value  rated  r.* 
10  cents  per  token  for  an  ordinary  edition.  Upon  a  short  edition,  lor 
which  ink  is  specially  put  in  the  fountain,  and  of  which  much  is  wasted 
the  cost  will  be  from  15  to  25  cents  per  token.  If  the  paper  is  a  soft  ?r3 
Spongy  Book,  cost  for  either  quantity  will  be  still  higher. 

ILLUSTRATED  CATALOGUES,  printed  on  medium  sheets,  19  x  24  inches, 
on  dry  calendered  paper,  with  cuts  of  large  size  and  blackness,  will  use 


*  It  is  a  popular  belief  that  the  ink  used  for  this  class  of  work,  on  this  sizo 
does  not  exceed  3- cents  per  token.  This  i*  the  ordinary  reckoning,  which  la 
lor  use  «ily.  But  the  waste  of  this  quality  of  ink  is  rarely  ever  less  tba» 
one-fifth,  and  it  often  approximates  more  closely  to  one-third  of  tlie  amoua* 
nurchased. 


758          ESTIMATES,  ETC.,  FOR  PRINTERS. 

jpf  wood-cut  ink  at  $2.50  per  pound,  on  an  edition  of  1000,  at  the  rate  of 
60  cents  to  Si. 00  per  token.  If  the  edition  is  of  5000  impressions,  the 
value  of  ink  used  will  range  from  40  cents  to  70  cents  per  token.  If  cuts 
are  very  large  or  black,  they  may  consume  ink,  on  an  edition  of  10CK> 
copies,  at  the  rate  of  $1.50  per  token.  If  ink  at  $3.00  or  $5.00  is  used,  in 
place  of  ink  at  $2.50,  the  price  will  increase,  but  not  in  true  proportion — 
the  more  expensive  color  is  finer,  and  has  more  extending  capacity. 
These  are  prices  for  cuts  of  machinery.  The  amount  of  color  on  this 
work  is  largely  under  the  control  of  the  pressman.  He  can  use  it  freely 
or  sparingly,  at  will,  but  with  a  corresponding  effect  of  strength  or  weak- 
ness in  the  work. 

BOOK  ILLUSTRATIONS. — The  ordinary  illustrations  of  books  and  news- 
papers, when  not  too  frequent,  or  too  black,  do  not  sensibly  increase  the 
consumption  of  ink.  It  is  not  usual  to  make  account  of  'the  value  of 
ordinary  ink  on  this  class  of  work.  But  when  the  cuts  are  numerous- 
and  are  black,  and  fine  inks  are  used,  the  value  of  color  used  cannot  be 
overlooked.  On  a  large  edition  of  work  of  this  class,  the  average  value 
of  ink  at  $2.00,  on  a  sheet  24  x  38  inches,  will  be  50  cents  per  token. 
Upon  an  edition  of  1000,  the  cost  of  the  same  ink  would  be  more  than- 
$1.00  per  token.  A  Double  Royal  sheet  29  X  43  inches,  on  an  edition  of 
20,000,  with  ink  at  $3.00,  with  many  cuts,  has  been  worked  at  a  cost  of 
63  cents  per  token  for  ink  ;  but  this  is  a  rare  result,  the  economy  being, 
due  as  much  to  the  skill  of  the  pressman  as  to  the  length  of  the  edition. 
If  the  edition  had  been  1000,  the  value  of  the  black  ink  used  and  wasted! 
woald  have  been  at  the  rate  of  $1.50  per  token. 

POSTERS. — An  ordinary  poster,  12  x  19  inches,  will  consume  of  black 
ink  at  25  cents  per' pound,  at  the  rate  of  30  and  40  cents  per  1000  impres- 
sions, the  quantity  used  depending  upon  the  size  of  the  type  and  the 
quality  of  the  pap3r.  Under  the  same  conditions,  a  poster  19  x  24  inches, 
will  consume  black  ink  of  same  quality  at  the  rate  of  75  cents  and  $1.00> 
per  1000  impressions  ;  a  poster  24  X  38  inches,  from  $1.25  to  $2,00  per  1000' 
impressions.  The  value  of  the  color  used  increases  with  the  size  of  the 
sheet,  and  for  this  work,  in  greater  proportion.  The  larger  form  hag 
larger  type,  and  the  larger  press  wastes  more  color. 

TINT  BLOCKS.— A  solid  tint  Block  cut  on  pine,  for  a  sheet  24  x  38 
inches,  with  a  few  white  lines,  will  use  of  25  cent  ink,  at  the  rate  of  $3.00 
per  1000  impressions.  If  finer  inks  are  used,  the  advance  in  price  will  be 
nearly  in  strict  proportion.  For  a  sheet  24  x  38,  of  smooth,  thick  paper, 
dry,  printed  on  a  metal  tint-plate,  with  ink  at  $1.00  per  pound,  the  cost  of 
ink  will  be  $10.00  per  1000  impressions.  For  this  class  of  work,  a  pound 
of  fine  ink  will  do  more  work  than  a  pound  of  cheap  ink.  On  common 
flat  work,  a  good  black  ink  will  permit  a  liberal  reduction  of  body  with 
varnish. 

BLUE  INKS.— Many  qualities  of  this  color  are  used.  The  leading 
varieties  are  best  known  to  printers  as  light,  dark,  ultramarine  and 
bronze  blues.  The  light  has  a  limited  use  for  flat  surfaces  and  tints ;  the 
ultramarine,  for  flat  surfaces,  tints,  posters,  and  to  some  extent,  in  its 
finer  qualities,  on  fine  type;  the  dark  and  bronze  blues  are  most  used  for 
fine  and  light  work,  for  which  they  are  well  adapted,  having  strong  body, 
and  in  extending  property  being  nearly  equal  to  fine  black  ink. 

Ultramarine  is  the  favoring  color  for  bright  showy  work.  It  is  very 
bulky  for  its  weight,  and  works  well  upon  all  flat  surfaces.  It  is  not  a 
finely-ground  color.  The  best  colors  only  are  used  for  type,  but  they  do 
network  with  the  freedom  and  smoothness  of  dark  or  bronze  blues. 
The  prices  range  from  50  to  $3.00  per  pound. 

FLAT  SURFACES.— A  flat-faced  label,  9  x  14  inches,  will  consume  of 
pure  u'tramarine  blue  at  $1.00  per  pound  at  the  rate  of  $3.00  per  1000 


ESTIMATES.  ETC..  FOR  PRINTERS.          759 

Impressions.  A  flat  tint  block,  18  x  22  incnes,  on  fair  paper,  will  use,  "-f 
this  color,  when  somewhat  reduced  with  varnish,  at  the  rate  of  $9.00  pe* 
1000  impressions.  A  flat  tint  block  of  pine  wood,  made  for  paper  24  x  38 
inches,  will  use  of  ultramarine  at  75  cents,  largely  reduced  with  varnish, 
at  the  rate  of  $15.00  per  1000  impressions. 

POSTERS. — For  a  poster,  12  x  19  inches,  on  ordinary  News,  the  value 
used  of  ultramarine  ink  at  $1.00  will  be  at  the  rate  of  $2.00  per  1000  im- 
pressions ;  fora  poster,  19  X  24  inches,  on  ultramarine  blue  at  75  cents,  $3.05 
per  1000  impressions  ;  for  a  poster,  24  x  38  inches,  on  ultramarine  blue 
at  75  cents,  at  the  rate  of  $6.00  to  $8.00  per  1000  impressions.  Ink  at  50 
,  cents  per  pound  would  diminish  the  value  of  the  color  used,  but  not  in 
(ratio  with  the  reduced  price.  The  cheaper  color  is  thinner,  not  so  well 
ground,  and  is  consumed  more  freely.  If  it  is  used  on  any  but  the  largest 
.type,  it  will  not  prove  of  marked  economy. 

Dark  blue  and  bronze  blue  are  little  used  for  posters  or  flat  tints.  If 
ased  in  bulk,  without  reducing,  they  will  be  much  more  expensive  than 
ultramarine.  When  used  on  this  kind  of  work,  they  are  usually  thinned 
with  white  ink,  varnish,  turpentine,  benzine,  etc.,  and  sometimes  with; 
magnesia.  When  used  on  light,  open  and  fine  work,  the  value  of  dark  • 
or  bronze  blues,  may  be  rated  as  about  double  that  of  the  'same  quality 
as  black  ink. 

RED  INKS. — Under  this  heading  may  be  classified  many  qualities  o£ 
scarlet  and  crimson  color.  The  leading  qualities  are  vermilion),  lake 
and  carmine. 

Vermilion  red,  a  pure  scarlet,  is  the  basis  of  the  better  qualities-  of 
the  cheap  reds  in  greatest  use.  Commonejr  qualities,  such  as  are  sold  at 
75  cents  and  $1.00  per  pound,  are  largely  mixed  with  cheaper  cetera.  In, 
its  pure  state,  vermilion  is  the  densest,  and,  in  extending  property,  tihfr 
weakest  of  all  colors.  A  pound  of  vermilion  red  at  $3-. 00-  per  pound  is 
about  half  the  bulk  of  fine  black  at  $1.00  per  pound.  Where  the  black 
will  yield  color  for  1000  impressions,  the  vermilion  red  will  be  used  up 
with  about  350  impressions.  The  value  of  the  red  color,  extending 
capacity  considered,  is  about  ten  times  as  great  as  that  of  fine  black. 

Lake  red,  a  deep  crimson,  is  inferior  to  black  in  extension,  but  will 
give  treble  the  service  of  ordinary  vermilion.  It  is  too  expensive  for 
most  bold  work,  or  for  flat  surfaces,  nor  does  it  produce-  a»  good  an 
effect  as  pure  vermillion.  It  is  largely  used  for  fine  work»f®B  which  it  is. 
well  fitted. 

Carmine,  an  intense  and  glowing  crimson,  is  but  little  inferior  to  the 
finest  black  in  .extending  properties.  It  is  one  of  the  most  expensive 
colors,  and  can  be  used  to  profit  and  with  effect  only  on  light  and  open 
work.  For  flat  and  solid  work,  the  effect  produced  is  out  little  superior 
.to  that  of  the  finer  lakes,  and  is  seldom  worth  the  extra  cost. 

POSTERS. — The  value  of  red  ink  at  $1.00  per  pound,  that  will  be  used 
» and  wasted  in  printing  1000  posters,  12  X  19  inches,  may  be  rated  at 
( $3.00  ;  on  1000  posters,  19  x  24  inches,  the  value  of  color  may  be  esti- 
mated at  $5.00  and  $6.00  per  1000  ;  on  a  poster.  24  X  38  inches,  at  $9.00 
and  $12.00  per  1000.     The  color  is  weak,  and  the  use  of  light  or  bold- 
faced type  will  make  serious  differences  in  the  consumption  of  color.    On 
double-medium  posters,  the  value  of  the  color  may  be  averaged  at  $1.00 
per  100  impressions. 

FLAT  SURFACES. — A  flat  label  9  x  14  inches,  with  ordinary  amount 
and  ske  of  lettering  cut  for  white,  such  as  is  used  for  soap  boxes,  etc,. 
will  consume  of  pure  red  ink  at  $1.00  per  pound,  at  the  rate  of  $4.50  and 
$5.00  per  10"0  impressions.  If  the  plate  is  flat,  without  lettering,  at  the 
rate  of  $6.00  per  1000  impressions.  A  flat  tint  poster  for  paper  19  x  24 
inches,  with  letters  cut  in  whit  3  as  above,  will  use  of  red  ink  at  $1.00  pel 


760  PATENT  OFFICE  RULES,  ETC. 

pound,  that  has  been  somewhat  thinned  with  varnish,  at  the  rate  of  $9.<XJ 
and  $10.00  per  1000  impressions.  If  pure  color  is  nsed,  it  will  consume 
•color  to  the  amount  of  $14.00  or  $15.00.  A  flat  tint  poster  for  paper  24  X 
38  inches,  cut  on  pine,  with  lettering  as  above,  will  consume  oi  red  ink  at 
$1.00  per  pound,  thinned  with  varnish,  at  the  rate  of  $18,00  and  $25.00 
per  1000  impressions.  If  dry  paper  is  used,  as  is  necessary  for  registered 
work  11  could  not  be  rated  at  less  than  $20.00  ;  for  damp  paper,  carefully 
managed,  it  may  be  less  than  $18.00,  but  this  is  unusual. 

COLORING  OF  PAPER. — Gray  is  usually  obtained  by  mixing  mineral 
or  vegetable  black  with  the  bleached  pulp,  but  the  tones  produced  by 
these  primitive  means  are  generally  dull.  Vegetable  black  made  from 
the  chestnut  tree  gives  the  best  result.  Chestnut  black  can  be  made 
Irom  the  bark  of  the  young  sprouts  of  this  tree,  generally  cultivated  to 
make  hoops  for  casks  ;  after  taking  off  the  bark  it  is  dried,  ground,  and 
:made  into  a  decoction  for  coloring  paper,  and  which  can  be  made  either 
gray  or  black.  Logwood  also  may  be  used.  Iron  Gray  is 'made  with 
chestnut  or  logwood.  For  two  cwt. .  of  paper,  4  Ibs.  of  ext.  of  chestnut, 
4  Ibs.  sulphate  of  iron,  dissolved  in  9  gals,  of  boiling  water,  then  stirred 
and  mixed  with  the  pulp,  adding  a  small  quantity  of  red  lake  and  ultra- 
marine. The  size  is  mixed  with  8  per  cent,  of  sulphate  of  aluminum, 
this  may  be  much  varied.  With  small  quanities  of  ext.  of  logwood  and 
sulphate  of  iron  a  light  gray  is  obtained ;  by  adding  yellow  and  Prussian 
bine,  a  greenish  slate  color  ;  by  adding  white,  suppressing  the  blue,  and 
keeping  the  lake,  a  chamois  tone  ;  by  adding  to  this  last  formula  a  little 
timber,  bistre.  Logwood  is  used  with  all  colors  when  it  is  wished  to 
•darken  the  shades.  With  fine  pulp  il  is  best  to  replace  the  ext.  of  log* 
•wood  by  the  product  obtained  from  the  tree  noted  at  the  beginning  of 
this  notice. 

SOLVENTS  FOR  RUBBER.— These  are  bisulphide  of  carbon,  coal  nap- 
tha,  rectified  oil  of  turpentine,  chloroform,  and  ether,  which  must  be 
Iree  from  alcohol. 

INFORMATION  CONCERNING  PATENTS. 

UNITED  STATES  PATENTS  AND  FEES. — No  patent  will  be  granted  if 
ttfc  whole  or  any  part  of  what  is  claimed  has  been  patented  or  described 
in  any  printed  publication  in  this  or  a  foreign  country,  or  been  invented 
or  discovered  in  this  country. 

Prior  Invention  abroad  will  not  prevent  issue  of  a  patent,  unless  the  in- 
^entkau  bas  been  there  patented  or  described  in  some  printed  publication. 

To  prevent  a  subsequent  inventor  from  obtaining  a  patent,  an  inven- 
tion must  hav«  been  reduced  to  a  practical  form,  either  by  construction  of 
a  model  er  machine,  or  drawing,  by  which  a  mechanic  could  make  the 
;.Tame. 

Merely  conceiving  an  idea  of  an  invention  is  not  a  discovery,  and  patent- 
able. 

Foreign  Patents. — The  taking  out  of  a  patent  in  a  foreign  cotuitry  doeg 
jnot  prejudice  a  patent  previously  granted  here ;  nor  does  it  prevjnt  obtain- 
viag  a  patent  here  subsequently.  When  a  patent  is  granted  here  it  will 
(extend  only  seventeen  years  from  date  of  foreign  patent. 

Every  foreign  inventor  must  have  in  use,  or  for  sale  in  the  United 
SBfcates,  a  copy  of  their  patentable  article,  within  eighteen  months  from 
(date  of  patent. 

JDwation  of  Patent  is  seventeen  years.  Extensions  are  prohibited  on 
SfcH  patents  granted  since  1861.  Applications  for  extension  must  be  filed, 
*n<l  requisite  fee  paid,  ninety  days  before  expiration  of  the  patent. 

1}mitfl&g  of  Patents. — Patents,  on  payment  of  same  official  fee,  are 
granted  fco  all  persons,  including  women  and  minors,  unless  inhabitants 


PATENT    OFFT^*-  BTJLES,   ETC.  761 

»f  countries  which  discriminate  against  the  inhabitants  of  the  United 

Application  for  a  patent  must  be  made  in  the  name  of  the  inventor,  wh« 
can  alone  sign  the  papers  ;  an  attorney  for  inventor  can  not  do  so.  , 

Heirs  of  an  Inventor  can  obtain  a  patent,  papers  to  be  signed  by  execu- » 
tor  or  administrator  of  inventor. 
-  Joint  Inventors  are  entitled  to  a  joint  patent. 

v  An  Inventor  can  assign  his  entire  right,  before  a  patent  is  obtained,  so  &» 
to  enable  the  assignee  to  take  out  a  patent  in  his  own  name ;  but  the  assign- 
ment must  be  first  recorded,  and  specification  sworn  to  by  the  inventor. 

Oaths  may  be  taken,  in  this  country,  before  any  one  authorized  by  law 
to  administer  oaths  ;  in  a  foreign  country  before  any  minister  plenipoten- 
tiary, charge  d' affairs,  consul,  commercial  agent  or  notary  public  of  the 
country  in  which  oath  is  taken,  being  in  all  cases  properly  attested  by  of- 
ficial seal  of  such  notary. 

Stamps . — A  stamp  of  value  of  fifty  cents  is  required  for  each  power  of. 
attorney,  'each  sheet  of  an  assignment  to  bo  stamped  Jive  cents,  each  cer- 
tificate of  magistrate  five  cents. 

Drawings  to  be  in  duplicate,  one  on  stiff  paper,  one  on  tracing  cloth,  to 
be  20  inches  top  to  bottom,  15  inches  wide  ;  tracing  to  have  1  inch  margin 
on  right  hand  side,  for  binding. 

Models  to  be  of  hard  wood,  or  metal,  not  more  than  12  inches  in  any 
dimension  ;  name  of  the  inventor  to  be  engraved  or  painted  conspicu- 
ously on  it 

For  an  Improvement,  only  model  of  part  to  be  patented  is  required,  to 
show  nature  and  operation  of  invention. 

Designs,  no  models  required  ;  either  drawings  or  photographs,  both  in 
duplicate,  with  negative  of  photograph. 

Neiv  Articles  of  manufacture,  sample  of  article  ;  medicines,  or  medicaV 
compounds,  sample  of  same,  and  minute  statement  of  exact  proportions 
and  ingredients. 

CAVEATS.— The  jXling  of  a  caveat  prevents,  during  its  existence,  the 
issue  of  a  patent,  without  the  knowledge  of  the  caveatpr,  to  any  person 
for  a  similar  device.  The  caveator  is  entitled  to  receive  official  notice 
during  one  year,  for  any  petition  for  similar  or  interfering  invention  filed 
during  that  time.  The  caveator,  when  so  notified,  must  complete  his 
own  application  within  three  months  from  date  of  notice. 

A  caveat  runs  one  year  :  can  be  extended  by  paying  $10  a  year. 

Caveats  can  only  be  filed  by  citizens  of  the  United  States,  or  aliens  who 
have  resided  here  one  year  and  declared  their  intention  of  becoming 
eitizeus. 

UNITED  STATES  PATENT   FEES. 

On  filing  each  caveat $10  00 

,  'On  filing  each  original  application  for  a  patent,  except  for  a  design.  15  00 

|  On  issuing  each  original  patent 20  00 

,  On  every  appeal  from  Examiners-in-Chief 20  00 

\  On  application  for  a  reissue 30  00 

On  application  for  extension 50  00 

Granting  an  extension  50  00 

Filing  each  disclaimer 10  00 

Certified  copies  of  patents  and  other  papers,  10  cents  per  100  words. 

Recording  every  assignment,  agreement,  power  of  attorney,  and 
other  papers,  of  300  words  or  under 1  0* 

If  over  300  and  under  1,000  words 2  00 

If  over  1,000  words 3  00 

Drawings,  cost  of  making  same 

Patents  for  designs— for  three  and  one-half  years 10  00 

for  seven  years 15  00    • 

**  *•  for  fourteen  years 90  00 


762 


FACTS    ABOUT  HUMAN    LIFE. 


In  addition  to  the  above,  Messrs.  MUNN  &  Co.,  Patent  Solicitors,  N.Y^ 
charge  for  written  report  of  special  examination  at  Patent  office,if  inven- 
tion has  been  patented  in  this  country,  $5  ;  for  general  information  of 
infringements,  reissues,  claims,  assignments,  joint  ownership,  contracts, 
licences,  name  in  which  patent  is  recorded,  abstracts  of  deeds  of  transfer, 
sketch  of  a  drawing  of  patent,  license  made  out,  transfer  of  do.,  recording 
do. .  $5  for  each  case  ;  for  procuring  a  patent,  $25  to  $35,  or  more  ;  for 
procuring  a  caveat,  $10  to  $15  ;  for  copies  of  patents  or  assignments,  or 
drawings  of  any  existing  patents,  $5  to  $10  ;  copy  of  any  claim,  $1. 

FOREIGN  PATENTS. — Great  Britain. — Duration,  fourteen  years,  to  first 
inventor  or  importer,  cost,  $350,  of  which  $100  due  at  time  of  making 
application,  balance  in  four  months  ;  three  years  from  date  of  patent,  a 
further  sum  of  £50  must  be  paid  ;  end  of  seven  years,  £100  additional, 
for  designs  to  protect  shape  of  article,  three  years,  $100. 

France. — Term  of  patent,  fifteen  years,  annual  fee,  $20. 

Belgium. — Term  of  patent,  twenty  years  ;  small  annual  fees. 

EXPENSE  OF  FOREIGN  PATENTS,  INCLUSIVE  OF  ALL  FEES. 
Austria $250  i  Netherlands $!?•  jf 


Bavaria 150 

Belgium s 150 

Cuba 450 

France 150 

Great  Britain 350 

India 400 

Italy 250 


Portugal 250 

Prussia .-  200 

Russia  . . .' 550 

Saxony 250 

Spain 400  - 

Sweden  and  Norway —  600 


FACTS  RELATING  TO  HUMAN  LIFE- 

The  following  table  exhibits  the  recent  mortality  statistics,  showing  the 
average  duration  of  life  among  persons  of  various  classes  in  the  State  of 
Massachusetts  : 


Years. 


Years.  I 


Years. 


Men  unemployed 68  Blacksmiths 01  Bakers 43 

Judges 65  Merchants 51  j  Painters 43 

Farmers ,..64  Calico  Printers 51  Shoemakers 43 

Bank  Officers 64  Physicians 51  Mechanics 43 

Coopers 58  Butchers 50  Editors 40 

Public  Officers 57 [Carpenters 49  Musicians 39 

Clergymen 56  Masons 48  Printers 38 

Shipwrights 55  Traders 46!Machinists ,36 

Hatters 54  Tailors 44  Teachers >.3« 

Lawyers 54  Jewellers 441Clerks 34 

Rope  Makers 54 j Manufacturers 43|Operatives 33 

The  average  death  rate  in  Europe  is  1  out  of  every  42  inhabitants,  or 
2.38  per  cent.    The  principal  European  countries  exhibit  the  following 
annual  bills  of  mortality  :— 
England 1  death  to  every  46  Austria 1  death  to  every  40 


Prussia. 


45 

43  France 1 

41 


Denmark 1 

Belgium 1 

Norway  and  Sweden  1 

The  death  rate  in  the  United  States  varies  much  from  the  above,  from 
the  highest,  Arkansas,  where  the  annual  mortality  is  one  death  to  every 
49  inhabitants,  a  trifle  over  2  per  cent  of  the  population,  to  the  lowest,. 
Oregon,  where  the  death  rate  is  less  than  half  of  one  per  cent.,  or  one 


FACTS    ABOUT    HUMAN    LIFE.  763 

Ct>  every  209  inhabitants.    The  average  yearly  mortality  in  proportion  to 

population  is  exhibited  in  the  following  table  : — 

New  England  States Hn  68iPacific  States. 1  in  115 

Middle  Spates 1  "  88 1  Atlantic  States 1  "    80 

Southern  States 1  "  70|Gulf  States 1   "    63 

Western  States 1  '•  81  Mississippi  Valley  States 1   "    80 

North- Western  States 1  "120| 

According  to  the  Carlisle  table  of  mortality,  largely  used  as  an  author- 
ity in  life  insurance  calculations  in  America  and  Europe,  of  10,000  chil- 
dren born — 
3,540    die  in    10     years.  '5,603    die    in    50    years.  9,848    die     in    90    years. 


3,910      "  20        "      |6,357      "  60 

4,358      "  30        "       7,599 

"  " 


70 


9,9P1      "  100 

9,999      ««  104 


4,915      "  40  [9,047      «  80 

Leaving  only  one  living  at  the  age  of  104  years. 

The  tables  of  the  British  Government  annuities  are  constructed  oh  the 
principle  that  women  live  longer  than  men.  Thus,  a  male  of  15  can  pur- 
chase an  annuity  of  £15  per  annum  for  £411  5s.  10d.,  but  a  female  of 
the  same  age  must  pay  £438  11s.  4d.  And,  at  50,  a  man  would  pav  £272 
17s.  Id.  ;  but  a  woman  £312  14s.  lOd. 

Long  life,  as  a  general  rule,  awaits  the  man  who  is  gifted  with  pru- 
dence, a  good  constitution,  and  the  mental  potency  to  banish  corroding 
anxiety.  These  are  inestimable  gifts.  Dr.  Heberdeu,  an  illustrious 
London  physician  of  the  last  century,  whose  practise  lay  chiefly  among 
the  wealthy  classes,  asserted  that  nine  out  of  ten  of  his  patients  died  of 
a  broken  heart.  Cornaro,  the  noted  dietist,  who  by  prudent  care  of  him- 
self, lived  to  104,  wrote,  "  lam  likewise  greatly  indebted  for  the  excel- 
lent health  I  enjoy  to  that  calm  and  temperate  state  in  which  I  have  been 
careful  to  keep  my  passions.  The  influence  oi  the  passions  on  the 
nerves  and  health  of  our  bodies  is  so  great  that  none  can  be  ignorant 
of  it.  'He,  therefore,  who  seriously  wishes  to  enjoy  good  health,  must 
learn  to  keep  his  passions  in  subjection  to  reason.  Otherwise,  all  tem- 
perance will  go  for  little."  The  man  endowed  by  nature  with  the  best 
prospect  for  long  life  is  thus  described  by  the  famous  Hufeland,  in  his 
work  on  longevity,  published  during  the  last  century  :  "  He  has  a  well- 
proportioned  stature,  without,  however,  being  too  tall.  He  is  rather  of 
the  middle  size,  and  somewhat  thickset.  His  complexion  is  not  too  florid  ; 
at  any  rate,  too  much  ruddiness  in  youth  is  seldom  a  sign  of  longevity. 
Hair 'approaches  rather  to  the  fair  than  to  the  black.  His  skin  is 
strong,  but  not  rough.  His  head  is  not  too  big.  He  has  large  veins  at  the 
extremities,  and  his  shoulders  are  rather  round  than  flat.  His  neck  is 
not  too  long.  His  belly  does  not  project,  and  his  hands  are  large,  but 
not  too  deeply  cleft.  His  foot  is  rather  thick  than  long,  and  his  legs  are 
firm  and  round.  He  has  also  a  broad  chest  and  strong  voice,  and  the 
faculty  of  retaining  his  breath  a  long  time  without  difficulty.  In  general 
there  is  complete  harmony  in  all  his  parts.  His  senses  are  good,  but  not 
txx)  delicate.  His  pulse  is  slow  and  regular.  His  appetite  is  good,  and 
his  digestion  easy.  He  has  not  too  much  thirst,  which  is  always  a  sign 
of  rapid  self-consumption.  His  passions  never  become  too  violent  or 
destructive.  If  he  gives  way  to  anger  he  experiences  a  glow  of  warmth, 
without  an  overflowing  of  the  gall.  He  likes  employment,  particularly 
calm  meditation  and  agreeable  speculations;  is  an  optimist,  a  friend  to 
nature  and  domestic  felicity — has  no  thirst  after  either  honors  or  riches, 
and  banishes  all  thought  of  to-morrow." 

Mr.  John  Q.  Adams  was  in  excellent  health,  when,  in  his  ninetieth 
year,  he  was  visited  by  diaries  Mackay,  who  thus  explains  the  cauae  ; 


FACTS    ABOUT    HUMAN    LIFE. 

*'  Men  aud  women,"  he  says,  "  scarcely  ever  allow  tht»  fresh  air  of  hea» 
ven  to  touch  any  part  of  their  bodies,  except  their  hands  and  face,  and 
even  to  these  the  ladies  are  systematically  unjust  by  wearing  gloves  and 
veils.  The  surface  of  the  beautiful  human  form  requires  to  be  for  a 
certain  period  of  every  day  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  atmosphere.  I 
Sake  my  air  bath  regularly  every  morning,  and  walk  in  my  bed-room  in 
puris  natnralibus,  with  all  the  windows  open,  for  half  an  hour.  I  also 
take  a  water  bath  daily.  I  read  and  write  for  eight  hours  a  day.  I  sleep 
eight  hours,  and  devote  another  eight  to  exercise,  conversation,  an< 
meals.  I  feel  within  myself  a  reserve  of  bodily  strength,  which,  I  thinl 
will  carry  me  to  a  hundred  years,  unless  I  die  by  accident,  or  am  shot  or 
tanged." 

Between  1840  and  1871  the  annual  mortality  on  the  Cheviot  Hills,  in 
Scotland,  was  at  an  average  of  15  per  1,000.  In  the  hamlet  of  Harbottle, 
with  120  inhabitants  there  has  been  no  death  of  a  child  for  20  years.  A 
farmer  and  his  three  shepherds,  who  have  occupied  their  present  situa- 
tion nearly  80  years,  have  among  them  47  children,  and  not  a  single 
death  has  occurred  in  these  families.  In  Alwinton,  a  parish  on  the  south- 
ern slopes  of  the  hills,  the  birth-rate  in  1871,  when  it  contained  a  popu- 
lation of  1,205,  was  32.4  per  cent. ,  and  the  death-rate  only  7.5.  An  abun- 
dance of  good  food,  good  water,  good  houses,  and  regular  but  not  severe 
Work,  have  brought  about  this  orderly  state  of  existence. 

Of  a  man  who  died  near  London  at  the  advanced  age  of  110  years,  it  is 
reported  that  he  had  never  been  ill,  and  that  he  had  maintained  through 
life  a  cheerful  happy  temperament.  He  was  uniformly  kind  and  obliging 
to  everybody  ;  he  quarrelled  with  no  one  ;  he  ate  and  drank  merely  that 
he  might  not  suffer  from  hunger  and  thirst,  and  never  beyond  what  ne- 
cessity required.  From  his  earliest  youth  he  never  allowed  himself  to  be 
unemployed.  These  were  the  only  means  he  ever  used. 

Of  a  woman  who  died  near  Stockholm  at  the  advanced  age  of  115 
years,  it  is  on  record  that  she  passed  her  long  life  free  from  illness,  always 
contented  and  happy,  a  devoted  lover  of  cleanliness,  had  a  daily  habit 
of  washing  her  face,  hands,  and  feet  in  cold  water,  and  as  often  *as  op- 
portunity afforded,  bathed  in  the  same  ;  she  never  ate  or  drank  any  deli- 
cacies or  sweet-meats  ;  seldom  tea  or  coffee,  and  never  wine. 

Another  noted  instance  of  long  life  was  that  of  a  man  who  died  near 
St  Petersburg,  and  had  enjoyed  good  health  until  he  was  120  years  old. 
He  was  an  early  riser,  and  never  slept  more  than  seven  hours  at  a  time  ; 
he  was  never  idle  ;  he  worked  and  employed  himself  chiefly  in  the  open 
air,  and  particularly  in  his  garden.  Whether  lie  walked  or  sat  in  his 
chair  he  always  maintained  an  erect  position,  never  tolerating  a  stooping, 
leaning,  or  distorted  attitude. 

Unquestionably,  a  properly  selected  vegetable  diet  is  the  best  fitted  for 
the  maintenance  of  health.  A  great  percentage  of  the  diseases  which 
afflict  humanity  are  generated  by  the  use  of  pork,  veal,  and  other  meats 
an  immoderate  quantities,  and  prepared  in  preposterous  forms  with  lard, 
rich  sauces,  seasoning,  &c.  Of  all  animal  food  in  common  use  pork  is  de- 
cidedly the  worst  Its  use  as  food  frequently  engenders  an  extremely 
painful  disease,  by  many  pronounced  incurable,  caused  by  a  filthy  para- 
site which  exists  naturally  in  the  muscles  of  swine.  See  Trichina,  page 
149.  A  farmer  writing  from  Freeport  to  the  Chicago  INTER-OCEAN  de- 
nounces pork  in  the  most  trenchant  style.  He  says  "Pork  grease  will 
Tuin  a  wagon  axle,  much  more  the  human  stomach,  and  the  farmer  who 
uses  perk  alone  as  a  meat  diet  and  pork  grease  as  shortening,  ruins  not 
only  his  own  constitution  but  that  of  his  family  as  well.  This  is  the 
experience  of  a  farmer  who  has  tried  the  use  of  pork  for  over  fif*een 
years,  with  as  many  years  of  sickness  in  his  family,  and  two  years  ">n 


FA.CTS    CONCERNING    FOOD. 


76$ 


beef  diet  and  perfect  health. "  "  Vegetable  aliment,  as  neither  distending 
the  vessels,  nor  loading  the  system,  never  interrupts  the  stronger  action  of 
the  mind  ;  while  the  heat,  fulness  and  weight  of  animal  food  is  adverse- 
to  its  efforts." — Cullcn. 

The  following  table  shows  the  number  01  grains  of  warmth  and 
strength  evolved  per  Ib. ,  from  various  articles  of  food.  The  carbon  and 
nitrogen  taken  into  the  system  form  fat  and  flesh,  the  fat  being  con- 
sumed makes  the  body  stout,  while  the  flesh  represents  strength  or  the 
muscles  which  yield  it. 


Grains  of   Strength  yielded  by  one     Grains  of  Warmth   yielded    by  one 
pound  of  7000  grains.  pound  of  7000  grains. 


GRAINS . 

Beer  or  Porter 1 

Parsnips 12 

Turnips 12 

Whey 13 

Greens 14 

Potatoes 24 

Skimmed  Milk 34 

New  Milk 35 

Buttermilk 35 

Barley 70 

Rice 70 

Bacon 78 

Rye  Bread 89 

Baker's  Bread 90 

Pearl  Barley 91 

Fresh  Po  rk 108 

Seconds  Flour 120 

Corn  Meal 125 

Fresh  Fish 129 

Cocoa 130 

Oatmeal 140 

Mutton 140 

Fresh  Beef 172 

Beef  Liver 200 

Split  Peas 250 

Cheddar  Cheese 310 

Skim.  Milk  Cheese 360 


GRAINS. 

Whey 150 

Turnips 238 

Beer  and  Porter 315 

Buttermilk 335 

Skimmed  Milk 351 

New  Milk 378 

Carrots  390 

Parsnips 425 

Potatoes 770 

Fresh  Fish 980 

Beef  Liver 1,220 

Red  Herrings 1,455. 

Baker's  Bread 1,990 

Fresh  Beef 2,300- 

Molasses 2,300 

Skim.  Milk  Cheese 2,350 

Cheddar  Cheese 2.550 

Seconds  Flour 2,700 

Rye  Bread 2,700 

Rice 2,750 

Barley  Meal 2,780- 

Indian  Meal 2,800 

Sugar 2,900 

Fresh  Pork 3,100 

Bacon 4,200 

Butter 4,700 

Lard 4,800 

Drippings 5,500 

In  cookery  4  Ibs.  o\  oeef  lose  1  Ib.  by  boiling,  1  Ib.  5  ozs.  by  roasting, 
gad  1  Ib.  3  ozs.  by  baking  ;  4  Ibs.  of  mutton  lose  14  ozs.  by  boiling,  1  Ib. 
goes,  by  roasting,  and  1  Ib.  4  ozs.  by  baking.  As  to  the  drinking  cus^ 
toms  of  society,  statistics  prove  that"  every  year  in  the  United  Kingdom, 
70,000,  and  in  the  United  States,  about  75,000  deaths  result  directly  and 
indirectly  from  the  use  of  spirituous  liquors.  The  benefits  derived  from 
their  use  are  in  a  great  measure  merely  imaginary,  and  their  persistent 
use  can  only  have  one  result,  viz.,  premature  death.  An  intemperate 
person  of  twenty  years  has  a  probability  of  life  extending  15.6  ;  one  of 
30  to  11 '6  years,  while  temperate  persons  would  have  a  like  probability 
of  living  42  and  35  respectively.  Comment  is  useless,  if  you  wish  health 
tod  long  life,  abstain.  Liebig,  the  celebrated  chemist,  recommends  tho< 
persistent  use  of  a  purely  vegetable  diet  as  a  cure  for  this  abominable 
<ice,  especially  in  its  earlier  stages,  and  Charles  Napier,  the  noted  Eng- 
lish scientist,  has  reported,  as  the  result  of  experiments,  27  cases,  in 
<rhich  the  exclusive  use  of  vegetables  as  food,  had  created  repugnance 
ior  alcoholic  stimulants.  Another  remedy  highly  commended  is  to  steep- 
tqual  parts  of  the  herbs  valerian  and  wormwood  together,  and  drink  the 
aquid  three  times  a  day  when  the  desire  is  felt.  Still  another  remedy  is, 
tincture  of  cinchona  (Peruvian  bark)  taken  in  1  drachm  (teaspoonful)' 


766 


POPULATION    OF    THE    GLOBE. 


doses  every  two  hours.  The  dose  may  be  increased  to  six  teagpoonWk 
and  taken  in  that  proportion  4  to  10  times  per  day.  It  will  not  destroy 
appetite  for  food,  but  in  a  few  days  the  anti-periodic  properties  of  the  cin» 
cnona  begin  to  tell,  and  the  patient  not  only  loses  all  taste  for  the  tinc- 
ture, but  also  all  desire  for  everything  in  the  shape  of  alcohol. 

THE  LATEST  CENSUS  OF  ALL  THE   COUNTRIES  OF  THE  WORLD. 

Behm  and  Wagner  estimate  the  total  number  of  all  men  1,423,919,000.  They) 
are  distributed  over  the  five  parts  of  the  world  as  follows  , 

Number  of  inhabitants  per  square  mile. 
Africa  ....................  199,921,600  ............  13     )  • 

America  ...................  85,519,800..  .........  6      | 

Asia  .......................  824,548,300  ............  49     V    Average  all  over  the 

Australia  .................     4,748,600  ............  1%  earth,  28. 

J 


iurope ..309,178,500 8il      J 

Reliable  figures  are  exhibited  for  Europe,  save  Turkey.    They  show  : 

Andorra 12,000       Montenegro 190,000 

Netherlands,  1875 3,809,527 

Norway,  1875 1,802,882 

Portugal  ,1874 4,298,831 

Roumania,  1873 5,073,000 

Russia,  (Europe)  1870 71,730,980 

Servia,  1875 1,377,068 

Spain,  1870 16,551,647 

Sweden,  1875 4,383,291 

Switzerland,  1870 2,669,14T 


Austria,  1876  ..............  37,700,000 

Belgium,  1874  ............  5,336,634 

Denmark,  1876  ...........  1,903,000 

France,  1873  ..............  36,102,921 

Germany.  1875  ...........  42,723,242 

Great  Britain,  1876  .......  33,450,000 

Greece,  1870  ..............  1,457,349 

Italy,  1875  ................  27,432,174 

Luxemburgh,  1875  .......      205,158 

Monaco,  1873  ..............         5,741 


Turkey  (Europe) 3,500,000 

Another  estimate  of  the  population  and  area  of  the  Globe  is  as  follows  : — 


Divisions, 

Area. 

Population. 

Pop.  to  Sq.  M. 

3  goo  000 

296  713  500 

80 

Asia  .   

15,000  000 

699  863  000 

46 

Africa  

10,800,000 

67,414  000 

5 

America     

14  700  000 

88  061  148 

6 

•Oceanica  

1,500,000 

25,924  000 

5 

Total... 

48.800.000 

1.177.975.688 

24 

It  is  estimated  that  this  aggregate  of  humanity  speak  3,064  languages, 
4tnd  profess  to  believe  in  1,000 various  forms  of  religion. 

Of  this  vast  multitude,  33,333,333  are  estimated  to  pass  into  eternity 
every  year,  91,954  every  day,  3,730  every  hour,  60  every  minute,  and  1 
*very  second.  The  number  of  births  is  larger  than  the  number  of  deaths. 

Still  another  estimate  of  the  earth's  population,  classified  according  to 
race  and  religion,  is  as  follows  : 


Races. 


Religions 


Whites  550,000,000  Pagans 676,000,OOC 

Mongolians 550,000,000  Christians 320.000,000 

Blacks 173,000,000  Mohammedans 140,000,000 

Copper-Colored.   12,000,000  Jews 14,000,000 

The  Christians  are  classified  as  follows  : 

Church  of  Rome.  Protestants.  Greek  and  East  Church, 

170,000,000.  90,000,000.  60,000,000. 

AREA    OF   OCEANS   AND    SEAS— APPROXIMATE    ESTIMATES. 


Oceans. 


Sq.  miles. 


Sens 


Sq.  miles. 


Pacific  aboirt 78.000,000  Mediterranean. 

Atlantic    "     26,000,000 Black  Sea...   . 


Indiau 


.14,000,000 


Baltic. 


•Southern  Ocean  to  30°  about. 25.000,000  North  Sea. 
^Northern  about 5, 000 ,000 1 


.i,ooo,oc: 

.  170.000 
.  175.0C3 
.  160,003 


or  CIAS, 

jr.  ;h« British  expedition  under  Capt.  Itfares,  with  the  iwo  steamers 
/-lert  and  Discovery,  to  the  Polar  Sea,  it  was  determined  that  the  depth 
of  ihat  sea,  at  one  point,  was  about  70  fathoms,  that  the  ice  was  from  80  f 
to  120,  and  in  many  places  200,  feet  thick,  and  probably  a  century  old  j 
that  a  powerful  tide  sets  in  from  the  Pacific  under  this  ice  and  extend! 
down  the  long  channel  as  far  as  the  northern  part  of  Smith's  Sound.  A 
sledge  party  advanced  over  the  ice  to  lat.  83°  2(X  26"  N.,  the  most  north- 
erly point  as  yet  ever  trod  by  man.  No  traces  of  human  life  exists  north 
of  lat.  81°  52',  where  the  Esquimaux  appear  to  have  crossed  the  water, 
jiere  only  15  miles  wide,  into  Greenland,  from  the  large  islands  which 
fringe  the  North  American  continent  on  the  north.  On  the  Alert,  mer« 
cnry  was  frozen  47  days  in  all,  and,  in  still  weather,  the  minimum  tfcmp. 
was  more  than  70°  below  zero  and  the  auroras  were  neither  brilliant  nor 
of  frequent  occurrence  during  the  long  Arctic  winter,  with  its  unparalleled 
intensity  and  duration  of  darkness  produced  by  the  absence  of  sunlight 
for  142  day?..  Birds  do  not  migrate  beyond  Cape  Joseph  Henry,  on  the 
American  coast  of  the  Polar  Sea,  in  lat.  82°  52^  north,  and  the  northern 
limits  of  the  haunts  of  wild  animals  is  about  82°.  Dwarf  oaks,  sorrel, 
poppies,  saxifrage,  and  between  20  and  30  species  of  flowering  plants 
were  found  growing  in  the  vicinity  of  lat.  82°  north,  together  with  fossil 
corals,  a  workable  seam  of  good  coal,  and  evidences  of  the  former  ex- 
istence of  an  evergreen  forest  in  tat  82"  44'. 

Between  the  Tropics  the  temperature  of  the  Ocean  is  from  77°  to  84C, 
it  diminishes  to  45  5°  at  1,000  fathoms  depth.  In  the  Arctic  Sea  the  tem- 
perature rises  from  8°  to  10°  at  700  fathoms,  and  6°  at  200  fathoms. 
Divers  report  an  entire  absence  of  motion  in  the  Ocean  at  a  depth  of  30 
ft.,  and  the  Solar  rays  penetrate  200  or  300  ft.  Sea  water  is  salt  and  bit- 
ter at  the  surface,  but  salt  only  at  profound  depths.  The  component 
parts,  with  slight  variations,  are  water,  muriatic  acid,  .sulphuric  acid, 
mineral  alkali,  lime,  and  magnesia.  The  deepest  soundings  on  record  is 
9  miles.  Young  estimates  the  Atlantic  at  3  miles,  and  the  Pacific  at  4 
deep.  Copper  globes  are  compressed  at  800  fathoms.  Parry  sounded  IL. 
lat  57"  N.  long.  24°  W.  but  found  no  bottom  at  1,020  fathoms. 


ESTIMATED    LENGTH 

OP   SEAS,    ?;C. 

:Seas.                      Miles 

Seas. 

Miles. 

Seas. 

Mile-,. 

Mediterranean  . 
*  Carribean 

....2,000 
1  ROD 

Black  

930 

Aral 

9Kfr 

640 

Hudson's  Bay 

...1,200 
600 

China  

1  700 

Raltio 

600 

>  Jted  

.   .  .  1  400  Othotsk 

600 

Chesapeake  Bay. 

...    250 

Jaoan  

....1.000  White... 

...450 

ESTIMATED  SIZE  OF  NOTED  LAKES. 
I'*!?**             Length               Width                             Length            'Wi<V."> 
Miles.                Miles.           Lakes'         Mills.             Mile-:. 

••Superior  380 

35 
SO 
45 

9C 

Maracay  ho  .... 
Ladoga".  
Great  Bear.... 
.Nicaragua  
Champlain  
L.  of  the  Woods 
Geneva  
Constance  

ep;  aoici  iv  :ig  owj 

150     
125     
150    ........ 
120     
123     
70     

SO 
CO 

25 
10 
10 

Baikal  360     .. 
jyiichigan  330 
Great  Slave  300     .. 
.Huron  250 

Winnipeg  240     .. 

Erie                               971 

4C 
RA 

Ontario  ISO     .. 
Ar  thabaska  200 

......         OU 

40 
20 

.ji-c  .  ^ry  de 

50     
45     

-as  Jo  ttus-.es 

Many  of  the  above  take: 
tha,  ;ney  never  ireeae, 

768 


NOTED   RIVERS    AND    MOUNTAINS. 


LENGTH    OP    NOTED    RIVERS    ON    THE    GLOBE. 
Rivers.          |      Locality.    |      Males.         Rivers.       |      Locality.    |    Mil* 


Amazon Brazil 3200 

La  Plata S.  America 2215 

Aronoco     " 

Mississippi N.  America.. 

Missouri .. 
Arkansas. 
Red  River, 
Columbia. 

Ohio 

Colorado. 


St.  LawrenceCanada I960 

St.  John N.  Brunswick....     450 

Murray Australia 3000 

Mackenzie... Brit.  Ter 2500 

Obi Siberia 2800 

Danube  Austria  &  Turkey  1790 

Don Russia 1000 

Dneiper " 1000 

Euphrates. . . .  from  Ararat 2020 

Rhine Germany 800 

Wolga from  the  Waldais  2100 

Lena Siberia 2500 

Maykiang  —  Siam 1 700 

Hoang-Ho .    .China 3000' 

Yang-tse-kia      "    2500 

Ganges India 1G30 

Brahmapootra    "     1600 

Indus "     1770 


1500 

3200 

4500 

2500 

2500 

1090 

1000 
...  1000 

Susquehanna "         400 

James "         500 

Potomac "        400 

Hudson "         325 

Nile Egypt  and  Nubia  2690 

N  iger Africa 2300 

Jumna Hindostan 680 

Gogra " 500 

The  Ganges,  in  India,  derives  its  origin  from  a  Himalayan  glacier,  it 
has  a  fall  of  4  inches  to  the  mile,  and  rises  from  April  till  August  32  ft. 
creating  a  flood  lOOmiles  wide.  The  Delta  of  the  Ganges  is  200  miles  long, 
consisting  of  woods  called  Sunderbunds.  It  pours  down  from  80  to  400- 
000  cubic  ft.  in  a  second.  The  force  of  the  tides,  which  rise  from  13  to  1Q 
it.  high,  with  the  floods,  frequently  form  and  destroy  islands  25  miles  in. 
diarn.  The  Nile  has  advanced  16  ft.  per  annum  since  the  time  of 
Herodotus,  and  raises  the  soil  of  Egypt  4  ins.  in  a  century.  The  prodi- 
gious quantities  of  mud  brought  down  by  large  rivers  enlarges  continents 
at  their  estuaries,  and  form  deltas  of  alluvial  land  which  eventually  form 
plains  of  immense  fertility.  The  Mississippi,  the  Amazon,  the  Nile,  the 
Danube,  the  Po,  the  Ganges,  and  the  Niger  are  striking  examples  of  the 
truth  of  this  statement.  The  Yellow  River,  in  China,  is  said  to  carry 
down  2.000,000  cubic  ft.  of  alluvium  every  day.  The  Euphrates  covers  the 
Babylonian  plains  to  a  depth  of  12  ft.  between  March  and  June. 

THE   HIGHEST    MOUNTAINS    ON    THE  GLOBE. 


Kunchainyungft,  Himalay 

Borata,  Andes,  highest  in  America  25,380 

Illimani,  Bolivia        ......  21,780 

Chimborazo,  Ecuador  .....  21,444 

Hindoo-Koosh,  Afghanistan  -  -  20.600 
Cotopaxi,  Ecuador  ......  19,408 

Antisana,        "          19,1.10 

Bt.  Ellas,  British  America  -  -  18,000 
Popocatapetl  volcano,  Mexico  -  17,735 
Mt.  Roa,  Hawaii  -  -  -  -  16,000 

lit.  Brown,  highest  Rocky  Mt.  pk,  15,900 
Mont  Blanc,  highest  in  Europe 


Mowna  Roas,  Owhyhee    -    -    - 


Mount  Rosa,    Alps",  Sardinia    -    -  15,550 

Snchinca,  Ecuador-  -  -  -  -  15,200 
ount  Whitney.  Cal  -  -  -  .  15,000 
Mount  Fairweather.  Russ.  FOBS.  •  14,796 
Mount  Shasta,  California-  -  -  -  14,450 
'ikea  Peak,  California  -  -  -  •  -  14  320 
fount  Ophir,  Summatra ....  13,800 
""remont's  Peak,  R.  M.  Wyoming  13,570 

Cg's  Peak,  R.  M.  California  -    -  13,400 
int  Ranier,  Washington  Ter.  •   13,000 
Mount  Ararat,  Armenia  ....  12,700 
"eak  of  Teneriffe,  Canaries  -   -    -  12,236 


Feet.  Miles.!  Feet.  M 

28,178       5)*;Miltsin,  Morocco 12,000 

Mount  Hood,  Oregon 11,570 

iSimplon,    Alps 11,542 

I  Mount  Lebanon,  Syria  ...  -  11.000 
[Mount  Perdu,  France  -  -  -  -10,950 
Mount  St.  Helt/i'g,  Oregon  -  -  -  10,1.58 

Mount  Etna,  Sicily 10,050 

Olympus,  Greece        .....    9,754 

St    Gothard,  Alps 9,080 

Pilate,  Alps 9,050 

Mount  Sinai.  Arabia  ....-•  8.000 
Pindus  Greece  -  .---.-  7,677 
Black  Mountain,  New  Caledonia  6,476 
Mount  Washington,  N.  Hampshire  6,234 
Mount  Marcy,  New  York  -  -  5.457 

Mount  Hecla,  Iceland 5,000 

Ben  Nevis,  Scotland    -    -    -        -    4,400 

Mansfield,  Vt. 4,280 

Peaks  of  Otter,  Va. 4,260 

Ben  Lawers,    Scotland    -    -    -    -    4,030 

Parnassus.  Greece 3,950 

Vesuvius,  Naples 


15,776 
15700 


3,932 
Snowdonj  England  -    -----    3,500 

Stromboh 3,850 

Ben  Lomond  -----.--    3,280 

Mount    Carmel    -    - 2,000 

Gibraltar      -    -     -    -' 1,470^ 

The  mountains  subtract  no  more  from  the  globular  form  of  the  earth 
thuu  the  roughness  on  the  coat  of  an  orange.    The  highest  elevations  are 


KOTED   MOUNTAINS,   TOWERS,   ETC  769 

drlthin  the  tropics,  the  next  in  the  temperate  zones,  the  next  in  the  frigid, 
and  the  limit  of  perpetual  snow  varies  with  the  heat  of  the  surface;  see 
page  119.  The  Andes  chain  extends  4600  miles  from  the  Gulf  of  Darieii 
to  the  Straits  of  Magellan.  The  same  chain  is  continued  northward, 
through  Mexico,  the  United  States,  and  the  British  Possessions*  fcy  the 
iiocky  Mountains  and  other  immense  elevations  which  form  the  back- 
bone of  the  continent.  These  enormous  mountain  masses  exert  a 
genial  action  on  the  climate,  form  the  source  of  rivers,  and  determine  the 
Water  shed  of  streams.  The  mountains  of  America  afford  incontestablk- 
proof  that  the  New  World,  geologically  considered,  is  really  the  oldest 
formation  of  the  present  distribution  of  land  on  the  globe,  'irresistible 
subterranean  forces  are  still  active  on  the  Andes ;  from  Cotopaxi  south- 
ward, over  40  volcanoes  are  continually  fit  work,  causing  havoc,  and 
belching  out  lava,  sulphur,  &c.  In  many  cases  volcanic  action  impels 
mountainous  waves  from  the  sea,  carrying  vessels  several  leagues  inland 
ftver  cities,  towns,  &c.  In  1746  an  official  account  reported  all  the  in- 


which  had  been  carried  5  or  6  leagues  overland.  A  similar  irruption 
took  place  on  this  coast  only  a  few  months  ago,  attended  by  fearful 
Buffering  and  awful  loss  of  life  and  property.  The  Andes  contain  no 
granite  at  a  higher  elevation  than  8  to  10,000  ft,  the  tops  being  crowned 
with  whiustoue,  and  the  crevices  and  fissures,  many  of  them  descending 
below  the  sea  level,  are  even  more  astonishing  than  their  heights. 

In  Asia,  the  Himalayian  ranges  extend  about  1400  miles,  the  mountain 
ridges  being  from  50  to  60  miles  wide,  extending  from  N.  W.  to  S.  E. 
they  form  the  source  of  all  the  rivers  of  the  Eastern  seas,  and  have 
furnished  the  materials  which  compose  the  soil.  There  are  5  passes  over 
them,  some  as  high  as  15,000  ft.-,  at  15,500ft.,  beds  of  fossil  shells  exist. 
The  European  and  Asiatic  mountains  are  topped  with  granite.  Regard* 
lug  the  Alps,  and  the  various  snow  levels  over  the  globe,  see  pp.  118-19. 

In  Scotland,  the  Grampian  range  includes  Cairngorm,  4095  ft. ;  Macdui, 
4,327  ;  Shehallion,  3,550;  Benmore,  3,870  ;  Ben  Lawers,  4,030  ;Cairntoul, 
4,225;  Ben  Avon,  3,967;  Ben  Nevis,  the  highest,  4,400  ft,  has  a  precipice 
of  1,500  ft.,  and  is  always  capped  with  ice  and  snow;  north  of  the  Cale- 
donian canal  is  another  range  of  great  altitude,  all  vast  masses  of  barren 
granite.  In  all  there  are  about  45  elevations  north  of  the  Tweed,  exceed- 
ing 2,000  ft. 


HEIGHT   OP  NOTED   MONUMENTS,    TOWERS,    &C. 
Feet. 


Pyramid  of  Cheops,  Egypt 543  Notre  Dame  Cathedral,  Munick.. ..  348 

Antwerp  Cathedral.  Belgium... .      476  Dome  of  the  Invalides,  Paris 347 


Strasburg  Cathedral,  France. 
Tower  of  Utrecht,  Holland  . 
Steeple  of  St.  Stephen's,  Vienna. 
Pyramid  of  Cephenes,  Egy] 
St.  Martin's  Church,  Bavar 


Egypt.... 
avaria.. .. 


Feet- 


474  Magdeburg  Cathedral. . 
464  St.  Mark's  Church,  V«n 


Venice 


_. 
460  Assinelli  Tower,  Bologna  ..........  31  V 

456,Trinity  Church,  New  York  ........  2*3 

456  Column  at  Delhi,  India  ............  202 


St.  Peter's,  Rome 448IPorcelain  Tower,  China 242 

Salisbury  Spire,  England 410fCanterbury  Tower,  England 235 

•  St.  Paul's,  London,  England 404  Notre  Dame  Cathedral,  Parig 232 

,  Bt.  Peter's,  at  Hambro' 395  Bunker  Hill,  Monument 220 

'  Cathedral  at  Florence,  Italy 384 {Lean ing  Tower,  Pisa,  Jtalf 202 

Cremona  Cathedral,  Italy 372iMonument,  London        202 

Seville  Cathedral,  Spain 360  Monument,  PI.  Vemlome,  Paris.  .  15* 

Pyramid  of  Sakkarah,  Egypt 356  Trajan's  Pillar,  Rome 151 

i      Nearly  70  round  towers,  with  cromlechs,  exist  in  different  parts  of 
peland,  from  30  to  135  ft.  high. 
For  other  interesting  items  »n  this  subject,  se*  wage  123. 


770 


AREA,    AC.,    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


POPULATION    GnowTH>  &c.,  OP  THE  UNITED  STATES  A>*D  TERRITORIES^ 


When  1 

Admitted,  j 

Populati'n 
when 
Admitted. 

STATES. 

Area 
sq're  miles 

d 

I? 
s« 

_c 

s 

Populati'n 

iu  1875. 

Miles  R.R. 

1362. 

1872. 

isia 

•1836 
'1850 
Sett 
Sett 
1845 
Sett 
1818 
1816 
1846 
1859 
1792 
1812 
1820 
Sett 
Sett 
1837 
1859 
1817 
1821 
1866 
1864 
Sett 
Sett 
Sett 
Sett 
1802 
1859 
Sett 
Sett 
Sett 
1796 
1848 
1791 
Sett 
1862 
1848 

,Ariz 
Colo 
Dak 
Dist 
Idal 

-3101 

Kew 

Uta 
Was 
Wye 

4 

4 

144,317 
52,240 
1  17,000 
led  1636 
led  1627 
54,477 
led  16«2 
34,620 
63,867 
81,929 
107,206 
73,077 
76,556 
208,335 
led  1635 
led  1620 
200.000 
150,042 
75,512 
60,586 
60,000 
40,000 
led  16^3 
led  1624 
led  1614 
led  1650 
41,915 
52.465 
led  1685 
led  1637 
led  1670 
77,262 
250,000 
85,539 
led  1607 
376,688 
210,596 

TEBBIT 

ona, 
rado; 
ota, 
rict  of  Coli 

10, 

tana, 
Mexico, 
i, 
hington. 
)iniug, 

lotal  Terri 
FotalU.S. 

Alabama, 
Arkansas, 
California, 
Connecticut, 
Delaware, 
Florida, 
Georgia, 
Illinois, 
Indiana, 
Iowa, 
Kansas, 
Kentucky, 
Louisiana, 
Maine, 
Maryland, 
Masachus'8 
Michigan, 
Minnesota, 
Mississippi, 
Missouri, 
Nebraska, 
Nevada, 
&  Hamps'e, 
New  Jersey, 
New  York, 
N.  Carolina, 
Ohio, 
Oregon, 
Pennsylv'na, 
R.  Island, 
S.  Carolina, 
Tennessee, 
Texas, 
Vermont, 
Virginia, 
W.  Virginia, 
Wisconsin, 

Total  States, 

OKIES. 

jtmbia, 

torfeg, 
and  Ter., 

50,722 
52,198 
188,981 
4,750 
2,120 
59,248 
58,000 
55,410 
33,809 
55.041 
81,318 
37,630 
41,346 
35,000 
11,124 
7,800 
56,451 
83,531 
47,156 
65,350 
75,995 
81,539 
9,280 
8,320 
47,000 
50,704 
39,964 
95-274 
46,000 
1,300 
34,000 
45,660 
274,356 
10,212 
38,352 
23,000 
53,924 

996,<!92 
484,471 
560,247 
537,451 
125,015 
187,748 
1,184.109 
2,539,891 
1,680.637 
1,194,020 
364,399 
1,321,011 
726,915 
626,915 
780,894 
1,457,351 
1,184.059 
439,706 
827,922 
1,721,295 
122,993 
42,491 
318,300 
906.006 
4,382,759 
1,071,361 
2,665,260 

* 

4 

4 
4 
1 
2 
9 
19 
13 
0 
3 
10 
6 
6 
6 
11 
9 
3 
6 
13 
1 
1 
3 
7 
33 
8 
20 
1 

805 
38 

03 

630 

402 
1,024 

2,908 
2,175 
731 

1,671 
25 
1,013 
820 
227 
468 
2,108 
5,904 
3,529 
3,160 
1,760 
1,123 
539 
871 
820 
1,606 
2,235 
1,612 
990 
2,580 
828 
593 
790 
1,265 
4,470 
1.190 
3,740 
159 
5,113 
136 
1,201' 
1,520 
865 
675 
1,490 
486 
1,725 



1,550,544 
528,349 

567 
35; 
50t 

408 
1,285 

857,039 

1,651,912 
1.334,031 

698,429 

823 
862 
838 

246,280 
52,540. 

'  lVo26,562 

4,705,208 

'"eei 

633 

2,728 
937 
3,100 
4 
3,006 
108 
973 
1,253 
451 
562 
1,379 
361 
961 

3  521  951 

?7 

217.353 
705,606 
11,250,520 
818,579 
330,551 
1,225,163 
442,014 
1,054,670 

2 
0 

10 
(i 
3 
9 
3 
8 

258,239 
925,145 





1,236,729 

1,950,171 

113,916 
104,500 
147,490 
60 
90,930 
143,776 
121,201 
80,056 
69,944 
93,107 

38,115,641 

9,658 
39,864 
14,181 
131,700 
14,999 
20,595 
91,874 
86,786 
23,955 
9,118 

292 

32,120 

59.58T 

39» 

375 



498 

965,032 

442,730 

1,265 

2,915,203 

38,558,641 

32,120 

60,862 

POPULATION,    AC.,    OF    VARIOUS    COUNTRIES. 


77) 


I»OPULATION,    AREA,    &c.,   OF   THE    PRINCIPAL    COUNTRIES    OF 
THE  WORLD. 


Countries. 

Populati'n. 

Area  in 
sq.  miles. 

Capitals. 

Popula- 
tion. 

China                       

446,500,000 

3,741,846 

Pekin 

1  ,648  800 

British  Empire 

226  817  108 

4,677,432 

3  251  800 

Russia      

81,925,400 

8,003,788 

St.  Petersburg. 

667  000 

United  States  and  Alaska. 

38,925,600 
36  469,800 

2,603,884 
204,091 

Washington.  .  . 
Paris 

109,199 
1  825  300 

Austria  and  Hungary  .... 

35,904,400 

240,348 

Vienna  

833  900 

34,785  300 

149,399 

Yeddo 

1  554  900 

Great  Britain  and  Ireland. 

31,817,100 

121,315 

London  

3,251*800 

•German  Empire  

29,906  092 

160,207 

Berlin 

825  400 

Italy 

27  439  921 

118  847 

244*484 

16,642,000 

195,755 

Madrid 

332  000 

Brazil 

10  000  000 

3,253  029 

420*009 

6  000  000 

2'>6  000 

Cabool 

60  000 

16,463  000 

672,624 

Constantinople 

1  075  000 

8  500  000 

1  200  000 

60  000 

Mexico         

9,173,000 

761,526 

Mexico 

210  300 

4,800  000 

414,000 

Bokhara 

16o'oOO 

Sweden  and,  Norway  

5,921,300 

292,871 

Stockholm 

136  900 

6  000  000 

150,000 

Hue 

60  000 

Persia 

5,000  000 

635  964 

Teheran 

190  000 

Belgium  

5,021*300 

11,373 

Brussels  .. 

314  100 

Birmah 

7  000  000 

205,000 

5*000 

Bavaria  

4,861,400 

29,292 

Munich  

169  500 

:giam           

5,500,000 

189,000 

Bankok 

150  000 

3,995  200 

34  434 

224  063 

Holland    

3,688,300 

12,680 

Hague  .  . 

90  100 

INew  Grenada 

3  000  000 

357,157 

45*100 

-Chili 

2  000  000 

132  616 

115  400 

2,000,000 

130000 

Cliangmai 

25  000 

•Switzerland  

2  629,100 

15  992 

36  000 

Peru                 •             .... 

2  500  000 

471  838 

160*100 

.Bolivia         

2  000  000 

497  321 

25  000 

Argentine  Republic  

1  812  000 

871  848 

177  800 

1  818*000 

7  533 

qt  cfift 

Denmark.           ....        .   . 

1  784  000 

14  753 

162  042 

Venezuela  

1,500,000 

368,938 

Caraccas 

47  000 

Baden    

1  461  300 

5  912 

36  600 

1  457  900 

19  353 

Athens 

43*000 

1  180  300 

40  879 

40  000 

Ecuador    

1  300  000 

218  928 

Quito 

70*000 

1  000  000 

63*787 

48  000 

He**e 

823  138 

2  %9 

30  Oftft 

Liberia                 

718*000 

9*576 

3  000 

5-an  Salvador                 .... 

600  000 

7  335 

15  000 

llavti              

572*000 

10  905 

20*000 

J3el  occhi  stan  

500*000 

162  000 

Kelat     

15  000 

350  000 

58  171 

10  000 

Malaya  etc  

500  000 

60  000 

57  000 

300  000 

66  722 

44s  500 

850  000 

47  092 

|9  000 

136  000 

17  827 

20  000 

165  000 

21  505 

2  000 

62  950 

7  633 

Honolulu 

7  633 

772 


AREA,    *C.,   OF   BRITISH   AMERICA. 


Britain  and  Ireland,  the  Empire  of  Germany,  the  Empire  of  Russia,  the  Eia 
pire  of  AuBtria,  and  the  Republic  of  France. 

The  second-rate  Powers  are  the  Kingdoms  of  Italy,  Spain,  Norway  and  Swe« 
den,  and  the  Empire  of  Turkey  in  Europe.  Regarding  the  latter  it  may  be  said 
that  great  changes  are  impending,  owing  to  the  adverse  issue  of  the  war  with 
Russia,  and  the  present  threatening  attitude  of  the  Russian  armies  and  the 
British  fleet  near  Constantinople. 

The  third-rate  Powers  are  the  Kingdoms  of  Belgium,  Portugal,  Bavaria, 
Denmark,  Saxony,  Greece,  Holland,  or  Netherlands,  the  Republic  of  Switzer- 
land and  the  Duchies  or  lesser  States. 

AREA,    POPULATION,    &C.,    OF    BRITISH    AMERICA. 


Name. 

Area  in  Eng. 
BQ.  miles. 

Popula- 
tion. 

Capital. 

Popula- 
tion. 

Hudson  Bay  Ter.  ) 
Red  River,          f 
Brit.  Columbia,  &c. 

1,800,000 
344,500 

j    175,00o|  York  Factory, 
\      10,000  Fort  Garry, 
60,0001  New  Westminst'r 

4,00* 

Vancouver  Island, 

13,250 

18,000 

Victoria, 

3,000 

Newfoundland, 
Prince  Edw.  Island, 
Nova  Scotia  &  Cape  B., 

57,000 
2,173 
19,650 

124,288 
80,857 
330,857 

St.  Johns, 
Charlotte  town, 
Halifax  i 

25,000 
6,706 
26,000 

New  Brunswick, 

27,710 

252,047 

Fred'  n   J 

7.000 

§uebec, 
ntario, 

210,000 
125,000 

1,111,560 
1,396,091 

Quebec  (Ottawa 
Toronto  j     15,000 

52,140 
44,821 

2,599,283 

• 

CAPACITY  OF  NOTED  CHURCHES. 

Will  Contain  Will  Contain 

No.  persons.  No.  Persons. 

St.  Peter's,  Rome 54,000  St.  John's,  Lateran 22,900 

Milan  Cathedral 37,000  Notre  Dame,  Paris 21.000 

St.  Paul's,  Rome 32,«00  Cathedral,  Pisa  13,000 

St.  Paul's,  London 25,600  St.  Stephen's,  Vienna 12.400- 

St.  Petronio,  Bologna 24,400  St.  Dominic's,  Bologna 12,000 

Florence  Cathedral 24,300  St.  Peter's,  Bologna 11,400 

Antwerp  Cathedral 24,000  Cathedral,  Vienna 11,000 

St.  Sophia's,  Constantinople....  23,00o!st.  Mark's,  Venice 7,500° 

*  CAPACITY  OF  THEATRES,  OPERA  HOUSES,    HALLS,     &C. 

Will  Contain  Will  Contain 

No.  Persons,  No.  Persons. 

Gilmore's  Garden,  New  York —  8,443  St.  Charles,  Th.,  N.  Orleans 2,178 

Stadt  Theatre,  "        3,000  Grand  Opera  House,  New   York  1,883 

Academy  of  Music,         "        2.526i Booth's  Theatre.  "  1.807 

Academy  of  Music,  Philadelphia.  2,865,  Opera  House,  Detroit 1,790: 

Carlo  Felice,  Genoa 2,560  McVicar  Theatre,  Chicago 1,786 

Opera  House,  Munich 2,307iGrand  Opera  House,      "     1,786 

Alexander,  St.  Petersburg 2,332  Ford's  Opera  House,  Baltimore. .  1,720 

San  Carlos,  Naples 2,240  NaT.  Theatre,  Washington 1.709 

Adelphi  Theatre,  Chicago 2.238  De  Bar's  Opera  House,  St.  Louis  1,696 

Kusic  Hall,  Boston 2,585|Cal.  Theatre,  San  Fran 1.651 

Academy  of  Panie 2,092|Euclid  Av.,Op.  H-,  Cleveland 1,6PO> 

Imperial,  St.  Petersburg 2,160,Opera  House,  Berlin 1 ,636 

1  La  Scala,  Milan 2,113  Opera  House,  Albany 1,404 

Covent  Garden,  London 2,6841  Hooley's  Theatre,  Chicago 1,373 

Boston  Theatre,  Boston 2,972  i  Coulter  Op.  H.,  Aurora,  111 1,004 

Grand  Opera  Hall ,  New  Orleans ,  2,052  Opera  House ,  Montreal. 92$ 


MEASUREMENT    OF    TIMF  773 


MEASUREMENT  OF  TIME,  TABLE. 

•dteeonds 1  minuta. 

«0  minutes , 1  hour. 

24  hours  1  day. 

7  days - 1  week. 

28  days 1  lunar  month. 

28.,  29,  30,  or  31  days 1  calendar  month. 

12  calendar  months 1  year, 

365  days 1  com.  year. 

866  days 1  leap  year. 

SCR1/*  days 1  Julian  year. 

365  d.,  5h.,  48m.,  49s 1  solar  or  tropical  y«tr.  ' 

365  d.,  6h.,  9m.,  12s 1  siderial  year. 

365  d.,  6.13  m.,  49.3  s 1  anomalistic  year. 

10  years 1  decade. 

10  decades,  or  100  years 1  century. 

EQUIVALENTS. 

Tr.  Da.  Hr.  Min.  See. 

I  m.  365V4  -  8766  -  025960          -  31557600 

I  «»  24  »  1440          -  86400 

1  »  60          »  3600 

1          »  60 

Scale  of  units:— 60,  60,  24,  365*4. 

The  tropical  (or  solar  year)  and  the  sidereal  years  are  the  same,  and 
the  tropic  is  only  an  anticipated  solar  mark  before  the  sidereal  year  is 
completed.  The  anomalistic  year  is  an  advance  of  the  orbit  as  part  of 
he  solar  system  in  space,  and  its  excess  over  the  sidereal  year  is  the 
stellar  measure  of  the  annual  advance  of  the  whole  system ;  the  mean 
velocities  are  uniform,  and  the  times  as  the  spaces. 
The  diurnal  revolution  of  the  earth  causes  the  difference  in  time,  ete., 
illustrated  in  the  following 

LONGITUDE  AND  TIME  TABLE. 

For  every  hour  of  time  there  is  a  difference  of  15°  in  longitude. 


minute 
second  " 

degree  of  longitude 
minute  " 

second  « 


15/ 

15'/          " 
4m.  in  time. 
4  sec.     " 
A  sec.   « 


360°  =  1  revolution  of  che  earth,  or  1  day. 
1440"=!  "  "  "  " 

1440  -—  360  =*  4  minutes,  or  1  degree. 

Add  difference  of  time  for  places  EAST,  and  subtract  it  for  plac«« 
WEST  of  any  given  locality.  The  greatest  circumference  of  the  earth's 
surface  is  24,930  milos.  1°  of  that  circumference  is  l-360th  of  that  num- 
ber, or  69J  miles.  Hence  a  geographical  or  nautical  mile  is  equal  to  1' 
•f  the  earth's  greatest  circumference,  or  a  trifle  more,  the  1st  mile  and 


DIVISIONS   OF  THE   CIRCLE,  AC. 


49  rods.    The  following  table  exhibits  the  DIVISIONS  OF  THE 
as  used  by  geographers,  astronomers,  surveyors,  navigators,  &c.  :— 


60  seconds  (")  make 
60  minutes 
30  degrees 

90  degrees 

4  quadrants  or 

12  signs 

C. 


1  minute, 

1  degree, 

1  sign, 

<  1  quadrant, 
)  1  right  angle, 

}-  i circumference 
(      or  circle 

EQUIVALENTS. 


ttarked 


sig 
qua4. 
r.  a. 

dr. 


360 
60 


21600 

1SOO 

60 


1296000 

108000 

3600 

60 


NOTE.—  A  full  circle  is  360°,  £  circle  is  180°,  J  circle  is  90,  \  circle  i* 
60°.  The  distance  around  a  circle  is  called  its  circumference.  The  dis- 
tance across  its  diameter,  and  any  section  of  its  circumference  is  called 
•narc. 


The  above  figure  displays  the  various  imaginary  lines,  consisting  o£ 
fhe  great  and  less  circles,  axis,  and  poles  of  the  earth.  The  next  figure 
exhibits  the  geographical  division  into  zones,  tropics,  and  circles. 

Leap  year,  called  Bissextile,  comes  every  4th  year  and  contains  366 
days,  by  the  addition  of  one  day  to  February.  Three  leap  years  are 
omitted  in  400  years,  but  109  leap  years  in  450  years  would  be  exact.  IE 
common  business  affairs,  30  days  compose  a  month,  and  52  weeks  a  year. 
The  Lunar  Cycle,  or  GOLDEN  N  TMBER,  is  a  term  of  19  years,  after  which 
the  changes  of  the  moon  return  on  the  same  days  of  the  month.  The 
SOLAR  CYCLE  is  a  period  of  28  years,  when  the  days  of  the  week  again 
return  to  the  same  days  of  the  month.  Owing  to  an  error  in  the  Julian 
calendar  it  was  decreed  by  the  British  Government  that  the  day  follow* 
mg  the  2nd  of  September,  1752,  should  be  called  the  14th  day  of  Septem- 
ber, or  that  11  days  should  be  stricken  from  the  calendar;  hence,  time, 
E'oms  to  this  decree,  is  called  Old  Style  (0.  S.),  and  since,  New  Style 
).  In  Russia,  time  is  still  reckoned  by  the  Old  Style,  hence  their 
are  12  days  behind  ours.  The  legal  or  civil  day  begins  and  ends  at 


VARIOUS    EPOCHS.  775 

12  p.m.  The  astronomical  day  begins  and  ends  at  12  m.  As  to  Epochs, 
the  Christian  Era  was  first  invented  aud  introduced  at  Rome  by  Diouysius,. 
a  monk,  in  527,  adopted  in  France,  in  750;  in  Spain,  in  1340;  and  in  Portu- 
gal, in  1410.  It  was  first  used  in  books  in  748.  The  birth  of  Christ,  was,  , 
however,  four  years  earlier,  that  is  in  1878,  really  1882  since  his  birth ;  the 
chronology  was  not  inquired  into  until  the  reign  of  J  ustinian.  The  46 
rears  of  the  Julian  calendar  was  the  first  of  our  era.  The  Hegira,  or 
flight,  took  place  July  16,622,  and  is  the  Mohammedan  era.  Their  year-is 
12  lunar  months,  or  354  days,  8  hours,  48  minutes ;  and  eleven  days  beinu 
lost  a  year  must  be  allowed  every  33,  to  reconcile  their  dates  with  ours. 
Greek* Olympiads  of  4  years  began  776  B.  C.,  and  were  continued  until 
the  5th  century.  The  era  of  the  Selucidae  311  B.  C.,  of  Alexander  323 
B.  C.,  of  the  siege  of  Troy  1209  B.  C.,  of  the  founding  of  Rome  754  B.  C., 
of  the  battle  of  Actium  31  B.  C.,  of  the  Caesars  38  B.  C.,  of  Tyre  125  B. 
C.,  of  Abraham  2016,  of  Moses  1582,  of  Antioch  49,  were  also  used  by 
various  early  writers.  The  early  Christians  dated  from  the  accession  of 
Diocletian  in  A.  D.  284. 


The  Vulgate  fixes  the  Epoch  of  Adam  at  4004  B.  C.,  which  is  adopted 
by  the  Romish  Church.  The  Samaritan  Pentateuch  makes  it  4700;  the 
Talmud,  5344;  Hales,  5411;  the  Greek  Church,  5508;  the  Septuagint, 
5872;  Pezron,  5872;  Alphonso,  King  of  Castile,  6934;  the  early  Fathers, 
6502  and  5592;  200  other  authorities  estimate  it  from  6984  to  3268  B.  C. 
The  controversy  is  a  hopeless  one,  owing  to  the  prevalent  ignorance  regard- 
ing the  true  meaning  of  the  first  12  chapters  of  Genesis,  which  are  grossly 
misunderstood,  owing  to  the  prevalent  opinion  that  they  form  a  mere 
literal  historical  narrative  concerning  natural  events,  when  the  truth  is 
really  far  otherwise.  Rollin,  the  historian,  traces  up  the  history  of 
several  ancient  peoples  to  within  100  years  of  the  alleged  time  of  th« 
flood,  and  is  much  perplexed  to  account  for  the  existence  of  mighty 
nations  possessing  well  organized  armies,  embracing  thousands  of  fight- 
ing men,  at  that  early  period. 

In  India,  the  priests  claim  a  duration  of  about  2,000  millions  of  year* 
since  the  beginning,  and  allege  that  Brahma  was  17  millions  of  years 
creating.  They  mention  also  those  deluges  and  periodical  submersions 
required  by  the  claims  of  geology.  Sir  Wm.  Jones  computes  the  first 
book  of  Vedas  to  be  written  about  2,800  B  .C.  In  the  year  1,000  A.  C. 
the  Arabs  used  the  pendulum  as  a  measure  of  time.  A  second  calculated 
i  by  the  movement  of  a  39-inch  pendulum  is  one  with  that  motion,  and 
the  movement  itself  is  a  simple  deflection  of  the  combined  motions  of 
the  earth  in  its  orbit  from  east  to  west,  and  on  its  axis  from  west  to  east 


776 


ON    TELEGRAPHY. 


(DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  TELEGRAPH  AND  HINTS  TO  LEARNERS. 

The  cut  represents  a  series  of  Grove's  Battery,  such  as  are  generally 
Uicd  in  telegraphs.  When  a  plate  of  platina  and  one  of  zinc  are  placed 
In  an  acid  solution  a  current  tends  to  flow  from  the  platina  to  the  zinc, 
through  any  conductor  which  may  be  so  disposed  as  to  connect  the  two. 
In  the  figure  the  galvanic  series  is  represented,  consisting  of  twelve  pairs  ; 
the  zinc  of  each  of  which  is  connected  with  the  platina  of  the  next.  It 
may  be  considered  that  a  current  is  produced  by  each  of  these  pairs, 
•which  has,  however,  to  flow  in  the  same  direction,  and  fall  in  with  all  the 
others.  Hence  their  intensity  is  multiplied  twelve  times.  It  is  by  this 
•means  that  the  resistance  to  the  passage  of  the  current  through  very  long 
conductors  is  overcome.  Each  pair  of  the  battery  consists  of  a  pint  glass 
tumbler,  a  cylinder  of  zinc,  a  small  porous  cylindrical  earthernware  cell 
within  the  zinc,  and  a  platinum  strip  suspended  within  the  cell  from  an 
arm  belonging  to  the  zinc  of  the  next  pair.  A  solution  of  diluted  sulphuric 
acid  is  used  with  the  zinc'  outside  the  porous  cell,  and  the  cell  itself  is 
filled  with  nitric  aeid.  The  two  acids  are  used  on  account  of  an  increase 
of  power  depending  on  a  chemical  reaction.  The  zinc  cylinder  is  amal- 
gamated with  mercury  to  prevent  its  being  acted  upon  by  the  acid  when 
the  battery  is  not  in  use.  A  solution  of  sulphate  of  soda  is  sometimes 
added  to  the  sulphuric  acid  to  assist  in  accomplishing  the  same  object. 
Two  screw  cups  rise  from  the  battery,  one  of  which  is  the  positive  pole, 
or  extremity  of  the  series,  the  other  the  negative  ;  to  these  the  wire,"  are 
attached  which  convey  the  current 

The  signal  key  is  showed  in  the  cut.  When  the  hand  depresses  the 
key  it  comes  in  contact  with  the  knob  and  metallic  strip  below,  making 
connection  between  the  screw  cups,  and  completing  the  battery  circuit. 

While  the  key  is  depressed  a  continuous  current  passes,  but  if  it  be 
depressed,  and  allowed  to  spring  immediately  up.  only  an  instantaneous 
wave  or  impulse  is  communicated. 


The  annexed  cut  shows  the  registering  apparatus  of  Morse's  Telegraph. 
Two  screw  cups  are  seen  on  the  board  for  the  insertion  of  the  wires 
fiom  the  distant  buttery.  Next  the  screw  cup  is  seen  a  U  shaped  electro- 
magnet, with  coils  of  wire  upon  it,  the  ends  of  which,  ^assing  down 
through  the  board,  are  connected  with  the  screw  cups  •  over  the  poles 


ON   TELEGRAPHY.  777 

A!  the  magnet  id  ft  little  armature,  or  bar  of  soft  iron,  attached  to  th« 
short  arm  of  a  lever,  whose  long  arm  carries  a  point  or  style  nearly  in 
contact  with  the  grooved  roller  above.  The  aetion  which  takes  place  on 
depressing  the  signal  key  at  the  distant  station  is,  a  wave  of  electricity 
is  transmitted  through  the  wire  of  the  telegraph,  arrives  at  the  electro- 
magnet, and  circulates  through  the  coils  of  wire  surrounding  it.  The 
U  shaped  piece  of  soft  iron  immediately  becomes  a  magnet,  and  attracts 
.  the  little  armature  down  to  it,  the  long  arm  of  the  lever  is  thrown  up, 
tad  marks  the  strip  of  paper,  passing  between  it  and  the  roller.  Whe:i 
the  distant  operator  lets  the  signal  key  fly  back  and  the  current  ceases, 
the  iron  of  the  electro-magnet  loses  all  its  magnetism,  and  the  armature, 
with  the  lever,  is  carried  back  by  the  action  of  a  little  spring,  being  a  dot 
impressed  on  a  piece  of  paper.  Should  the  distant  operator  hold  down 
the  key  a  continuous  current  will  pass,  and  a  line  be  marked  in  place  of  a 
dot  (-)  on  the  paper  which  moves  under  the  roller. 

When  a  long  circuit  is  used,  the  resistance  to  conduction,  measured 
by  the  amount  of  electricity  which  passes,  is  great,  and  would  not  give 
sufficient  force  to  work  the  Morse  instruments.  To  overcome  this,  Pro- 
lessor  Morse  uses  one  instrument  called  a  Relay,  which  is  similar  in  most 
respects  to  the  main  instrument,  but  of  a  more  delicate  electrical  organiz- 
ation ;  it  has  no  work  to  do— simply  to  act  as  a  contact  maker,  enabling 
a.  weak  or  exhausted  current  to  bring  into  action  and  substitute  for  itself 
a  fresh  and  powerful  one  from  the  local  battery  which  is  placed  in  the 
office  with  the  printing  instrument,  and  which  supplies  the  electricity 
"which  moves  the  instrument. 

The  greatest  recorded  velocity  of  a  signal  through  a  suspended  copper 
wire  is  1,752,800  miles  per  second,  by  Mr.  Hipp.  The  lowest  velocity 
through  a  buried  copper  wire,  750  miles  per  second,  by  Faraday. 

MORSE'S  ALPHABET,  NUMERALS  AND  PAUSES. 

0  -    -  1 Period  

p o 

Q \  Comma 

R  _    _.          ^ 

«$  _  _  _  4  _ Semicolon 

TT  Interrogation 


*  "  "          "    7 Exclamation 

x 8 Parenthesis       - 

—  Y  --    -- 

z 9 Italics  

&„ o Paragraph 

HINTS  TO  LEARNERS.  $ 

Compiled  from  Modern  Practice  of  the  Electric  Telegraph,  by  Frank  L, 

Pope.  * 

The  characters  of  the  American  Morse  Alphabet  are  formed  of  three 
•ekoneiitary  signals — 

The  dot,  whose  duration  is  the  unit  of  length  in  this  alphabet  ; 
The  short  dash,  which  is  equal  to  three  dots  ;  and 
The  long  dash,  which  Is  equal  to  six  dots. 

The  above  are  separated  by  variable  intervals  or  spaces,  four  In  num- 
ber : 

•  D.  Van  NoBtrand,  Publisher,  23  Murray  street,  New  York. 
33* 


778  ON    TELEGRAPHY. 

1st — The  ordinary  space  between  the  elements  of  a  letter,  equal  to  o»? 
idot. 

2d — The  space  employed  in  the  spaced  letters,  equal  to  two  dots. 
'     3d — The  space  between  the  letters  of  a  word,  eq  ual  to  three  dots. 

4th — Th«  space  between  two  words,  equal  to  six  dots. 

The  dot  signifies  a  point  or  a  current  of  infinitely  short  duration,  and 
involves  time,  which  varies  according  to  circumstances,  the  length  of  the 
dot  increasing  with  the  length  of  the  circuit. 

i  f  In  long  submarine  lines  the  dot  has  to  be  made  longer  than  the  dash 
itself  on  short  open  air  lines,  and  the  same  thing  occurs  in  working 
.(through  repeaters. 

In  commencing  to  learn  telegraphing,  the  beginner  should  acquire  the 
habit  of  making  short,  firm  dashes,  instead  of  light,  quick  dots. 

In  the  valuable  Manual  of  Prof.  Smith,  published  by  L.  C.  Tillotson  & 
Co.,  New  York,  six  elementary  principles  are  laid  down  as  the  basis  foi 
practicing  the  alphabet,  viz  : 

IST  PRINCIPLE.— Dots  close  together:  , 

I  S  H  P  6 


2o  PRINCIPLE. — Dashes  close  together; 
M  5 


So  PBDTCIPLR.— Lone  dots: 
E 
» 
fra  PMNCIPLB.— Long  dashes: 

T  L  or  cipher. 

BTB— PRINCIPLE.— A  dot  followed  by  a  dashs 
A 

\     6m  PBIKCIPLE.— A  dash  followed  by  a  dot: 

To  send  messages,  place  the  first  two  fingers  upon  the  top  of  the  button 
ef  the  key,  with  the  thumb  partly  beneath  it,  the  wrist  being  entirely  free 
from  the  table;  the  motion  being  made  by  the  hand  and  wrist,  the  thumb 
and  fingers  being  employed  merely  to  grasp  the  key.  The  motion  up  and 
down  must  be  free  and  firm.  TAPPING  on  the  key  must  be  strenuously 
avoided. 

The  downwaitf  movement  of  the  key  produces  dots  and  dashes;  th« 
upward  movement,  spaces. 

,    The  beginner  should  first  practice  the  1st  principle,  making  dots  at 
f  regular  intervals,  of  definite  and  uniform  dimensions. 
•     2d  Principle. — Make  dashes,  first  at  the  rate  of  one  per  second,  anrt 
iftlowly  increase  to  three,  the  space  between  the  dashes  to  be  as  short  a> 
Vossible. 

'•    3d  Principle.— Letter  E,  formed  by  a  quick,  but  firm,  downward  move, 
tnent  of  the  key. 

4th — The  usual  tendency  is  to  make  T  too  long  and  L  too  short.  The 
«ame  character  is  *sed  for 'L  and  the  cipher,  or  0;  occurring  by  itself,  or 
among  letters,  it  is  translated  as  L  ;  when  found  among  figures  it  be- 
comes  0. 

,     5th-— The  Letter  A  may  be  timed  by  the  pronunciation  of  the  word 
'•grain,  strongly  accenting  the  second  syllable. 
;y    0&— • The  dash  followed  by  a  dot ;  usually  the  student  separates  tae  prao. 


PHOTOGRAPHY   MADE    EAST.  779 

ttc«.  Tbe  lever  of  the  Morse  instrument  makes  a  sound  at  each  movement, 
the  downward  motion  producing  the  heavier  one,  or  that  representing  dots 
and  dashes  ;  /.  e.,  the  heavy  stroke  indicates  the  commencement  of  a  dot 
or  dash,  and  the  lighter  one  its  cessation.  A  dot  makes  as  much  noise  as 
a  dash,  the  only  difference  being  in  the  length  of  time  between  the  tw» 
sounds, 

TECHNICAL  TERMS  USED  IN  THE  TELEGRAPH  SERVICE. 

Line. — The  wire  or  wires  connecting  one  station  with  another. 

Circuit. — The  wires,  instruments,  etc.,  through  which  the  circuit  passe*  I 
from  one  pole  of  the  battery  to  the  other. 

Metallic  Circuit. — A  circuit  in  which  a  return  wire  is  used  in  place  of 
the  earth. 

Ijocal  Circuit. — One  -which  includes  only  the  apparatus  in  an  office,  and, 
is  closed  by  a  relay. 

Local. — The  battery  of  a  local  circuit. 

Loop. — A  wire  going  out  and  returning  to  the  same  point,  as  to  a  branch 
office,  and  forming  part  of  a  main  circuit. 

Binding  Screws  or  Terminals.— Screws  attached  to  instruments  holding 
the  connecting  wires. 

To  Cross  Connect  Wires. — To  interchange  them  at  an  intermediate 
station. 

To  Put  Wires  Straight. — To  restore  the  usual  arrangement  of  wires  and 
instruments. 

To  Ground  a  Wire,  or  Put  on  Ground. — To  make  a  connection  between 
the  line  wire  and  the  earth. 

To  Open  a  Wire. — To  disconnect  it  so  that  no  current  can  pass. 

Reversed  Batteries. — Two  batteries  in  the  same  circuit,  with  like  poles 
towards  each  other. 

To  Reverse  a  Battery. — To  place  its  opposite  pole  to  the  line  ;  or,  in 
other  words,  interchange  the  ground  and  line  wires  at  the  poles  of  the 
battery. 

Escape. — The  leakage  of  current  from  the  line  to  the  ground,  caused  by 
defective  insulation  and  contact  with  partial  conductors. 

Cross. — A  metallic  connection  between  two  wires,  arising  from  theit 
«pv«ug  in  contact  with  each  other,  or  from  other  causes. 

PHOTOGRAPHIC   PORTRAITURE   MADE   EASY 
BY  C.  J.  P.  HANDEY. 

Author  of  "  Puzzle  Writing,"  &c.,  &c. 
INSTRUCTIONS. 

Pictures  produced  by  the  agency  of  lightare  called  photographs,  whether 
taken  on  glass  or  paper  These  are  divided  into  two  classes — negatives 
and  positives  ;  negatives  being  pictures  with  the  lights  and  shades  of  the 
object  reversed,  while  positives  represent  the  lights  and  shades  as  iu 
nature. 

Pictures  taken  on  glass  are  called  positives,  which  are  complete  in  them- 
selves. The  negative  process  is  that  pursued  when  the  intention  is  to  pro- 
duce a  paper  proof.  Paper  portraits  are  not  obtained  like  positives  by  ona 
operation  in  the  camera,  but  a  negative  is  taken  from  which  the  copies 
are  procured  by  photographic  printing.  To  take  a  portrait  on  glass- 
either  a  negative  or  positive — requires  five  operations.  First,  giving  the 
glass  plate  a  collodion  coating  ;  second,  exciting  the  glass  plate  ;  third, 
exposure  in  the  camera'  fourth,  developing  the  latent  image;  fifth,  fixing 
the  picture. 


780  PHOTOGRAPHY   MADE    EAST, 

APPARATUS. 

A  camera  is  the  first  requisite.  The  most  convenient  form  consists  o! 
two  portions  of  boxes,  one  sliding  within  the  other. 

The  double-combination  lens  is  used  for  portraiture.  It  consists  of  a 
set  of  three  glasses,  mounted  in  a  brass  tube,  with  a  rack  and  pinion  ad- 
justment. 

A  camera  stand  is  requisite,  which  should  be  from  four  to  five  feet 
high.  A  tripod  stand,  with  a  screw  to  fir  the  camera  with,  is  the  best. 

A  porcelain  bath  is  required  to  hold  the  silver  solution  for  exciting  the 
oollodionized  plate. 

1    One  or  two  .graduated  glass  measures,  to  measure  the  solutions,  esti- 
mated by  fluid  measure. 

A  set  of  scales  and  weights  for  weighing  the  chemicals. 

Two  or  three  porcelain  dishes,  for  holding  solutions  of  silver,  toning 
tath,  &c. ;  &c. 

A  printing  frame  will  be  required,  after  taking  a  negative  picture,  to 
papoduce  the  paper  copies. 

A  few  packets  of  different-sized  glass,  a  piece  of  wash-leather,  and  a 
Moen  cloth,  will  complete  the  requisites. 

DARK  ROOM. 

It  will  be  necessary  for  the  success  of  the  second,  third,  and  fourth 
operations  in  producing  a  collodion  picture,  that  they  should  be  per- 
formed in  a  dark  room.  The  best  and  easiest  way  will  be  to  obtain  a 
small  room  or  closet  with  a  window,  and  to  cover  the  window  with  several 
sheet*  of  yellow  paper,  whicli  will  exclude  the  chemical  rays.  A  table  or 
shelf  should  be  fixed  under  the  window,  and  a  pail  kept  at  the  side,  con- 
taining water  for  washing  the  pictures. 

If  a  glass  room  cannot  be  had,  the  photographer  must  arrange  an  apart- 
ment according  to  his  means.  In  selecting  a  room,  he  must  bear  in  mind 
tli  at  it  should  not  only  have  a  good  side  light,  but  a  sky-light,  if  possible. 

In  taking  a  portrait,  the  sitter  should  not  be  opposite  the  window,  but 
a  little  behind  it— a  more  even  focus  is  thus  secured. 

A  proper  background  is  of  some  importance.  A  white  wall  will  do 
very  well,  but  something  a  shade  darker  will  be  better. 

In  focussingthe  lens  have  the  stand  and  camera  placed  seven  or  eight  ft. 
from  the  sitter.  The  better  to  observe  the  image,  a  dark  cloth  is  thrown 
over  the  camera  and  head  of  the  operator.  The  proper  attitude  of  the 
person  sitting  for  the  portrait  must  be  left  to  the  taste  of  the  operator 
Allow  the  sitter  time  to  get  seated,  and  accustomed  to  the  light,  before 
removing  the  cap  off  the  lens.  And  now,  having  concluded  these  pre- 
liminary remarks,  we  will  proceed  to  take  a  picture . 

POSITIVE  PROCESS. 

Chemicals. — The  most  important  chemical  used  in  photography  i»  col- 
lodion. As  it  is  extremely  volatile,  it  should  be  kept  in  a  stoppered 
bottle. 

Exciting  Bath.—  Nitrate  of  silver,  2  drachms;  distilled  water,  4  ounces;' 
iodized  collodion,  6  minims.  Filter  before  using. 

Developing  Solution.— Protosulphate  of  iron,  2  drachms  ;  acetic  acid,  2 
'drachms  ;  methylated  alcohol,  2  drachms  ;  water  10  ounces. 

Fixing  Solution. — Cyanide  of  potassium,  2  drachms  ;  water,  6  ounces. 
This  solution  will  keep  for  months  without  losing  its  strength. 

MANIPULATION. 

The  Collodion  Coating. — Having  selected  a  piece  of  glass,  entirely  free 
from  blemishes,  and  quite  clean,  hold  it  as  level  as  possible  by  the  left- 
hand  corner,  then,  in  the  centre,  form  a  good  pool  of  collodion.  Slant  the 
gfcuM  so  that  the  collodion  may  cover  all  portions,  taking  care  that  it  doee 


PHOTOGRAPHY   MADE   EAST.  781 

«ot  touch  the  hands.  Pour  the  superfluous  quantity  back  into  the  bottle, 
The  glass  is  now  ready  for  immersion  in  the  silver  bath,  which  is  called 

Exciting  the  Plate. — The  manipulation  may  be  conducted  in  daylight  up 
to  this  point ;  but  as  the  immersion  of  the  collodionized  plate  renders  it 
sensitive  to  light,  recourse  must  be  had  to  a  dark  room.  Having  the 
silver  solution  ready,  place  the  prepared  glass  on  the  dipper,  and  im- 
merse in  the  solution.  When  the  plate  has  remained  in  the  bath  about  a 
minute  it  should  be  withdrawn,  then  immersed  for  half  a  minute  longer, 
then  drain  the  glass  plate,  place  it  in  the  dark  slide  of  the  camera,  and 
proceed  with  the  third  operation — 

Exposure  in  the  Camera.  —Assuming  that  the  camera  has  been  prepared, 
and  the  image  properly  focussed,  remove  the  ground  glass  screen,  and 
insert  the  slide  containing  the  plate.  Desire  the  sitter  to  keep  perfectly 
still,  and  look  at  some  dark  object ;  then  take  the  cap  off  the  lens  and 
allow  the  plate  to  be  exposed  for  twenty  or  thirty  seconds,  then  close  the 
shutters  of  the  dark-slide,  and  return  to  the  dark  room  to 

Develop  the  Picture. — Having  excluded  all  white  light  from  the  dark 
room,  remove  the  glass  plate  from  the  slide.  Holding  it  by  the  left-hand 
corner,  proceed  to  pour  on  the  developing  solution.  Begin  by  pouring 
on  at  one  edge,  inclining  the  plate  so  as  to  enable  the  liquid  to  flow  uni- 
formly over  the  surface.  The  first  effect  will  be  the  appearance  of  white 
lights,  then  the  half  tones,  and,  finally,  the  darker  shades.  When  this 
is  obtained,  the  plate  must  be  thoroughly  washed.  It  can  then  be  passed 
on  to  the  next  and  last  operation — 

Fixing  the  Picture.—  Having  well  washed  the  picture,  the  door  of  the 
dark  room  may  be  opened  to  observe  the  action  of  the  fixing  agent. 
Pour  this  mixture  over  the  plate  until  the  creamy  appearance  is  dissolved. 
When  this  is  the  case,  it  must  be  again  washed  and  set  on  edge  to- 
dry.  As  the  picture  is  now  finished,  it  should  be  varnished  with  j«t 
varnish,  which  should  be  poured  on  the  plain  side  of  the  glass.  In 
mounting  the  picture,  put  it  into  a  gilt  mat  and  preserver  •,  and  when 
finished,  the  lights  and  shades  will  be  shown  to  perfection. 

NEGATIVE  PROCESS. 

Chemicals. — Negative  collodion  differs  slightly  from  positive  in  thfc 
preparation  of  the  iodized  solution. 

Exctony  Ba th.—  Nitrate  of  silver,  2  drachms;  distilled  water,  3fc  ounces; 
iodized  collodion,  3  minims. 

Developing  Solution. — No.  1.  Protosulphate  of  iron,  1  drachm -,  acetic 
acid,  2  drachms  ;  methylated  alcohol,  2  drachms  ;  water,  4  ounces.     Xo. 
2.  Pyrogallic  acid,  13  grains  ;  citric  acid,  15  grains  ;  distilled  water,  4 
ounces. 
'    fixing  Solution.— Cyanide  of  potassium,  2  drachms  ;  water,  5  ounces. 

MANIPULATION. 

The  Collodion  Coating  is  applied  in  the  same  manner  as  for  positives, 
and  then 

Sensitized,  which  is  accomplished  by  immersion  in  the  nitrate  bath. 
The  plate  should  remain  in  the  bath  from  two  to  three  minutes.  When 
the  collodion  surface  presents  a  nice  even  film,  drain  off  the  excess  of 
silver,  and  lay  the  glass  plate  careful  ly  in  the  dark  slide,  taking  care  not 
to  allow  any  specks  of  dust  or  dirt  to  get  near  it.  It  is  Jthen  ready  f or 

Exposure. — After  exposing  the  plate  for  the  necessary  time,  which  will 
be  double  that  required  for  a  positive,  proceed  to 

Develop. — Having  removed  the  dark  slides  in  the  dark  room,  pour  the 
developer,  No.  1,  evenly  over  the  plate.  As  the  picture  will  appear  sud- 
denly, it  must  be  watched.  Continue  the  action  of  the  iron  developer 
until  there  is  fear  of  the  dark  shadows  becoming  veiled.  When  the  plasfr 


782  PHOTOGRAPHY   MADE   EAST. 

plate  has  been  washed,  pour  into  a  measure— which  must  be  perfectly 
cJean — sufficient  of  the  developer  No.  2  to  cover  the  surface  of  the  plate, 
to  this  add  ten  minims  of  the  silver  bath.  This  mixture  must  be  used 
immediately  by  pouring  it  over  the  plate.  When  sufficiently  intense,  the 
surface  must  be  again  washed.  It  is  now  ready  to  be 

Fixed,  using  the  cyanide  solution.  This  is  to  be  poured  over  the  plate 
in  the  same  manner  as  the  developer,  and  the  surplus  rebottled.  It 
should  now  be  thoroughly  washed  to  remove  all  traces  of  chemicals, 
which,  if  allowed  to  remain,  would  eventually  spoil  the  picture.  The  nega- 
tive will  now  require  to  be 

Varnished. — The  most  convenient  varnish  for  a  tyi-o  to  use  is  amber  or 
crystal  varnish  ;  it  is  simply  poured  on  the  plate,  aiid  then  drained  off  at 
the  lower  end. 

PRINTING  PROCESS. 

Chemicals.— Exciting  bath;  nitrate  of  silver,  120 grains;  distilled  water, 
2  ounces. 

Toning  Bath. — Acetate  of  soda,  30 grains;  carbonate  of  soda,  10  grains; 
cbloride'of  gold,  1  grain ;  distilled  water,  4  ounces.  This  solution  will  keep 
lor  a  considerable  length  of  time,  and  may  be  used  over  and  over  again 
until  the  gold  is  thoroughly  exhausted,  when  more  must  be  added,  if 
again  required. 

Fixing  Bath. — Hyposulphate  of  soda,  1  ounce  ;  distilled  water,  10 
ounces.  This  solution  may  be  made  up  for  a  fortnight  before  using,  as 
it  is  much  better  for  keeping.  It  must  not,  however,  be  used  a  second 
time,  but  a  fresh  one  made  for  every  batch  of  prints. 

MANIPULATION. 

Sensitizing  .—Filter  the  silver  solution  into  a  shallow  dish,  then  take  a 
piece  of  albumenized  paper  cut  to  the  size,  and,  holding  the  two  ends,  let 
the  centre  drop  until  the  albumeni  ed  face  touches  the  solution;  then 
lower  the  ends,  and  leave  the  paper  floating.  When  it  lies  flat,  and 
ceases  to  curl  up,  it  should  be  removed,  and,  when  perfectly  dry,  it 
may  be  passed  on  to  the  next  operation. 

Printing  the  Positive. — Take  a  printing  frame  and  remove  the  back 
board ;  then  lay  the  negative  in  the  rabbits  of  the  frame  with  the  collodion 
side  upwards,  and  cover  the  face  with  a  sheet  of  sensitized  paper,  re- 
place the  back  board,  turn  up  to  the  frame,  and  expose  to  the  light. 
When  the  desired  strength  of  picture  is  obtained,  remove  the  paper,  and 
proceed  with  the 

Toning  Process.— Having  removed  the  prints  into  a  dark  corner  of  the 
room,  wash  them  in  several  changes  of  ^water  to  remove  the  nitrate  of 
silver.  They  are  now  ready  for  the  toning  bath,  therefore  immerse 
them  in  a  porcelain  dish,  filled  with  the  solution.  When  the  color  of 
the  prints  change  'from  a  brown  to  a  purple  black,  remove  them  to  the 
last  operation,  the 

•  Fixing  Process.— The  pictures  are  immersed  in  the  hyposulphate  solu- 
tion for  about  five  minutes,  then  washed  in  running  water  for  at  least  ten 
minutes.  As  the  fixing  solution  will  greatly  reduce  the  depth  of  the  print, 
it  should  be  over-printed,  to  allow  of  the  reduction,  else  the  detail  of  the 
picture  will  b§  entirely  lost. 

Mounting  Print*.—  Starch  is  the  most  suitable  adhesive  substance,  ft 
is  prepared  by  mixing  a  small  quantity  with  sufficient  boiling  water  to 
work  into  a  stiff  paste. 

Apply  the  starch  to  the  back  of  the  picture  by  means  of  a  brush,  then 
carefully  lower  the  prints  on  to  the  card,  lay' a  piece  of  blotting  pap»r 
over  it,  and  rub  to  expel  the  air  bubbles.  When  nearly  dry,  plaoe 
under  pressure  for  a  few  hours.  The  picture  ia  now  finished. 


PHOTOGRAPHY    MADE    EASY.  783 

CONCLUDING  REMARKS. 

In  purchasing  apparatus,  it  is  advisable  that  the  tyro  should  be  accom- 
panied by  one  who  is  experienced  in  such  matters  ;  any  mistakes  as  to  the 
quantity  and  quality  of  the  articles  required  is  thus  prevented. 

The  camera  may  be  made  either  square,  oblong,  or  bellows  body,  ac- 
cording to  laste.  The  former  is  considered  the  most  serviceable  and  the 
cheapest. 

The  lens  may  be  had  without  a  rack  and  pinion  if  desired.  A  better 
focus,  however  is  obtained  by  having  the  rack  adjustment ;  it  is  also 
much  easier  to  work,  and  it  is  not  liable  to  shift  when  the  cap  is  removed. 
Some  lenses  aro  provided  with  diaphragms  or  stops,  but  as  these  are 
rather  expensive,  I  should  advise  the  young  tyro  to  make  his  own,  which 
he  can  easily  do  by  cutting  different  sized  holes  in  several  pieces  of  stiff 
cardboard,  and  then  making  them  to  lit  the  interior  of  the  lens  tube. 
These  diaphragms,  it  must  be  borne  in  mind,  are  only  to  be  used  on  cer- 
tain occasions,  as,  for  instance,  when  the  sun  is  shining,  the  light  of 
course  is  much  too  powerful  for  tho  open  aperture  of  a  lens.  It  is,  there- 
fore, requisite  that  it  should  have  a  stop  inserted  in  order  to  retard  the 
rapid  action.  A  diaphragm  with  an  opening  of  about  one  inch  diameter 
•will  be  sufficiently  large  for  a  quarter-plate  lens. 

Camera  stands  are  made  of  various  shapes  and  material ;  the  one  most 
recommended  is  the  plain  ash  tripod,  that  being  both  light  and  useful, 
and  the  most  portable. 

The  se.'is/.tiziug  bath  should  not  measure  less  than  seven  by  five  inches, 
k;  tl  at  is  the  proper  size  for  quarter  plates. 

The  graduated  measures  should  hold  at  least  five  and  ten  ounces  re- 
spectively. 

The  funnel  may  be  either  six  or  eight  inches  in  diameter,  with  a  long, 
narrow  neck. 

The  toning  and  fixing  dishes  should  be  as  large  as  possible,  in  order  to 
allow  the  prints  plenty  of  room,  and  preventing  them  adhering  to  each 
other. 

Chemicals  may  be  purchased  in  small  quantities,  but  it  is  not  advisable 
to  buy  collodion  in  less  quantities  than  five  ounces,  as  it  is  extremely 
volatile,  and  soon  loses  it*  power  of  action. 

Nitrate  of  silver  may  be  bought  either  in  crystals  or  blocks  ;  the  former 
is  preferable,  as  it  can  be  obtained  in  smaller  quantities  than  the  latter, 
which  is  only  sold  in  one  ounce  boxes. 

Hyposulphate  of  soda,  protosulphate  of  iron,  and  methylated  alcohol  are 
exceedingly  cheap,  as  are  also  most  of  the  other  chemicals. 

The  tyro  must  be  very  careful,  when  using  cyanide  of  potassium,  not 
to  allow  the  least  drop  to  enter  any  cuts  in  the  flesh,  for,  being  a  most 
deadly  poison,  it  is  likely  to  cause  death,  if  the  part  is  not  immediately 
washed  in  warm  water  and  the  poison  thereby  removed.  As  cyanide 
possesses  an  odor  something  like  peppermint,  it  is  advisable  not  to  place 
it  within  the  reach  of  children. 

The  silver  bath  should  be  filtered  at  .least  three  times  before  using  ; 
this  will  ensure  the  removal  of  every  paiticle  of  collodion. 

The  toning  and  fixing  baths,  after  being  made  up,  should  be  allowed  to 
stand  for  at  least  four-and-twenty  hours  before  being  used.  The  longer 
these  solutions  are  kept  the  better  tney  work. 

If  the  tyro  wishes  to  become  a  first-class  portrait  taker,  he  must  study 
the  following  rules,  and  strictly  adhere  to  them  :— 

RULES. 

1.  Never  allow  any  one  but  the  sitter  to  be  present  when  taking  a  p«» 
trait 


784  CHEMICAL    NOMENCLATURE. 

2.  Always  make  it  a  rule  to  have  a  place  for  everything,  and  everything 
in  its  place. 

3.  Never  open  the  door  of  the  dark  room  when  exciting  or  developing 
a  plate. 

4.  The  camera  and  dark  slide  should  be  dusted  out  every  morning  pre- 
vious to  being  used. 

5.  Never  allow  any  one  to  meddle  with  your  apparatus,  as  it  is  very 
easily  put  out  of  order. 

6.  Do  not  handle  your  sitter  more  than  you  can  help,  but  tell  him  in 
what  position  you  wish  him  to  stand,  and  he  will  pose  himself  mud} 
better  than  you  can. 

PHOTOGRAPHIC  REQUISITES. 

The  following  is  a  correct  list  cf  all  articles  required  in  photographic 
portraiture  :  Square  mahogany  camera,  double  combination  lens,  tripod 
stand,  screw  stand,  screw  top,  porcelain  bath  and  dipper,  two  graduated 
glass  measures,  set  of  scales  and  weights,  a  glass  or  porcelain  funnel,  one 
deep  and  two  shallow  dishes,  a  tent,  printing  frame,  a  packet  of  quarter-size 
glass,  some  filtering  paper,  a  wash-leather,  and  a  linen  cloth,  negative 
and  positive  collodion,  crystalized  nitrate  of  silver,  protosulphate  of  iron 
glacial  acetic  acid,  methylated  alcohol,  chloride  of  gold,  hyposulphate 
carbonate,  and  acetate  of  soda,  cyanide  of  potassium,  distilled  water,  &c. 
See  also  page  552. 

CHEMICAL  NOMENCLATURE. 

For  an  intelligent  apprehension  of  the  meaning  of  chemical  terms  we 
will  define  several  relating  to  sulphur,  which,  combined  with  oxygen, 
produces  an  acid.  This  acid  exists  in  two  states  of  saturation,  possessing 
different  properties.  It  is  necessary  to  designate  all  the  saline  compo- 
nents of  these  two  acids  and  to  trace  sulphur  in  its  various  combinations 
with  alkalies,  earths,  and  metals.  The  five  following  terminations  de- 
scribe these  five  states  of  the  same  principle.  1.  Sulphuric  acid  signifies 
sulphur  in  the  greatest  degree  of  saturation  with  oxygen.  2.  Sulphurow* 
acid  signiifies  sulphur  combined  with  a  smaller  proportion  of  oxygen.  3. 
Sulphate  is  the  generic  name  of  the  salts  composed  by  the  sulphuric  acid. 
4.  Sulphite  is  the  name  of  the  salts  formed  by  the  sulphurcws  acid.  5. 
Sulphured  s  the  name  of  the  various  combinations  of  sulphur  not  acidu- 
lous. 

In  union  with  oxygen,  carbon  is  carbonic  acid  ^mbined  with  gas,  it 
forms  carbonic  acid  gas.  Oxydized,  and  composing  *alts  with  bases  of 
iron,  minerals,  or  alkali,  it  becomes  carbonate  of  lime,  iron,  or  potash. 
In  union  with  oxygen,  it  forms  with  iron  carburet  of  iron,  &<?.  Salts  are 
discriminated  by  two  names,  the  one  denotes  the  acid,  tfl*  other  the  base. 
For  example  sulphate  of  iron  is  a  combination  of  sulphuri-'  ndd  and  iron, 
sulphate  of  soda  is  a  union  of  sulphuric  acid  and  soda,  mur»«te  of  soda  is 
a  compound  of  muriafa'c  acid  and  soda.  Salts  composed  of  >">ids  ending 
in  ous,  have  the  termination  ite  instead  of  ate.  See  the  following  exam* 

§les  in  sulphur, 
ulphun'c  acid,  a  strong  acid. 
Sulhpuric  acid,  a  w  eakacid. 
Sulphured  of  iron,  Sulphur  and  iron. 
f  rot-oxide  of  sulphur  is  the  first 


degree. 


the  third  degree 
Pe/'-oxide  many  degrees. 
Sulphate   is  the  salt  of  sM 

acid. 

Sulphite  the  salt  of  sulpherows»**>d. 
Bi  sulphate  the  salt  of  a 


the  second  degree. 

dose." 

Jfypo-eulphurous  acid, — less  oxygen  than  sulphurous  acid  ( 1  to  2i.    Hyp* 
•ulphuric  acid— less  than  sulphuric. 


ON   HUNTING  AND   TRAPPING.  785 


ON  HUNTING  ATV»  TRAPPING. 

To  TRAP  THE  COMMON  BLACK  BEAR— Select  a  suitable  spot  for  the 
trap  between  logs,  trees,  or  hills,  close  to  their  suspected  haunts,  and 
secure  it  well  with  a  short,  stout  chain.  Bait  the  trap  with  a  piece  of 
pork,  mutton,  or  beef,  and  if  the  bait  is  scented  with  honey  it  will  prove 
a  powerful  attraction  ;  the  bear  will  push  himself,  forward  where  there  is 
any  thing  to  eat,  being  dominated  more  by  greed  and  voracity,  than  by 
craft  and  cunning.  He  is  a  No.  1.  contractor  at  a  job  for  taking  a  fat 
porker  from  the  farmer's  pen  off  to  the  woods,  and  will  squeeze  himself 
Into  a  deadfall  or  figure  4  trap,  intent  only  on  getting  at  the  bait,  but  ia 
decidedly  dangerous  to  attack  single-handed  with  a  gun,  as  he  is  perfectly 
furious  when  wounded.  On  one  occasion,  a  bear  emerged  from  the 
woods  and  destroyed  a  sheep  belonging  to  the  writer.  One  of  the  farm 
hands,  a  veteran  hunter  and  trapper,  took  the  remains  of  the  sheep  to 
the  woods  and  placed  them  in  such  a  position,  near  some  fallen  trees, 
that  the  bear  would  be  compelled  to  go  through  a  passage  way  between 
two  logs  in  order  to  reach  the  carcass.  At  right  angles  with  this  passage 
way,  but  back  from  it,  he  secured  a  Spencer  rifle  (loaded  with  slugs)  in  a 
firm  position,  so  as  to  sweep  the  passage,  and  arranged  a  small  cord  ex- 
tending across  the  narrow  avenue,  with  one  end  fastened  to  the  trigger 
of  the  rifle,  and  the  other  to  the  timbers  opposite  its  muzzle.  The  result 
was  a  loud  bang  from  the  rifle  in  the  evening,  a  lantern  hunt  in  the 
•woods  at  night,  and  a  dead  bear  shot  through  the  heart  behind  the  fore- 
legs, within  a  few  feet  of  the  rifle.  The  black  bear  is  usually  less  than  6 
ft.  in  length,  domiciles  under  the  snow  and  in  hollow  logs  during  winter, 
and  produces  from  1  to  5  at  a  birth,  generally  in  January. 

The  GRIZZLY  BEAR  is  a  huge  brute  of  vast  size,  sometimes  as  much  as 
8  or  P  ft.  in  length,  and  of  prodigious  strength.  He  is  of  massive  build, 
has  a  thick  stout  neck,  shaggy  hair,  coarse  formidable  tusks,  and  power- 
ful claws  of  great  length  ;  is  altogether  an  ugly  customer  and  requires 
lor  his  capture  the  largest  size  trap  that  is  made.  In  the  Northwestern 
(British)  Territory,  on  sighting  the  hunter  he  generally  makes  for  his 
enemy,  and  has  a  curious  habit  when  60  or  70  yards  distant  of  sitting  up 
erect  on  his  haunches  and  taking  a  survey  of  the  field,  as  if  calculating 
his  chances  in  the  coming  fray,  and  will  repeat  the  examination  at  inter- 
vals of  nearly  20  yards  as  he  approaches.  The  hunter  will  do  well  to 
reserve  his  fire  until  the  bear  comes  within  a  few  yards'  distance,  when, 
if  he  suddenly  extends  his  arms  the  animal  will  come  to  a  full  stop  and 
erect  himself  again.  This  is  the  time  to  take  unerring  aim  at  close  quar- 
ters and  make  sure  work,  for  if  he  fails  he  will  never  hunt  another  bear. 
In  the  Sierras,  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  in  California,  no  animal  roam- 
ing his  native  wilds  surpasses  the  grizzly  in  savageness  and  strength. 
His  weight  is  upon  the  average  from  1000  to  1200  Ibs.,  and  one  bite  of 
his  jawa  or  one  stroke  of  his  paw  is  certain  death.  On  the  Pacific  coast 


786          ON  HUNTING  AND  TRAPPING. 

he  is  often  hunted  hy  mounted  Vaqueros,  who  usually  go  five  in  a  com-' 
pany  ;  four  use  the  lasso,  which  they  throw  over  the  bear  at  opposite 
angles  from  each  other,  and  while  he  is  thus  held  tight  from  four  oppo- 
site directions,  it  is  possible  for  the  fifth  man  to  approach  and  finish  mm 
with  a  knife.  It  is  extremely  dangerous  work,  for  if  one  or  more  of  the 
ropes  should  slip,  unless  it  is  immediately  secured  by  another  successful 
throw,  there  is  danger  of  instant  death  to  the  nearest  man  if  his  horse  is 
not  smart  enough  to  carry  him  off  in  safety.  The  grizzly  makes  Jumps 
of  10  feet,  and  when  he  has  a  chance  to  charge  it  requires  immense  agil- 
ity to  dodge  or  escape  him.  All  of  the  vaqucros  have  a  number  of  lassos, 
and  in  case  of  a  slip  make  prompt  action  with  another  throw.  In  nearly 
every  case  the  grizzly  invites  attack,  he  will  run  from  men  at  an  extreme 
distance,  but  never  fails  to  make  a  savage  charge  if  he  comes  within  hail- 
ing distance. 

BAITS  FOR  TRAPPERS'  USE. — 1.  Fish  Oil,  is  made  by  mincing  eels,  bass,' 
trout,  or  other  small  fish,  and  allowing  the  pieces  to  remain  in  a  loosely 
corked  bottle  exposed  to  the  rays  of  the  sun  for  2  or  3  weeks  during  the 
heat  of  summer,  until  a  sort  of  oil  is  generated,  which  owing  to  its  very 
intense  odor,  is  perceived  by  wild  animals  at  an  immense  distance  and 
: forms  a  most  attractive  scent.  2.  Oil  of  Anise.  3.  Oil  of  Rhodium.  4. 
Assafcettda.  5.  Oil  of  Amber.  G.  Oil  of  siceet  fennel.  The  last  noted 
^articles  (five  in  number)  are  procured  in  drug-stores.  7.  Muskrat-musk, 
a  most  powerful  scent,  is  an  oil  obtained  from  that  animal,  and  is  con- 
tamed  in  glandular  sacs  situated  near  the  anus.  8.  Castorewn,  called 
Bark-stone  by  the  fur  traders,  is  a  fatty  substance  of  an  intensely  strong 
odor  contained  in  similar  sacs  in  the  back  parts  of  the  Beaver.  It  forms 
.  a  more  attractive  scent  for  that  animal  than  any  other.  9.  Otter  musk,  de- 
rived in  a  similar  way  from  the  otter,  is  very  successful  in  attracting  that 
animal.  10.  A  mixture  composed  of  equal  parts  of  fish-oil,  a ssafcetida,  musk- 
rat-musk,  and  oil  of  anise,  is  said  by  old  trappers  to  be  the  most  attractive 
;  scent  obtainable  for  almost  any  animal.  The  odor  reaches  far  and  wide, 
forming  what  a  Frenchman  would  call  "one  grand  stink"  of  the  first 
magnitude.  It  is  used  on  baits  for  traps,  and  for  scenting  trails  leading 
to  the  traps  by  sprinkling  it  in  successive  drops  on  the  ground.  11.  A 
rank  codfish  drawn  along  on  the  earth  by  means  of  a  string,  in  a  direction 
leading  to  the  traps  will  also  answer  this  last  named  purpose  very  well. 
12  Musk-rat  musk  and  skunk  musk  mixed.  This  receipt  has  been  sold 


the  trap.  Keep  in  a  closely  stoppered  bottle.  This  receipt  has  been  sold 
lor  $50.  In  using  these  compounds  on  baits  for  trapping  foxes  and  ofher 
sly  game,  it  is  often  advisable  to  smear  a  little  on  the  trap  in  order  to 
.overpower  the  human  scent  arising  from  handling  them  ;  it  would  be  a 
.better  way  to  wear  gloves  when  handling  traps,  and  employ  a  slight 
smearing  of  beeswax  or  blood  to  overcome  the  odor  of  the  iron. 

To  protect  the  hen  roost  from  these  depredators,  saw  out  an  aperture 
•iarge  enough  to  admit  the  fox  on  a  level  with  the  ground.  Inside  the 
roost  place  a  box  without  a  lid  and  open  at  one  end.  This  open  end  must 
be  placed  against  the  aperture  in  the  wall,  on  the  ground,  so  that  the  fox 
will  pass  into  it  on  his  entrance  into  the  roost  and  the  side  without  the  lid 
will  be  uppermost.  Set  your  trap  in  the  box  just  opposite  the  entrance 
to  the  roost,  secure  it  with  a  chain  and  lightly  cover  with  dried  leaves, 
grass,  or  other  material  adapted  to  conceal  it.  Next,  place  a  chicken  in- 
side a  smaller  box  and  nail  slats  on  one  side  instead  of  a  cover,  and  place 
this  box  with  the  slatted  side  downwards,  on  the  top  of  the  first  box,  im- 
mediately over  the  trap  and  exposed  to  the  view  of  the  fox.  The  temp- 


ON    HUNTING    AND    TRAPPING.  787 

tetion  will  prove  too  much  even  for  a  fox  to  resist,  and  he  will  enter  on!  v 
to  be  caught  in  the  trap.  Mink,  raccoons,  weasels,  skunks,  &c.,  may  •  < 
caught  in  the  same  manner.  Close  up  every  entrance  to  the  roost  exc-c  •. 
the  one  just  described. 

In  trapping  Mink  in  the  water,  the  trap  should  be  set  in  a  shallow  p;::  * . 
not  more  than  one  or  two  inches,  deep,  with  the  bait  suspended  about  i  -5 
inches  above  it ;  this  compels  the  animal  to  erect  itself  on  its  hind  legs,  <  - 
leap  upwards  to  get  the  bait,  and  thus  to  tread  on  the  trap  and  get  cau:  ;i  t 
Traps  may  also  be  set  sunk  in  their  beaten  tracks,  or  at  the  mouth;;  »  . 
their  holes,  and  concealed  by  dried  grass,  leaves,  &c.,  with  excelk;,r 
effect. 

In  trapping  WOLVES  or  FOXES,  use  a  trap  well  cleaned  with  weak  ly;  . 
after  drying,  oil  or  grease  it  well,  and  smoke  it  over  burning  hair  or  feA  - 
ers.  In  handling  it'  use  clean  buckskin  gloves  to  avoid  imparting  the  lc..  r. 
human  odor.  Make  the  bed  for  the  trap  about  3^  ft.  in  diam.  so  thattl.  • 
jaws  when  set  will  be  on  a  level  with  the  ground.  Cover  with  fine  drk  L 
grass,  wheat,  oat,  or  buckwheat  chaff,  secure  it  well  with  a  chain,  lev;  i 
all  neatly  to  a  natural  appearance,  and  bait  with  fresh  meat  or  roast  ! 
cheese.  In  going  and  coming,  your  chances  will  be  increased  by  rubLi:-  ; 
fish  oil,  or  some  other  powerful  odor  on  the  soles  of  your  boots,  to  sre.  * 
the  way  leading  to  the  trap.  Wolves  and  foxes  are  easily  destroyed  1 
mixing  a  little  strychnine  with  grease  and  concealing  it  in  pieces  of  nu-  r 
scattered  around  in  places  where  they  haunt.  It  destroys  animal  life  1.1 
a  very  few  minutes  after  it  is  taken,  but  it  is  injurious  to  the  fur. 

In  trapping  the  OTTER,  take  a  large  sized  steel  trap,  set  it,  hangitovrr 
a  fire  2  or  3  hours,  then  take  a  stick  or  board,  and  get  into  your  boat  <  • 
canoe,  go  to  the  place  most  frequented  by  them,  and  place  the  trap  abo  t 
3  inches  under  water  and  carefully  cover  it  with  leaves,  light  trash  <  • 
grass  gathered  from  the  bottom  of  the  stream,  and  chain  it  securely.  L  :• 
very  careful  not  to  touch  the  bank  abo^e  water,  if  you  do,  your  labor  :  \ 
gone  for  nothing.  The  otter  will  leave  at  once  for  a  quieter  home  m:;:'. 
miles  distant  from  the  scene.  In  visiting  your  trap  never  go  nearer  t'.i.::' 
the  opposite  side  of  the  stream,  or  go  by  means  of  a  boat.  When  can:.:'  •.<-. 
the  otter  will  point  directly  for  his  den  ;  if  the  trap  is  not  heavy  enou-  , 
+o  drown  him,  a  weight  can  be  attached  to  the  chain. 

HACCOONS  may  be  caught  in  a  steel  trap  sot  on  the  edge  of  a  swamp.  1  ^ 
ins.  below  the  surface  of  the  water,  and  secured  by  a  chain  to  a  stii!u\ 
Suspend  the  bait — a  piece  of  a  chicken,  fish,  or  frog — 2  ft.  above  the  pan  <  . 
the  trap.  The  raccoon  will  leap  for  it,  and  when  he  comes  down,  up  goc  . 
the  trap  and  holds  him  a  prisoner.  Another  plan  is  to  set  the  trap  on  r-i 
old  log  in  or  near  the  swamp,  then  get  two  long  poles  or  old  limbs,  s<  •; 
one  on  each  side  of  the  log  over  the  trap,  crossing  it  like  the  letter  x,  r  > 
that  the  coon  will  have  to  go  under  them  and  over  the  trap.  Bait  tl:  • 
trap  if  you  wish,  but  the  coon  is  certain  to  run  the  old  log  if  he  comes  i:i 
the  neighborhood.  One  of  the  surest  ways  to  catch  raccoons  is  with  ;' 
good  cur  dog,  one  that  will  not  give  tongue  on  track,  tout  will  bark  at  the 
tree. 

MUSKRATS  may  be  taken  in  large  numbers  by  sinking  an  old  barrol 
witli  its  top  on  a  level  with  the  ground  on  the  edge  of  a  stream  near  their 
haunts.  Half  fill  it  with  water,  put  in  a  couple  of  shingles  or  light  stri;  .; 
of  board  to  float  on  the  water,  on  these  place  small  bits  of  sliced  apple 
potatoes,  or  carrots,  and  place  some  more  in  the  runs  of  the  muskrats.  r- 
as  to  lead  them  towards  the  barrel.  The  rats  will  leap  into  the  ban  <  1 
after  their  food  and  cannot  get  out.  A  cheaper  and  more  effective  coi,>- 
trivauce  could  not  be  imagined.  In  using  a  trap,  note  a  tree  or  old  1<> : 
with  recent  droppings  on  it  leading  from  the  bank  into  the  stream.  (»•» 
fcis  set  your  trap,  say,  2  ins.  under  water,  place  a  bait  on  a 


788  ON   HUNTING   AND    TRAPPIN0. 

stick  about  6  or  8  ins.  above  the  pan  of  the  trap,  securing  the  latter  witfc 
a  chain  sufficiently  long  to  permit  access  to  deep  water,  but  not  to  go 
ashore.  By  this  means  the  fur  is  preserved  in  good  order  and  the  animal 
is  safely  secured.  In  winter  it  is  quite  common  for  trappers  to  take  the 
muskrats  by  approaching  quietly  on  the  ice  and  driving  a  spear  into  their 
house.  TAey  must  be  approached  with  the  greatest  caution,  as  they  take 
to  the  water  at  the  slightest  noise.  Another  way  is  to  make  an  opening 
in  the  side  of  their  house,  set  the  trap  in  their  bed,  lightly  covering  it  with 
moss,  &c. ;  allow  a  sufficient  length  of  chain  to  permit  th£  animal  to  leap 
into  the  water,  secure  the  chain  by  a  fastening  outside  the  house,  plaster 
up  the  aperture  with  mud,  retire,  and  await  results. 

SQUIRRELS  may  be  taken  by  setting  a  steel  trap  on  the  upper  rail  of  a 
fence  where  they  frequent  ;  set  a  pole  with  an  ear  of  corn  fastened  to  it 
i-o  that  the  bait  may  be  suspended  6  or  8  ins.  over  the  pan  of  the  trap, 
and  in  reaching  for  the  bait  the  squirrel  will  get  caught. 

BADGERS  may  be  caught  by  setting  the  traps,  carefully  covered,  at  the 
mouth  of  Mieir  holes,  or  in  tlieir  tracks  or  resorts  about  cultivated  fields. 
They  may  also  be  taken  in  deadfalls,  using  a  piece  of  meat  for  a  bait, 
and  if  the  ground  is  hard  frozen  during  early  spring,  they  may  be  ex- 
pelled by  Jailing  their  holes  with  water .  In  summer  the  water  would 
soak  away  through  the  earth,  during  hard  frost  it  cannot  do  so,  and  the 
animal  i*  compelled  to  come  out  of  its  hole  or  drown. 

In  trapping  BEAVERS,  the  best  place  to  set  the  trap  is  right  at  the 
entrance  to  their  holes  in  the  banks,  a  few  inches  under  water.  Get  a, 
small  stick,  and  batter  or  bruise  the  thickest  end  soft,  smear  it  with  bait 
Xo.  8,  and  stick  the  small  end  in  the  bank  so  that  the  baited  end  will  pro- 
ject a  few  inches  above  the  water  right  over  the  pan  of  the  trap  ;  the 
beaver,  in  raising  himself  to  get  the  bait,  will  get  caught.  Another  way 
is  to  break  an  aperture  in  the  dam  a  few  inches  below  the  surface  of  the 
water,  set  the  trap  on  the  upper  side  of  the  break,  and  the  beaver  will 
jet  caught  when  he  comes  to  investigate  and  repair  the  damage.  The 
trapper  will  usually  secure  his  prize  by  placing  his  trap  a  few  inches  below 
the  surface  of  the  water  at  those  places  where  they  make  their  landings 
by  springing  from  the  stream  onto  the  bank. 

The  PINE-MARTEN  OR  AMERICAN  SABLE  lives  in  the  trees  and  prey* 
on  partridges,  mice,  squirrels,  hares,  &c.  A  piece  of  either  of  these  may 
be  used  as  bait,  or  the  head  of  a  fish,  pheasant,  or  a  piece  of  meat,  and 
the  trap  may  be  placed  in  a  hollow  tree,  in  any  natural  or  artificial  en- 
closure, or  in  the  track  of  a  deer  ;  in  each  case  let  it  be  well  covered  with, 
light  grass,  decayed  moss,  or  rotten  wood,  so  as  to  present  a  natural  ap- 
l>ea  ranee. 

THE  FISHER-MARTEN  is  attached  to  low,  swampy  ground,  is  partially 
web-footed,  and  subsists  on  fisn,  mice,  rabbits,  &c.  It  may  be  caught  in 
ihe  same  manner  as  the  last-named  animal.  Be  careful  to  scent  the  trap 
and  conceal  it  properly,  also  attach  it  to  a  spring  pole  or  twitch-up  con- 
trivance, so  that  when  caught  it  be  elevated  out  of  the  way  of  becoming- 
i  prey  to  larger  animals,  and  prevented  from  dismembering  itself  to  get 
clear  of  the  trap.  The  Pine-Marten  and  the  Fisher  both  live  and  breed  in 
hollow  trees;  they  are  bv  no  means  very  cunning  or  difficult  to  trap,  but 
are  absolutely  furious  when  caught. 

The  WOODCHUCK,  or  Ground  Mog,  as  it  is  styled  in  Canada,  constructs 
burrows  in  the  ground,  extending  20  or  30  feet^  usually  entering  the  slope 
of  a  hill,  at  the  root  of  a  tree  or  stump,  under  a  fence,  or  in  crevices  be- 
tween rocks.  They  are  very  destructive  to  crops  in  cultivated  fields. 
Sometimes  they  are  drowned  or  flooded  out  of  their  holes  by  means  of 
water,  at  other  times  they  are  shot,  but  in  the  great  majority  of  case* 
tiey  are  caught  by  traps  set  without  bait  (although  they  will  take  roots, 


ON   HUNTING    AND    TRAPPING. 


K>ra,  or  bread),  and  carefully  covered  with  paper,  sand,  &c.,  at  the  mouths 
of  their  holes. 

GOPHERS  may  be  caught  by  making  a  slight  excavation  at  the  mouth 
?f  their  hole  and  placing  a  trap  so  that  the  pan  and  jaws  will  be  on  a 
level  with  the  surface  of  the  ground  and  covered  as  above  described. 

HUNTERS'    AND    TRAPPERS'    TABLE, 

SHOWING  THE   VARIOUS  SIZES  OF  NEWHOUSE   TRAPS  ADAPTED  TO  T.H16 
CAPTURE  OF  DIFFERENT  KINDS  OF  GAME. 


Kind  of  Animal. 

No.  of  Trap. 

Bait  required. 

Squirrel, 

0 

Grain,  nuts,  or  ear  of  corn. 

Gopher, 

1 

do.        do.              do. 

Muskrat, 
Wood  chuck, 

1 

1  or  1% 

Carrots,  potatoes,  apples,  &c. 
Roots,  fruit,  corn,  cr  bread. 

Mink, 

1X/2 

Fowl,  flesh,  or  roasted  tish. 

Fisher-Marten, 

US 

Meat,  inuskrat  or  deer  flesh,  fish. 

Skunk, 

1%  or  2 

Mice,  meat,  piece  of  a  fowl. 

Fox, 

2 

Fowl,  flesh,  nsh,  toasted  cheese. 

Opossum, 

2  or  3 

Nuts,  corn,  mice,  piece  of  fowl. 

Raccoon, 

2  or  3 

Chicken,  fish,  or  frog. 

Badger, 

3 

Mice,  or  flesh  of  any  kind. 

Otter, 
Marten, 

3 
3 

Fish,  piece  of  a  bird,  or  otter  musk. 
Head  of  a  fij-h,  piece  of  meat,  or  fowl. 

Beaver, 

4 

Fresh  roots,  castoreum  on  the  end  of 

a  stick. 

Wolf, 

4 

Waste  parts  of  tame  or  wild  fowJ. 

Common  Black  Bear, 

5 

Pork,  beef,  ear  of  corn,  honey. 

Grizzly  Bear, 

6 

do.      do.           do.            do. 

NOTE.— The  numbers  0,  1,  and  1U,  respectively,  are  single  spring  traps  ; 
No.  0  is  the  smallest  size  ;  all  the  others  are  double  spring  traps,  No.  6  being 
the  largest  trap  made.  The  above  baits  should  be  scented,  where  necessary, 
6y  a  proper  selection  from  the  preparations  previously  described.  Wildcats, 
loses,  wolves,  and  all  the  weasel  tribe  will  take  flesh  ana  nsh  of  all  kinds, 
with  this  exception,  that  foxes,  wolves  and  dogs  will  not  eat  their  own  kind  ; 
weasels  of  every  kind  will. 

All  furs  are  beet  in  winter,  but  trapping  may  be  done  with  profit  from 
the  first  of  October  to  the  beginning  of  April.  All  fur-bearing  animals 
loee  the  best  part  of  their  fur  as  the  warm  weather  approaches,  aivi 
regain  it  as  the  cold  weather  sets  in  during  the  fall,  so  that  from  rJtte  first 
of  May  to  near  the  end  of  September  trapping  is  but  labor  iost.  This 
process  is  indicated  in  the  case  oi  the  muskrat  and  some  other  animais, 
bv  the  color  of  the  inside  part  of  the  skin.  Towards  summer  it  becomes 
brown  and  dark,  a  gign  that  the  best  fur  is  gone.  Afterward  it  growa 
li^ht-colored,  and  in  winter,  when  the  fur  is  in  the  best  order,  it  fa  alto- 
gether white.  When  the  pelt  is  white  it  is  called  prime  by  the  fur  dealers- 
The  fur  is  then  glossv,  thick,  and  of  the  richest  color  and  the  tails  of  such 
animals  as  the  mink,  marten,  and  fisher,  are  full  and  heavy  Beavers  and 
muskrats  are  not  thoroughly  prime  till  about  the  middle  of  winter;  other 
animals  are  prime  aboutthe  first  of  November.  The  skins  of  amma.3 
trapped  are  always  valued  higher  than  those  shot,  as  shot  not  only  mak« 
holes,  but  frequently-  plow  along  the  skin,  making  furrows  as  well  r.a 
shaving  off  the  fur.  '  Newhouse  gives  the  following  rules  to  trappers  as 
the  result  of  much  experience  : 

1.  Be  careful  to  visit  your  traps  often  enough,  so  that  the  skin  will  not 
nave  time  to  get  tainted.  2.  As  soon  as  possible  after  an  animal  is^dead 
ftftd  dry,  attend  to  the  skinning  and  curing.  3.  Scrape  oil  all  super! 


790  ON   HUNTING   AND   TRAPPING. 

flesh  and  fat,  and  be  careful  not  to  go  so  deep  as  to  cut  the  fibre  of  th* 
K'OI?.  4.  Never  dry  a  skin  by  the  fire,  or  in  the  sun,  but  in  a  cool,  shady 
place,  obeltered  from  rain.  If  you  use  a  barn  door  for  a  stretcher,  as  boy§ 
sometimes  do,  nail  the  skin  on  the  inside  of  the  door.  5.  Never  use 

preparations  "  of  any  kind  in  curing  skins,  nor  even  wash  them  im 
water,  but  simply  stretch  and  dry  them  as  taken  from  the  animal. 

To  DEODORIZE  SKUNK  SKINS,  OR  SCENTED  CLOTHING.— Hold  them 
over  a  fire  of  red  cedar  boughs,  and  sprinkle  witli  chloride  of  lime  ;  or 
wrap  them  in  green  hemlock  boughs  when  they  are  to  be  had,  and  in  24 
l.o- irs  they  will  be  cleaned. 

For  arsenical  soap  for  preserving  skins,  see  page  124.  Skulls  of  animals 
r.my  be  rapidly  prepared  by  boiling  in  water  for  a  few  hours  ;  a  little 
]'0t:ish  or  lye  will  facilitate  the  removal  of  the  flesh.  A  mixture  of  equal 
1  >arts  of  good  glycerine  and  water,  to  every  gallon  of  which  is  added  1  oz. 
of  the  crystals  of  carbolic  acid,  constitutes  a  good  preserving  liquid  for  all 
r.ni-nal  substances.  The  use  of  pure  glycerine,  with  about  £  pt.  alcohol, 
?:ml  £  oz.  carbolic  acid,  added  to  each  gal.,  makes  an  excellent  mixture  for 
preserving  the  tissues  of  soft  animals,  where  it  is  desired  to  preserve  the 
color  as  well  as  the  tissues. 

According  to  M.  Devergie,  of  the  Paris  School  of  Practical  Anatomy,  a 
'mixture  of  3  pts  of  glycerine,  and  one  of  carbolic  acid,  injected  into  dead 
bodies,  will  prevent  any  unpleasant  odors  emanating  from  them  for  sev- 
eral months.  Another  high  authority,  Dr.  Lowell,  of  Brooklyn,  recom- 
mends as  a  preservative  fluid,  the  use  of  zinc  chloride.  The  quantity 
used  for  a  human  subject  is  5  gals.  The  apparatus  required  consists  of  a 
j-orcelain  lined  vessel,  which  is  elevated  to  such  a  height  that  the  solu- 
t  tn  is  injected  into  the  artery  by  the  simple  gravity  of  the  iiquid,  as  it 
<v>.sv-ends  through  glass  and  rubber  tubing.  Dr.  Lowell  writes  :  "  The 
in  cction  may  be  made  by  either  artery  or  vein.  ....  I  prefer  the  brachial 
i  tory  above  the  elbow  as  the  point  for  introduction  of  the  glass  tube,  for 
t  ie  primary  incision  is  slighter,  and  consequently  divides  smaller  and 
fewer  veins  than  when  I  expose  the  femoral  artery.  I  use  the  gravity 
i  Method,  and  introduce  about  five  gallons  of  the  antiseptic  fluid.  The 
r  Te^ts  are  eminently  satisfactory.  The  color  of  the  integument  is  im- 
proved." 

To  PRESERVE  INSECTS. — After  killing  the  insect  with  chloroform,  paint 
it  with  a  solution  of  carbolic  acid  in  alcohol — 4  grains  to  the  ounce — 
t  .'"i  dry  in  the  sun.  This  will  keep  it  fresh  and  beautiful. 

To  TRAP  HAWKS  OR  OWLS.— Take  a  pole  20  feet  long.  Set  it  a  short 
distance  from  the  house  or  barn,  or  on  the  poultry  house.  Split  the  top 
F  •  us  to  admit  the  base  of  a  common  steel  trap,  which  should  be  secured. 
Vieu  the  trap  is  set  the  depredators  will  be  pretty  certain  to  alight  on  it 
nl  get  caught,  as  they  usually  select  a  lofty  perch  from  which  to  pounce 
j  on  their  prey. 

THE  SHOOTING  OF  BIRDS. — The  wanton  shooting  of  harmless  birds, 
nicely  for  sport,  is  a  most  heartless  and  cruel  recreation.  The  plea  of 
:•  -nnnercial  necessity  and  self-preservation  may  be  urged  in  behalf  of  the 
MI  -oting  and  trapping  of  wild  animals,  but  no  such  excuse  can  be  alleged 
i  M-  the  extermination  of  harmless  birds.  Let  them  sing  in  the  broad 
\  i  i;t  of  heaven  to  their  heart's  content,  and  tenant  the  fields  and  their 
i  .rest  homes  without  molestation.  A  hunter  narrates  that  he  once  fired 
;  r  a  bird  which  he  followed  up  as  it  fluttered  away.  He  said,  "  I  saw  a 
-  'it  I  never  will  forget.  There  it  was,  with  its  wings  broken,  and  all 
!»•<  Battered  with  blood,  at  the  nest  with  its  young.  I  felt  so  bad  that  I 
v  .red  never  to  shoot  another  bird  ! "  Again  we  say,  spare  the  innocents. 

'"  »  SELECT  FURS.— A  sure  test  of  what  dealers  call  prime  fur  is  the 
leu  th  and  density  of  the  down  next  the  skin.  This  can  be  determined 


ON   BOOK-KEEPING,  79" 

>y  blowing  a  brisk  current  of  air  from  the  mouth  against  the  set  of  the- 
fur.  If  the  fibres  open  readily,  exposing  the  skin  to  the  view,  reject  the 
article;  but  if  the  down  is  so  "dense  that  the  breath  cannot  penetrate  it,  or 
at  most  shows  but  a  small  portion  of  the  skin,  it  is  all  right. 

To  CLEAN  FURS. — Strip  the  furs  of  their  stuffing  and  binding,  place 
them,  if  possible,  in  a  flat  position,  and  brush  them  briskly  with  a  stiff 
clothes-brush.  Cut  out  all  moth-eaten  portions,  and  replace  by  new  bita 
of  fur  to  match.  Sable,  chinchilla,  sqtiirrel,  fitch,  &c.,  should  be  treated 
by  an  application  of  hot  bran  (warmed  in  a  pan),  well  rubbed  into  the  fur 
with  the'hand.  Repeat  this  two  or  three  times,  shake  the  fur,  and  give  it 
a  good  brushing, to  free  it  from  dust.  White  furs  may  be  cleaned  by  lay- 
ing the  furs  on  a  table,  and  rubbing  them  with  bran  made  moist  by  warm 
water.  Rub  until  quite  dry,  then  apply  dry  bran.  The  wet  bran*  should 
be  put  on  with  flannel,  the  dry  with  book  muslin.  In  addition  to  the. 
above,  light  furs  should  be  well  rubbed  with  magnesia,  or  a  piece  of  book 
muslin,  after  the  bran  process. 

ON  BOOK-KEEPING. 

In  Book-Keeping,  he  who  buys  what  he  does  not  pay  for  at  the  time,  is 
said  to  go  in  debt  for  it,  and  is  called  a  debtor,  and  he  who  sells  the  gooda 
and  gives  credit  for  them  is  called  a  creditor.  In  entering  accounts  it  is 
usual  to  abridge  the  terms  and  write  Dr.  for  Debtor,  and  Cr.  for  Creditor. 
In  every  case  the  receiver  is  always  the  Debtor,  and  the  seller  is  always 
the  Creditor.  In  Book-Keeping,  the  thing  received  is  Dr.,  the  thing  de- 
livered is  Cr. ;  what  you  owe  is  Cr.,  what  owes  you  is  Dr.  The  whole 
system  of  Book-Keeping  rests  upon  charges  and  credits ;  when  you  sell 
to  your  neighbor,  it  is  a  charge  against  him,  and  you  must  charge  him 
with  it  on  the  debit  side  of  the  account  ;  when  you  receive  anything  from 
him,  it  is  a  credit,  and  you  must  credit  him  with  it  on  the  credit  side  of 
the  account. 

The  word  To,  in  keeping  accounts,  denotes  that  the  debtor  owes  for 
what  has  been  sold  to  him,  and  the  word  By,  is  an  indication  that  the 
debtor  has  made  a  payment  by  which  he  has  paid  a  part  or  the  whole  of 
the  debt  charged  to  him, 

There  are  two  methods  of  book-keeping,  Single  and  Double  Entry  ;  the* 
last  is  employed  in  extensive  and  complicated  mercantile  business,  where*" 
a  check  is  required  upon  each  entry,  to  prove  that  it  has  been  properly 
recorded.  The  first  is  generally  used  by  persons  engaged  in  ordinary 
business,  as  it  is  more  simple  and  sufficiently  correct  for  such  purposes., 
It  requires  but  three  books— the  Day-Book,  Ledger,  and  Cash-Book  ;  tor 
these  may  be  added,  a  Bill-Book,  in  which  all  notes,  received  or  given, 
are  recorded,  showing  when  drawn,  by  whom,  in  whose  favor,  length  of 
time,  when  due,  amount  of  note,  and  any  explanatory  remarks  required  ; 
also,  a  Sales-Book,  in  which  orders  for  goods  or  the  details  of  sales  are* 
entered,  and  a  Receipt-Book,  where  receipts  can  be  permanently  kept. 

DAY-BOOK. 

1  The  Day-book  should  contain  statements  of  every  business  transac-  - 
tion  which  gives  rise  to  persons  owing  us  or  to  our  owing  them,  prop- 
erly'arranged  under  the  head  of  debtor  or  creditor.  The  accounts  should; 
be  entered  in  this  book  at  the  time  they  were  created,  or  in  the  order  in, 
•which  they  occurred  in  business. 

The  book  should  be  commenced  by  stating  the  name  of  the  owner  and- 
his  residence.  The  day,  month,  and  year,  should  then  be  written,  and 
repeated  at  the  head  of  each  page  corresponding  with  the  date  of  the  first 
transaction  on  the  page,  the  subsequent  dates  on  the  page  may  stand 
above  the  transaction  to  which  they  belong.  In  making  an  entry  the 
name  of  the  person  with  whom  we  deal  is  written,  with  Dr.  or  Cr.  at  the 
right  of  the  name,  to  show  whether  he  becomes  debtor  or  creditor  by  ttxf  - 


792  ON  BOOK-KEEPING. 

transaction.  Then  a  statement  should  follow  of  the  business 
specifying  the  articles  bought  or  sold,  and  the  price  of  each.  The  total 
amount  should  be  added  up  and  entered  iij  the  dollar  and  cent  columns. 
The  person  with  whom  you  deal  is  debtor  for  whatever  he  receives  of  you, 
and  creditor  for  whatever  you  receive  of  him,  is  the  rule  for  determining 
how  an  entrjr  must  be  made.  The  entries  in  the  Day-book  are  trans- 
ferred to  the  Ledger,  where  all  the  transactions  relating  to  an  individual 
are  recorded  on  a  page  devoted  to  his  account.  The  figure  at  the  left  of 
an  entry  indicates  the  page  of  the  Ledger  to  which  it  has  been  carried. 

If  a  mistake  is  made  in  an  account,  it  should  not  be  corrected  by 
altering  the  original  entry,  but  a  new  entry  made  debiting  or  crediting 
the  amount  of  the  error,  *thus,  "  John  Smith,  Cr.  by  [or  Dr.  to]  error  in 
account  of  Oct  6,  $1.50."  This  will  enable  a  person  to  swear  before* 
court  that  his  book  contains  his  original  entries  without  an  alteration. 
LEDGER. 

The  Ledger  is  employed  for  collecting  the  scattered  accounts  of  tbt 
Day-book.  The  accounts  which  relate  to  the  same  individual  are  brought 
together  on  one  page,  showing  all  the  debits  and  credits,  thus  enabling 
the  owner  to  tell  at  a  glance  the  state  of  his  account  with  any  person. 
The  Dr.  accounts  are  placed  on  the  left  hand  of  the  page,  and  the  Cr.  on 
the  right.  The  Ledger  may  be  ruled  according  to  the  example  on  page  794. 
Every  Ledger  should  have  an  index,  in  which  all  the  names  it  contains 
are  alphabetically  arranged,  with  the  page  of  the  Ledger  on  which  the  ac- 
count can  be  found.  ' 
POSTING  ACCOUNTS.— Transferring  accounts  from  the  Day-book  to  th« 
Ledger  is  called  posting.  Commence  with  the  first  name  in  the  Day-book, 
which  in  our  example  is  M.  Marshall  ;  begin  by  writing  his  name  in  a 
fair  hand  at  the  top  of  the  page,  with  his  residence,  if  different  from  your 
own,  placing  Dr.  on  the  left,  and  Cr.  on  the  right  of  the  name.  As  he  is 
debtor  to  us  we  commence  at  the  left  hand,  writing  in  the  first  column  the 
year,  month,  and  day,  in  the  second  the  page  of  the  Day-book  on  which 
the  original  entry  can  be  found,  in  the  third  the  name  of  the  article,  or 
if  several  articles  are  record  d  under  one  date,  they  may  be  entered  with 
the  general  designation  of  sundries  or  merchandise,  and  in  the  fourth 
column  the  total  amount  of  the  transaction.  Against  the  account  in  the 
Day-book  mark  the  page  of  the  Ledger  to  which  it  has  been  posted  ;  a 
mark  can  also  be  made  to  show  that  it  lias  been  transferred  to  the 
Ledger.  Now  take  the  second  transaction  in  the  Day-book,  and  if  it  is 
another  name  take  a  new  page  in  the  Ledger,  and  proceed  in  the  same 
wanner  as  the  first  In  this  way  all  the  entries  in  the  Day-book  are 
posted  to  each  person's  account,  every  week  or  month  as  oppoit unity 
may  occur.  By  subtracting  one  side  from  the  other  the  balance  which  • 
due  will  be  found.  The  specimen  page  represents  three  pages  of  a 

•  Ledger,  to  correspond  with  three  persons  who  have  transactions  in  tbff 
Day-book. 

BALANCE  SHEET. — This  may  be  made  to  accomplish  a  double  purpose, 
as  it  will  exhibit  the  state  of  the  owner's  accounts,  by  determining  the 
amounts  owing  him  and  that  he  may  owe,  and  also  prove  that  the  ac- 
counts have  been  correctly  posted  and  added.  The  method  is  as  follows  : 
rule  a  sheet  of  paper  similar  to  ledger  page,  for  debtor  and  creditor  ;  add 
up  all  the  items  of  credit  on  a  page  of  the  Day-book,  and  enter  the  amount 
on  the  shett,  then  add  the  debits  in  the  same  manner,  and  proceed  in  this 
way  for  whatever  time  it  is  wished  the  proof  should  cover,  add  up  the 
two  columns  and  subtract  one  total  from  the  other,  and  the  difference 
will  be  the  balance  of  the  Day-book.  Turn  to  the  Ledger  and  obtain  the- 

*  balance  of  each  person's  account,  and  place  it  under  its  proper  head  ;  ad4 
ttese  up,  and  the  difference  will  be  the  Ledger  balance.    If  th*e  two  (WF 
•nces  agree,  it  proves  the  entries  have  been  correctly  posted. 


FORM   OF    DAY-BOOK. 


793 


BOOK-KEEPIJTO. 

DAY-BOOK. 
•OBERT  BAKER,  ST.  JOHX,  N.  B.,  OCTOBER  2,  1877. 


M.  Marshall 


Dr. 


To  8  yds.  of  muslin,  at  9  cts.  a  yd $  0.72 

vl    To  4  yds.  of  cloth,  at  §3  a  yd .    12.00 

To  1  scythe ....... l.io]  |  $13 

Jaines  Brown  Dr. 

9   To  1  pr.  of  shoes ..$1.40 

To  lib.  of  tea 75 

«  —  

Duvid  Moore  Cr. 

X  3   By  1  yoke  of  oxen 

3 

James  Brown  Dr. 

To  14  Ibs.  nails,  at  6  cts $0-84 

To  5  galls,  molasses,  at  32  cts 1.60 

To  12  Ibs.  cheese,  at  10  cts 1.20 

Cr. 
By  8  Ibs.  wool,  at  36  cts 

M.  Marshall  Cr. 

%>  1   By  1  load  of  hay $6.00 

By  12  Ibs.  butter,  at  9  cts 1.08 

David  Moore  Dr. 

3   ToCash 

4  

M.  Marshall  Dr. 

Tolstove $14.00 

X  1    ToSyds.  cloth,  at  $3 24.00 

To  1  horse   42.00 

««  __________________________ 

David  Moore  Dr. 

X  3  Tolset  ofharness $20.00 

To  1  wagon 64.0C 

5 : 

James  Brown  Dr. 

0    To  28  Ibs.  sugar,  at  8  cts $2.24 

*2    To  1  barrel  of  flour 7.00 

To  3  brooms  at  14  cts 42 

David  Moore  Cr. 

By20  bushels  corn,  at  62  cts > $12.40 

X  3    By  Cash 30,00 

By  order  on  Peter  Wilkins 21.0C 

David  Moore  Dr. 

To  check  to  balance  account 

10 

James  Brown                                                                  Cr. 
By  Cash  to  balance  account 

M.  Marshall"                                                             Cr7~ 
By  htanotea.3  months  from  date  , 

14 


794 


FORM    OF    LEDGER. 


DR. 


BOOK-KEEPIXG. 

LEDGER. 
M.  MARSHALL 


Cn. 


1877. 

1877. 

Oct.  2 
"    4 

1 
.( 

To  Sundries  
"  Sundries  

§13 
80 

82 
00 

Oct.  3 
"  12 

1 

1 

By  hay  and  butter. 

^l 

11 

S3 

93 

82 

.1  1£ 

To  Balance  

11 

74 

DB. 


JAMES  BROWN. 


Cn. 


1877. 
Oct.  2 

1 

To  Sundries  

9  2 

n 

1877. 
Oct.  3 

By  wool        .   .     . 

88 

"    3 

1 

3 

(M 

"  10 

1 

1° 

=57 

"    5 

1 

"  Sundries  

9 

fifi 

15 

45 

~15 

44 

DR. 


DAVID  MOORE. 


CR. 


1877. 
Oct.  3 
.<    4 
i«    7 

1 

1 

1 

To  Cash 

$50 
84 
44 

178 

00 
00 
40 

40 

1877. 
Oct    2 
"     5 

1 
1 

$115 
Co 

178 

"  harness  &  wagon 
"  check  to  balance 

CASH-BOOK. 
1          DR.                                        CASH.                                        CR.          L 

1877. 
Oct.  2 
"    5 
"    9 
"    5 

Oct.  9 
"  10 

To  cash  on  hand  

»15T 
30 
21 
IOC 

307 

,0 
00 
00 
75 

75 

1877, 
Oct.  2 

"     3 
"     7 
"     9 
11     9 

Paid  rent  of  store  6  mos. 
"    David  Moore  
"    David  Moore  
"    expenses  in  store. 

$75 
50 
44 
8 
130 

$307 

00 
00 
40 
20 
15 

75 

Received  of  M.  Marshall 
Order  on  I.  Rose  
Receipts  of  store.  .  . 

To  cash  on  hand  

$130 
12 

15 

57 

Received  of  J.  Brown.. 

INTEREST    TABLES. 


795 


A  complete  balance-sheet  should  be  made  out  once  or  twice  a  year.. 
When  an  inventory  of  stock  on  hand  is  taken  and  added  to  the  debtor  bal- 
ances of  accounts,  and  the  original  capital  is  added  to  the  credit  balances, 
(or  balances  we  owe,)  these  compared  will  give  the  amount  of  profit  01 
loss.  It  will  be  remembered  that  this  sheet  is  an  account  between  our- 
lelves  and  our  books. 

All  the  accounts  in  the  Ledger  ought  to  be  balanced  twice  a  year.  To 
do  this  add  up  each  column  and  find  the  difference,  and  make  an  entro 
of  this  balance  on  the  side  that  is  smallest  (this  should  be  made  with  red 
ink  to  distinguish  it  from  other  entries)  ;  both  sides  now  being  equal, 
draw  a  line  under  them  to  show  the  fact.  Now  place  the  balance  on  the 
opposite  side,  so  that  it  will  exhibit  the  true  state  of  the  account.  (See 
M.  Marshall's  account  of  the  Ledger  page. ) 
CASH-BOOK. 

The  Cash-book  records  the  payment  and  receipt  of  cash.  Cash  is  made, 
debtor  to  the  cash  on  hand  and  cash  received,  and  credited  with  what  is 
paid  out.  At  the  close  of  each  day  or  week,  the  cash  on  hand  is  counted, 
and  the  amount  entered  on  the  credit  side.  This  should  make  the  debit* 
and  credits  equal ;  the  amount  of  cash  on  hand  is  then  entered  on  the 
debtor  side.  If  money  is  paid  to  or  received  from  a  person  who  has  an 
account  with  us  it  is  also  entered  in  the  Day-book  ;  the  total  receipts  and 
expenditures  are  carried  to  the  Day-book  as  often  as  the  Cash-book  is- 
balanced.  (See  form  of  Cash-book. ) 

As  a  help  to  compute  interest  we  append  the  following  Table  to  show 
the  time  required  for  a  given  number  of  dollars  to  draw  an  equal  number 
of  cents  at  various  rates  of  interest.     The  rule  is  to  strike  off  the  odd 
cents  from  the  principal  and  you  have  the  interest  at  the  following  rates : 
Interest  Interest  Interest 

per  cent.     No.  Days.  I    per  cent.  }  No.  Days,      per  cent      No.  Days. 


5-20 
6 


90 
80 
72 
70 
60 


7-30 

8 

9 


52 
48 
50 
45 
40 


10 
10-40 


The  next  Table  shows  the  various  sums  of  money  which  draw  1  cent 

interest  per  day,  calculated  at  different  per  cents,  so  that  the  number  of 

cents  will  always  be  found  equivalent  to  the  number  of  days  the  money 

has  been  drawing  interest 

Amount. 


Per  cent. 

Amount. 

Per  cent. 

Amount. 

Per  cent. 

4 

? 

5-20 
6 

*& 

50 
48 
45 
40 

7 
7-30 

9 

9 

$36 
35 
30 
24 

10 
10-40 
12 
15 

80 
72 
70 
60 

VALUABLE  INTEREST  RULES,  BASIS  30  DAYS  PER  MONTH  OR  360 
DAYS  TO  THE  COMMERCIAL  YEAR.    Multiply  the  principal  by  the  re- 

Juired  number  of  days,  and  for  4  per  cent,  divide  by  9,  and  point  off  ; 
or  5  per  cent,  divide  by  72  ;  for  6  per  cent,  divide  by  6,  and  point  off 
three  figures  from  the  right;  for  eight  per  cent,  divide  by  45;  for  9  percent 
divide  by  four,  and  point  off  three  figures  from  the  right  ;  for  10  per  cent 
divide  by  36  ;  for  12  per  cent,  divide  by  3,  and  point  off  three  figures 
from  the  right  ;  for  15  per  cent,  divide  by  24  ;  for  eighteen  per  cent  divide  by 
2,  and  point  off  three  figures  from  the  right,  for  20  per  cent,  divide  by  18. 
A  new  way,  called  "  a  rule  for  reckoning  interest  on  odd  days,  at  any 
rate  per  cent,  which  involves  no  subdivision  whatever,"  is  as  follow* 


796 


INTEREST   TABLES,   AC. 


Multiply  the  principal  by  the  number  of  days,  and  for  6  per  cent  divide 
by  60  ;  for  7  per  cent,  by  51  ;  for  8  percent.,  by  45  ;  for  9  per  cent,  by 
40  ;  for  10  per  cent,  by  36,  for  6  twice  over  ;  for  12  per  cent,  by  30. 
For  farther  information  refer  to  interest  Tables. 


INTEREST  TABLE.      TEX   PER  CEXT. 


TIME. 

$1 

92 

$3 

$4 

*5 

JWJ  91 

„ 

**  l  $10 

§40 

$50 

$100 

$1000 

4  DAYS. 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

4 

5 

11 

1  11  ' 

8     " 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

2 

8 

11 

22 

2  22 

12    " 

0 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

3 

3 

3 

12 

1(5 

33 

3  33  - 

16     " 

0 

1 

1 

2 

2 

8 

3 

4 

4 

4 

16 

22 

44 

4  44 

20     " 

1 

1 

2 

2 

3 

3 

4 

4 

5 

6 

24 

28 

56 

5  56 

24     " 

1 

1 

2 

3 

3 

4 

5 

5 

6 

7 

28 

33 

67 

6  67 

28     " 

1 

0 

2 

3 

4 

5 

5 

6 

8 

32 

39 

78 

7  78 

1  MON. 

1 

2 

3 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

8 

32 

42 

83 

8  33 

2    " 

2 

3 

5 

7 

8 

10 

12 

13 

15 

17 

68 

83 

1  67 

16  67 

3    " 

3 

5 

8 

10 

12 

15 

18 

20 

23 

25 

100 

125 

2  50 

25  00 

4    « 

3 

7 

10 

13 

17 

20 

23 

27 

30 

S3 

132 

165 

3  33 

33  33 

5    " 

4 

8 

13 

17 

21 

25 

29 

33 

38 

42 

168 

208 

4  17 

41  67 

6     " 

5 

10 

15 

20 

25 

30 

35 

40 

45 

50 

200 

250 

5  00 

50  00 

l  YEAR. 

10 

20 

30 

40 

50 

60 

70 

80 

9J 

$1 

400 

$5 

$10 

$100 

TABLE,  SHOWING  THE  DUMBER  OF  DAYS  FROM  ANY  DAY  IN    ONE    MONTH 
To  THE  SAME  DAY  IN  ANOTHER. 


Erom 
To 

z 

1 

jj 

1 
< 

K 

0 

3 

>-3 

>* 

1 

tJD 

P 
< 

I 

I 

i 

* 

t 

a 

Januarr 

365 
334 
306 

275 
21.-, 

$ 
11 

92 
61 
81 

31 
365 
337 
306 
276 
245 
215 
184 
153 
123 
92 
85 

59 
28 
365 
334 
304 
273 
243 

?J? 

151 

120 
on 

90 
59 
31 
365 
335 
304 
274 
243 
212 
182 
151 
1"1 

120 
89 
61 
30 
365 
334 
304 
273 
242 
212 
181 
1^1 

151 
120 
92 
61 
31 
365 
335 
304 
273 
243 
212 
i*-> 

181 
150 
122 
91 
61 
30 
365 
334 
303 
1:73 
242 

010 

212 
181 
153 
122 
92 
61 
31 

r.65 

334 

.".04 
273 

•>.]•• 

243 
212 
184 
153 
123 
92 
62 
31 
365 
335 
304 

07.1 

273 
242 
214 
183 
153 
122 
92 
61 
30 
365 
334 
mi 

304 
273 
245 
214 
184 
153 
123 
92 
61 
31 
365 
•m 

334 
303 
275 
244 
214 
183 
153 
122 
91 
61 
.30 
™t 

February  

March 

April..  

May 

June  

July  . 

Sept  . 

Oct  

Nov  

De«... 

EXPLANATION.— To  find  the  number  of  days  from  January  20  to 
Dec.  20,  follow  the  horizontal  line  opposite  January  until  you  reach  the 
column  headed  by  December,  when  you  will  find  334,  representing  the 
required  number  of  days,  and  so  on  with  the  other  months.  During 
leap  year,  if  February  enters  into  the  calculation,  add  one  day  to  the 
result. 

HOW  TO  CONDUCT  A  SUCCESSFUL  BUSINESS. 

That  short  credit  and  small  profits  forms  the  golden  rule  for  success  in 
trade  may  be  seen  from  the  following  table,  exhibiting  the  amounts  re- 
alized for  $100  at  various  percentages  during  various  periods. 

Am'tat     Am'tat       Am'tat      Am'tat 
3  pr.  ct.      5  per  ct.      8  pr.  ct.      10  pr.  ct 
$326.20      $703.99      $2172.45      $4525.92 
180.61        265.32          466.09          672.75 
155.79        207.89         317.21          417.72 
134.39        162.88          215.89          259.37 
115.92        127.62          146.93          161:05 
.106.09        110.25         116.64         121.09 


If  turned  over  every  3  months, 

8  " 
12  " 
2  years, 


MERCANTILE    ITEMS. 


TARES  ALLOWED  BY  THE  JOBBERS  OF  NEW  YORK  CITY. — It  is  under- 
stood that  if  a  retail  merchant  orders  less  than  an  original  package  on 

which  the  jobber  gets  tare  that  no  tare  is  allowed  by  the  jobber  to  the 

retailer. 

ARGOLS— Actual  tares. 

BARLEY,  &c.— Come  100  Ibs.  hi  keg 
—all  net. 

BIRD  SEED— 2  per  ct. 

BUTTER — 1  Ib.  011  tubs  as  soakage  ;  2 
Ibs.  on  firkins  ;  pails  net  weight. 

CALIFORNIA  HONEY — cases — (weigh- 
ing 70  to  75  Ibs.),  14  Ibs. 

'CARAWAY  SEED — 2  per  ct. 

CHEESE— Always  net  or  mrkd  tares. 

CHICORY— Casks,  marked  tares,  10 
per  ct.  additional. 

CITRON,  and  all  Peels— 2%  Ibs.  per 
box. 

COFFEES— 1  per  ct.  on  everything  ex- 


cept as  below. 

Jamaica  and  St.  Domingo,  2  per 

ct. ;  Savaiiilla,  in  double  bags,  and 

Laguayra,  in  heavy  bags,  2  per  ct. 

Costa  Rica,  in  heavy  bags,  2  per  ct. 

Old  Government  Java,  in  mats,  1 

per  ct. 

Mexican  coffee — in  bales,  15  Ibs. 

Mocha  Coffee— H  bales.  6  Ib.  ;  VA,  4 

Ib.  ;  V8,  2y2  a.  3  Ibs. 


PRUNES—  German     4   Ibs.  per  box. 

French  —  Markeu  tares.      Turkish, 

in  casks,  marked  tares. 
RAISINS  —  Sultana,  in  boxes  10  per  ct. 
RICE—  4  Ibs.  per  bag  ;  tierces  10  per 

ct. 

ROCK  CANDY—  In  bxs  marked  tares. 
SAL  SODA—  Casks,  7  per  ct. 
SODA  —  English,  mrkd  English  tares. 
SPICES—  2  per  ct.,  except  Cinnamon 

and  Cloves. 

Cassia  —  9    per   ct.  on    bales    and 

mats  ;  and  1%  Ibs.  extra  for  bala  ; 

cases  17  Ibs. 

Cloves—  9  Ibs.  per  bale. 
SUGAR  —  Hhds.,  12  per  ct.  ;  Refined 

Sugars  always  net  or  marked  tares. 

Boxes  —  15  per  ct.    Mats  and  Bags 

—  1  per  ct.  Barrels  —  Demarara,  ex- 

cept where  marked  net,  12  per  ct. 

The  per  cent  for  bags  and  mat* 
with  the  trade  applies  only  to  East 
India  sugars.  On  bags  and  mats  im- 
ported from  other  countries  the  tar» 
is  according  to  agreement  between. 
buyer  and  seller. 

TAPIOCA—  1  per  ct.    SAGO—  2  per  ct. 
TEA  —  Invoice  weight  ascertained  as 

follows  :  three  to  four  pkgs  are  ta- 

ken out  of  each  60  or  60  (usually 

those  numbered  the  same),  the  tea 


turned  out,  and  the  pkgs  weighed  ; 
the  average  of  the  three  or  tour  is 
taken  as  the  tare  of  the  whole. 
VALENCIA  RAISINS  —  5  Ibs.  per  box,. 
usually. 


CURRANTS— Bbls,  27  to  29  Ibs.  aver- 
age ;  in  box,  41bs. 
DATES— In  frails,  9  per  ct. 
FIGS— Drums,  10  per  ct. ;  in  kegs,  10. 

Layer  figs.  Boxes,  12. 
HOMINY— 200  Ibs  net. 
LENTILS— 2  perct. 
MOLASSES  AND  SYRUPS— Always  al- 
low Vfcgal.  out. 
NUTMEGS — Cases  and  casks  marked 

tare*. 
NUTS— 2  Ibs.  per  bag. 

ITEMS  REGARDING  FISH. — Mackerel  comes  in  barrels,  half  and  quar- 
ter barrels,  and  kits,  containing  full  weight,  respectively,  200,  100,  50, 
and  20  Ibs.  No  1  mackerel  should  not  be  less  than  13  inches  in  length, 
from  the  extremity  of  the  head  to  the  fork  of  the  tail,  fat,  free  from 
rust,  taint,  or  damage.  Xo.  2  mackerel  should  not  be  less  than  11  inp. 
in  length,  fat,  and  free  from  rust,  &c.  No.  3  mackerel  should  not  be 
less  than  10  ins.  in  length.  No.  3,  large,  should  not  "be  less  than  13  ins., 
and  in  quality  are  those  that  remain  after  the  selection  of  No.  1.  No.  4. 
mackerel  comprise  all  not  in  the  above,  and  should  be  free  from  taint  or 
damage. 

j    The  above  is  the  standard  established  by  law  in  Massachusetts,  and  is 

/generally  accepted  by  the  trade  elsewhere.     Mackerel  should  be  kept 

^covered  with  brine  and  not  exposed  to  the  air  as  they  become  rancid  or 

j  "  rusty,"  after  a  few  days.     Mess  mackerel — the  finest  fish,  with  head 

and  tail  removed.     Extra  No.  1's  are  selected  fish.     Largo  No.  2's — Fish 

over  13  ins.  in  length,  and  not  good  enough  in  quality  for  No.  1's. 

Scaled  herrings  should  be  fat  fish,  free  from  scales^  and  when  smoked 
be  of  a  bright  golden  color.  No.  1  herring  are  generally  small  and  poor 
fish.  The  complaints  of  short  weight  packages  of  fish  are  very  many, 
some  of  which  exceed  the  entire  profit. 

HINTS  TO  GROCERS. — Tf  keep  ants  out  of  sugar,  take,  say,  3  ozs. 
cum  camphor,  wrap  it  in  one  thickness  of  tea-paper,  lay  it  on  the  sugar 
in  the  barrel  and  they  will  leave  at  once.  Keep  your  tea  ir.  a  close  chest 


798  MERCANTILE   ITEMS. 

or  canister,  and  keep  coffee  by  itself,  as  its  odor  affects  other  article*. 
Look  after  the  number  of  oranges  and  lemons  in  a  box  and  see  if  they 
hold  out.  If  not,  claim.  Oranges  and  lemons  keep  best  wrapped  tq 
.sof t  paper,  and  if  possible  laid  in  a  drawer.  Keep  bread  or  cake  in  a  tig 
box  or  stone  jar.  Cranberries  will  keep  all  winter  in  a  firkin  of  watet 
in  a  cellar.  September  and  October  butter  is  the  best  for  winter  use. 

FLAVORING  EXTRACTS,  27  KINDS.— The  formulae  given  below  repre- 
sent the  average  standard  strength,  but  they  may  be  reduced  if  required. 
1.  Extract  of  Lemon,  oil  of  lemon,  2  pzs.,  freshly  grated  lemon  peel,  1  oz., 
alcohol,  2  pts.  2.  Ext.  of  Orange,  oil  of  orange,  12  drs. ,  freshly  grated 
lemon  peel,  4  ozs. ,  alcohol  2  pts.  3.  Another,  Valencia  oranges,  Idoz., 
.alcohol,  2  pts.  Carefully  detach  the  yellow  portion  of  the  rind,  and 
macerate  it  for  ten  days  in  the  alcohol.  Owing  to  the  difficulty  of  pro- 
curing fresh  oil  of  orange,  this  formula  is  generally  preferred.  4.  Ext. 
of  Rose.  Red  rose  leaves,  2  ozs.,  oil  of  rose,  1  dr.,  alcohol,  2  pts.  5. 
Ext.  of  Celery,  celery  seed,  bruised,  2  ozs.,  alcohol,  1  pt.  6.  Ext.  o) 
Ginger,  tincture  of  ginger,  1  pt,  alcohol,  from  £  to  1  pt.  Some  use  the 
tincture  without  dilution.  7.  Ext.  of  Bitter  Almonds,  oil  of  bitter  al- 
monds, 1  oz.  alcohol,  13  ozs.,water,  6  ozs.  Some  color  it  with  |oz.  tincture 
of  turmeric.  8.  Ext.  of  Cinnamon.  Oil  of  cinnamon,  2  drs., Ceylon  cinna- 
mon, bruised,  4  ozs.,  diluted  alcohol,  2  pts.  9.  Ext.  of  Peppermint.  Es- 
sence of  peppermint,,  U.  S.  P.,  1  pt.,  alcohol,  from  \  to  1  pt.  Some  pre- 
fer the  essence  without  dilution.  10.  Ext.  of  Coriander.  Powdered  co- 
Tiander,  4  ozs.,  oil  of  coriander,  1  dr.,  alcohol,  21  ozs.,  water,  8  ozs.  11. 
Ext.  of  Nutmeg.  Oil  of  nutmeg,  2  drs.,  powdered  mace,  1  oz. ,  alcohol, 
2  pts:  12.  Ext.  of  Vanilla.  Vanilla  bean,  1  oz.,  loaf  sugar,  1  oz.,  alco- 
hol, 70  per  cent. ,  sufficient.  Triturate  the  vanilla  with  the  sugar  until  a 
Ho  20  powder  is  obtained.  Introduce  into  a  2  pt.  stone  jug  with  two  ozs. 
of  the  menstruum,  cork  tightly,  and  digest  several  hours  at  a  tempera- 
ture of  about  150°.  Allow  the  mixture  to  cool,  transfer  it  to  a  percolator, 
pack  it  firmly,  and  pour  enough  alcohol  on  it  to  make  the  percolate 
measure  1  pt.  13.  Ext.  of  Spearmint.  Essence  of  spearmint,  U.  S.  P., 
1  pt.,  alcohol,  from  £  to  1  pt.  Some  use  the  essence  without  dilution. 
14.  Ext.  of  Anise.  Anise  seed,  2  pzs.,  oil  of  star  anise,  1  oz.,  alcohol,  2 
pts.  15.  Ext.  of  Pine  Apple,  Artificial.  Chloroform,  1  fl.  oz.,  aldehyde, 
1  do.,  butyric  ether,  5  fl.  ozs.,  butyrate  of  amyl,  10  do.,  glycerine,  3  fl. 
ozs.,  alcohol,  100  do.  16.  Ext.  of  Sassafras.  Oil  of  sassafras,  1  oz.,  sas- 
safras in  coarse  powder,  2  ozs.,  alcohol,  2  pts.  17.  Ext.  of  Peach,  Arti* 
ficial.  Oil  of  bitter  almonds,  2  ozs.,  acetic  ether,  1  oz.,  alcohol  3  pts. 
18.  Ext.  of  Nectarine.  Extract  of  vanilla,  1  pt.,  extract  of  lemon,  1  pt., 
•extract  of  pine  apple,  8  ozs.  19.  Ext.  of  Wintergreen.  Oil  of  wintergreen, 
1  oz.,  alcohol,  1  pt. ,  cudbear,  or  cochineal,  10  ozs.  20.  Ext  of  Clove. 
Powdered  clove,  4  ozs.,  diluted  alcohol,  1  pt.  21.  Ext.  of  Blackberry, 
Artificial.  Tinct.  of  orrjsroot,  (1-8)  1  pt.,  acetic  ether,  30  drops,  buty- 
ric ether,  GO  drops.  22.  Ext.  of  Tonka  Bean.  Tonka  bean,  coarsely 
ground,  4  ozs.,  diluted  alcohol,  1  pt.  23.  Ext.  of  Allspice.  Allspice, 
corsely  ground,  4  ozs.,  diluted  alchohol,  1  pt.  24.  Ext^  of  Pear,  Artificial. 
Acetic  ether,  5  fl.  ozs.,  acetate  of  amyl,  10  do.,  glycerine,  10  fl.  ozs.,  alco- 
hol, 100  do.  25.  Ext.  of  Apple,  Artificial.  Chloroform,  1  fl.  oz.,  nitric 
ether  1  do.,  aldehyde,  2  fl.  ozs.,  acetic  ether,  1  do.,  valerianate  of  amyl,  10 
fl.  ozs.,  oxalic  acid,  2  drs.,  glycerine  2  fl.  ozs.,  alcohol,  100  do.  26.  Ext. 
of  Strawberry,  Artificial.  Nitric  ether,  1  fl.  oz.,  acetic  ether,  5  do.,  for- 
mic ether,  1  fl.  oz.,  butyric  ether,  5  do.,  salicylate  of  methyl,  1  fl.  oz., 
acetate  of  amyl,  3  do. , butyrate  of  amyl,  2  fl.ozs.,  glycerine,  2  do.,  alcohol, 
100  do.  27.  Ext.  of  Raspberry,  Artificial  Nitric  ether  1  fl.  oz.,  alde- 
hyde, 1  do.,  acetic  ether,  5  fl.  ozs.,  formic  ether,  1  do.,  butyric  ether,- 1 
fl.  oz.,  benzoic  ether,  1  do.,  cenanthylic  ether,  1  fl.  oz.,  sebasic  ether,  1 
•do.,  salicylate  of  methyl,  1  fl.  oz.  acetate  of  amyl,  1  do,  butyrate  of  amyl, 
Jfl.  oz.,  tartaric  acid,  2  ozs.,  glycerine,  4  fl.  ozs.,  alcohol.  105  do.  For 
other  receipts,  consult  pp.  30,  159,  and  207. 


SUCCESS   IN   BUSINESS.  799 

The  credit  system  has  bankrupted  more  people  than  perhaps  all  other 
teauses  put  together.  The  most  rigid  scrutiny  should  therefore  take  place 
in  every  instance  where  credit  is  solicited.  A  good  way  is  to  make  the 
party  sign  a  statement  of  his  assets,  debts,  means  of  payment,  &c.,  and. 
grant  a  limited  credit  on  that  basis.  If  the  result  proves  intentional 
fraud  then  you  have  your  remedy  at  law.  Cash  down  is  the  only  abso- 
lutely safe  rule.  Curtail  every  possible  expense.  Let  the  profits  accumu- 
late, hold  on  to  them,  and  avoid  uncertain  outside  speculations.  Se«  - 
table  of  daily  savings  on  page  587,  and  profit  by  its  suggestions.  Attend 
to  the  detail*  of  your  business,  see  that  the  store  is  opened  in  good  time, 
goods  dusted,  floor  swept,  paper,  twine,  nails,  &c.,  picked  up  and 
everything  kept  in  trim  order.  In  establishing  a  business  it  is  not  always 
the  best  plan  to  open  out  in  a  new  locality  where  rents  are  low  and  ex- 


ally  give  out,  and  he  will  be  obliged  to  close  his  doors  at  the  very  time 
when  he  should  have  opened  them.  If,  however,  he  succeeds,  the  dealer 
will  do  well  to  confine  his  attention  more  to  the  supply  of  the  necessaries 
than  the  luxuries  of  life,  until  a  more  general  demand  arises  for  the  lat- 
ter as  the  neighborhood  grows  older. 

Taking  everything  into  account,  the  best  locality  for  business  purposes 
.is  in  a  city  or  town  in  a  prominent  throughfare  where  those  whose  trade 
you  desire  can  most  easily  find  you.  A  suitable  place  being  secured, 
:mouut  a  proper  sign  board  in  a  prominent  manner,  and  make  sure  to  pre- 
sent an  imposing  display  of  your  choicest  goods  in  your  store  windows. 
This,  of  itself,  is  a  powerful  attraction  to  passers  by,  who  will  frequently 
see  just  the  article  they  require  and  call  for  it  at  once.  This  accommoda- 
tion, coupled  with  civil  treatment  on  your  part,  will  often  secure  you  a 
permanent  customer,  for  people  are  bound  to  go  where  they  are  well  used. 
A  notable  and  most  successful  method  of  attracting  customers  Und  build-  . 
ing  up  a  lucrative  business,  is  to  sell  a  few  of  the  leading  staples  at  low 
figures,  and  obtain  a  fair  profit  on  the  rest.  The  most  sagacious  aud 
far-seeing  merchants  do  this,  with  the  most  astonishing  financial  results. 
'In  fact,  thousands  who  are  independently  rich  would  now  be  bankrupt 
but  for  this  system  of  transacting  business. 

The  following  directions  deserve  a  wide  circulation  : — 

"  Enter  into  a  business  of  which  you  have  a  perfect  knowledge.  In  your 
Dwn  right,  or  by  the  aid  of  friends  on  long  time,  have  a  cash  capital  suffi- 
cient to  do  at  least  a  cash  business.  Never  venture  on  a  credit  business 
fct  the  commencement.  Buy  all  your  goods  or  materials  for  cash;  you 
iau  thus  take  every  advantage  of  the  market,  and  pick  and  chose  where 
j  ind  when  you  will.  Be  careful  not  to  overstock  yourself.  Rise  and  fall 
tfcith  the  market  on  short  stocks.  Always  stick  to  those  whom  you  prove 
p>  be  strictly  just  in  their  transactions,  and  shun  all  others  even  at  a 
temporary  disadvantage.  Never  take  advantage  of  a  customer's  ignor- 
•ance,  nor  equivocate  nor  misrepresent.  Have  but  one  price  and  a  small 
•profit,  and  you  will  find  all  the  most  profitable  customers— the  cash  ones 
—or  they  will  find  you. 

"I*  ever  deceived  in  business  transactions,  never  attempt  to  save  your- 
self by  putting  the  deception  upon  others  ;  but  submit  to  the  loss,  and  be 
more  cautious  in  future.  According  to  the  character  or  success  of  your 
business,  set  aside  a  liberal  percentage  for  printing  and  advertising,  and 
do  not  hesitate.  Never  let  an  article,  parcel,  or  package,  go  out  from  you 
without  a  nanusomely-printed  wrapper,  card,  or  circular,  and  dispense 
.them  continually.  Keep  yourself  unceasingly  before  the  public  by  judi- 
ciously advertising  ;  and  it  matters  not  what  business  of  utility  you  mak«  I 


800  SAFE    BUSINESS    &C7LES. 

dioice  of,  for  if  intelligently  and  industriously  pursued,  a  fortune  will  be 
the  result. 

"Learn  to  say  'No'  with  decision;  'yes'  with  caution — 'No' 
with  decision  whenever  it  resists  temptation  ;  '  yes '  with  caution  when 
it  implies  a  promise.  A  promise  once  given  is  a  bond  inviolable.  A  man 
is  already  of  consequence  in  the  world  when  it  is  known  that  we  can  im- 
plicitly rely  upon  him.  Such  a  one  is  often  preferred  to  a  long  list  of  ap- 
plicants, for  some  important  change  which  lifts  him  at  once  into  station 
and  fortune  merely  because  he  has  this  reputation,  that  when  he  says  he 
will  know  a  thing  he  knows  it,  and  when  he  says  he  will  do  a  thing  lie  will 
do  it.  Reflect  over  these  maxims  ;  you  will  find  it  easy  enough  to  prac- 
tice them." 

Rest  assured  industry  and  economy  will  be  sure  to  tell  in  the  end.  Waste 
not  want  not  go  hand  in  hand.  If  in  early  life  these  habits  become  con- 
firmed, no  doubt  can  exist  as  to  the  ultimate  triumph  of  the  merchant  in 
attaining  a  competency. 

Be  self-reliant  and  punctual.  As  you  gain  experience  in  business 
you  can  form  your  own  judgment  and  act  on  it  with  more  safety  than  you, 
could  on  outside  advice,  and  let  no  effort  be  considered  too  great  which'  re- 
sults in  fulfilling  your  engagements  and  keeping  your  word.  A  good  char- 
cter  for  punctuality  is  in  itself  a  valuable  capital,  as  it  makes  one  in  a  large 
measure  the  master  of  another's  purse.  In  expressing  yourself,  be  frank, 
speak  to  the  point ;  form  a  habit  of  thinking  vigorously  and  speaking 
correctly  ;  s&y  what  you  mean ;  and  do  what  you  say. 

In  buying  goods  never  take  advantage  of  another's  necessities  to  beat 
Aim  down  to  a  figure  which  leaves  him  little  or  no  profit,  perhaps  a  loss, 
because  he  must  have  money.  There  is  no  manhood  in  such  transactions, 
it  may  enhance  your  immediate  profits,  but  will  be  disastrous  to  you  in 
the  end,  besides  being  most  unjust  to  the  immediate  sufferer.  Let  all 
your  actions  in  buying  and  selling  conform  to  the  requirements  of  the 
golden  rule. 

Be  always  alert  to  the  acquisition  of  Knowledge  relating  tc  >Aour  busi- 
ness, this  may  be  gained  by  conversation  with  experienced  merchants,  by 
the  attentive  reading  of  practical  books  treating  on  mercantile  matters,, 
and  by  taking  trade  papers,  which  in  these  stirring  times  have  attained 
great  perfection,  embracing  as  they  do  an  immense  lange  of  subjects, 
treating,  each  in  its  respective  sphere,  subjects  of  immense  importance, 
relating  to  the  hardware,  grocery,  dry  goods,  drug,  and  other  mercantile 
trades,  besides  full  reports  of  the  markets  pertaining  to  each  business,  an 
item  which  in  itself  no  business  man  can  afford  to  lose  sight  of.  In  this, 
place  the  advice  of  the  American  Grocer  to  its  subscribers  to  COUNT, 
MEASURE,  WEIGH,  AND  GAUGE  EVERYTHING  You  BUY,  cannot  be  too 
strongly  urgued  upon  the  notice  of  business  men.  Profits  will  be  greatly 
enhanced  by  taking  advantage  of  the  discounts  which  nearly  all  business 
men  offer  for  cash  payments.  Keep  your  credit  good  and  use  it  sparingly 
and  discreetly. 

A  noted  merchant  amassed  an  immense  fortune  by  the  observance  of 
these  four  simple  rules  :  1.  Obtain  the  earliest  and  fullest  information 
possible  in  regard  to  the  matter  in  hand.  2.  Act  rapidly  and  promptly 
upon  it.  3.  Keep  your  intentions  and  means  secret.  4.  Secure  the  best 
employees  you  can  obtain,  and  reward  them  liberally.  See  pp  590. 

Rothschild's  rules  were.  "1.  I  combined  three  profits  I  made  the 
manufacturer  my  customer,  and  the  one  I  bought  of  my  customer  ;  that 
•  is,  I  supplied  the  manufacturer  with  the  raw  material  and  dyes;  on 
/  each  of  which  I  made  a  profit,  and  took  his  manufactured  goods,  which 
5 1  soki  at  a  profit,  and  thus  combined  three  profits.  2.  Make  a  bargain  at 
'  *»ce,  be  an  off-handed  man.  3.  Never  nave  anything  to  do  with  »» 


SAFE   BUSINESS   BULES. 

nnlncky  man  or  place.  I  have  seen  many  clever  men  who  had  no* 
shoes  to  their  feet.  I  never  act  with  them  ;  their  advice  sounds  very 
•well,  but  fate  is  against  them  ;  they  do  not  got  on  themselves,  how 
can  they  do  good  to  me  ?  4.  Be  cautious  and  bold.  It  requires  a  great 
deal  of  caution  and  a  great  deal  of  boldness  to  make  a  great  fortune, 
and  when  you  have  got  it,  it  requires  ten  times  as  much  wit  to  keep  it." 

Ruled  of  John  McDonough  the  millionaire  of  New  Orleans.  "1.  Re- 
member always  that  labor  is  one  of  the  conditions  of  our  existence.  2. 
Time  is  gold  ;  throw  not  one  minute  away  but  place  each  one  to  account*] 
3.  Do  unto  all  men  as  you  would  be  done  by.  4.  Never  put  off  till  to- 
morrow what  you  can  do  to-day.  5.  Never  bid  another  do  what  you  can' 
do  yourself.  6 .  Never  covet  what  is  not  your  own.  7.  Never  think  any 
matter  so  trivial  as  not  to  deserve  notice.  8.  Never  give  out  that  which, 
does  not  first  come  in.  9.  Never  spend  but  to  produce.  10.  Let  the 
greatest  order  regulate  all  the  actions  of  your  life.  11.  Study  in  your 
course  of  life  to  do  the  greatest  amount  of  good.  12.  Deprive  yourself  of 
nothing  necessary  to  your  comfort,  but  live  in  an  honorable  simplicity 
and  frugality.  Labor  then,  to  the  last  moment  of  your  existence. 

Render  yourself  familiar  with  your  business  and  books,  and  do  not  be 
unduly  anxious  to  extend  your  trade,  remembering  that  a  small  business 
on  cash  capital  yields  better  profits  than  a  large  business  conducted  on 
credit  ;  also  remember  that  the  goods  on  your  shelves  are  much  better 
than  having  them  charged  up  in  bad  debts.  If  it  happens  that  you  run 
an  account  with  a  doubtful  customer,  prudence  requires  that  you  should 
close  the'account  at  once  and  use  every  possible  means  to  collect  it  with- 
out delay.  It  frequently  happens  in  cases  of  this  kind  that  prompt  action 
will  result  in  the  recovery  of  the  whole  debt,  when  a  very  slight  delay 
•will  entail  a  total  loss.  Every  populous  community  is  infested  by  such 
a  vast  number  of  incorrigible  rascals  who  never  intend  to  pay  their  debts, 
that  dealers  are  justified  in  rejecting  every  application  for  credit  where 
the  financial  ability  of  the  applicant  is  in  the  slightest  degree  doubtful. 

Avoid  selfishness,  niggardliness  and  parsimoniousness  in  the  use  of 
money  or  means.  True  nobility  of  character  always  finds  its  greatest  pleas- 
ure in  assisting  and  uplifting  humanity.  Viewed  in  this  light  it  requires 
but  slight  exertion  to  solve  the  riddle  propounded  by  old  Mr.  Honest  in 
the  Pilgrim  :— 

"  There  was  a  man,  though  pome  did  count  him  mad. 
The  more  he  threw  away  the  more  he  had." 

The  world  presents  many  notable  instances  of  a  generous  policy.  It  1^ 
safe  to  say  that  Peter  Cooper,  by  his  generous  consecration  of  $2,000, 000 
to  the  up-building  of  the  Cooper  Institute,  not  to  mention  his  other  bene- 
factions, has  conferred  more  substantial  benefits  on  humanity  than  whole 
dynasties  of  tyrants  who  misgovern  empires,  and  render  themselves  a 
terror  to  peaceable  nations. 

In  mercantile  matters  courage  is  indispenable,  slackness  is  absolute 
rnin.  It  requires  courage  to  tell  a  man  you  will  not  credit  him,  courage 
to  insist  on  prompt  payments  from  customers,  courage  to  gpeak  your 
rniud  candidly  at  all  times,  courage  to  deny  yourself  the  possession  of 
aiany  things  you  want.  It  requires  courage  to  refuse  to  conform  to  the 
absurd  demands  of  fashion,  to  show  respect  for  real  worth  even  'if  it 
appears  in  humble  garb,  and  to  discountenance  unprincipled  rascality  in 
finie  clothes.  It  requires  courage  to  act  justly  without  fear  or  favor,  to  liv« 
within  your  means,  to  pay  your  debts,  to  collect  your  accounts,  to  with- 
stand ridicule  while  acting  righteously  ;  in  one  word,  if  you  lack  couragi 
never  go  into  business  at  all. 

In  mercantile  circles  the  commercial  traveller  occupies  a  most  import 
aat  position  and  in  many  cases  proves  himself  a  most  valuable  auxiliar| 


802  ON  MARKING   GOODS. 

to  the  merchant.    To  become  a  successful  traveller  it  requires  prolonged 
service  on  the  road,  a  vast  amount  of  shrewdness,  and  a  profound  knowl« 
edge  of  human  nature.    He  must  possess  a  clear  head,  a  good  temper,  a 
ready,  easy,  and  natural  aptitude  for  making  profitable  bargains,  withy 
a  good  gift  for  mental,  off-hand  calculations  in  all  possible  emergencies,    f 
In  a  work  treating  of  commercial  travellers  in  France,  wa-find  the* 
following  description  of  one  of  them  :  "  With  his  customers,  as  every- 
where else,  he  is  polite  and  obliging  ;  he  kisses  the  baby,  pats  the  spaniel, 
pays  a  compliment  to  the  young  lady  behind  the  counter,  and  offers  a 
pinch  of  snuff  to  the  master  of  the  shop.     He  inquires  respecting  the 
»tate  of  the  vintage,  foretells  the  result  of  the  season,  speaks  at  som» 
length  on  the  state  of  the  grain  market,  obligingly  inquires  after  ma- 
dame's  health,  and  invites  her  husband  to  call  and  see  him  in  Paris,  . 

*  We'll  dine  at  the  Rocher,'  laughs  the  traveller,  adding,  in  a  lower  key, 

*  and  discuss  a  bottle  of  A  1,  eh  ? '     Briefly,  he  obtains  an  order,  and 
•ften  a  very  extensive  one." 

In  marking  goods  it  is  usual  with  merchants  to  make  use  of  a  private 
mark,  phrase,  or  key-word  to  designate  the  cost  and  selling  price  of  their 
goods,  the  object  being  to  conceal  these  points  from  all  except  their  owa 
salesmen.  The  following  words  and  phrases  present  a  choice  from  which 
to  make  a  selection. 

GAS  FIXTURE.        FISH  TACKLE.  BROWN  SUGAR. 

BLACK  HORSE.      CASH  PROFIT.  NOW  BE  SHARP. 

MISFORTUNE.         SO  FRIENDLY.  ELUCIDATOR.- 

IMPORTANCE.        GAINFUL  JOB.  OF  INDUSTRY. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  each  word  or  phrase  contains  ten  letters,  no 
two  alike,  the  obiect  being  to  use  letters  instead  of  figures  in  marking  the 
goods.  For  instance,  take  the  phrase 

GAS  FIXTURE. 
123  4567890 

In  marking  the  cost  and  selling  price  on  a  ticket,  \ve  assume  that  the 
cost  is  $3.25  and  the  selling  price  $4.37;  this  would  be  represented  by  th* 
dumb  letters  s  a  i—fst.  The  cost  price  is  generally  placed  uppermost  o» 
the  tag,  the  selling  price  below  it,  thus  j^.  An  extra  letter,  styled 
a  repeater,  is  used  to  obviate  the  repetition  of  a  letter  or  figure  as  well  as 
to  prevent  the  disclosure  of  the  private  mark,  for  instance  instead  of  writ-  - 
ing  366  by  the  key- word,  which  would  be  s  y,  x,  use  as  a  repeater  the 
letter  o,  and  make  it  read  s  x  o.  Fractions  may  be  written  thus :  456  §=/ 1  x 
~.  For  further  i*"  *onnation  on  marking  goods  see  page  210. 

In  advertising,  tec  your  announcements  be  short,  spicy,  attractive,  and 
prominently  displayed ;  study  brevity,  using  as  few  words  as  possible  to 
express  your  meaning.  A  long,  diffuse  advertisement  kills  its  object, 
-people  rrill  not  read  it.  Let  an  advertisement  be  truthful,  free  from 
senseless  bombast,  circulate  them  widely,  and  when  your  new  customers 
come  in,  fulfil  to  the  letter,  the  promises  made  in  your  announcements  , 
you  will  thus  obtain  their  confidence,  retain  their  custom  and  their  effort 
to  .obtain  more  customer^  for  you.  Remember,  judicious  advertising 
Always  pays;  but  it  requires  judgment  to  advertise  aright.  Select  the 
channels  which  circulate  most  widely  among  the  class  of  customers  you 
desire  to  reach,  and  advertise  persistently  and  liberally.  Every  dollar 
expended  will  bring  tenfold  profits.  In  advertising  on  printed  cards  or 
circulars,  it  is  an  important  object  to  connect  them  with  some  matter 
valuable  to  the  receiver,  such  as  a  calendar,  a  railway  time  table,  an  ele- 
gant picture,  or  any  other  matter  that  will  be  preserved  for  its  inherent 
Talue.  Lithographed  circulars,  in  imitation  of  the  handwriting,  sent' 
direct  to  parties,  are  a  first  class  advertising  media.  Never  quit  adver« 


BUSINESS   FORKS.  803 

ttging  until  you  quit  business.  The  most  successful  merchants  in  New 
York  are  the  ones  which  advertise  largely,  and  consider  their  outlay  in 
this  manner  just  as  necessary  as  the  payment  of  their  rent  or  clerk  hire. 

Next  to  prominence  in  announcing  your  business  is  civility,  politeness, 
and  honest  treatment  of  customers.  These  elements  of  character,  which 
can  never  be  ignored  without  serious  detriment  to  any  one  engaged  in  pub- 
lic business,  cost  nothing,  and  will  often  enable  the  small  dealer  to  outstrip 
his  rich  rival.  A  cheerful,  civil,  and  polite  manner  is  all-powerful  in 
obtaining  and  retaining  customers,  and  a  grand  mistake  is  often  made  by 
men  on  the  road  to  fortune,  in.  forgetting  or  neglecting  to  exercise  this 
cheap  and  pleasant  means  of  its  ultimate  attainment. 

lu  opening  an  account  with  a  bank  provide  yourself  with  a  proper  in- 
troduction. Never  draw  a  check  for  a  larger*  sum  than  the  amount  at 
jour  credit,  and  dp  not  send  your  check  to  a  remote  person  with  the  ex- 
pectation of  depositing  funds  to  meet  it  before  it  gets  back  ;  the  telegraph 
may  explode  that  bubble.  Never  exchange  checks  with  any  one,  or  give 
a  check  under  the  stipulation  that  it  is  not  to  be  used  until  a  given  time. 
Never  take  a  distant  check  from  a  neighbor  to  pass  it  free  through  your 
bank,  giving  him  your  check  for  it.  Never  give  your  check  to  a  stranger; 
it  is  liable  to  be  raised,  and  passed,  thus  entailing  a  heavy  loss  on  the 
bank.  In  sending  a  check  to  a  distance,  with  the  name  and  residence  of 
the  payee,  thus  ;  John  Ramsden  &  Co.,  of  Buffalo,  N.  Y.  This  will  give 
a,  clue  to  the  bank  when  it  is  presented  for  payment.  In  presenting  an  ac- 
commodation note  for  discount,  tell  your  bank  the  real  nature  of  the  paper. 
It  is  much  better  to  act  in  this  candid,  unreserved  manner  than  otherwise 
Never  consider  your  bank  arbitrary  if  it  declines  to  discount  an  accommo- 
dation note  ;  in  any  event  never  wrangle  or  contend  with  it,  but  act 
squarely  with  them  by  settling  in  full,  and  then  go  elsewhere  if  discourte- 
ously treated.  If  you  wish  to  get  a  customer's  note  discounted  to  obtain 
funds  to  take  up  a  prior  note  by  the  same  customer,  inform  your  bank 
fully  about  it.  Don't  waste  arguments  to  induce  your  bank  to  discount 
paper  which  it  has  already  declined,  it  may  have  the  best  of  reasons  for 
such  action.  In  your  dealings  with  bank  officers  never  exhibit  asperity  of 
temper,  but  study  politeness,  civility,  candor  and  courtesy  under  all  cir* 
cums^ances. 

COMMERCIAL  AND  LEGAL  FORMS. 

No.  1.  Negotiable  Note. 
$400  Montreal  Jan.  1,  18 — •. 

Three  months  after  date,  I  promise  to  pay  Oliver  Cromwell,  or  order, 
Four  Hundred  Dollars,  for  value  received. 
Note.  JOHN  HOWARD. 

For  an  interest-bearing  note,  add  "  with  interest"  after  "value  r*» 
served." 

No.  2.  Joint  Note. 
$430  TS«&  St.  John,  N.B.,  Jan.  4,  18—. 

Six  months  after  date  we  jointly,  but  not  severally,  promise  to  pay 
!l  Liomas  Bruce,  or  order,  Four  Hundred  and  Thirty  1%  Dollars,  for  value 
*Jceived,  with  interest.  JOHN  SPENCER, 

DAVID  THOMSON. 
No.  3.  Note  payable  at  a  Bank. 

$1000  New  York,  Jan.  11, 18--. 

Three  months  after  date,  I  promise  to  pay  to  the  order  of  Hirani 
Brown,  the  Sum  of  One  Thousand  Dollars,  value  received,  at  Park  Na« 
tional  Bank,  New  York. 

PETER  PRINGLB. 


304  BUSINESS    FORMS. 

No.  4.  Note  payable  by  Instalments. 

$100  Toronto,  Feb.  10,         , 

For  value  received,  I  promise  to  pay  to  John  Fleming,  or  order,  On* 
Hundred  Dollars,  in  the  way  and  manner  following,  to  wit  :  Fifty  Dollars 
in  three  months  from  date,  and  Fifty  Dollars  in  four  months,  with  interest 
on  the  several  sums  as  they  become  due. 

ALEX.  ARMSTRONG. 
No.  5.  Note  not  Negotiable. 
$600  Syracuse,  N.  Y. ,  July,  15,  18— 

Three  months  after  date,  for  -\falue  received,  I  promise  to  pay  Thomal 
Bonner,  Fiv^e  Hundred  Dollars. 

WILLIAM  T.  BELL. 

No.  6.  Note  on  Demand. 
$300  Harrjton,  March  14,  18—. 

On  demand  I  promise  to  pay  John  Rose,  or  order,  Three  Hundred 
Dollars,  value  received,  with  interest. 

WILLIAM  WALLACE. 

No.  7.  Note  payable  in  Merchandise. 
$700  Fredericton,  N.B.,  June  1,  18—. 

For  value  received,  on  or  before  the  first  day  of  November  next,  I 
promise  to  pay  to  A.  Gibson,  or  Order,  Seven  Hundred  Dollars  in  good 
merchantable  Spruce  Logs,  at  his  Sawmill  near  this  city,  at  the  market 
ralue  on  the  maturity  of  this  note. 

JOHN  STREAMDHIVER. 

No.  8.  Due  Bill  for  money. 

London,  Ont,  June  20,  18—. 

$140  f&  Due  to  John  Baxter,  or  order,  on  demand,  One  Hundred  aad 
forty  ,"0  Dollars,  value  received. 

J.  B.  PERKINS. 

No.  9.  Due  Bill  payable  in  Goods. 
$200  Chicago.  111.,  July  14,  18—. 

Due  on  demand,  to  R.  Wyllie,  Two  Hundred  Dollars,  in  mer«handi§« 
from  our  store. 

T.  M.  HUNTER  &  Co. 

%*10.  Check  on  a  Bank. 
{fe  Ml  New  York,  July  20.  Ifr- 

NIXTH  NATIONAL  BANK. 
Pay  to  Bradford  &  Parker  or  order,  Three  Thousand iVs  Dollai* 

'W  000  G.  BURNHAM. 

No.  11.  .Form  of  a  Bank  Draft. 

$6  300  BANK  OF  THE  METROPOLIS  No.  197. 

New  York,  Aug.  5,  18—. 
Pay  to  the  order  T.   M.  Banker  Six  Thousand  and  Three  Hundred 

Dollars'  Duplicate  unpaid 

G.  A.  COPKLAND,  Casiiier. 
*/o  Eliot  Nat.  Bank,  Boston. 


BUSINESS    FORMS.  805 

No.  12.  Sight  Draft, 

$600  New  York,  Aug.  10,  18—. 

At  Sight,  pay  to  the  order  of  R.  Pitman  &  Co.,  Six  Hundred  dollar^ 
value  received,  and  charge  the  same  to  our  account. 

GEORGE  ROOT  &  Co. 
To  JAMES  ALLISON,  Chicago. 

No.  13.   Time  Draft. 

$200  Rochester,  N.Y.,  Aug.  11,  18—. 

Thirty  days  after  date,  pay  to  the  Order  of  John  Hall,  Two  Hundred 
and  Fifty  Dollars,  value  received,  and  charge  to  our  account, 

T  BANNING  &  Co. 

No.  14  Set  of  Foreign  Bills  of  Exchange 

Exchange  for  £5,000  New  York,  Aug.  10,  18—. 

Ten  days  after  sight  of  this  First  of  Exchange  (our  Second  and  Third 
unpaid),  pay  to  the  Order  of  David  Perry,  Five  Thousand  Pounds  Sterling, 
value  received,  and  charge  the  same  without  further  advice,  to, 

JOSEPH  SELIGMAN  &  Co, 
To  BARING  BROTHERS. 

No.  220  London,  Eng. 

Exchange  for  £5,000  New  York,  Aug.  10, 18—. 

Ten  days  after  Sight  of  this  Second  of  Exchange  (First  and  Third  un» 
paid),  pay  to  the  order  of  David  Perry,  Five  Thousand  Pounds  Sterling; 
value  received,  and  charge  the  same  without  further  advice,  to 

JOSEPH  SELIGMAN  &  Co. 
To  BARING  BROTHERS. 

No.  220.  London,  Eng. 

Exchange  for  £5,000  New  York.  Aug.  10,  18—. 

Ten  days  after  Sight  of  this  Third  of  Exchange  (First  and  Second  un- 
paid), pay  to  the  order  of  David  Perry,  Five  Thousand  Pounds  Sterling; 
value  received,  and  charge  the  same  without  further  advice,  to 

JOSEPH  SELIGMAN  &  Co. 
To  BARING  BROTHERS. 
No.  220.  London,  Eng. 

No.  15.  Form  of  a  Protest, 

$2,000  New  York,  Aug.  15,  1877. 

Please  to  take  notice,  that  a  Promissory  Note  for  Two  Thousand  Dollar*, 
aaade  by  Robert  Brown,  May  12,  1877,  and  endorsed  by  you,  having  been 
duly  presented  and  payment  thereof  demanded,  which  was  refused,  ii 
therefore  protested  for  non-payment,  and  that  the  holders  look  to  you  for 
payment,  interest,  costs,  and  damages. 

Toll.    LOOKOUT.  I.L.  KETCHUM. 

Notary  Public. 

No.  16.  Receipt  for  Money  on  Account. 

Received,  New  York,  March  23,  1878,  of  Thomas  Paywell,  Seventy-flv* 
dollars  on  account. 
875  B.  THANKFUL. 


SOS  BUSINESS   FORMS. 

No.  17.  Receipt  in  Full. 

Fredericton,  N.  B.,  March  12,    »     « 

Received  Of  John  Murray,  One  Hundred  Dollars,  in  full  of  all  deL      <fc 
to  date. 
6100.  HENRY  BLACKBUKJI. 

No.  18.  Receipt  for  Money  advanced  on  a  Contract. 

$1,000  Woodstock,  Ont ,  May  1,  18—. 

Received  of  A.  Campbell,  One  Thousand  Dollars  in  advance,  011  a  con* 
tract  to  build  for  him  a  Frame  house  on  Dundas  street, 

B.  TCJRNBULL. 

No.  19.  Receipt  for  Rent. 

|200  Gait.  Ont.,  June  1,  18.— 

Received  of  A.  Thomson,  Two  Hundred  Dollars  i«*  full  for  one  year'* 
rent  for  dwelling  on  Water  Street. 

CHARLES  WILSON. 

No.  20.  Receipt  for  a  Note. 

$400  New  York,  June  2,  18—. 

Received  of  Hiram  Edson,  his  note  for  Four  Hundred  Dollars  at  three 
%ionths,  in  full  of  account. 

THOMAS  HARRISON. 

No.  21.  Order  for  Money. 

Baltimore,  June  5, 18—. 
Air.  ROBERT  HILL, 

Please  pay  Thomas  Jamison,  or  Bearer,  Fifty  dollars  on  my  account. 

DAVID  HILLMAN. 

No.  22.  Order  for  Merchandise. 

MR.  R.  T.  BONNER. 

Please  deliver  to  the  bearer,  Joseph  Fallett,  such  goods  as  he  may  de- 
sire from  your  store  to  the  amount  of  Sixty-five  dollars,  and  charge  th« 
tfame  to  my  account. 

.  JOHN  GARDINER 

No.  23.  Letter  of  Credit. 

Toronto,  October  5,  18—. 

Gentlemen  .'—Allow  me  to  introduce  to  your  firm  the  Bearer,  Mr.  J. 
S.  Harper  ;  should  he  make  a  selection  from  your  stock  to  the  amount  of 
One  Thousand  Dollars,  I  will  be  answerable  for  that  sum  in  case  of  his 
non-payment. 

Yours,  truly, 

RUFUS  BARLOW 
To  LORD  &  TAYLOR,  New  York, 

No.  24.  Landlord's  Agreement. 

This  certifies,  that  I  have  let  and  rented,  this  first  day  of  June,  1878, 
unto  Robert  Walker,  my  house  and  lot  No.  150,  Dundas  street,  London, 
Ont.,  and  its  appurtenances  ;  he  to  have  the  free  and  uninterrupted  oc- 
cupation thereof  for  one  year  from  this  date,  at  the  yearly  rental  of  On* 


BUSINESS   FORMS.  807 

Thousand  Dollars,  to  be  paid  monthly  in  advance  ;  rent  to  ceai*  if  do* 
gtroyed  by  fire,  or  otherwise  made  untenantable. 

JAS.  KINQMAN. 

No.  25.  Tenant's  agreement. 

This  certifies  that  I  have  hired  and  taken  from  Joseph  Kingman,  his 
iiouse  and  lot  No.  150,  Dundas  street,  London,  Ont.,  with  appurtenances 
thereto  belonging,  for  one  year,  to  commence  this  day  at  a  yearly  rental 
of  One  Thousand  Dollars,  to  be  paid  monthly  in  advance,  unless  said 
house  becomes  untenantable  from  fire  or  other  causes,  in  which  case 
rent  ceases  ;  and  I  further  agree  to  give  and  yield  said  premises  one  year 
from  this  first  day  of  June,  1878,  in  as  good  condition  as  now,  ordinary 
wear  and  damage  by  the  elements  excepted. 

Given  under  my  hand  this  day. 

ROBERT  WALKER. 

No   26.  Notice  to  Quit. 

To  A.  B.  PALMER. 

Sir  .-—Please  observe  that  the  term  of  one  year,  for  which  the  house 
and  land,  situated  at  47  Pearl  street,  and  now  occupied  by  you,  were 
rented  to  you,  expired  on  the  first  day  of  June,  1878,  and  as  I  desire  to 
repossess  said  premises,  you  are  hereby  requested  and  required  to  vacate 
the  same. 

Yours  truly, 

T.  H,  CARTER, 

No.  27.  Tenant's  Notice  of  leaving. 

Dear  Sir:  The  premises  I  now  occupy  as  your  tenant,  at  No.  56,  Main 
etreet,  I  shall  vacate  on  the  first  day  of  May,  1878.  You  will  please  take 
notice  accordingly. 

Dated  this  26th  day  of  March,  1878. 

WILLIAM  GILBERT 
To  JOHN  LAWRENCE,  Esq. 

No.  28.  Common  Form  of  Bond. 

KNOW  ALL  MEN  by  these  presents,  that  I,  David  Wilson,  of  Fredericton, 
York  County,  Province  of  New  Brunswick,  am  held  and  firmly  bound  unto 
John  Scott  of  the  place  aforesaid,  in  the  sum  of  six  hundred  dollars,  to  be 
paid  to  the  said  John  Scott,  his  heirs  or  assigns  ;  for  which  payment  to  be 
well  and  truly  made,  I  bind  myself,  my  heirs  and  assigns,  by  these  pres- 
ents. 

Sealed  with  my  seal,  and  dated  this  first  day  of  August,  one  thousand 
Eight  hundred  and  seventy-eight. 

The  condition  of  this  obligation  is  such,  that  if  I,  David  Wilson,  my  » 
heirs,  assigns,  or  executors,  shall  promptly  pay  to  the  said  John  Scott,  his  8 
heirs  or  assigns,  the  sum  of  six  hundred  dollars  in  three  equal  annual  in- 
stalments  from  the  date  hereof,  with  annual  interest,  then  the  abov* 
obligation  to  be  void  ;  otherwise  to  be  in  full  force  and  virtue. 

DAVID  WILSON,  <J*S). 
Sealed  and  delivered  in  ) 
Presence  of 

ADAM  CLARK.     I 


808  BUSINESS    FORMS. 

No.  29.  Form  of  Bill  of  Sale. 

Know  all  men  by  these  Presents,  that  I,  Peter  Deranan,  of  the  city  01, 
Boston,  in  the  County  of  Middlesex,  and  State  of  Massachusetts,  of'  tha 
first  part,  for  and  in  consideration  of  the  sum  of  six  hundred  dollars, 
lawful  money  of  the  United  States,  to  me  in  hand  paid,  at  or  before  the 
ensealing  and  delivery  of  these  presents,  by  Robert  Ensign  of  the  same 
place,  of  the  second  part,  the  receipt  whereof  is  hereby  acknowledged, 
nave  bargained  and  sold,  and  by  these  presents  do  grant  and  convej-,  untc 
the  said  party  of  the  second  part,  his  executors,  administrators,  anc* 
assigns,  one  six  year  old  dark-bay  horse  fifteen  hands  high,  one  black 
horse,  one  double  harness,  one  carriage,  two  coics  and  five  pigs,  TO  HAVE 
AND  TO  HOLD  the  same  unto  the  said  party  of  the  second  part,  his  heirs, 
administrators  and  assigns  for  ever. 

And  I  do  for  myself,  my  heirs,  executors,  and  administrators,  covenant 
and  agree,  to  and  with  the  said  party  of  the  second  part,  to  warrant  and 
defend  the  gale  of  the  said  goods  and  chattels  hereby  sold  unto  the  said 
party  of  the  second  part,  his  executors,  administrators,  and  assigns, 
against  all  and  every  person  and  persons  whatsoever. 

IN  WITNESS  WHEREOF,  I  have  hereunto  set  my  hand  and  seal,  this 
lixth  day  of  April  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  seventy -eight. 

PETER  DENMAN,  (L.S). 
Sealed  and  delivered  in  presence  of ) 
PETER  WILSON, 
J.  GODDARD.  j 

No.  30.  Chattel  Mortgage. 

This  indenture,  made  this  fifteenth  day  of  April,  one  thousand  eight 
hundred  and  seventy-eight,  between  David  Allan  of  the  town  of  Guelph, 
County  of  Wellington,  Province  of  Ontario,  party  of  the  first  part,  and 
Alfred  Baker  of  the  same  town,  county  and  Province,  party  of  the  second 
part. 

WITNESSETH,  that  the  said  party  of  the  first  part,  for,  and  in  consid- 
eration of  the  sum  of  six  hundred  dollars  in  hand  paid,  the  receipt  of 
which  is  hereby  acknowledged,  does  hereby  grant,  sell,  convey  and  co» 
firm  unto  the  said  party  of  the  second  part,  his  heirs  and  assigns  forever, 
all  and  singular,  the  following  described  goods  and  chattels,  to  wit  : 

1  Weber  piano,  4  black  walnut  bedsteads,  1  stove,  2  mahogany 
bureaus,  2  sofas,  1  dozen  chairs,  etc.,  now  in  possession  of  said  Allan,  in 

Xis  dwelling  at  No. street,  Guelph.  To  HAVE  AND  TO  HOLD 

all  and  singular  the  goods  and  chattels  above  bargained  and  sold,  or  in- 
tended so  to  be,  unto  the  said  party  of  the  second  part,  his  executors, 
administrators  and  assigns  forever.  AND  the  said  party  of  the  first  part, 
f>r  himself,  his  heirs,  assigns,  and  administrators ,  all  and  singular  the 
goods  and  chattels  above  bargained  and  sold  unto  the  said  party  of  the 
first  part,  and  against  all  and  every  person  whomsoever  shall,  and  will, 
warrant  and  forever  defend 

UPON  CONDITION,  that  if  the  said  party  of  the  first  part  shall  and  do 
well  and  truly  pay  unto  the  said  party  of  the  second  part,  his  executors, 
administrators,  or  assigns,  the  sum  of  six  hundred  dollars  lawful  money  of 
this  Province,  with  interest  thereon,  one  year  from  this  date,  thence  thesa 
presents  shall  be  void.  AND  the  said  party  of  the  first  part,  for  himself, 
his  executors,  and  assigns,  doth  covenant  find  agree  to  and  with  the  sai<? 
party  of  the  second  pnrt,  his  executors,  administrators  and  assigns,  that 
m  case  default  shall  be  made  in  the  payment  of  the  said  eum.  abov« 


BUSINESS   FORMS. 

mentioned,  then  it  shall  and  may  be  lawful  for,  and  I,  the  said  party  of 
the  first  part,  do  hereby  authorize  and  empower,  the  said  party  of  the 
second  part,  his  executors,  administrators,  and  assigns,  with  the  aid  and 
assistance  of  any  person  or  persons,  to  enter  my  dwelling-house,  or  such 
other  place  or  places  as  the  said  goods  and  chattels  are  or  may  be  placed, 
and  take  and  convey  away  the  said  goods  and  chattels,  and  to  sell  or 
dispose  of  the  same  for  the  best  price  they  can  obtain,  and,  out  of  the  prc* 
ceeds  thereof,  to  retain  and  pay  the  said  sum  above  mentioned,  and  all 
charges  touching  the  same,  rendering  the  overplus  (if  any)  unto  me,  or  to 
iny  executors,  administrators  or  assigns. 

AND,  UNTIL  DEFAULT  be  made  in  the  payment  of  the  said  sum  of 
money,  I  am  to  remain  and  continue  in  the  quiet  possession  of  the  said 
goods  and  chattels,  and  in  the  full  and  free  enjoyment  of  the  same. 

IN  WITNESS  •WHEREOF,  I,  the  said  party  of  the  first  part,  have  here* 
unto  set  my  hand  and  seal  the  day  and  year  first  above  written. 

Signed,  sealed  and  deliv-] 

ered  in  presence  of  nAvm  ATT  AV  tv  «) 

GEORGE  ROBSON,    1  DAVID  ALLAN,  (L.S.J 

THOMAS  NEILSON.  J 

NOTE. — The  law,  both  in  Canada  and  the  United  States,  requires  that 
all  chattel  mortgages  should  be  filed  in  the  Clerk's,  Register's,  or  Re- 
corder's office  of  the  town,  city,  or  county  where  the  mortgagor  resides, 
and  the  property  is,  when  mortgaged.  Unless  the  same  is  renewed  at 
or  before  the  close  of  the  year,  its  virtue  expires,  and  every  creditor  will 
have  the  same  right  to  the  property  au  the  mortgagee. 

No.  31.  Claim  to  be  filed  by  Lien  Creditor's  in  Clerk's  Office. 

Henry  Wilson,  of  Buffalo,  in  the  County  of  Erie,  and  State  of  New 
York,  lumber  merchant,  files  his  claim  for  five  hundred  and  sixty  dollars 
against  a  certain  house  and  lot  of  ground,  belonging  to  John  Rodgers. 
situated  on  the  south  side  of  Clinton  street,  No.  27,  in  the  plan  of  saia 
city,  containing  in  front  on  Clinton  street,  forty  feet,  and  in  depth  one 
hundred  feet,  bounded  ou  the  north  by  the  said  Clinton  street,  on  the 
west  by  ground  of  John  Smith,  on  the  east  ground  of  Thomas  Nelson, 
and  on  the  south  by  ground  of  Thomas  Carter,  for  that  sum  due  him  fcs 
lumber  and  other  Materials  furnished  by  him,  hi  erecting  the  aforesaid 
house  in  October,  1877. 

HENRY  WILSON. 

November  4,  x877. 

NOTE. — The  above  form  is  applicable  for  any  claim  whatever  that  may 
fee  due  to  lumber  merchants,  brick-makers,  carpenters,  painters,  masons, 
plumbers,  or  others  engaged  in  furnishing  materials  or  labor  in  erecting 
buildings. 

No.  32.  Form  of  Judgment-Note. 

For  value  received  I  promise  to  pay  to  Henry  Jordan  of  Lockport,  or 
Order,  four  hundred  dollars,  with  interest,  on  the  first  day  of  June  nertj 
and  I  hereby  nominate,  constitute,  aud  appoint,  any  attorney-at-law  CK 
this  State,  my  true  and  lawful  attorney,  irrevocable,  for  me  and  in  my 
name  to  appear  in  any  court  of  record  of  this  State,  at  any  time  after  the ! 
above  promissory  note  becomes  due,  and  to  waive  all  process  and  service  ; 
thereof,  and  to  confess  judgment  in  favor  of  the  holder  hereof  for  th* " 
•urn  that  may  be  due  and  owing  hereon.  with  interest  and  costs,  waiving  j 


8lU  BUSINESS   FOItMS 

all  errors,  etc,,  with  stay  of  execution  until  the  first  day  of  April  next 

Witness  my  hand  and  seal  at  Lockport,  N.  Y.,  this  first  day  of  Decem* 
ber,  in  the  year  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  seventy-seven. 
Signed,  sealed,  and  deliv- } 
ered  in^presence^of ^     |  THOMAS  WEBSTER,  (L.S.V 

ROBERT  KERR.    J 

NOTE. — The  above  note  enables  the  holder,  in  several  States,  to  enter 
»p  judgment  thereon  without  suit,  if  not  paid  when  due. 

No.  33.  Form  of  Note  for  Indiana. 
$200.  RICHMOND,  LND.,  April  1, 18—. 

On  demand,  for  value  received,  I  promise  to  pay  Charles  Marsh,  or 
Order,  two  "hundred  dollars,  with  interest,  payable  without  any  relict 
whatever  from  valuation  or  appraisement. 

ROBERT  MILLER. 

No.  34.  Form  of  Note  of  Pennsylvania. 
$500.  PHILADELPHIA,  PA.  ,  April  8,  18—. 

Three  months  after  date,  I  promise  to  pay  to  the  order  of  Thomafc 
Maxwell,  five  hundred  dollars,  without  defalcation,  for  value  received. 

ALEXANDER  REID,. 

No.  35.  Form  of  a  Sill  of  Lading  for  Timber,  <fcc. 
Shipped,  in  good  order  and  condition,  by  Robert  Godfrey  &  Co.,  ont 
board  the  good  ship  "Dominie  Sampson,"  whereof  P   M.  Marshall  ia, 
master  for  this  present  voyage,  now  lying  in  the  port  of  St.  Johnj  N^B., 
and  bound  for  Liverpool,  England.    To  say  :— 

66,760  feet  Mer.  Spruce,  all  under  deck. 
100  M.  Spruce  laths,  all  under  deck. 
90  M.  ft.  Mer.  Pine,  all  on  deck, 

being  marked  and  numbered  in  the  margin  ;  and  are  to  be  dejiyered,  in , 
like  good  order  and  condition,  at  the  aforesaid  port  of  Liverpool  (the  . 
danger  of  the  seas  and  fire  always  excepted),  unto  Thomas  Adams  & 
Co.,  or  to  assigns,  he  or  they  paying  freight  for  the  said  timber  at  the  . 
rate  of  ten  dollars  per  M.  feet,  and  one  dollar  per  M.  'for  laths,  without  . 
primage  and  average  accustomed. 

In  witness  whereof,  the  master  of  the  said  vessel  hath  affirmed  to  three  , 
bills  of  lading,  all  of  this  tenor  and  date  ;  one  of  which  being  accom-  . 
plished,  the  others  to  stand  void. 

P.  M.  MARSHALL. 
Pated  at  St  John,  N.  B. ,     \ 
June  the  5th,  A.D.  1878.  J 

No.  36.  Form  of  a  Survey  Bill  of  Lumber,  &c. 

Surveyed  from  Alex.  Gibson  of  Nashwaak,  New  Brunswick.,  te^ 
Schooner  "  Inflexible  "  Captain  Duncan.  To  say  : — 

43,600  ft.  2x8,  from  12  ft.  long  up  (Men.)  Spruce. 
37,300  "  No.  1  Pine  boards. 
19,400  "  10  x  12  Mer.  Pine  timber. 
24,500  "  Hemlock  boards  (Mch  ). 

159  M.  No.  1  Pine  Shingles. 

Kashwaak,  N.  B.,  j  DAVIp.,MQRRISON, 

June  5,  Anno  Domini  1878.  \  Surveyor  - 


BUSINESS    FORMS.  811 

No.  37.  Form  of  Agreement  and  Warrant  for  the  Sale  of  Horse. 

THIS  AGREEMENT,  made  this  eighth  day  of  April,  one  thousand  eight 
hundred  and  seventy-eight, 'between  Robert  Pringle  of  the  village  of 
Stanley,  county  of  York  and  Province  of  New  Brunswick,  of  the  first 
part,  and  David  Brown  of  said  place,  of  the  second  part, 

WITNESSETH,  that  the  said  Robert  Pringle  hereby  agrees  to  sell  to  the 

-  said  David  Brown  his  dark-bay  horse,  with  a  white  star  in  the  forehead, 

and  black  mane  and  tail,  and  to  warrant  the  said  horse  to  be  well  broken, 

to  be  kind  and  gentle,  both  under  the  saddle  and  in  single  and  double 

harness,  to  be  sound  in  every  respect  and  free  from  vice,  for  the  sum  of 

one  hundred  dollars,  to  be  paid  by  the  said  David  Brown,  on  the  seventh 

'  day  of  June  next 

In  consideration  whereof,  the  said  David  Brown  agrees  to  purchase 
the  said  horse,  and  to  pay  therefor  to  the  said  Robert  Pringle  the  sum  of 
t&  hundred  dollars  on  the  seventh  day  of  June  next 

IN  WITNESS  WHEREOF,  &c.  (as  in  No.  29). 

No.  38.  Agreement  to  Cultivate  Land  on  Shares 

THIS  AGREEMENT,  &c.  (as  in  No.  30). 

WITNESSETH,  that  the  said  Robert  Pringle  agrees  with  the  said  David 
Brown,  that  he  will  properly  plough,  harrow,  till,  fit,  and  prepare  fo 
sowing,  all  that  certain  field  of  ground  belonging  to  the  said  Brown, 
which  field  lies,  etc.  (here  insert  description  of  field)  containing  about 
ten  acres,  and  to  sow  the  same  with  good  fall  wheat,  finding  one-half  the 
seed  wheat  necessary  therefor,  on  or  before  the  fifteenth  day  of 
September  next  :  and  that  he  will,  at  the  proper  time,  cut,  harvest, 
and  thresh,  the  said  wheat,  and  winnow  and  clean  the  same,  and 
deliver  the  one-half  part  of  the  said  wheat  to  the  said  David  Brown, 
at  his  barn,  on  his  premises,  in  the  village  of  Stanley,  aforesaid, 
near  his  dwelling  house,  withhi  ten  days  after  the  same  shall  have  been, 
cleaned  ;  and  will  carefully  stack  the  one-half  of  the  straw  on  the  prem- 
ises of  the  said  David  Brown,  near  to  his  barn  aforesaid. 

And  the  said  David  Brown,  in  consideration  of  the  foregoing  agree- 
ment, promises  and  agrees,  to  and  with  the  said  Priugle,  that  he  may 
enter  in  upon  said  field  for  the  purpose  of  tilling  and  sowing  the  same, 
and  of  harvesting  the  crop  ;  and  free  ingress  and  egress  have  and  enjoy 
for  the  purpose  aforesaid  ;  and  that  he  will  furnish  to  the  said  Pringle 
one-half  of  the  seed  wheat  necessary  to  sow  the  same,  on  or  before  the 
fifteenth  day  of  September  next,  and  permit  the  said  Pringle  to  thrash 
»nd  clean  the  wheat  upon  the  premises  of  the  said  David  Brown. 

In  witness  whereof,  &c.  (as  in  No.  29),  both  parties  will  sign. 

No.  39.  Lease  of  a  Farm. 

THIS  INDENTURE,  made  this  first  day  of  March,  one  thousand  eight 
hundred  and  seventy-eight,  between  Peter  Marshall,  of  the  township  of 
Dumfries,  county  of  Waterloo,  and  Province  of  Ontario,  of  the  first  pail, 
and  Robert  Walker  of  the  said  township  and  county  of  the  second  part. 

WITNESSETH,  that  the  said  Peter  Marshall,  for,  and  in  consideration 
of  the  yearly  rents  and  covenants  hereinafter  mentioned,  and  reserved  on 
the  part  and  behalf  of  the  said  Peter  Marshall,  his  heirs,  executors  and 
idministrators,  to  be  paid,  kept,  and  performed,  hath  demised,  set,  and 
to  farm  let,  and  by  these  presents  doth  demise,  set,  and  to  farm  let,  unto 
the  said  Robert  Walker*  nis  heirs  and  assigns,  all  that  certain  piec«, 


812  BUSINESS   FORMS. 

parcel  or  tract  01  iana  situate,  lying  and  being  in  the  township  of  Dam* 
fries  aforesaid,  known  as  lot  No.  (here  describe  land)  now  in  the  posses* 
sion  of ,  containing  one  hundred  acres,  together  with  all  and  sin- 
gular the  buildings  and  improvements,  to  have  and  to  hold  the  same 
unto  the  said  Robert  Walker,  his  heirs,  executors  and  assigns,  from  the 

day  of next,  for,  and  during  the  term  of  five  years,  thence 

'next  ensuing,  and  fully  to  be  complete,  and  ended,  yielding  and  paying 
for  the  same,  unto  the  said  Peter  Marshall,  his  heirs  aiid  assigns,  the 

yearly  rent,  or  sum dollars,  on  the  first  day  of in  each  and 

every  year,  during  the  term  aforesaid,  and  at  the  expiration  of  said 
term,  or  sooner  if  determined  upon,  he  the  said  Robert  Walker,  his  heirs 
or  assigns,  shall  and  will  quietly  and  peaceably  surrender  and  yield  up 
the  said  demised  premises,  with  the  appurtenances,  unto  the  said  Peter 
Marshall,  his  heirs  and  assigns,  in  as  good  order  and  repair,  as  the  same 
now  are,  reasonable  wear,  tear,  and  casualties,  which  may  happen  by 
fire,  or  otherwise,  only  excepted. 

IN  WITNESS  WHEREOF  we  have,  etc.  (as  in  No.  29). 

No.  40.   Warranty  Deed  by  Husband  and  Wife,  with  Covenants. 

THIS  INDENTURE,  made  this  eighteenth  day  of  June,  in  the  year  of 
our  Lord  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  seventy-eight,  between  John 
Wilson,  of  Newton,  county  of  Sussex,  State  of  New"Jersey,  and  Charlotte, 
his  wife,  of  the  first  part,  and  Peter  Cunningham  of  the  same  place,  of 
the  second  part. 

WITNESSETH,  that  the  said  party  of  the  first  part,  for  and  in  consider- 
ation of  the  sum  of  two  thousand  dollars  in  hand,  well  and  truly  paid 
by  the  said  party  of  the  second  part,  the  receipt  whereof  is  hereby  ac- 
knowledged, have  granted,  bargained,  and  sold,  and  by  these  presents  do 
grant,  bargain,  and  sell,  unto  the  said  party  of  the  second  part,  his  heirs 
and  assigns,  all  the  following  described  lot,  piece,  parcel  or  tract  of  land 
situated  in  the  town  of  Newton,  county  of  Sussex,  and  State  of  New- 
Jersey,  to  wit:  (Here  describe  the  property.) 

Together  with  all  and  singular  the  hereditaments  and  appurtenances 
thereunto  belonging  or  in  any  wise  appertaining,  aud  the  reversion  and 
reversions,  remainder  and  remainders,  rents,  issues,  and  profits  thereof  ; 
and  all  the  estate,  right,  title,  interest,  claim  and  demand  whatsoever,  of 
the  said  party  of  the  first  part,  either  in  law  or  equity,  of,  in,  and  to,  the 
above-bargained  premises,  with  the  hereditaments  and  appurtenances: 
To  HAVE  AND  TO  HOLD  the  said  premises  above  bargained  and  described, 
with  the  appurtenances,  unto  the  said  party  of  the  second  part,  his  heirs 
and  assigns,  for  ever.  And  the  said  John  Wilson,  and  Charlotte  Wilson, 
his  wife,  parties  of  the  first  part,  hereby  expressly  waive,  release,  and 
relinquish  unto  the  said  party  of  the  first  part,  his  heirs,  executors,  ad- 
ministrators and  assigns,  all  right,  title,  claim,  benefit,  and  interest  what<= 
ever,  in,  and  to  the  above-described  premises,  and  each  and  every  part 
thereof,  which  is  given  by  or  results  from,  all  laws  of  this  State  pertain- 
ing to  the  exemption  of  homesteads. 

And  the  said  John  Wilson  and  Charlotte  Wilson,  his  wife,  party  of  the 
first  part,  for  themselves  and  their  heirs,  executors,  and  administrators, 
do  covenant,  grant,  bargain,  and  agree,  to  and  with  the  said  party  of  the 
second  part,  his  heirs  and  assigns,  that  at  the  time  of  the  ensealing  and 
delivery  of  these  presents  they  were  well  seized  of  the  premises  above 
conveyed,  as  of  a  good,  sure,  perfect,  absolute  and  indefeasible  estate  of, 
inheritance,  in  law  and  in  fee  simple,  and  have  good  right,  full  power, 
and  lawful  authority  to  grant,  bargain,  sell,  and  ccuvey  the  same,  in  maia-' 
ner  and  form  aforesaid,  and  that  the  same  are  free  and  clear  from  alt 
former  and  other  grants,  bargains,  sales,  liens,  taxes,  judgments, 


BUSINESS    FORMS.  81$ 

Mcnts,  and  incumbrances  of  what  kind  or  nature  soever;  and  the  above« 
bargained  premises  in  the  quiet  and  peaceable  possession  of  the  said  party 
of  the  second  part,  his  heirs  and  assigns,  against  all  and  every  or  persons- 
lawfully  claiming  or  to  claim  the  whole  or  any  part  thereof,  the  said 
party  of  the  first  part  shall  and  will  warrant  and  forever  defend. 

In  testimony  whereof ,  the  said  parties  of  the  first  part  have  hereunto 
set  their  hands  and  seals  the  day  and  year  first  above  written. 

JOHN  WILSON,  (L.S.) 
CHARLOTTE  WILSON,  (L.S.) 
Signed,  sealed  and  deliv-  v 
ered  in  presence  of 
HENRY  NELSON. 
ROBERT  REID.         J 

i- 
No.  41.  Acknowledgment  of  Deed. 

SUSSEX  COUNTY,  N.  J. 

On  the  eighteenth  day  of  June,  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and 
seventy-eight,  personally  appeared  before  me  John  Wilson,  and  Charlotte, 
his  wife,  whom  I  know  to  be  the  persons  described  in,  and  who  executed 
the  within  instrument,  and  who  severally  acknowledged  that  they  execu- 
ted the  same:  the  said  Charlotte  being  by  me  examined  separate  and  apart 
from  her  husband,  acknowledged  that  she  executed  the  same  freely,  and 
without  fear  or  compulsion  from  him. 

PHILIP  HUNTER,  J.  P, 

Minute  of  Record. 

Recorded  in  the  Clerk's  office  of 
the  County  of  Sussex,  in  Liber 
45,  p.  81,  of  Mortgages,  18th 
June,  1878,  at  30  minutes  past 
2p.m. 

ROBERT  WATTB,  Register. 

No.  42.  Mortgage  of  Land  to  secure  Payment  of  Money. 

THIS  INDENTURE,  made  the  tenth  day  of  April,  one  thousand  eight 
hundred  and  seventy-eight,  between  John  Hunter,  of  Dorset,  county  of 
Bennington,  State  of  Vermont,  merchant,  and  Margaret,  his  wife,  of 'the 
first  part,  and  William  West,  of  the  same  place,  agent,  of  the  second 
part:  WHEREAS,  the  said  John  Hunter  is  justly  indebted  to  the  said  party 
of  the  second  part,  in  the  sum  of  five  thousand  dollars,  lawful  money  of 
the  Uuited  States,  secured  to  be  paid  by  his  certain  bond  or  obligation, 
bearing  even  date  with  these  presents,  in  the  penal  sum  of  ten  thou- 
sand dollars,  lawful  money  as  aforesaid,  conditioned  for  the  payment  of 
the  first-mentioned  sum  of  five  thousand  dollars,  as  by  the  said  bond  or 
obligation,  and  the  condition  thereof,  reference  being  thereunto  had,  may 
more  fully  appear.  Now  THIS  INDENTURE  WITNESSETH,  thnt  the  said 
parties  of  the  first  part,  for  the  better  securing  of  the  said  sum  of  money 
mentioned  in  the  condition  of  the  said  Ixnid  or  obligation,  with  interest 
thereon,  according  to  the  true  intent  and  meaning  thereof,  and  also  for  and 
in  consideration  of  the  sum  of  one  dollar  to  me  in  hand  paid  by  the  said  party 
of  the  second  part,  at,  or  before  the  ensealing  and  delivery  of  these  pres- 
ents, the  receipt  whereof  is  hereby  acknowledged,  have  granted,  bargained, 
sold,  aliened,  released,  conveyed,  and  confirmed,  and  by  these  presents 
do  grant,  bargain,  sell,  alien,  release,  convey,  and  confirm,  unto  the  said 
party  of  the  second  part,  and  to  his  heirs  aud  assigns  for  ever,  ALL  that 


814  BUSINESS    FORMS. 

certain  piece,  parcel,  or  lot  of  land,  situate,  lying,  and  being :  (Here  describe 
premises. )  To  HAVE  and  to  hold  the  same^  together  with  all  and  singular 
the  tenements,  hereditaments,  and  appurtenances  thereunto  belonging, 
or  in  any  wise  appertaining,  and  the  reversion  and  reversions,  remainder 
and  remainders,  rents,  issues  and  profits  thereof;  And  a/so,  all  the  estate, 
right,  title,  interest,  dower,  property,  possession,  claim,  and  demand 
whatsoever,  as  well  in  law  as  in  equity,  of  the  said  parties  of  the  first 
part,  of,  in,  and  to  the  same,  and  every  part  and  parcel  thereof,  with  the 
appurtenances.  To  HAVE  AND  TO  HOLD  the  above  granted  and  described 
premises,  with  the  appurtenances,  unto  the  said  party  of  the  second  part, 
his  heirs  and  assigns,  to  his  and  their  proper  use,  benefit,  and  behoof  for- 
ever. PROVIDED  ALWAYS,  and  these  presents  are  upon  this  express  con- 
dition, that  if  the  said  party  of  the  first  part,  his  heirs,  executors  and 
assigns,  shall  well  and  truly  pay  or  cause  to  be  paid  unto  the  said  party 
of  the  second  part,  his  executors,  administrators  or  assigns,  the  said  sum 
of  money  mentioned  in  the  condition  of  the  said  bond  or  obligation,  and 
the  interest  thereon,  at  the  time,  and  in  the  manner  mentioned  in  the 
said  condition,  according  to  the  true  intent  and  meaning  thereof ,  that 
these  presents  and  the  estate  hereby  granted  shall  cease,  determine,  and 
become  null  and  void.  And  the  said  John  Hunter,  for  himself,  his  heirs, 
executors,  and  administrators,  doth  covenant  and  agree  to  pay  unto  the 
said  party  of  the  second  part,  his  executors,  administrators,  or  assigns, 
the  said  sum  of  money  and  interest,  as  mentioned  above  and  expressed  in 
the  said  condition  of  the  said  bond.  AND  if  default  shall  be  made  in  the 
payment  of  the  said  sum  of  money  above  mentioned,  or  the  interest  that 
may  grow  due  thereon,  or  of  any  part  thereof,  that  then,  and  from 
thenceforth,  it  shall  be  lawful  for  the  said  party  of  the  second  part,  his 
executors,  administrators  and  assigns,  to  enter  into  and  upon  all  and 
singular  the  premises  hereby  granted,  or  intended  so  to  be,  and  to  sell 
and  dispose  of  the  same,  and  all  benefit  and  equity  of  redemption  of  the 
said  party  of  the  first  part,  his  heirs,  executors,  administrators,  or  assigns, 
therein,  at  public  auction,  according  to  the  act  in  such  case  made  and 
provided :  AND  as  the  attorney  of  the  said  party  of  the  first  part,  for  that 
purpose  by  these  presents  duly  authorized,  constituted,  and  appointed, 
to  make  and  deliver  to  the  purchaser  or  purchasers  thereof,  a  good  and 
sufficient  deed  or  deeds  of  conveyance,  in  the  law  for  the  same  in  fee 
simple,  and,  out  of  the  money  arising  from  such  sale,  to  retain  the 
principal  and  interest  which  shall  then  be  due  on  the  said  bond  or  obliga- 
tion, together  with  the  costs  and  charges  of  advertisement  and  sale  of 
the  premises,  rendering  the  overplus  of  the  purchase  money  (if  any  there 
shall  be)  unto  the  said  John  Hunter,  party  of  the  first  part,  his  heirs,  ex- 
ecutors, administrators,  or  assigns,  which  sale  so  to  be  made  shall  for- 
ever be  a  perpetual  bar,  both  in  law  and  in  equity,  against  the  said  party 
of  the  first  part,  his  heirs  and  assigns,  and  all  other  persons  claiming  or  to 
claim  the  premises,  or  any  part  thereof,  by,  from,  or  under,  him,  them, 
or  either  of  them. 

IN  WITNESS  whereof,  the  parties  of  the  first  part  have  hereunto  Bet 
their  hands  and  seals  the  day  and  year  first  above  written. 

JOHNT  HUNTER,  (L.S.) 
MARGARET  HUNTER,  (L.S.S 

Signed,  sealed,  and  delivered]  m 

in  presence  of 

THOMAS  BATES, 

WILLIAM  BELL,      \ 


BUSINESS   FORMS.  Sl5 

No.  43.  form  of  Satisfaction  Piece. 

I,  William  West,  of  Dorset,  Bennington  County,  Vermont,  do  hereby 
certify  that  a  certain  mortgage,  bearing  date  the  'tenth  day  of  April,  one 
thousand  eight  hundred  and  seventy-eight,  made  and  executed  by  John 
Hunter,  and  Margaret,  his  wife,  of  the  same  place,  and  recorded  in  the 
office  of  the  Clerk  of  the  county  of  Bennington,  in  Liber  45,  p.  76,  of, 
Mortgages,  on  10th  day  of  April.  1878,  is  paid.  Dated  1st  May,  1878. 

WILLIAM  WEST,  (L.S.) 
SENNINGTON  COUNTY,  Vermont,  SS. : 

Ou  the  first  day  of  May,  1878,  before  me  came  William  West,  to  me 
personally  known  to  be  the  individual  described  in,  and  who  executed 
the  above  certificate,  and  acknowledged  that  he  executed  the  same. 

JOHN  HAMPDEN,  7.  P. 
No.  44.  Assignment  of  Mortgage. 

KNOW  ALL  MEN  BY  THESE  PRESENTS,  that  I,  William  West,  of  Dor- 
set, county  of  Benuington,  State  of  Vermont,  agent,  of  the  first  part,  for 
and  in  consideration  of  the  sum  of  five  thousand  dollars,  lawful  money 
of  the  United  States,  to  me  in  hand  paid  by  John  Howard,  of  the  same 
place,  farmer,  of  the  second  part,  at  or  before  the  eusealing  and  delivery 
of  these  presents,  the  receipt  whereof  is  hereby  acknowledged,  have 
granted,  bargained,  sold,  assigned,  transferred,  and  set  over,  and  by 
these  presents  do  grant,  bargain,  sell,  assign,  transfer,  and  set  over,  unto 
the  said  party  of  the  second  part,  his  heirs  and  assigns,  a  certain  inden- 
ture of  mortgage,  bearing  date  the  10th  day  of  April,  one  thousand  eight 
hundred  and  seventy-eight,  made  by  John  Hunter,  and  Margaret,  his 
wile,  and  recorded  in  the  office  of  the  Register  of  the  county  of  Benning- 
ton, State  of  Vermont,  in  Liber  36,  of  Mortgages,  p.  50,  together  with 
the  bond  or  obligation  thereto  belonging,  and  the  money  due,  and  to  be- 
come due  thereon,  with  the  interest,  To  HAVE  AND  TO  HOLD  the  sams 
unto  the  said  party  oi  the  second  part,  his  heirs,  administrators  and 
assigns  for  ever,  subject  only  to  the  proviso  in  the  said  Indenture  of 
Mortgage  mentioned.  AND  I  do  hereby  make,  constitute,  and  appoint 
the  said  party  of  the  second  part,  my  true  and  lawful  attorney  irrevocable, 
in  my  name  or  otherwise,  but  at  his  own  proper  costs  and  charges,  to  have, 
use  and  take,  all  lawful  ways  and  means  for  the  recovery  of  the  said 
money,  and  interest,  and,  in  case  of  payment,  to  discharge  the  same  as 
fully  as  I  might  or  could  do  if  these  presents  were  not  made. 

IN  WITNESS  WHEREOF,  I  have  hereunto  set  my  hand  and  seal,  the 
first  day  of  May,  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  seventy-eight. 

WILLIAM  WEST,  (L.S.) 

In  presence  of  "|  I 

DUNCAN  FORBES,  > 
JOHN  REID,  ) 

NOTE. — Deeds,  mortgages,  and  assignments  of  mortgages  should  be 

?ut  on  record  in  the  Register's  office  without  delay  after  being  executed, 
'he  foregoing  forms  (as  well  as  the  following)  are  suitable  for  either 
the  United  States  or  Canada. 

No.  45.  Form  of  Will  for  Real  and  Personal  Property . 

I,  Joseph  Knight,  of  the  city  of  Toronto,  county  of  York,  and  Province 
of  Ontario,  grocer,  realizing  the  uncertainty  of  life,  and  being  of  feeble 


816  BUSINESS   FORMS. 

health,  but  of  sound  mind,  memory,  and  judgment,  do  make  and  declar* 
this  to  be  my  last  will  and  testament  in  manner  and  form  following,  to 
wit: 

First,  I  give,  Demise,  and  bequeath  unto  my  eldest  son,  Robert  Knight, 
the  sum  of  four  thousand  dollars,  now  on  deposit  in  the  Bank  of  Mon- 
treal, together  with  my  grocery  store  at  No. street,  with  all  the 

.tenements  and  improvements  thereto  belonging:  to  have  and  to  hold 
unto  my  said  son,  his  heirs  and  assigns  forever. 

Second,  I  give  and  bequeath  unto  my  beloved  wife,  Charlotte,  abso- 
lutely, the  house  in  which  I  now  reside,  at  No. street,  together 

-with  all  the  furniture  therein,  including  piano,  organ,  linen,  china,  the 
plate,  wearing  apparel,  etc. ,  together  with  ten  thousand  dollars  in  Bank 
stock  a*d  Railway  bonds,  now  lodged  in  my  safe ;  the  same  to  be  in  lieu 
of  her  dower  at  common  law. 

Third,  I  give  and  bequeath  to  my  invalid  mother,  Ellen  Knight,  the 
income  and  rents  from  my  farm  in  Scarboro  during  the  term  of  her  natu- 
ral life.  Said  farm  to  revert  to  my  sons  and  daughters  in  equal  propor- 
tion upon  the  demise  of  my  said  mother. 

Fourth,  I  give  and  bequeath  unto  my  youngest  son,  Joseph  Knight, 

three  thousand  dollars,  also  my  tenement  house  on street,  with  all 

the  improvements  thereto  belonging;  to  have  and  to  hold  unto  my  said 
gon,  his  heirs  and  assigns  forever. 

Fifth,  I  give  and  bequeath  the  sum  of  one  thousand  dollars  to  my 
executors,  to  be  equally  divided  between  them,  in  full,  for  all  services  in 
the  matter  of  the  execution  of  this  my  last  will  and  testament. 

Sixth,  I  direct  that  my  debts  and  funeral  expenses  be  paid  from  moneys 
now  on  deposit  to  my  credit  in Savings  Bank  of  Toronto,  the  bal- 
ance of  such  money,  together  with  all  the  rest  and  residue  of  my  estate, 
to  my  three  daughters,  Mary,  Ellen,  and  Isabella,  to  be  equally  divided 
between  them  for  their  use  forever. 

I  hereby  nominate  and  appoint  David  Waterson,  Robert  Ford,  and 
James  Thomson,  the  executors  of  this  my  last  will  and  testament,  and  re- 
voke all  other  and  former  wills  made  and  executed  by  me. 

IN  WITNESS  WHEREOF  I  have  hereunto  set  my  hand  and  seal  this  tenth 
day  of  April,  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  sever  ty-eight. 

JOSEPH  KNIGHT,  (L.S.) 

Signed,  sealed,  published, 
declared  and  acknowl- 
edged, by  the  abo  re- 
named testator,  to  be  his 

v  last  will  and  testament, 
in  our  presence,  and  we 
each,  at  his  request,  and 
in  his  presence,  and  in 
the  presence  of  each 
other,  subscribe  our 
names  as  witnesses. 

ALEXANDER     ADAM,     75 

King  St.,  Toronto. 
THOMAS     ROBSON,     214 

Yonge  St. ,  Toronto. 
ADAM  CL  AKK/JS  Adelaide 

St.,  Toronto, 


BUSINESS    FORMS.  817 

NOTE.— The  provisions  of  a  will  should,  in  every  ca0«,  be  so  clearly 
defined  that  there  can  be  no  mistake  about  the  meaning.  Any  person  of 
proper  age,  and  sound  judgment  may  convey  property  by  will.  All  lega- 
tees are  debarred  by  law  from  witnessing  wills  in  which  they  are  inter- 
ested ;  their  signature  would  nullify  the  whole  instrument,  and  no  person 
can  serve  as  executor  if  he  be  under  21  years  of  age,  a  lunatic,  convict, 
imbecile,  or  an  alien  at  the  time  of  proving  the  will.  The  father  may  ap- 
point his  wife,  son,  brother,  or  any  other  relative  as  executor,  and  each 
in  their  turn  may  do  likewise,  as  confidence  may  exist.  An  addition  tc 
\he  will,  called  a  codicil,  designed  to  modify,  add  to,  or  change  previous 
•bequests,  may  be  executed  at  anytime,  but'in  every  case  it  must  be  ren-r 
dered  as  definite  aud  precise  as  the  will  itself,  witnessing  included.  * 

No.  46.  Agreement  for  the  Sale  and  Purchase  of  Land. 

THIS  AGREEMENT,  made  and  executed  the  first  day  of  May,  one 
thousand  eight  hundred  and  seventy-eight,  between  Charles  Giles,  of 
Kingston,  U'ster  county,  State  of  New  York,  farmer,  of  the  first  part, 
and  Thomas  Kingmau,  of  the  city  of  New  York,  milkman,  of  the  second 
part 

WITNESSETH,  that  the  said  party  of  the  first  part,  for  and  in  consider- 
ation of  the  sum  of  three  thousand  dollars  (to  him  promised  to  be  paid), 
of  which  the  sum  of  five  hundred  dollars  is  now  paid,  the  receipt  of 
which  is  hereby  acknowledged,  and  the  remaining  twenty-five  hundred 
dollars  is  hereby  agreed  to  be  paid  at  the  time  the  deed  hereinafter  men- 
tioned is  given, 'hath  contracted  and  agreed  to  sell  to  the  said  party  of  the 
second  part,  all  that  certain  piece,  parcel,  or  tract  of  land  situate  in  the 
town  of  Kingston,  county  of  Ulster,  and  State  of  New  York,  aforesaid, 
known  and  described  on  the  map  made  by  Thomas  Adams,  surveyor,  and 
filed  in  the  Clerk's  office  of  the  said  county.  October  5,  1830,  [by  the 
number  (47)  forty-seven,]  and  bounded  and  described  as  follows  :  (Here 
describe  property).  And  the  said  party  of  the  first  part  agrees  to  execute 
and  deliver  to  the  said  party  of  the  second  part,  a  warranty  deed,  with 
full  covenants,  for  the  said  described  lands  :  PROVIDED,  and  upon  condi  - 
tion  nevertheless,  that  the  said  party  of  the  second  part,  his  heirs  and 
assigns,  pay  to  the  said  party  of  the  first  part,  his  heirs  or  assigns,  for  the 
said  land,  the  sum  of  three  thousand  dollars,  lawful  money  of  the  United 
States,  in  the  way  and  manner  following,  to  wit: 

(Here  specify  the  amount  and  dates  of  payments.) 

AND  the  said  party  of  the  second  part,  for  himself,  his  heirs,  execu- 
tors, and  administrators,  doth  covenant  and  agree,  to  and  with  the  said 
party  of  the  first  part,  his  heirs  and  assigns,  that  the  said  party  of  the 
second  part  will  pay  the  said  several  sums  as  they  become  due,  without 
any  deduction  for  taxes  or  assessments  whatever:  And  it  is  further  agreed 
between  the  parties  to  these  presents,  that,  if  default  be  made  in  fulfilling 
this  agreement,  or  any  part  thereof,  on  the  part  of  the  said  party  of  the 
second  part,  then,  and  in  such  case,  the  said  party  of  the  first  part,  hjs 
heirs  and  assigns,  shall  be  at  liberty  to  consider  this  cancelled,  and  the 
money  already  paid  forfeited,  aud  to  dispose  of  the  said  land  to  any  other 
person  in  the  same  manner  as  if  this  contract  had  never  been  made. 

IN  WITNESS  WHEREOF,  we  have  hereunto  set  our  hands  aud  seals  the 
iav  and  vear  first  above  written. 

f^TT A  TJ  T  Ti*€!   I"1  IT  "F*^   f[    Q  } 

Signed,  sealed,  and  deliv-  )  THOMAS  KINGMAN,  (L.8. 

ered  in  presence  of  > 

STEPHEN  HAMILTON,  )  t 


gran 
Com 


€18  BUSINESS   FORMS. 

No.  47.  Power  of  Attorney,  General  Form. 

KNOW  AI/L  MEN  BY  THESE  PRESENTS,  that  I,  Robert  Grant,  of  Broolfa 
lyn,  in  the  county  of  Kings,  and  State  of  New  York,  merchant,  hav« 
made,  constituted  and  appointed,  and  by  these  presents  do  make,  consti- 
tute and  appoint,  Thomas  Bannerman,  of  the  city  of  Hamilton,  in  the 
county  of  Wentworth,  and  province  of  Ontario,  a  true  and  lawful  attor- 
ney for  me,  and  in  my  name,  place  and  stead,  and  in  my  behalf,  to  (here 
insert  the  duties  to  be  performed),  hereby  giving  and  granting  unto  my;' 
said  attorney  full  power  and  authority  in  the  premises  to  use  all  lawful^ 
means  in  my  name  and  for  my  sole  benefit,  for  the  purposes  aforesaid. 
And  generally  to  do  and  perform  all  and  every  act  and  thing  whatsoever, 
Tequisite  and  necessary  to  be  done  in  and  about  the  premises,  as  fully  to 
.-all  intents  and!  purposes  as  I  might  or  could  do  if  personally  present,  with 
full  power  of  substitution  and  revocation,  hereby  ratifying  and  confirm- 
ing all  that  my  said  attorney,  or  his  substitute,  shall  lawfully  do,  or  cause 
to  be  done,  by  virtue  hereof. 

IN  WITNESS  WHEREOF,  I  have  hereunto  set  my  hand  and  seal  this  first 
day  of  May,  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  seventy-eight 

ROBERT  GRANT,  (L.S.> 
Signed  and  sealed  in  presence  of  ) 
DAVID  SCOTT.  i 

NOTE. — In  cases  where  the  attorney  is  empowered  to  sell  land  and 

mt  deeds,  the  power  of  attorney  must  be  placed  on  record  in  the 

nity  Register's  office. 

No.  48.  Agreement  for  Building  a  House. 

ARTICLES  OF  AGREEMENT,  made  the  first  day  of  June,  one  thousand 
eight  hundred  and  seventy-eight,  between  John  Hall,  of  Lockport,  in  the 
county  of  Niagara,  and  State  of  New  York,  of  the  first  part,  and  George 
Hunter  of  the  said  town,  county  and  State,  of  the  second  part. 

WITNESSETH,  that  the  said  John  Hall,  party  of  the  first  part,  for  con- 
siderations hereinafter  noted,  contracts,  bargains,  and  agrees  with  the 
said  George  Hunter,  party  of  the  second  part,  his  heirs,  assigns,  and  ad- 
ministrators, that  he  the  said  Hall,  will  within  four  months,  next  follow- 
ing this  date,  in  a  good  and  workmanlike  manner,  and  according  to  his 
foest  skill,  well  and  substantially  erect  and  finish  a  three-story  brick 

dwelling  house  on  lot  No. street,  which  said  house  is  to  be  of 

the  following  dimensions,  with  brick,  stone,  lumber,  and  other  materials, 
AS  described  in  the  plans  and  specifications  hereunto  annexed. 
(Here  describe  buildings,  material,  plan,  &c.,  in  full. 

In  consideration  of  which,  the  said  George  Hunter  does,  for  himself 
and  legal  representatives,  promise  to  pay  to  the  said  John  Hall,  his  heirs, 
executors,  and  assigns,  the  sum  of  six  thousand  dollars,  in  the  way  and 
manner  following,  to  wit:  One  thousand  dollars  at  the  beginning  of  said 
^Kvork,  one  thousand  dollars  on  the  first  day  of  August  next,  one  thou- 
sand dollars  on  the  first  day  of  September  next,  and  the  remaining  three 
thousand  dollars  on  the  completion  of  the  building. 

It  is  also  agreed  that  the  said  John  Hall,  or  his  legal  representatives, 
shall  furnish,  at  his  or  their  expense,  all  brick,  stone,  lime,  lumber,  doors, 
blinds,  glazed  sash,  window  frames,  nails,  paint,  and  other  materials  re- 
-quired  for  the  building  and  finishing  of  said  house. 

It  is  further  stipulated  that  in  order  to  be  entitled  to  said  payments, 
*he  said  John  Hall,  or  his  legal  representatives,  shall,  according  to  the 
architect's  appraisement,  have  expended,  in  labor  and  material,  the 
*alue  of  said  payments,  ou  the  house,  at  time  of  payment. 


BUSINESS    FORMS.  8JS 

And  for  the  true  and  faithful  performance  ©f  all  and  every  of  the 
•ovenants  and  agreements  above  mentioned,  the  parties  to  these  presents 
covenant  and  agree,  each  with  the  other,  that  the  sum  of  one  tnousan  I 
dollars,  as  fixed,  settled,  and  liquidated  damages,  shall  be  paid  to  tl  -•» 
other  by  the  failing  party  within  one  month  from  the  time  of  so  failing 

IN  WITNESS  WHEREOF  we  have  hereunto  set  our  hands  the  year  anc 
day  first  above  written. 

JOHN  HALL, 
GEORGE  HUNTER. 

NOTE. — Agreements  should  be  executed  in  duplicate  so  that  each  prrt> 
may  hold  a  copy.  If  erasures  or  interlineations  are  made  in  agreements 
contracts,  deeds,  mortgages,  etc.,  the  fact  should  be  stated  on  the  paprr 
that  they  were  so  done  before  the  parties  signed  it.  Amounts  and  drt<  > 
should  always  be  written  out,  and  not  expressed  in  figures.  Fraud  rii  - 
ates  every  contract  into  which  it  enters.  See  legal  brevities  on  page 
587. 

No.  49.  Assignment  of  a  Patent-Eight, 

WHEREAS  I,  David  Ritchie,  of  the  city  of  Newark,  in  the  county  of 
Essex,  and  State  of  New  Jersey,  engineer,  did  obtain  letters-patent  of 
the  United  States  for  improvements  in  steam-engine  governors,  whk-:, 
letters-patent  bear  date  the  first  day  of  April,  one  thousand  eight  hun- 
dred and  seventy-eight ;  and  whereas  Peter  Jackson,  of  the  city  of  T'  - 
ronto,  in  the  county  of  York,  and  Province  of  Ontario,  is  desirous  of  pi  - 
chasing  from  me  all  the  right,  title,  and  interest,  which  I  have  in  anu  t  >• 
said  invention,  in  consequence  of  the  grant  of  letters-patent  therefor  : 

Now  THIS  INDENTURE  WITNESSETH,  that  for  and  in  consideration  «  : 
the  sum  of  one  thousand  dollars,  lawful  money  of  the  United  States  t 
me  in  hand  paid,  the  receipt  of  which  is  hereby  acknowledged,  I  ha  e 
assigned,  sold,  and  set  over,  and  do  hereby  assign,  sell,  and  set  over  iu.:  . 
the  said  Peter  Jackson,  all  the  right,  title  and  interest  which  I  have  in  t. 
said  invention,  as  secured  to  me  in  the  said  letters-patent  (for,  to,  and  1:1 
the  several  provinces  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada,  and  in  no  other  place, 
or  places. ) 

The  same  to  be  held  and  enjoyed  by  the  said  Peter  Jackson,  for  hid 
own  use  and  behoof,  and  for  the  use  and  behoof  of  his  legal  representa- 
tives, to  the  full  end  of  the  term  for  which  the  said  letters-patent  are  »  r 
may  be  granted,  as  fully  and  entirely  as  the  same  would  have  been  held 
and  enjoyed  by  me  had  this  assignment  and  sale  not  been  made. 

IN  TESTIMONY  WHEREOF,  I  have  hereunto  set  my  hand  and  seal  this 
first  day  of  May,  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  seventy-eight. 

DAVID  RITCHIE,  (L.S.) 
Signed,  sealed,  and  deliv- 1 
ered  in  presence  of 

ROBERT  LOGAN,    [ 
JOHN  A.  BRUCE.  J 

No.  50.  Form  of  Affidavit, 
State  of  Vermont,    )  f       .f 
County  of  Rutland.  jtowlt' 

Robert  Dawson,  of  the  town  of  Whitehall,  in  the  county  aforesaid, 
being  duly  sworn,  says  (here  state  the  facts),  and  further  says  not. 


Sworn  to  thfe  fifth  day  of 
October,  A.D.,  1877,  before 
me. 

JOHN  WALLACE, 
Commissioner  of  Deeds. . 


ROBERT  DAWSON 


S20  BUSINESS   FORMS. 

No.  51.    Partnership  Agreement. 

THIS  AGREEMENT  made  this  first  day  of  January,  1878,  betwe«B 
Thomas  Murray  of  Toronto,  York  county,  Province  of  Ontario,  Domuv 
ion  of  Canada,  of  the  first  part,  and  John  Campbell,  of  the  same  place, 
of  the  second  part  :  witnesseth  :  That  the  said  parties  agree  to  associate 
themselves  as  co-partners,  for  a  period  of  seven  years  from  this  date,  in 
tlie  business  of  buying  and  selling  groceries  and  such  other  goods  au| 
commodities  as  belong  in  that  line  of  business  ;  the  name  and  style  ol 
if.ie  firm  to  be  "Murray  &  Campbell."  For  the  purpose  of  conducting 
the  business  of  the  above  named  partnership,  the  said  Murray  has  at 
t!ie  date  of  this  agreement,  invested  four  thousand  dollars  as  capital 
stock,  and  the  said  Campbell  has  paid  in  the  like  sum  of  four  thousand 
dollars,  both  of  whioih  amounts  are  to  be  expended  and  used  in  common, 
for  the  mutual  advantage  of  the  parties  hereto,  in  the  management  of 
their  business.  It  is  further  agreed  by  both  parties  hereto,  that  they 
\vill  not,  while  associated  as  co-partners,  follow  any  avocation  or  trade 
to  their  own  private  advantage  ;  but  will  throughout  the  entire  period 
of  copartnership,  put  forth  their  utmost  and  best  efforts  for  their  mutual 
advantage,  and  the  increase  of  the  capital  stock. 

That  the  details  of  the  business  may  be  thoroughly  understood  by 
each  other,  it  is  agreed  that  during  the  aforesaid  period,  accurate  and 
fall  book  accounts  shall  be  kept,  in  which  each  partner  shall  record,  or 
cause  to  be  entered  and  recorded,  full  mention  of  all  monies  received  and 
expended,  as  well  as  every  article  purchased  and  sold  belonging  to,  or 
in  any  wise  appertaining  to  said  partnership  ;  th»  gains,  profits,  expen- 
ditures and  losses  being  equally  divided  between  them. 

It  is  further  agreed  that  once  every  year,  or  oftener,  should  either 
party  desire,  a  full,  just,  and  accurate  exhibit  shall  be  made  to  each 
other,  or  to  their  executors,  administrators,  or  assigns,  of  the  losses,  re- 
ceipts, profits,  and  increase  made  by  reason  of,  or  arising  from,  such  co- 
partnership. And  after  such  exhibit  is  made,  the  surplus  profit,  if  such 
there  be,  resulting  from  the  business,  shall  be  divided  between  said  part- 
ners, share  and  share  alike.  Either  of  said  parties  shall  be  allowed  to 
draw  a  sum,  first  year,  not  exceeding  nine  hundred  dollars  per  annum, 
from  the  capital  stock  of  the  firm,  in  monthly  instalments  of  seventy-five 
dollars  each,  which  amount  may  be  varied,  more  or  less,  by  subsequent 
agreement.  And  furtner,  should  either  partner  desire,  or  should  death 
of  either  of  the  parties,  or  other  reasons,  make  itnecessary,  they,  the  said 
copartners,  will  each  to  the  other,  or.  in  case  of  death  of  either,  the  sur- 
viving partner  to  the  executors  or  administrators  of  the  party  deceased, 
make  a  fall,  accurate,  and  final  account  of  the  condition  of  the  partner- 
chip  as  aforesaid,  and  will  fairly  and  accurately  adjust  the  same. 
And,  also,  upon  taking  an  inventory  of  the  said  capital  stock,  with  in- 
crease and  profit  thereon,  which  shall  appear  or  is  found  to  be  remaining 
all  such  remainder  shall  be  equally  apportioned  and  divided  between 
them,  the  said  copartners,  their  executors,  or  administrators,  share  and, 
share  alike. 

It  is  also  agreed  that  in  case  of  a  misunderstanding  arising  with  the  part- 
ners aforesaid,  which  cannot  be  settled  between  themselves,  such  differ- 
ence of  opinion  shall  be  settled  by  arbitrators  upon  the  following  condi- 
tions, viz.  :  Each  party  to  choose  one  arbitrator,  which  two  thus  elected 
'  shall  choose  a  third  ;  the  three  thus  chosen  to  determine  the  merits  of 
the  case,  and  adjust  the  basis  of  a  settlement. 

)In  witness  whereof  the  parties  aforesaid  hereunto  set  their  hands  and 
aeals  the  day  and  year  first  above  written. 
Signed  in  the  presence  of 

JOHN  STEWAKT,  THOMAS  MURRAY,  [L.  S.J 

GEO.  SMITH.  JOHN  CAMPBELL.    [L.  S.J 


BUSINESS   FORMS.  $21 

No.  62.    Assignment  for  the  Benefit  of  Creditors. 

Know  all  men  by  these  presents,  that  I,  John  Currie,  of  the  Town  oi 
Rutland,  County  of  Rutland,  and  State  of  Vermont,  for  value  received, 
have  sold,  and  by  these  presents  do  grant,  sell,  assign,  and  convey  unto 
John  Davidson,  of  the  same  place,  all  the  accounts,  debts,  dues,  notes, 
!  bills,  and  demands  enumerated  and  specified  in  the  schedule  hereunto 
annexed,  and  marked  "  Schedule  A.  ;"  (the  scliedule  should  state  the  as- 
signment to  ichich  they  belong,  andbe  dated  and  signed  by  the  parties  for 
the  purpose  of  identification),  to  have  and  to  hold  the  same,  unto  the  said 
John  Davidson,  his  heirs  and  assigns  :  In  trust  to  collect,  sue  for,  de- 
mand, receive,  and  recover  all  such  sums  of  money  as  may  be  due, 
owing,  and  payable  thereon  ;  and  after  paying  all  reasonable  and 
proper  costs,  charges  and  expenses,  to  pay  to  each  and  all  of  my  credi- 
tors the  full  sum  that  may  be  due  and  owing  to  them  from  me,  of  whom 
the  said  John  Davidson  is  one,  and  a  full  and  complete  list  of  whom  with 
the  true  amount  due  to  each,  is  contained  in  the  schedule  hereto  annexed, 
marked  "  Schedule  B. ; ''  and  if  the  proceeds  of  the  said  notes,  accounts, 
bonds,  and  so  forth,  be  not  sufficient  fully  and  entirely  to  pay  off  and 
satisfy  each  and  all  of  my  creditors,  then  to  pay  them  pr^  rata  in  pro- 
portion to  the  amount  due  and  owing  to  each.  And  if  the  proceeds  as 
aforesaid  shall  be  more  than  sufficient  to  pay  every  one  of  my  creditors, 
then  to  pay  and  return  to  me  the  balance  that  may  be  left,  if  any,  aftet 
paying  all  my  creditors  as  aforesaid. 

And  I  do  hereby  nominate,  constitute,  and  appoint,  the  said  John 
Davidson  my  true  and  lawful  attorney,  irrevocable,  in  my  name  or  other- 
wise, for  the  purpose  aforesaid,  to  ask,  demand,  sue  for,  collect,  receive, 
and  recover,  all  and  singular,  such  sum  or  sums  of  money  as  now  or 
hereafter  may  become  due,  upon,  for,  or  on  account  of  any  of  the  prop- 
erty, effects,  things  in  action,  or  demands  above  assigned  ;  giving  and 
granting  unto  my  said  attorney  full  power  and  authority  to  do  and  per- 
form every  act,  deed,  and  thing,  requisite  and  necessary  in  the  premise*; 
as  fully,  to  all  intents  and  purposes,  as  1  might  or  could  do  if  this  assign- 
ment had  not  been  made  ;  with  full  power  of  substitution  and  revoca- 
tion, hereby  ratifying  and  confirming  all  that  my  said  attorney  or  his 
substitute  may  lawfully  do,  or  cause  to  be  done,  in  the  premises,  by 
virtue  hereof. 

In  witness  whereof  I  have  hereunto  set  my  hand  and  seal  this  fifth  day 
of  October,  1878. 

Signed,  sealed,  and  delivered,  JOHN  CUBBIE,  [L.  SL] 

In  the  presence  of 
ROBERT  PALMER, 
PBTEK  SHEUXUT. 

No.  53.    Form  of  Composition  with  Creditors. 

NOTE.— The  following  shows  the  form  of  a  contract  between  a  debtor 
-who  is  only  able  to  pay  a  portion  of  his  debts,  with  his  creditors,  where 
(  foy  they  agree  to  accept  a  certain  sum  less  than  the  original  claim  ;  and, 
upon  receipt  thereof,  not  to  prosecute  or  trouble  the  debtor  on  account 
of  his  debt. 

KNOW  ALL  MEN  BY  THESE  PRESENTS,  that  whereas  John  Smashwell, 
jfo  justly  indebted  to  us,  Robert  Rogers,  Andrew  J.  Reid,  and  Henry  Mid- 
dleton,  creditors  of  the  said  John  Smashwell,  in  divers  sums  of  money, 
which  he  has  become  unable  fully  to  pay  and  discharge;  therefore  we,  the 
said  creditors,  do  consent  and  agree  with  the  said  John  Smashwell,  to  de- 
mand less  than  the  full  amount  of  our  respective  claims,  and  to  accept 
tf  ten  cents  for  every  dollar  owing  to  each  of  us  the  said  creditor*  ol 


822  BUSINESS    FORMS 

fcbe  said  John  Smashwell,  in  full  satisfaction  and  discharge  of 
enil  claims  and  demands  ;  the  said  sum  of  ten  cents  on  a  dollar,  to  b« 
paid  to  each  of  us,  our  heirs,  executors,  and  administrators,  within  the 
•*l>ace  of  thirteen  months  from  the  date  hereof.  And  we,  the  creditors 
aioresaid,  do  further  severally  and  respectively  covenant  and  agree  with 
rlie  said  John  Smashwell,  that  he  may,  within  the  said  term  of  thirteen 
months  from  the  date  hereof,  sell  and  dispose  of  his  goods  and  chattels, 
,v;ires  and  merchandise,  at  his  own  free  will  and  pleasure,  for  the  pay- 
ment of  the  ten  cents  on  the  dollar  of  each  of  our  respective  debts,  and 
;.. at  neither  of  us  will  at  any  time  hereafter  sue,  arrest  or  attach  the 
suid  John  Smashwell,  or  his  goods  and  chattels,  for  any  debt  now  due 
and  owing  to  us  or  any  of  us,  provided  the  said  John  Smashwell  does 
well  and  truly  pay,  or  cause  to  be  paid,  the  said  ten  cents  for  every  dol- 
lar of  each  of  our  several  and  respective  claims  against  him.  And  ali 
and  each  of  the  covenants  and  agreements  herein  contained  shall  extend 
to  and  bind  our  several  executors,  administrators,  and  assigns. 

IN  WITNESS  WHEREOF,  we  hereunto  set  our  hands  and  seals  this 
fifteenth  day  of  November,  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  seventy- 
eight. 

Signed,  sealed,  and  delivered,  ROBERT  ROGERS,  [L.S.] 

In  the  presence  of  ANDREW  J.  REID,  [L.S.] 

THOMAS  BARCLAY,  HENRY  MIDDLETON.  [L.S.J 

JOHN  THOMPSON. 

No.  54.    Agreement  for  the  Hiring  of  a  Clerk  or  Workman. 

This  agreement  made  the  first  day  of  October,  one  thousand  eight 
aundred  and  seventy-eight,  between  Andrew  Service  of  Niagara  Falls, 
in  the  county  of  Niagara  and  State  of  New  York,  of  the  first  part,  and 
Thomas  Merchant,  of  the  city  of  Buffalo,  in  the  county  of  Erie  and  State 
Aforesaid,  of  the  second  part — 

WITNESSETH,  that  the  said  Andrew  Service  has  agreed  to  enter  the 
service  of  the  said  Thomas  Merchant  as  clerk  (journeyman,  mechanic  or 
'(iborer,  as  the  case  may  be)  in  the  store,  (or  factory,  &c.)  of  the  said 
Thomas  Merchant,  and  faithfully,  honestly,  carefully,  and  truly  obey, 
iind  to  the  utmost  of  his  power  serve  the  best  interests  of  the  said 
Thomas  Merchant,  for  and  during  the  space  of  one  year  from  the  date  of 
ihis  agreement,  for  the  compensation  of  six  hundred  dollars  per  annum, 
>ayable  quarterly. 

And  the  said  Thomas  Merchant  covenants  with  the  said  Andrew  Ser- 
vice, that  he  will  receive  him  as  his  clerk  (or  journeyman,  &c.)  for  the 
term  of  one  year  as  aforesaid,  and  will  pay  him  for  his  services  as  such 
^.erk  (or  journeyman,  <£c.)the  sum  of  six  hundred  dollars  annually  in 
,  larter  yearly  payments. 

In  witness  whereof  we  have  hereunto  set  our  hands  and  seals  the  day 
ud  year  first  above  written. 
.  Signed,  sealed,  and  delivered, 

In  the  presence  of 

JOHN  W.  WATSON,  ANDREW  SERVICE,  [L.  S.1 

WILLIAM  STRONG,  THOMAS  MERCHANT.  [L.  S.] 

NOTE. — To  prevent  troublesome  lawsuits  and  quarrels,  it  is  often  de- 
sirable to  fix  the  damages  for  the  violation  of  contracts.  This  may  be 
lone  by  inserting  the  following,  just  before  the  witnessing  clause. 

AND  IT  is  FURTHER  AGREED  between  the  parties  hereto,  that  tht 
party  that  shall  fail  to  perform  this  agreement  on  his  part  will  pay  to 
the  other  the  full  sum  of  sixty  dollars,  as  liquidated,  fixed,  and  settled 


BUSINESS   FORMS;  82k 

No.  55.    Apprentices'  Indentures. 

YHTS  INDENTURE  WITNESSETH,  that  Robert  Hill,  now  aged  sixteen 
years,  by  and  with  the  consent  of  his  father,  Thomas  Hill,  hath  volun- 
tarily, and  by  his  own  free  will  and  accord,  put  and  bound  himself  ap- 
prentice unto  Moses  Goldsmith,  of  No.  —  Maiden  Lane,  New  Yo>rk, 
jeweller,  to  learn  the  art,  trade,  and  mystery  of  the  business  of  working; 
and  manufacturing  the  precious  metals,  and  as  an  apprentice  to  serve 
from  this  date,  for  and  during,  and  until  the  full  end  and  term  of  ,«h- 
years  next  ensuing,  during  all  of  which  time  the  said  apprentice  his 
inaster  faithfully,  honestly,  and  industriously  shall  serve,  his  secrets 
keep,  all  lawful  commands  obey,  and  at  all  times  protect  and  preserve  the 
goods  and  property  of  his  said  master,  and  not  suffer  or  allow  any  to  be 
injured  or  wasted  ;  he  shall  not  buy,  sell,  or  traffic  with  his  own  goodsv 
or  the  goods  of  others,  and  not  be  absent  from  his  master's  service  day 
nor  night  without  leave,  and  in  all  things  behave  himself  as  a  faithful 
apprentice  ought  to  do  during  the  said  term.  AND  the  said  master  shall 
use  and  employ  the  utmost  of  his  endeavors  to  tea^h  or  cause  him,  the" 
said  apprentice,  to  be  taught,  or  instructed  in  the  art,  trade,  and  mys- 
tery of  a  jeweller  as  aforesaid,  (here  insert  conditions  as  to  board  and 
lodgings,  rate  of  wages,  time  of  payment,  &c.,  as  agreed  between  the  par- 
ties.) 

And  for  the  true  performance  of  all  and  singular  the-  covenants  andl 
agreements  aforesaid,  the  said  parties  bind  themselves  firmly,  each  to  the? 
other  firmly  by  these  presents. 

IN  WITNESS  WHEREOF,  the  parties  aforesaid  have  hereunto'  set  their 
hands  and  seals  the  twenty-fifth  day  of  October,  one  thousand  eight 
hundred  and  seventy-eight. 

Signed,  sealed  and  delivered,  ROBERT  BULL,.  [L.  S.l 

In  the  presence  of  MOSES  GOLDSMITH.  [L.  S.I 

WILLIAM  GORDON, 
THOMAS  WORKMAN. 

I  do  hereby  consent  to  and  approve  the  binding  of  my  son,  Robert 
Rill,  as  in  the  above  indenture  mentioned. 

THOMAS  HILZX 

No.  56.    Agreement  of  Teacher  with  School  Trustees. 

This  agreement,  made  this  first  day  of  November,  one  tnotrsattd 
eight  hundred  and  seventy-eight,  between  Peter  Whackboy,  of  the  vil- 
lage of  Stanley,  county  of  York,  Province  of  New  Brunswick,  Dominion 
of  Canada,  school  teacher,  of  the  first  part,  and  David  Brown,  John  San- 
som,  and  William  Currie,  of  the  village,  county,  province,  dominion 
i  aforesaid,  school  trustees,  of  the  second  part. 

I      WITNESSETH,  that  the  said  Peter  Whackboy,  holding  a  certificate 
ffrom  the  proper  authority  as  a  duly  qualified   first  class  teacher,  has; 
agreed  to  enter  the  service  of  the  said  school  trustees  as  teacher  in  the 
common  school  in  said  village,  and  that  he  will  faithfully,  honestly,  aud 
k  diligently  render  his  best  services  in  teaching  and  instructing  the  chil- 
dren, and  all  others  in  attendance  on  said  school,  imparting  to  them,  ac- 
cording to  the  best  of  his  ability,  a  thorough  knowledge-  of  reading-, 
writing,  arithmetic,  grammar,  and  the  other  English  branches  usually 
taught  in  common  schools,  and  further,  that  he  will,  by  every  means  iii 
his  power,  maintain  good  morals,  order,  and  discipline,  and' discounte- 
nance immorality  among  the  attendants  at  saidschool,  and  will  faithfully 
obey  all  reasonable  wishes  and  commands  of  the  said  trustees,  for  and 
,  during  the  space  of  one  year  from  the  first  day  of  December  next,  for  the  « 
'  tompeusation.  of  twelve  hundred  dollars  per  annum,  payable  quarterly. 
And  the  said  David  Brown,  John  Sausom>  and  William  Carrie,  covenant 


824  BUSINESS   FORMS. 

with  the  said  Peter  Whackboy  that  they  will  engage  him  as  teacher  ia 
said  school  for  the  term  of  one  year  as  aforesaid,  and  will  pay  him  for 
his  services  as  such  teacher  the  sum  of  twelve  hundred  dollars  per  an- 
num, in  quarter  yearly  payments. 

IN  WITNESS  WHEREOF,  we  have  hereunto  set  our  hands  and  seals  the 
day  and  year  first  above  written. 

Signed,  sealed,  and  delivered,  PETER  WHACKBOY,  [L.  S.J 


In  the  presence  of  DAVID  BROWN,  [L.  S.] 

DAVID  R.  MOORE,  JOHN  SANSOM,  [L.  S.] 

DAVID  POTTER.  WILLIAM  CURRIE,  [L.  S.] 


DAVID  R.  MOORE,  JOHN  SANSOM,  [L.  S. 

WILLIA: 

No.  57.    Form  of  Marriage. 


t 

In  conformity  to  an  orderly  and  long  established  custom  the  ceremon^ 
of  marriage  is  usually  performed  either  by  a  clergyman  or  civil  magis*- 
trate  ;  the  latter  may  be  a  justice  of  the  peace,  a  justice  of  the  supreme 
court,  a  judge  of  an  inferior  court, the  mayor  of  a  city,  or  *  police  justice, 
as  the  law  of  the  land  may  empower  and  authorize  them  to  solemnize  mar- 
riage. In  Canada  and  some  of  the  States,  a  license  to  marry  must  first 
be  procured  of  the  city,  town,  or  county  clerk,  or  other  agent  appointed 
lor  that  purpose,  duly  authorizing  the  clergyman  or  magistrate  to  marry 
the  affianced  parties.  Marriage  is  a  civil  contract,  and  may  be  entered 
into  by  parties  capable  of  consenting  thereto.  It  cannot  be  entered  into 
by  idiots  or  lunatics.  When  brought  about  by  force  or  fraud,  it  is  also 
void.  Marriage  is  likewise  prohibited  between  near  relations.  The  par* 
ties  must  be  of  the  age  of  consent,  which  is  generally  fourteen  in  males, 
and  twelve  in  females.  No  particular  ceremonies  are  enjoined  by  the 
common  law  to  the  valid  celebration  of  the  marriage  rite,  but  the  follow* 
ing  form  is  ia  common  use  by  magistrates  in  the  United  States. 

FORM  OF  MARRIAGE. 
( The  man  and  woman  standing,  the  justice  will  say  to  the,  man :) 

"  Will  you  have  this  woman  to  be  your  wedded  wife,  to  live  together 
after  GOD'S  ordinance,  in  the  holy  estate  of  Matrimony,  to  love  her,  com- 
fort her,  honor  and  keep  her,  in  sickness  and  in  health,  and  forsaking 
all  others,  keep  thee  only  unto  her,  so  long  as  you  both  shall  live  ?  " 
(Next,  addressing  the  woman,  tfte  justice  icill  say :) 

<{  Will  you  have  this  man  to  be  your  wedded  husband,  to  live  together 
after  GOD'S  ordinance,  in  the  holyv  estate  of  matrimony,  to  love,  honor, 
and  keep  him,  in  sickness  and  in  health,  and  forsaking  all  others,  keep 
thee  only  to  him  so  long  as  you  both  shall  live  ?  " 

(Each party  responding  in  the  affirmative,  the  justice  will  then  direct 
them  to  join  hands  and  say :) 

41  By  the  act  of  joining  hands  you  take  upon  yourselves  the  relation 
of  husband  and  wife,  and  solemnly  promise  and  engage  in  the  presence 
of  these  witnesses,  to  love,  honor,  comfort,  and  cherish,  each  other  as 
euch,  so  long  as  jrou  both  shall  live  ;  therefore  in  accordance  with  the 

laws  of  the  State  of ,  I  do  hereby  pronounce  you  husband  and 

wife.1' 

No.  58.    Short  Form  of  Marriage. 

(On  the  <x>ntracting  parties  rising  and  joining  hands  the  justice  will 
toy :) 

4i  By  this  act  of  joining  hands  you  do  take  upon  yourselves  the  relation 
of  husband  and  wife,  and  solemnly  promise  and  engage,  in  the  presence 
»f  these  witnesses,  to  love,  honor,  comfort,  and  cherish  each  other  as 


FORM   OF   MARRIAGE    CERTIFICATE,    ETC.  825 

•net,  as  long  as  you  both  shall  live  ;  therefore  in  accordance  with  th« 

tews  of  the  State  of ,  I  do  hereby  pronounce  you  husband  and 

wife." 

The  form  used  by  clergymen  varies  but  very  slightly  from  the  fore- 
going ;  to  all  intents  and  purposes  it  is  the  same,  although  the  wording 
may  be  modified  according  to  the  mode  prescribed  by  the  denomination 
to  which  the  clergyman  may  belong.  The  marriage  license  must  be  rrv 
turned  by  the  clergyman  or  magistrate  to  the  issuing  clerk  for  record, 
who  should  also  at  the  time  cf  issue,  furnish  a  blank  marriage  certificate  to 
be  filled  by  the  magistrate  or  clergyman  at  the  conclusion  of  the  ceremo- 
ny. The  certificate,  which  should,  for  obvious  reasons,  be  always  most 
carefully  preserved  by  both  husband  and  wife,  may  be  in  the  following 
form 

No.  59.     Marriage  Certificate. 

MARRIAGE  CERTIFICATE. 

STATE  OF  MICHIGAN,  WAYNE  COUNTY. 

This  certifies 

That  John  Goodfellow,  of  Chicago,  in  the  State  of  Illinois,  arid  Sarah 
Loveioy  of  Detroit,  Wayne  county,  State  of  Michigan,  were  at  the  house 
of  John  Splicewell,  in  the  said  city  and  county  by  me  joined  together  in 

HOLY  MATRIMONY, 

On  the  tenth  day  of  January,  in  the  year  of  our  LORD,  one  thousand 
eight  hundred  and  seventy-seven. 

IN  THE  PRESENCE  OF  GAMALIEL  BANGTEXT, 

TIMOTHY  COURTWELL,  Pastor  of  the  First Church, 

THOMAS  HOPEGOOD.  Detroit. 

ON  LEGAL  ADVTCE.— Lord  Mansfield  considered  a  clear  understand- 
ing of  the  duties  of  men  in  society  as  the  true  basis  of  legal  science.  He 
says  :  "I  may  cite  one  of  the  ablest  lawyers  of  this  century,  who,  to 
strong  natural  sense,  united  to  largest  experience,  for  a  similar  opinion— 
my  honored  master,  the  late  Mr.  Tidd.  I  well  remember  the  advice  he 
gave  to  a  pupil  who  was  about  to  commence  practice  :  '  When  you  are 
called  upon  for  your  opinion,  make  yourself  perfectly  familiar  with  all 
the  facts,  and  then  consider  what  is  right.  You  may  be  pretty  sure  that 
is  the  law,  without  looking  much  into  cases.  When  once  the  facts  are 
well  ascertained,  few  persons  differ  in  opinion  as  to  the  result  of  a  civil 
,  action/  •' 

Prayer  of  Dr.  Samuel  Johnson  when  he  was  about  to  commence  the 
study  of  Law,  September  26,  1765. 

Almighty  God,  the  Giver  of  Wisdom,  without  whose  help 
resolutions  are  vain,  without  whose  blessing  study  is  ineffectual, 
enable  me,  if  it  be  Thy  will,  to  attain  such  knowledge  as  may 
qualify  me  to  direct  the  doubtful  and  instruct  the  ignorant,  to 
prevent  wrong  and  terminate  contention ;  and  grant  that  T  may 
use  that  knowledge  which  I  shall  attain  to  Thy  glory  and  my 
•wn  salvation,  for  Thy  blessed  Name's  sake.  Amen. 


626 


VALUE    OF    CURRENT    COINS. 


£OBB*NT    COINS    Of    THE    PRINCIPAL    COMMERCIAL    COUNTRIES,   WIT 
U.S.     DOLLARS,    CENTS    AND    MILLS. 


H    XBEIB    V*LUB     IS 


D.C.M. 

D.  C.  M. 

Austria,  Gold,  Quadruple  Ducat,           8  12  0 
"           "      Ducat,                               2  27  5 

Hesse  Darmstadt,  Silver,  Florin,            C  39  5 
Hindoostan,  Gold,  Mohur  (E.  I.  Co.),    7  10  0 

"          "  Sovereign  (for  Lombardy),6  75  0 

Silver,  Rupee,                    0  44  5 

"  Silver,  Rix  Dollar,                           0  97  0 

Mecklenberg,  Gold,  10  Thaler,                7  89  0 

"      "       Florin,                                   0  48  5 

Mexico,  Gold,  Doubloon,  av.                 ]5  53  0> 

"      "       20  Kreutzers,                        0  16  0 

Silver,  Dollar,  av,                      1   00  7 

"      "       Lira  (for  Lombardy)           0  16  0 

Naples,  Silver,  Scudo.                              0  94  0  , 

Baden,  Gold,  5  Gulden,                           2  04  0 

Netherland,  Gold,  Ducat,                         2  26  5  ' 

"      Silver,  Crown,                              1  07  0 

"   10  Guilders,                  4  00  7 

"           "      Gulden,  or  Florin,           0  39  5 

"              Silver,  3  Guilders,               1  20  0 

Bavaria,  Gold,  Ducat,                                2  27  0 

"                 "           Guilder,                 0  40  0 

"        Silver,  Crown,                             1  06  5 

"                 "   Twenty-five  cents,      0  09  C 

"       "       Florin,                                 0  39  5 

«,                 "2^  Guilders,                0  98  2 

"       "       6  Kreutzers,                        0  03  0 

New  Granada,  Gold,  Doubloon,  21  car.  15  61  0 

Belgium,  Gold,  20  Franc  piece,                3  83  2 
"           "       25  Franc  piece,                4  72  0 

"                    "  including  the  silver,  15  66  0 
"                      "  9-10ths  the  stand.,    1531  0 

Silver,  5  Francs,                        0  98  0 

"                      "  including  the  silver,  15  36  0 

"           "        2)£  Francs,                        0  46  5 

Silver,  Dollar,  U.  S.  weight,  1  02  0   . 

"           "       2  Francs,                          0  37  0 

••                 "       Dollar,  or  10  Reals,  0  93  0    ' 

«•           "       1  Franc,                            0  18  5 

Norway  Silver,  Rigsdaler,                        1  05  0 

Bolivia,  Gold,  Doubloon,                         15  58  0 

Persia,  Gold,  Somann,                             2  23  0 

"       Silver,  Dollar,                              1  00  6 

"      Silver,  Sahib  Koran,                   0  21  0 

"      X  Dollar  (debased  1830),  0  37  5 

Peru,  Gold,  Doubloon,  Lima,  to  1833,  15  55  0 

"           "    ^.  Dollar  (debased  1830),  0  18  T 
Brazil,  Gold.  Piece  of  6,400  Reis,             8  72  0 

Cuzco,  to  1833,        15  62  0 
•'        »        Cuzco  to  1837,                  15  53  6. 

"      Silver,  1,200  Reis,                          0  99  0 

"        Silver,  Dollar,  Lima  mint,       105 

"       "       800  Reis,                               0  66  0 

••              "           "    Cuzco,                 108 

14       "       400  Reis,                               0  S3  0 

•'  XDol.,  Cuzco,  debased,  0  3 

Bremen  Silver,  36  Grote,                          0  35  6 

•'                  "  X  Dol  .,  Arequipa    "    0360 

Britain,  Gold,  Sovereign,                        .  4  84  5 

"                 "  #  Dollar  Pasco,             0  49  5 

Silver,  Half  Crown,                    0  54  0 
"           "      Shilling,                            0  21  7 

Poland.  Silver,  Zloty,                               0  11  2 
Portugal,  Gold,  Half  Joe  (full  weight),  8  65  0- 

Brunswick  Gold,  Ten  Thaler,                7  89  0 

"    Crown,                             5  81  Q 

«           Silver  Thaler,                          0  68  0 
Central  America,  Gold,  Doubloon,       14  96  0 

"   Silver,  Cruzado,                             0  55  2 
"          "     Crown  of  1000  Reis,            1  12  Q. 

"                          "    Escudo,             1  67  0 

"          "     Half  Crown,                         0  56  0 

"        Silver,  Dollar,                           0  67  0 

Prussia,  Gold,  Double  Frederick,            8    Oo 

Costa  Rka,  Gold,  Half  Doubloon,  1850,  7  62  0 
Silver,  New  Real,                   0  05  8 
Chili,  Gold,  Doubloon  (before  1835),      15  57  0 
"       "    Doubloon  (since  1835),        15  66  0 

Silver,  Thaler,  average,             0  68  o 
"    £  Thaler,  average,            0  11  Q 
"              "  D'ble  Thai.  3%  Gulden,  1  39  0 
Rome,  Gold,  Ten  Scudi,                        10  37  0 

••    Silver,  Dollar,                                  1  01  0 

"    Silver,  Seudo,                                   1     0  5. 

»       "      %  Dollar,                              0  22  4 

"       "  Seston  (3-10  Scudi).               0  30  0- 

««       "      £  Dollar  or  Real,                0112     Russia,  Gold,  5  Roubles,                           3967 
Denmark,  Gold,  Doub  Fred,  or  10  Thai.  7  88  0           »    'silver.  Rouble.                              A  75  0 

"   Silver,  Rigsbank  Daler,                 0523 

"       "       Ten  Zloty,                          1  13  S 

"       »      Specie  Daler,                       1  04  7 

"        "       SOCopecs,                           0220 

"      32  Skillings,                         0170 

Sardinia,  Gold,  20  Lire,                            3  84  5 

Ecuador,  Gold,  %  Doubloon,                  7  60  0 

"         Silver,  5  Lire,                             0932 

Silver/k  Dollar,                        0  18  7 
Egypt,  Gold,  100  Piasters,                         4  97  0 

Saxony,  Gold,  10  Thaler,                         7  94  0 
"          "       Ducat,                                2  26  0 

«     Silver,  20  Piasters,                        0  96  0 
France,  Gold,  20  Frames,                          3850 

"   Silver  Species  Thaler,                 0  96  0! 
"       "    Thaler  (XIV  E.  M.)             0680' 

"      Silver,  5  Francs,                           0  93  0 

Siam.  Silver.  Tical,                                   0  58  5 

•  •         «'            Franc,                           0  18  5 
Frankfort,  Silver,  Florin,                        0395 

Spain,  Gold(Qr.  Doubloon),                   3  90  5 
"  Silver,  Pistareen  (4  Reals  VeUa),  0  19  5 

Greece,  Gold,  20  Drachms,                       3  45  0 

Sweden,  Silver,  Species  Thaler,             1  04  0 

"      Silver,  Drachm,                           0  16  5 

%  Daler.                            0  52  0 

Guiana,  Br.,  Silver,  Guilder,                  0  26  2 

Turkey,  Gold,  1(M>  Piasters,                      4  37  4 

Hanover,  Gold,  10  Thaler,                        7  89  0 
Silver,  Thaler  (fine  surer),     0  69  2 

"          "    20  Piasters  (new),                0  82  « 
"      Silver,  20  Piasters,  "                     0  82  0 

»       Thaler  (750  fine).         0  68  0 

Tuscany,  Gold,  Sequin,                            2  30  0 

Hayti,  Silver,  Dollar  (100  centimes),      0  25  7 
Hesse  Cassel,  Silver  Thaler,                    0  67  5 

"         Silver,  Lepoldone,                  1  05  0 
"       Florin,                           0  26  2 

..                         5  Thaler,                    0  11  0 

Wurtemburg,  Silver,  Gulden,  I&'U.        0  38  0 

The  quarter  of  wheat  is  equal  to  the  quarter  of  a  ton  of  2240  Ibs.  or  560  Ibs.  ; 
70  Ibs.  in  weight  are  an  English  bushel  of  wheat,  while  60  Ibs.  of  wheat  make 
our  bushel  ;  so  that  the  U.  S.  wheat  bushel  is  just  6-7ths  of  the  English  of 
imperial  and  a  quarter  of  wheat  in  England  is  equal  to  9y3  bushels  in  the. 
United  States,  though  in  capacity  to  only  8V4  bushels. 
The  barrel  of  flour  contains  5  Winchester  bushels,  and  weighs,  nee  li  b  IDs. 
The  barrel  of  Indian  com  contains  3  1-8  bushels.    The  weight  of  a  gallon  or 

jnolasses  is  usuaUy  11  Ibs,  but  sometimes  10  or  12. 


STATE    AND    PROVINCIAL    LAWS. 


827 


AND  PROVINCIAL  LAWS  REGARDING  LEGAL  AND  SPECIAL 
INTEREST,  THE  LIMIT  OF  TIME  IN  ACTIONS  FO*  DEBT,  &C., 
TOGETHER  WITH  THE  LARGEST  SUMS  OBTAINABLE  BY  LEGAL  PRO- 
CESS BEFORE  A  JUSTICE  OF  THE  PEACE  IN  VARIOUS  STATES,  TEB- 
RITORIES  AND  PROVINCES. 


i 

"S  *J 

-•§B 

States  and  Territories. 

lit 

•3  £ 
c  a 
o  o 

ccoun 
ears. 

li 

*SS 

4*    ^ 

li 

•-1  c 

Penalty  for  Usury. 

az> 

«fH 

^* 

fcjH 

>?e^ 

iSg, 

xOfc. 

Alabama, 

!$100 

10 

3 

6 

20 

1 

8 

8 

Forfeit  all  Int. 

Arkansas, 

500 

10 

3 

5 

10 

I 

6 

10 

For.  prin.  and  int. 

Arizona, 

10 

None. 

California, 

300 

5 

2 

4 

5 

1 

10 

None. 

Colorado, 

300 

3 

6 

6 

3 

1 

10 

None. 

Connecticut, 

100 

17 

6 

6 

20 

3 

7 

7 

For.  excess  of  int. 

Dakota  Ter., 

100 

20 

6 

6 

20 

2 

7 

12 

Forfeit  all  int. 

Delaware, 

100 

20 

3 

6 

20 

1 

6 

6 

Forfeit  prin. 

Dist.  of  Columbia. 

12 

3 

3 

12 

1 

6 

10 

Forfeit  all  int. 

Florida, 

50 

20 

4 

5 

20 

2 

8 

None. 

Georgia, 

100 

20 

4 

6 

7 

1 

12 

Forfeit  all  int. 

Idaho  Ter., 

100 

5 

2 

4 

5 

2 

10 

24 

Fine  andimpris't 

Illinois, 

200 

10 

5 

10 

20 

1 

6 

10 

Forfeit  all  int. 

Indiana, 

200 

20 

6 

20 

20 

2 

6 

10 

Forfeit  ex.  of  int. 

Iowa, 

300 

10 

5 

10 

20 

2 

6 

10 

Forfeit  all  int. 

Kansas, 

300 

15 

3 

5 

5 

1 

8 

12 

For.  all  int.  over  12. 

Kentucky, 

50 

15 

2 

15 

15 

1 

6 

8 

Forfeit  all  int. 

Louisiana, 

100 

20 

3 

5 

10 

1 

8 

Forfeit  all  int. 

Maine, 

20 

20 

6 

20 

20 

2 

6 

None. 

Maryland, 

100 

12 

3 

3 

12 

1 

6 

6 

Forfeit  ex.  of  int. 

Massachusetts, 

300 

20 

6 

20 

20 

2 

6 

None. 

Michigan, 

300 

10 

6 

6 

6 

2 

7 

10 

For.  ex.  over  7  p.  c. 

Minnesota, 

100 

6 

6 

6 

10 

2 

7 

12 

None. 

Mississippi, 
Missouri, 

150 
300 

7 
10 

3 
5 

6 
10 

7 
20 

1 

2 

6 
6 

10 
10 

For.  excess  of  int. 
Forfeit  all  int. 

Montana  Ter., 

10 

5 

10 

10 

2 

10 

None. 

Nebraska, 

100 

10 

4 

5 

5 

1 

10 

12 

Forfeit  all  int 

Nevada, 

300 

4 

2 

4 

5 

2 

10 

None. 

New  Brunswick 

20 

6 

6 

3 

\L 

6 

None. 

New  Hampshire, 
New  Jersey, 

13.33 

100 

20 
16 

6 
6 

6 
6 

20 
20 

2 

6 

7 

6 

7 

For  3t  the  ex  &  coste 
Forfeit  of  all  int. 

New  Mexico, 

100 

10 

6 

10 

10 

1 

6 

None. 

New  York, 

200 

20 

6 

6 

20 

2 

7 

7 

For.  of  contract. 

North  Carolina. 

200 

10 

3 

3 

10 

3 

6 

8 

Forfeit  of  all  hit. 

Ohio, 

300 

15 

6 

15 

15 

1 

6 

8 

For.  ex.  over  6  p.  c. 

Ontario,  Can., 
Oregon, 
Pennsylvania, 

250 
100 

20 
20 
20 

6 
6 
6 

6 
6 
6 

20 
10 
20 

2 
2 
1 

6 

10 
6 

12 
6 

None.                      j 
For.  prin.  and  int 
Forfeit  ex.  of  int. 

Quebec,  Can,, 
Rhode  Island, 

100 

30 
20 

5 
6 

5 

6 

30 
20 

1.2 
1 

6 
6 

None. 
None. 

South  Carolina, 

100 

20 

6 

6 

20 

2 

7 

None. 

Tennessee, 

500 

6 

6 

6 

10 

1 

6 

10 

Forfeit  ex.  of  int. 

Texas, 

100 

5 

2 

4 

10 

1 

8 

12 

U                U              H 

Utah  Ter. 

300 

7 

2 

4 

5 

1 

10 

None. 

Vermont, 
Virginia, 

200 
50 

8 
20 

6 
5 

14 
5 

8 
10 

2 
1 

6 
6 

6 

6 

Forfeit  ex.  of  int. 
Forfeit  of  all  int. 

Wash.  Ter., 

100 

6 

3 

6 

6 

2 

10 

None. 

West  Virginia, 
Wisconsin, 
Wyoming  Ter., 

100 
300 
100 

10 
20 
15 

5 
6 
6 

10 
o 
15 

10 
20 
15 

1 

2 
1 

6 

7 
12 

6 

10 

Forfeit  ex.  of  int. 
Forfeit  of  all  int. 
None. 

828  SPECIAL  LAWS   OP  ALABAMA, 

COKDBNSED  SI'  NOPSIS  OF  THE  LAWS  PERTAINING  TO  TH1 

COLLECTION  OF  DEBTS, 
THROUGHOUT  THE  UNITED  STATES  AND  DOMINION  OP  CANADA, 

Presenting  a  digest  of  the  laws  of  each  State,  Territory  and  Province,  rein* 
ing  to  Exemptions  from  Forced  Sale,  Mechanics  Lieu,  Arrest  and  Attach* 
ment  for  Debt,  Assignments,  Garnishment,  Bills  and  Notes,  Jurisdiction  of 
Courts,  Judgments,  Executions,  Chattel  Mortgages,  Deeds,  Rights  of  Married 
Women,  Wills,  &c. 

The  immense  utility  of  the  following  compilation  will  be  self  evident  to 
every  Mechanic,  Farmer,  Trader,  Merchant,  Business  Man,  Professional 
Gentleman  and  Householder,  whose  interests  are  in  the  slightest  degree 
identified  with,  or  dependent  upon,  the  supreme  rule  of  law  and  order 
throughout  the  community.  The  enormous  losses  resulting  from  ignorance 
pf  the  law  on  the  aforesaid  subjects  are  absolutely  incalculable,  and  the 
diffusion  of  information  bearing  upon  them  cannot  become  too  general.  The 
toercive  appliances  of  the  Law  are  regarded  with  much  disfavor  by  schem- 
ing and  dishonest  debtors,  for  it  is  well  settled  upon  sound  principles  and 
the  highest  authority,  that  every  bargain  to  do  anything  which  the  law  for- 
bids, or  the  omission  to  do  anything  which  the  law  enjoins,  is  null  and 
void.  No  contract  can  be  enforced  which  contravenes  the  principles  of  the 
common  law,  the  provisions  of  a  statute,  or  the  general  or  public  policy  of  the 
law.  In  Nellis  vs.  Clark  (4  HilVs  Rep.  424),  it  was  held  that  the  vendor  of 
real  estate  sold  for  the  purpose  of  defrauding  his  creditors,  could  not  re- 
cover the  price. 

Business  men,  and  all  others  having  outlying  debts  to  collect,  are  referred 
to  an  invaluable  work  entitled,  Tne  Collection  Compendium,  published  by 
E.  A.  Smith,  516  Pine  st.,  St.  Louis.  The  work  presents  a  new  and  original 
system  for  the  collection  of  claims  by  means  of  local  agents  at  all  points  in 
the  United  States  and  Canada,  upon  very  low  stipulated  rates  of  percentages, 
without  the  intervention  of  third  parties.  With  this  work  at  hand  no  man 
need  be  at  a  loss  to  collect  a  debt  in  any  part  of  the  country  (provided  the 
debtor  is  responsible/,  on  the  most  reasonable  terms,  and  with  very  slight 
loss  of  time. 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  ALABAMA. 

EXEMPTIONS.— Home  worth  $2,000  and  Personal  Property.— By  the  Confltitn- 
tion  of  Alabama  (1868),  The  personal  property  of  any  resident  of  this  State  to 
the  value  of  one  thousand  dollars,  to  be  selected  by  such  resident,  shall  be  exempt 
from  sale  or  execution,  or  other  final  process  of  any  court  issued  for  the  collection 
of  any  debt  contracted  since  the  adoption  of  the  present  Constitution  (1868).  Every 
homestead,  not  exceeding  eighty  acres  of  land,  the  dwelling  and  appurtenances 
thereon,  to  be  selected  by  the  owner,  and  not  in  a  city,  town  or  village,  or  in ' 
lieu  thereof,  at  the  option  of  the  owner,  any  lot  in  a  city,  town  or  village,  with, 
the  dwelling  and  appurtenances  thereon,  owned  and  occupied  by  any  resident  of 
the  State,  and  not  exceeding  the  value  of  $2,000,  shall  be  exempt  from  sale  on 
execution  or  any  other  final  process  from  a  court  for  a  debt  contracted  since  the 
adoption  of  this  Constitution.  Such  exemption  does  not  extend  to  any  mortgage 
lawfully  obtained ;  but  such  mortgage  or  other  alienation  of  such  homestead, 
by  the  owner  thereof ,  if  a  married  man,  shall  not  be  valid  without  the  voluntary 
signature  and  assent  of  the  wife  of  the  same.  The  homestead  of  a  family,  after , 
the  death  of  the  owner,  is  exempt  from  the  payment  of  debts  contracted  since 
the  adoption  of  this  Constitution  in  all  cases  during  the  minority  of  the  children  ; 
f>r  if  the  owner  dies  leaving  a  widow  and  no  children,  the  same  shall  be  exempt 
for  her  benefit,  and  the  rents  and  profits  thereof  shall  enure  to  her  benefit. 
This  exemption  does  not  extend  to  cases  of  laborers'  liens  for  work  done  an4 
performed  for  the  person  claiming  such  exemption  or  the  mech.-f.nics'  lien  fot 
vork  don«  on  the  premises.  (Constitution  of  1868.) 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  ALABAKA. 

In  addition  to  the  above,  the  Legislature  passed  an  Act  (approve*  Aprf  234, 
1873),  exempting  by  statue  the  personal  property  of  any  resident  of  this  Stat* 
to  the  value  of  $1,000,  to  be  selected  by  the  resident.  The  homestead  of  every 
resident  not  exceeding  one  hundred  and  sixty  acres  of  land,  and  appurtenance* 
thereon,  to  be  selected  by  the  owner  thereof,  or  in  lieu  thereof,  at  the  option  of 
the  owner,  any  lot  in  a  city,  town  or  village, -with  the  dwelling  and  appurtett- 
ances  thereon,  said  lot  not  to  exceed  $2,000  In  value. 

LIEN  OP  MECHANICS  AXD  LABOEEKS.— By  act,  approved  March  19th,  1773,  a 
lien  is  given  to  laborers  and  employees  (except  officers)  of  railroads  in  this  State, 
for  work  and  labor  done  by  them  aa  such.  Such  extends  to  all  the  property,*' 
rights,  effects  and  credits  of  eve.-y  description  of  such  railroad  companies.  4 
Hen  is  also  given  to  all  contractors,  mechanics,  builders,  bricklayers,  plasterers, 
painters,  and  every  other  person  whatever  in  the  State  01  Alabama,  for  work  and 
labor  done  by  them  as  such,  and  for  materials  furnished  ,  and  guch  lien  extends 
to  all  the  rights,  title  and  interest  of  the  person  or  peisons  for  whom  the  work  ia 
done,  or  the  materials  furnished,  in  the  property  upon  which  such  work  ia  dona 
and  for  which  such  materials  are  furnished,  includin"  the  land  upon  which  such 
property  may  be  situated.  Provided,  that  all  the  liens  g  ven  under  this  act  shall 
all  be  held  to  be  waived,  unless  proceedings  are  commenced  within  six  month* 
after  the  completion  of  such  work,  to  enforce  same.  Such  liens  are  enforced  by 
process  of  attachment.  (Act,  approved  19th  March,  1875., 

COLLECTION  .OP  DEBTS.— Attachment  may  issue  for  the  collection  of  a  debt, 
whether  due  or  not  for  any  money  demand,  the  amount  of  which  can  be  certainly 
ascertained,  to  recover  damages  for  the  breach  Oi  a  contract  where  the  damages 
are  not  certain  or  liquidated ;  anu  where  the  action  sounds  in  damages  merely, 
Upon  an  affidavit  made  by  the  creditor,  or  his  agent  or  attorney,  that  the  debtor 
absconds,  tecretes  himself,  or  resides  out  of  this  State,  eo  that  Drocess  cannot  b« 
eerved  upon  him,  or  is  about  to  remove  his  property  out  of  this  State,  whereby 
the  plaintiff  may  lose  his  debt  or  be  compelled  to  sue  for  it  in  another  State ;  or 
that  the  debtor  Las  fraudulently  disposed  of,  or  is  about  fraudulently  to  dispose 
of  his  property ;  or  that  he  h:;s  money,  property  or  effects  liable  to  satisfy  his 
debts,  which  he  fraudulently  withholds;  and  stating  the  amount  due.  and  thafr 
the  attachment  is  not  sued  out  for  the  purpose  of  vexing  or  harrassing  the  debtor,, 
upon  the  plaintiffs  executing  bond  payable  to  the  defendant  in  double  the 


ing  may  be  issued  on  the  same  grounds  as  in  original  attachments-  in  which 
the  suit  proceeds  as  if  commenced  by  original  attachment. 

Every  action  founded  upon  a  contract,  express  or  implied,  must  be  prosecuted 
in  the  name  of  the  party  really  interested,  whether  he  have  the  legal  title  or  not, 
•ubject  to  any  defense  the  debtor  may  have  against  the  payee  or  creditor  pre  viou» 
to  notice  of  transfer ;  but  this  does  not  apply  to  bills  of  exchange  or  instru- 
ments payable  in  bank  or  at  a  designated  place  of  payment,  ana  commercial 
Vistruments. 

Arrest  in  civil  action  or  imprisonment  for  debt  is  prohibited  in  this  State. 
ittfttes  of  deceased  persons  are  subject  to  the  payment  of  all  debts  except  ce*» 
§dn  exemptions  in  favor  o£  the  widow  and  children  of  the  deceased. 

DEEDS,  MORTGAGES,  RIGHTS  OF  MABKIED  WOMEN,  WILLS,  ETC.— Acknowl- 
edgments, and  proof  of  conveyances  maybe  taken  by  judges  of  the  supreme  and 
circuit  courts  and  their  clerks,  chancellors  and  registers  In  chancery,  -judges  of 
probate,  justices  of  the  peace  and  notaries  public.  If  taken  in  other  States  of 
the  United  States,  they  may  be  taken  by  the  judges  and  clerks  of  the  federal 
courts,  judges  of  any  court  of  record  in  any  State,  notary  public  or  commissioner 
appointed  by  the  Governor  of  Alabama.  Beyond  the  limits  of  the  United  States.' 
,  iuch  acknowledgements  and  proof  may  be  taken  by  the  judge  of  any  court  of  •. 
record,  mayor  or  chief  magistrate  of  any  city,  town,  borough  or  county,  notary 
public,  or  any  diplomatic,  consular  or  commercial  agent  of  the  United  States. 
No  other  proof  or  authentication  of  such  acknowledgement  is  necessary  than  the 
certificate  of  such  officer,  unless  such  o.Ticerbe  a  justice  of  the  peace,  when  it 
must  be  certified  that  such  ot-cer  was  a  justice  of  the  peace,  and  that  his  attesta- 
tion is  genuine,  by  some  judge  of  a  court  of  record,  or  a  commissioner  :>f  that 
State. 

All  conveyances  of  land  must  be  written  or  prints  0:1  parchment  or  paper* 
and  signed  by  the  vendor,  or  by  his  agent,  legally  authorized  in  writing,  and 
when  the  party  cannot  write,  l-.is  name  must  be  written  for  him,  with  r.  orosa  and 
the  words  as  follows  :  "  his  mark  ;  "  and  when  so  executed  must  be  Attested  by 
$m>  witnesses  who  can  write,  who  must  write  their  namea  witnesses  thereto* 


880  SPECIAL    LAWS    OF    ALABAMA. 

The  wife  may  relinquish  her  right  to  dower  by  joining  with  her  husband  in  a  c«5^ 
yeyanee  fA  land,  and  acknowledging  same  as  above  provided.  Husband's  must 
join  in  conveyance  of  wife's  separate  property. 

If  the  grantor  is  unknown,  his  identity  may  be  established  by  witnesses  suffl* 
cient  to  satisfy  the  officer  before  whom  the  acknowledgment  is  made. 
[Acknowledgment  of  Husband  and  Wife.] 

[Form.] 

THE  STATK  OF  ALABAMA,     | 
BUTLER  COUNTY,        j 

I  (name  and  style  of  officer)  hereby  certify  that  Thomas  Clark  and  Sarah 
Clark,  his  wife,  whose  names  are  signed  to  the  foregoing  conveyance,  and  who 
Are  known  to  me,  acknowledged  before  me  on  this  day,  that  being  informed  of 
the  contents  of  the  conveyance,  they  executed  the  same  voluntarily,  on  the 
day  the  same  bears  date. 
Given  under  my  hand  this  the  day  of  ,  A.D.  187  . 

(Signature  and  title.) 

The  real  and  personal  property  of  any  female  in  this  State,  acquired  before 
marriage,  and  all  property  to  which  she  may  be  entitled  by  gift,  grant,  inher- 
itance or  devise,  shall  not  be  liable  for  any  debts,  obligations  and  engagements 
of  her  husband,  and  may  be  devised  or  bequeathed  by  her  as  she  were  a  femme 
sole.  (Const,  of  18G8).  A  conveyance  of  the  wife's  separate  estate  may  be  made 
by  the  husband  and  wife  jointly,  signed  in  the  presence  of  two  witnesses,  or  ac- 
knowledged before  any  officer  authorized  to  take  acknowledgments  of  deeds. 
The  husband  is  not  liable  for  the  wife's  debts?  contracted  before  marriage  ;  but 
ehe  may  be  sued  alone  and  her  separate  property  is  liable  for  the  satisfaction 
thereof. 

When  no  officer  is  convenient  for  taking  acknowledgments,  a  deed  may  be 
Attested  by  two  witnesses,  and  afterward  proved  in  the  following  form  : 

[Form.] 

THE  STATE  OF  ALABAMA,   ) 
BENTON  COUNTY.  )   s' 

I  (name  and  style  of  officer)  hereby  certify  that  ,  a  subscribing  witnesl 

to  the  foregoing  conveyance,  known  to  me,  appeared  before  me  this  day,  and  being 
sworn,  stated  that  ,  the  grantor  in  the  conveyance,  voluntarily  ex- 

ecuted the  same  in  his  presence,  and  in  the  presence  of  the  other  subscribing 
•witness,  on  the  day  the  same  bears  date  ;  that  he  attested  the  same  in  the  presence 
of  the  grantor  and  of  the  other  witness,  and  that  such  other  witness  subscribed 
liis  name  as  a  witness  in  his  presence. 

Given  under  my  hand  this  the  day  of  ,  A.D.  187 

(Signature  and  title.) 

The  examination  of  the  wife  separate  and  apart  from  her  husband  is  neces- 
sary to  convey  the  title  to  any  homestead  exempt  by  the  laws  of  this  State. 
(See  Exemptions).  This  examination  may  be  had  before  a  circuit  or  supreme 
judge,  chancellor,  or  judge  of  probate  or  justice  of  the  peace,  who  must  endorse 
thereon  a  certificate  in  writing  in  the  following  form  : 

[Form.] 

STATE  OF  ALABAMA,  > 
COUXTY  OF  MORGAN,  j  ss 

I,  ,  judge,  (chancellor,  notary  public  or  justice  of  the  peace,  as  the  case 

may  be),  hereby  certify  that  on  the  day  of  ,  A.D.  18    ,  came 

before  me  the  within  named  ,  known  (or  made  known)  to  me  to  be  the 

wife  of  the  within  named  .  who,  being  by  me  examined  separate  and 

apart  from  her  husband,  touching  the  signature  of  the  within  ,  acknowl- 

edged that  she  signed  the  same  of  her  own  free  will  and  accord,  and  without  fear, 
constraint  or  persuasion  of  her  husband. 

In  witness  whereof,  I  hereunto  set  my  hand  this  the  day  of  ^ 

187    .  A.  B.  (judge,  chancellor,  etc.,  as  the  case  may  be). 

The  widow,  (if  no  provision  is  made  for  her  by  will),  is  entitled  to  one-third 
part  of  the  real  estate  of  which  her  husband  died  seized,  and  to  which  she  has 
not  relinquished  the  right  of  dower,  and  one-half  of  the  personal  property  if 
there  be  no  children  or  if  there  be  but  one  child ;  if  there  be  more  than  one 
child,  and  less  than  five,  she  is  entitled  to  a  child's  part ;  if  there  be  five  children 
or  more,  she  is  entitled  to  one-fifth  part  in  absolute  right.  She  shall  be  endowed 
of  one-half  of  her  husband's  absolute  estate  when  he  dies  leaving  no  lineal  des- 
cendants, unless  the  estate  is  insolvent.  The  widow  may  dissent  from  or  waive 
provision  in  a  will,  and  claim  her  dower,  at  any  time  within  one  year  after  tb» 


SPECIAL    LAWS    OF    ARKANSAS.  831 

probate  of  the  will.  The  widow  may  retain  the  dwelling-place,  house,  plantation. 
Sec.,  free  from  rent,  until  her  dower  is  assigned  her. 

Chattel  mortgages,  are  legal  in  this  State  but  are  null  and  void  as  to  creditors 
and  purchasers  without  notice  until  recorded,  unless  the  property  is  brought 
into  this  State  subject  to  such  incumbrance,  in  which  case  they  must  be  regis- 
tered >vithin  four  months,  and  if  such  property  be  removed  to  a  different  county 
from  that  in  which  the  grantor  resides,  the  conveyance  must  be  recorded  within 
six  months  from  the  removal,  or  it  ceases  to  have  effect  as  to  creditors  and  pur- 
chasers from  the  grantee  without  notice.  All  such  mortgages  must  be  recorded 
in  the  county  where  the  grantor  resides,  and  also  where  the  property  is. 

WILLS.— Every  person  21  years  of  age,  and  of  sound  mind,  may  dispose  of 
I,inds  by  will.  Wills  must  be  signed  by  the  testator,  or  by  some  one  in  his  pres- 
ence and  at  his  request,  and  attested  by  three  or  more  witnesses.  Nuncupative 
wills  may  be  established  when  the  testator  in  his  last  illness  calls  on  persons  U 
take  notice  that  such  is  his  will. 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  ARKANSAS. 

EXEMPTIONS.— Home  worth  55,000,  and  personal  property  52,000, 160  acrei  of 
land,  or  1  town  or  city  lot  being  the  residence  of  a  householder  or  the  head  of  A 
family,  the  appurtenances  and  improvements  thereto  belonging,  to  the  value  of 
$5,000,  and  personal  property  to  the  value  of  $2,000. 

MECHANICS'  LIEN.— Mechanics,  material  men  and  laborers  have  a  lien  on 
land  and  improvements  to  the  extent  of  their  labor.  The  original  contractor  must 
file  his  lien  within  three  months  after  all  the  things  shall  have  been  done  or  fur- 
nished. Sub-contractors  must  give  notice  to  owner,  proprietor,  agent  or  trustee, 
oefore  or  at  the  time  he  furnishes  any  of  the  things  or  performs  services.  These 
have  precedence  over  all  other  subsequent  incumbrances. 

COLLECTION  OF  DEBTS.— Attachments  may  issue  against  a  defendant's  prop- 
erty upon  the  following  grounds  ;  In  actions  for  recovery  of  money  where  the 
action  is  against  a  non-resident ;  one  absent  four  months  ;  has  left  the  county 
of  his  residence  to  avoid  the  service  of  summons  ;  about  to  remove,  or 
has  removed  his  property,  not  leaving  enough  to  satisfy  plaintiff's  claim  :  con- 
ceals himself  ;  has  sold  his  property  with  fraudulent  intent  to  cheat,  hinder  or 
delay  his  creditors,  or  is  about  to  do  so.  Bond  in  double  the  amount  claimed, 
with"  good  securities,  residents  of  county. 

Boats  running  on  the  navigable  water  of  the  state  may  be  attached  for  debts 
contracted  by  the  owner,  &c.,  on  account  of  work  or  supplies  furnished  the 
boat. 

No  arrest  is  allowable  for  debt  in  any  civil  action  or  mesne,  or  final  process, 
unless  in  cases  of  fraud. 

In  suits  on  open  claims,  the  affidavit  of  plaintiff,  legally  taken  and  certified, 
•will  be  deemed  sufficient  proof  unless  the  defendant  shall,  under  oath,  deny  tho 
correctness  of  the  account,  either  in  whole  or  in  part,  in  which  event  tho 
£lainti.T  must  prove  the  disputed  portion  of  his  account  by  other  evidence. 

Affidavits  may  be  made  out  of  the  state  before  a  commission  appointed  by  tha 
Governor  of  Arkansas  for  that  purnose,  or  before  a  mayor  of  a  city,  a  judge  of  a 
•ourt.  notary  public,  or  justice  of  the  peace,  whose  certificate  shall  be  deemed 
proof  of  its  execution.  The  affidavit  must  be  signed  by  the  affiant,  the  certi- 
ficate of  the  officer  shall  be  written  separately,  following  the  signature  of  tha 
affiant,  and  all  verifications  must  be  attached  to  the  instrument  verified. 

Garnishment  can  be  issued  upon  judgments  or  attachments  against  any  per- 
feon  owing  the  debtor,  or  having  his  property  in  possession. 

Assignments  of  bonds,  bills,  notes,  agreements,  and  contracts  in  writing,  for 
the  payment  of  money  or  property,  are  permissable  here.  Assignments  for  the 
benefit  of  creditors  are  held  good.  Every  assignment  of  every  instrument  •£ 
writing  must  bear  date  of  the  true  day  on  which  it  was  executed. 

Every  protested  draft  or  bill  of  exchange  draws  10  per  cent,  interest  from 
date  of  protest.  If  drawn  upon  any  person  in  the  state,  it  is  in  addition  subject 
to  2  per  cent,  damages,  if  on  any  person  and  payable  in  Alabama,  Louisiana, 
Mississippi,  Tennessee,  Kentucky,  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  and  Missouri,  or  any 
point  011  the  Ohio  river,  4  per  cent,  damages,  if  upon  any  person  and  payable 
at  any  other  place  in  the  United  States,  10  per  cent,  damages  on  amount  specified 
in  the  bill.  If  owned  by  any  person  within  this  state,  2  per  centum  ;  if  without 
thla  state,  but  in  tho  U.  S.,  li  per  centum,  if  without  the  limits  of  the  U.  S.,  10 


832  SPECIAL   LA\VS   OP   ARKANSAS. 

per  centum*  The  holder  shall  have  his  action  against  the  owner,  endorser,  af 
acceptor,  or  either  of  them,  and  the  protect  is  held  to  be  evidence  of  demand 
and  refusal  of  payment.  | 

Judgments  in  circuit  courts  are  a  lien  upon  real  estate  in  county  for  3  years, 
and  may  be  revived  so  as  to  continue  lien  to  10,  after  which  no  execution  can  is» 
sue.  Judgments  in  justice  courts  can  form  a  lien  by  filing  transcript  iu  circuit 
•lerk's  office. 

Executions  cannot  issue  for  10  days  after  judgment  urless  ordered  by  the  court 
and  when  issued  to  the  proper  officer  are  liens  upon  property  liable  to  seizure. 
If  no  goods  be  found  the  debtor  and  any  one  supposed  to  owe  him,  or  have  his 
property  in  possession  can  be  made  amenable  to  answer  under  oath  \rhat  prop- 
srty  or  interest  he  has  subject  to  execution.  { 

Jurisdiction  of  justice  of  the  peace  in  matter  of  contract  is  $100  exclusive  of, 
interest,  for  damages  §100  ;  in  replevin  $300:  and  in  suits  concurrent  with 
the  circuit  court  when  amount  does  not  exceed  $300.  Circuit  courts  have  juris- 
diction of  all  sums  over  $100,  both  at  common  law,  and  in  equity. 

DEEDS.  MORTGAGES,  AXI>  CHATTEL  MORTGAGES,  RIGHTS  OP  MARRIED 
WOMEX,  WILLS,  &c. — Deeds  must  be  under  seal — a  scrawl  is  a  seal.  Acknow- 
ledgement, if  made  in  this  State,  may  be  made  before  a  justice  of  the  peace  of 
the  county  where  the  land  lies,  judge  of  supreme  or  circuit  court,  or  clerk  of  any 
court  of  record,  or  notary  public  ;  if  out  of  the  United  States,  before  the  court 
of  any  State,  Kingdom  or  Empire  having  a  seal,  or  any  mayor  or  chief  officer 
of  any  city  or  town  having  an  official  seal,  or  before  any  officer  of  any  foreign 
Country,  who,  by  the  laws  of  such  country,  is  authorized  to  take  probate  of  tha 
conveyance  of  real  estate  of  his  own  country,  if  such  officer  has,  by  law,  an  offi- 
cial seal.  When  taken  out  of  this  State,  but  within  the  United  States  or  their 
territories,  before  any  court  of  the  United  States,  or  any  State  or  territory  having 
A  seal,  or  the  clerk  of  any  such  court,  or  before  the  mayor  of  any  city  or  town, 
or  chief  of  any  city  or  town  having  a  seal  of  office,  or  before  any  commissioner 
appointed  by  the  Governor  of  this  State.  The  seal  must  be  attached,  when  there 
is  one,  and  the  daedrecorded  in  the  county  where  the  land  lies. 

The  following  is  the  form  wrhen  husband  and  wife  join  in  the  deed,  the  latter 
releasing  dower.  It  is  necessary  for  husband  and  wife  to  join  in,  whether  hit 
own  or  her  property : 

[Form  I.] 

STATE  OF  ,  ) 

COUXTY  OP  ,  ) 

Be  it  remembered  that  on  this  day  of  ,  one  thousand  eight 

hundred  and  seventy  ,  before  me,  the  undersigned,  ,  came  , 

who  are  personally  known  to  me  to  be  the  same  persons  whose  names  are  sub<- 
ecribed  to  the  foregoing  instrument  of  writing,  as  parties  thereto,  and  severally 
acknowledged  the  same  to  be  act  and  deed  for  the  purposes  and  consider, 

ation  therein  mentioned. 

And  at  the  same  time  the  said  wife  of  the  said  having  been 

by  me  first  made  acquainted  with  the  contents  of  said  instrument,  on  an  exam- 
ination separate  and  apart  from  her  said  husband,  acknowledged  that  she  exe- 
cuted the  same  and  relinquished  dower  in  all  the  property  therein  mentioned, 
freely  and  without  compulsion,  or  undue  influence  of  her  said  husband. 

In  testimony  whereof  I  have  hereunto  set  my  hand  and  seal  of  office,  the  day 
and  year  first  above  written.  (Signature.) 

Married  women  can  hold  property  both  real  and  personal,  free  from  the  debt*. 
ttf  her  husband,  but  a  schedule,  under  oath,  and  verified  by  the  oath  of  some 
other  reputable  person  must  be  made  by  the  husband  and  wife,  and  filed  in  the 
recorder's  office  of  the  County  where  the  property  is,  and  of  the  County  where 
they  Beside.  A  widow  shall  b«  endowed  of  the  third  part  of  the  property  where-/ 
of  her  husband  was  seized  of  an  estate  of  inheritance  at  anytime  during  the1 
Carriage,  unless  the  same  was  relinquished  in  legal  form. 

A  Chattel  mortgage  is  of  no  avail  as  a  lien  unless  recorded  in  the  County 
irhere  the  property  is. 

WiUs  shoulft  be  executed  as  shown  in  "Business  Form  No.  45,  on  pp.  815-8 
and  established  by  the  disinterested  evidence  of  at  least  three  unim 
•Fitnesses  to  the  liana  writing  and  signature  of  the  testator. 


SPECIAL    LAWS    OF    CALIFOBNIA.  88$ 

SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  CALIFORNIA. 

EXEMPTIONS  FROM  FORCED  SALE— House  worth  $5,000  ana  personal  property. 
Necessary  household  and  kitchen  furniture,  one  sewing  machine  and  one  piana 
fn  actual  use ;  weari»g  apparel  and  one  month's  provisions  for  the  family. 
Farming  utensils  ;  also  2  oxen,  or  2  horses,  or  2  mules,  and  their  harness,  one 
cart  or  wagon,  and  food  for  such  oxen,  horses  or  mules  for  one  month;  also 
seed  to  §200  in  value.  Tools  or  implements  of  an  artisan  necessary  to  carry  on  his 
trade;  the  seal  of  a  notary  ;  the  instruments  of  a  physician,  dentist  and  rurveyor 
necessary  to  the  exercise  of  their  profession,  with  their  professional  libraries,; 
mnd  the  professional  libraries  and  furniture  of  lawyers,  judges  and  ministers  of 
the  gospel.  The  cabin  of  a  miner,  not  exceeding  in  value  the  sum  of  £500,  also 
his  appliances  for  mining,  not  to  exceed  in  the  aggregate  the  sum  of  ?500,  and  2 
horses,  mules  or  oxen,  with  their  harness,  and  food  for  such  oxen,  horses  or  mule* 
for  one  month.  Four  cows  with  their  sucking  calves,  and  4  hogs  with  their  suck- 
ing pigs  ;  poultry  not  exceeding  in  value  $50.  The  earnings  of  the  judgmei1* 
debtor  for  his  personal  services  rendered  at  any  time  within  30  days  p.ext  precea? 
Ing  the  levy.  The  shares  held  by  a  member  of  a  homestead  association,  not  ex- 
ceeding in  value  §1,000,  if  the  person  holding  the  ehares  is  not  the  owner  of  &. 
homestead  under  the  laws  of  this  State.  All  moneys,  benefits  or  annuities  prow- 
Ing  out  of  any  life  insurance  on  the  life  of  the  debtor,  in  any  company  corporated 
under  the  laws  of  the  State,  if  the  annual  premiums  paid  do  not  exceed  $500. 
Homestead  for  the  head  of  a  family,  not  to  exceed  §5,000  in  value. 

MECHANICS'  LIEN.— Mechanics  and  material  men  have  a  lien  for  labor  and 
^saterials  on  the  land  and  improvements  to  the  extent  of  their  claims.  The  prig- 
jnal  contractor  must  file  his  claim  within  60  days,  and  the  laborers  within  30- 
Jays,  after  the  debt  accrued.  This  lien  attaches  from  the  commencement  of  tlie> 
work,  and  has  procedure  over  any  subsequent  *»r  previous  unrecorded  encum- 
Drance. 

COLLECTION  OF  DEBTS. — Attachment  may  issue  on  affidavit  and  undertaking, 
with  two  sureties,  in  a  sum  not  less  than  §300,  or  greater  than  the  amount 
Claimed,  in  action  upon  a  contract,  express  or  implied,  for  the  direct  payment  of 
money,  where  the  contract  is  made  or  is  payable  in  this  State  and  is  not  secured,, 
or  the  security  becomes  valueless  ;  and  in  an  action  upon  a  contract,  express  or 
implied,  against  a  defendant  not  residing  in  this  State.  Every  species  of  property 
not  exempt  is  subject  to  attachment. 

Arrests  in  civil  actions  are  not  allowable  in  this  State  except  as  follows  :— 1. 
In  an  action  for  the  recovery  of  money  or  damages  on  a  cause  of  action  arising 
upon  a  contract,  express  or  implied,  when  the  defendant  is  about  to  depart  from 
the  State  with  intent  to  defraud  his  creditors.  2.  In  an  action  for  a  fine  or  pen- 
alt}*,  or  for  money  or  property  embezzled,  or  fraudulently  misapplied,  or  con- 
verted to  his  own  use  by  a  public  officer,  or  an  officer  of  a  corporation,  or  an  at- 
torney, or  factor,  broker,  agent  or  clerk,  in  the  course  of  his  employment  as  such, 
or  by 'any  other  person  in  a  fiduciary  capacity,  or  for  misconduct  or  neglect  in 
office  or  in  a  professional  employment,  or  for  a  willful  violation  of  duty.  3.  In 
an  action  to  recover  possession  of  personal  property  unjustly  detained;  when  the 
property  or  any  part  thereof  has  been  concealed,  removed  or  disposed  of  s  to  pro- 
rent  its  being  found  or  taken  by  the  sheriff.  ^.  When  defendant  has  been  guilty 
of  fraud  in  contracting  the  debt  or  incurring  the  obligation  for  which  the  action 
is  brought,  or  in  concealing  or  disposii^  of  the  property,  for  the  taking,  conceal- 
ing or  conversion  of  which  the  action  is  brought.  5.  When  the  defendant  has  r«*> 
moved  or  disposed  of  his  property,  or  is  about  to  do  so,  with  intent  to  <tefraudhi^ 
treditors.  No  female  can  be  arrested  in  any  action. 

Garnishment  *nay  be  made  under  execution  or  attachment  against  any  bailee  of 
the  debtor,  and  when  the  debtor's  interest  or  right  is  acknowledged  in  a  specified 
lum  or  article,  the  said  sum  or  article  may  be  paid  over  to  the  Sheritt  under  an 
order  of  court. 

Judgments  in  all  courts  of  record  and  in  the  justices'  court,  when  filed  in  the 
county  court,  are  liens  from  the  time  they  are  docketed,  which  muist  Le  within  24 
hours  after  their  rendition,  on  all  real  estate  owned  by  the  defendant  not  exempt 
and  situated  in  the  county  where  the  judgment  was  rendered,  for  a  period  of  2 
years,  unless  the  defendant  stay  execution  by  an  appeal  bond,  in  which  case  the 
lien  ceases.  By  recording  a  transcript  of  the  docket  in  any  other  county  the  lien 
attaches  to  all  defendant's  real  estate  situated  therein  not  exempt.  Iso  lien  is- 
credited  by  judgment  on  personal  property. 

Executions  may  be  issued  at  any  time  within  5  years  after  entry  of  judgment,, 
and  do  no*  affect  property  until  theve  is  a  levy.  Out  of  justices*  courts,  as  court* 


834  -SPECIAL   LAWS    OF    CALIFORNIA. 

of  record,  they  may  be  levied  on  personal  or  real  property.  Eenl  estate  soU| 
tinder  execution  is  subject  to  redemption  within  six  months.  Judgment  debtors 
or  their  bailees,  af*er  the  return  of  execution  not  satisfied,  may  be  examined 
under  oath  concerning  their  property. 

Assignments  in  trust  for  the  benefit  of  creditors,  are  null,  as  against  any  credi- 
tor not  assenting  thereto.  The  deed  of  assignment  must  be  in  writing,  acknowl- 
edged and  recorded  like  a  conveyance  of  real  estate.  Made  to  secure  indorsers 
or  sureties  are  valid.  Notes,  bills,  bonds,  accounts  and  almost  every  species  of 
contract,  is  assignable.  The  party  in  interest  must  sue  on  an  assigned  contract. 

Bo\ts  and  vessels  navigating  the  waters  of  this  State,  are  liable  for  debts  con- 
.tracted  by  the  master,  owner,  agent,  or  consignee  thereof,  for  work  done  or  sup- 
plies furnished,  or  for  fitting  out,  repairing,  or  equipping  such  boats  or  vessels, 
or  for  all  gums  due  for  anchorage  or  wharfage,  or  for  all  injuries  done  to  persona 
or  property  by  such  boat  or  vessel,  provided  the  wages  of  mariners,  boatmen,  and 
ethers  employed  in  the  service  of  such  boats  or  vessels,  shall  have  the  preference, 
and  be  first  paid.  Vessels  are  also  liable  for  damages  accruing  from  the  non- 
performance  or  mal-performance  of  contract  touching  the  transportation  of  per- 
eons  or  property.  All  actions  against  boat.-  or  vessels  must  be  commenced  within 
15  days  after  cause  of  action  accrues. 

Damages  are  allowed  on  bills  of  exchange  protested  for  non-acceptance  or  non- 
payment in  favor  of  holders  for  value  only,  as  follows  :  1.  If  drawn  upor  any 
person  in  this  State,  $2  on  eacl;  §100  of  the  principal  sum  specified  in  the  bill.  2. 
If  drawn  upon  any  person  out  of  this  State,  but  in  any  of  the  other  States  or  ter- 
ritory \vest  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  #5  on  each  $100  of  the  principal  sum  speci- 
fied in  the  bill.  3.  If  drawn  upon  any  person  in  the  United  States  east  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  $10  on  each  §100  speciiied  in  the  bill.  4.  If  drawn  upon  any 
person  in  any  place  in  a  foreign  country,  §15  on  each  $100  of  the  principal  sum 
specified  in  the  bill,  and  from  the  time  of  notice  of  dishonor  and  demand  ol  pay- 
ment, lawful  interest  must  be  allowed  upon  the  aggregate  an:-..nt  of  the  princi- 
pal sum  and  damages.  Notarial  protest  is  evidence  o  ^eumnd  and  refusal  of 
payment  at  the  time  and  in  the  meaner  stated  in  the  protest. 

DEEPS,  MORTGAGES,  AND  CHATTEL  MORTGAGES,  RIGHTS  OF  MARRIED 
WOMEN,  WILLS,  &c. — Deeds  are  not  required  to  be  under  seal,  as  all  private 
seals  are  abolished  in  this  State.  Must  be  acknowledged  within  the  State,  before 
a  justice  or  clerk  of  the  supreme  court ;  or  a  judge  or  a  clerk  of  a  court  of  record  j 


States  ;  or  a  justice,  judge  or  clerk  of  any  court  of  record  of  any  State ; 
or  a  commissioner  appointed  by  the  Governor  of  this  State  for  that  pur- 
pose  ;  or  a  notary  public  or  any  other  officer  of  the  State  where  the  acknowledg- 
ment is  made,  authorized  by  its  laws  to  take  such  acknowledgment.  Without  the 
United  States,  before  a  minister,  commissioner  or  charge  d'affaires  of  the  United 
States,  resident  and  accredited  in  the  country  where  such  acknowledgment  is 
made  ;  or  a  judge  of  a  court  of  record  of  the  country  where  the  acknowledgment 
is  made,  or  a  commission  appointed  for  that  purpose  by  the  Governor  of  th« 
State  pursuant  to  special  statutes  ;  or  a  notary  public.  The  husband  or  wife, 
can  each,  without  the  consent  or  assistance  of  the  other,  convey  his  or  her  separ- 
ate property.  They  must  join  in  a  conveyance  of  their  community  property, 
i  The  following  is  the  general  form  of  the  certificate  of  acknowledgment : 

STATE  OF  CALIFORNIA,  ) 
COUNTY  OF  AMADOR.    j 

\     On  this  day  of  ,  In  the  year  of  ,  before  me,  John 

feimpson,  notary  public,  person-ally  appeared,  ,  known  to  me  (or 

proved  to  me  on  the  oath  of  )  to  be  the  person  whose  name  is  sub- 

ecribed  to  the  within  instrument,  and  acknowledged  to  me  that  he  (or  they)  exe- 
cuted the  same. 

JOHN  SIMPSON,  Notary  Public. 

The  form  of  certificate  when  grantor  is  a  married  woman  must  be  substantially 
«s  follows : 

STATE  OF  CALIFORNIA,  ) 
COUNTY  OF  NEVADA.    ) 

On  this  day  01  .  in  the  year  of  ,  before  me,  John 

Johns»\on,  notary  public,  personal!/  appeared  ,  known  to  me  (or 

proved  to  be  on  the  oath  of  )  to  be  the  person  whose  name  is  subscrib- 

ed to  the  within  instrument,  described  as  a  married  woman,  and  upon  an  examin* 


SPECIAL   LAWS    OF    COLORADO.  835 

»tion,  without  th«  hearing  of  he*  husband,  I  made  her  acquainted  with  the  con* 
tents  of  the  instruments,  and  thereupon  she  acknowledged  to  me  that  she  exe- 
cuted the  same,  and  that  she  does  not  wish  to  retract  such  execution. 

Joux  JOHNSTON,  Notary  Public. 

Property  of  every  description  acquired  by  the  wife  before  marriage,  and  that 
acquired  afterward  by  gift,  bequest,  devise,  or  descent,  shall  be  her  separata 
property,  and  will  in  no  case  be  liable  for  the  debts  of  her  husband.  The  hvv 
Land's  property  of  every  kind  similarly  acquired,  will  be  his  separate  property, 
fend  not  liable  for  ^ebts  due  by  his  wile  previous  to  marriage.  The  property  or 
each  shall  be  liable  v/nly  for  the  debts  of  the  owner.  All  property  acquired  sub-1 
«•}  iue:it  to  marriage,  aside  from  that  acquired  by  gift,  bequest,  devise,  ordescent,. 
shall  be  common  property,  but  under  the  husband's  entire  control.  Such  com- 
mon property  oannot  be  sold  unless  by  an  instrument  in  writing,  signed  by  both 
husband  and  wife,  and  acknowledged  by  her  upon  an  examination  separate  and 
apart  from  her  husband,  before  a  justice  of  the  supreme  court,  judge  of  the  dis- 
trict court,  county  judge  or  notary  public,  or  if  without  the  State,  there  to  ac- 
knowledge before  some  judge  of  a  court  of  record,  or  a  commissioner  appointed  by 
authority  of  the  State  to  take  acknowledgement  of  deeds. 

A  full  and  complete  inventory  of  the  wife's  separate  property  shall  be  made 
cut  and  signed  by  the  wife,  and  proved  in  the  manner  required  by  law  for  proof 
of  a  conveyance  of  land  ;  the  filing  of  this  inveiitory  in  the  recorder's  office  in  the 
c  maty  where  such  property  is  situated,  shall  be  novice  of  the  wife's  title,  and  all 
c.'iid  property  shall  be  exempt  from  seizure  for  her  husbands  debts. 

Upon  the  death  of  either  husband  or  wife,  one-half  of  the  common  property 
shall  go  to  the  survivor,  and  the  other  half  to  the  descendants,  of  the  deceased 
husband  or  wife,  subject  to  the  payments  of  the  debts  of  the  deceased.  If  there 
be  no  descendants  of  the  deceased  husband  or  wife,  the  whole  shall  go  to  the  sur- 
Tivor,  subject  to  such  payment. 

As  to  dower,  no  estate  shall  be  allowed  to  the  husband  as  tenant  by  courtesy 
U>on  the  decease  of  his  wife,  nor  any  estate  in  dower  be  allowed  to  the  wife  upon 
the  death  of  her  husband. 

Chattel  mortgages  are  void  as  to  third  parties,  unless  possession  of  chattels 
passes  from  mortgagor,  albeit  the  mortgage  may  be  recorded. 

Any  married  woman  may  dispose  of  all  her  estate  by  will,  and  may  alter  and 
revoke  such  will,  but  the  consent  of  the  husband,  in  writing,  must  be  annexed  to 
every  such  instrument,  and  it  must  be  subscribed,  attested,  proven,  and  recorded 
In  like  manner  as  a  will  is  required  to  be  witnessed,  proven,  and  recorded,  unless 
the  wife  has  power  to  make  a  will,  conferred  by  marriage  contract,  signed  by  her 
husband  before  marriage. 

No  wills,  except  noncupative  wills,  shall  be  valid,  unless  in  writing,  and 
signed  by  the  testator  or  by  some  person  in  his  presence,  and  by  his  express 
direction,  and  attested  by  two  or  more  competent  witnesses  subscribing  their 
names  to  the  will,  in  the  presence  of  the  testator. 

•No  noncupative  will  bequeathing  an  estate  over  $500,  shall  be  valid,  unless 
proved  by  two  witnesses,  who  were  present  at  the  making  thereof  ;  nor  unless  it 
be  proved  fhat  the  testator,  at  the  time  of  pronouncing  the  same,  did  bid  Boms 
one  present  to  bear  witness  that  such  was  his  will,  or  to  that  effect ;  nor  unless 
Buch  noncupative  will  was  made  at  the  time  of  the  last  sickness,  and  at  the  dwell- 
ing-house of  the  deceased,  or  where  he  or  she  had  been  residing  for  the  space  of 
10  days  or  more,  except  when  such  person  was  taken  sick  from  home,  and  died 
Before  his  or  her  return. 

SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  COLORADO. 

EXEMPTIONS  FROM  FORCKD  SALE— Home  worth  $2000  and  Personal  Property. 
Every  person  being  a  householder  and  head  of  a  family,  is  entitled  to  a  home- 
stead not  exceeding  in  value  $2000.  To  entitle  such  person  to  this  exemption, 
he  must  enter  the  word  "  Homestead ''  on  the  'margin  of  his  recorded  title.  Thd 
following  property,  when  owned  by  any  person  being  head  of  a  family,  shall  ba 
exempt :  Family  pictures,  school  books  and  library,  pew  in  church,  burial  sites, 
all  wearing  apparel  of  family,  all  beds,  bedsteads,  stoves  and  cooking  uten- 
sils, kept  for  use  of  debtor  and  family,  and  other  household  furniture  not  ex- 
ceeding §100  in  value,  provision  and  fuel  necessary  to  the  family  for  6  months, 
tools,  etc.,  of  any  mechanic  not  exceeding  $300  in  value,  library  and  implements 
»f  any  professional  man  not  exceeding  $300,  draft  animals  to  the  value  of  $200, 1 
eow  and  calf.  10  sheep  and  the  necessary  food  for  them  for  6  months,  1  farm 
iragou,  cart,  etc.,  1  plough,  1  harrow  aud  other  farming  implements  uot  exceeding 


836 


SPECIAL   LAWS    OP    COLORADO. 


$50,  In  ralue.    Persons  not  at  the  head  of  a  family,  only  entitled  to  wearint 
apparel  and  property  to  the  value  of  §300. 

MECHANICS'  LIEN.— Persons  who  perform  work  or  furnish  materials  to  the 
amount  of  more  than  $25  for  the  construction  or  repairing  of  any  building,  may 
have  a  lien  thereon.  Principal  contractors  must  file  their  lien  in  40,  and  sub* 
contractors  within  20  days  after  last  work  done  or  material  furnished.  Action 
thereof  must  be  commenced  within  6  months  from  date  of  filing  lien. 

COLLECTION  OF  DEBTS.— Plaintiff  must  file  a  bond,  with  security,  payable  to 
defendant,  in  double  the  amount  swore  to  be  due,  with  the  customary,  condi- 
tions, and  then  file  an  affidavit,  alleging  positively  one  or  more  of  the  following 
causes  before  attachment  can  be  issued  :  1.  That  the  debtor  has  departed,  or  is 
about  to  depart  from  the  State  with  intent  to  conceal  his  effects.  2.  That  he  is 
,  a  non-resident,  or  is  a  foreign  corporation,  or  conceals  himself.  3.  That  he  is ' 
about  to  remove  or  dispose  of  his  property  to  the  injury  of  his  creditors,  or  that 
he  fraudulently  contracted  the  debt,  or  has  removed  away  any  of  his  property 
with  intent  to  hinder  or  defraud  his  creditors. 

In  attachment,  replevin  or  meritorious  defence  may  be  made,  when  necessary, 
by  the  affidavit  of  the  attorney  or  agent  for  the  plaintiff. 

In  assignments  a  debtor  has  the'right  to  prefer  one  or  more  creditors  to  the 
exclusion  of  others,  except  when  the  assignment  is  fraudulent,  or  where  bank- 
ruptcy interposes. 

Bills,  notes,  bonds,  or  other  written  instruments  acknowledging  indebtedness, 
and  made  payable  to  any  person  or  persons,  are  assignable  by  endorsement,  and 
the  assignee  may  sue  in  his  own  name.  Assignments  are  ruled'by  the  common  law. 

Jurisdiction  of  justices  courts  extends*  to  $300  for  recovery  of  money  or  per- 
sonal property,  probate  courts  to  §2000,  over  all  cases,  both  at  law  and  in  equity, 
district  courts  are  without  limit  as  to  amount  or  character  of  claim. 

Summons  to  justice  court  must  be  issued  5  days,  and  served  at  least  3  day* 
before  trial ;  in  probate  and  district  courts  they  must  be  issued  and  served  at 
least  10  days  before  the  return  day. 

A  judgment  of  a  court  of  record  is  a  Hen  on  an  estate,  real  or  personal,  of  the 
judgment  debtor,  owned  or  afterwards  acquired  by  him,  within  the  jurisdiction 
of  such  court,  for  a  period  of  seven  years  after  the  last  day  of  the  term  oi;  court 
at  which  such  judgment  was  rendered  ;  provided,  execution  be  issued  thereon 
within  one  year  from  the  time  such  judgment  lien  accrued  ;  judgment  before 
justices  of  the  peace  may  become  a  lien  on  real  estate  bir  filing  a  transcript  of 
such  judgment  in  the  office  of  the  clerk  of  the  district  court  of  the  county  in 
which  such  judgment  was  rendered. 

Execution  from  justice  of  the  peace  can  be  issued  immediately  after  judgment 
and  is  a  lien  on  personal  estate  of  tho  debtor  from  the  time  of  the  delivery  to 
the  constable,  and  can  bo  levied  only  on  personal  property.  Execution  from 
courts  of  record,  bind  the  property  of  debtor  from  time  of  delivery  to  sheriff. 
Every  species  of  property,  real  and  personal,  and  every  interest  in  real  estate, 
legal  or  equitable,  is  subject  to  execution.  Land?  sold  on  execution  may,  vsithio 
six  months  after  such  sale,  be  redeemed  by  the  execution  debtor.  Execution; 
creditor  shall  receive  from  sheriff  a  certificate  of  purchase,  which  should  be  re- 
corded. After  expiration  of  six,  and  at  any  time  before  the  expiration  of  nine* 
months,  any  judgment  creditor  may  redeem  such  land  by  sueing  out  execution 
on  his  judgment  aad  paying  to  the  officer  the  amount  (with  ten  percent,  per 
annum  thereto,  from  date  of  sale)  for  which  the  lands  were  sold. 

The  process  o'f  garnishment  may  be  exercised  either  on  execution  or  attach 
jnent. 

Arrest  and  imprisonir:ent  on  civil  process  is  prohibited  in  this  State. 

In  suits  on  bills,  bonds,  notes,  and  similar  instruments,  the  defendant,  before 
Ji9  will  be  permitted  to  plead,  demur,  &c.,  must  file  an  affidavit  of  merit  that  he 
Xas  as  he  believes,  a  good  and  sufficient  defence  to  paid  suit  or  some  part 
thereof. 

)     Affidavits  of  persons  without  the  State  may  be  made  before  any  notary  public 
or  clerk  of  any  court  of  record  under  their  respective  seals. 

Bills  of  exchange  expressing  "  Value  received,"  duly  presented  and  protested 
for  non-acceptance  or  non-payment,  entitle  holder  to  recover  from  drawer  or 
endorser  thereof ,  upon  due  notice  of  such  protest,  the  amount  of  such  bill,  witfr. 
legal  interest  from  time  when  same  should  have  been  paid,  and  ten  per  centum; 
damages  in  addition  thereto,  and  costs  and  charges  of  protest.  Parties  to  sucb, 
instruments  as  endorsers,  makers,  acceptors,  may  be  sued  separately  or  Jointly, 
Record  required  to  be  kept  by  notaries  public,  competent  evidence  to  prove  'ime 
and  manner  of  service  of  notice  of  protest,  names  of  parties,  and  description  uad 
•mount  of  instrument. 


SPECIAL  LAWS   OF   COLORADO.  $37 

Sheriffs  are  amenable  in  treble  damages  to  aggrieved  party,  and  fine  not  lew 

e  in  o 


$25  nor  more  than  $250  for  any  malfeasance  in  office. 

DEEDS,  MORTGAGES,  CHATTEL  MORTGAGES,  RIGHTS  OF  MARRIED  WOMEIT, 
WILLS.  &c.  —  Conveyances  must-  be  under  seal  ;  a  scrawl  is  sufficient.  A  con- 
veyance made  in  compliance  with  all  requisites  carries  with  it  right  to  immediate  , 
possession.  All  covenants  in  the  deed  run  with  the  land  conveyed.  A  power 
of  attorney  to  convey  should  be  under  seal  and  recorded  with  the  deed  made 
thereunder. 

Acknowledgments  of  deeds  written  in  the  State  may  be  made  before  any  jus- 
tice or  judge  of  the  supreme  or  district  courts,  or  before  any  clerk  or  deputy 
clerk  of  such  courts  under  the  seal  thereof,  or  before  any  probate  judge  under 
the  seal  of  his  court,  or  before  the  clerk  and  recorder  of  any  county  or  his  de- 
puty under  the  county  seal,  or  before  any  notary  public  under  his  notarial  seal, 
or  before  any  justice  of  the  peace. 

Without  the  State  and  within  the  United  States,  before  the  secretary  of  any 
State  or  territory,  the  clerk  of  any  court  of  record,  or  commissioner  of  deeds 
for  this  State,  or  before  any  officer  authorized  by  the  laws  of  the  State  were 
taken  to  take  acknowledgments.  The  seal  of  any  of  the  above  officers  must 
accompany  the  certificate,  and  when  not  taken  before  the  secretary  of  a> 
State  or  territory,  or  clerk  of  a  court  of  record,  the  certificate  of  the  clerk  of 
4ome  court  of  Record  where  the  officer  taking  the  acknowledgement  resides 
must  accompany  such  acknowledgement  that  such  officer  is  the  person  the 
assumes  to  be. 

Without  the  United  States  before  any  United  States  consul,  o»ayor  of  anj 
city  under  his  official  seal,  any  court  of  record  of  any  foreign  state,  under  thl 
certificate  of  the  judge  thereof  and  the  seal  of  such  court. 

[Form  of  Acknowledgment  by  Unmarried  Grantor.] 
STATE  or  COLORADO,    ) 
COUNTY  OF  BOULDER,   f 

I,  (name  and  style  of  office)  in  and  for  said  county,  in  the  State  aforesaid,  do  / 
hereby  certify  that  A.  B.,  who  is  personally  known  to  me  to  be  the  same  person 
whose  name  is  subscribed  to  the  annexed  deed,  appeared  before  me  this  day  in 
person,  and  acknowledged  that  he  signed,  sealed  and  delivered  the  said  instru- 
ment of  writing  as  his  free  dnd  voluntary  act  for  the  uses  and  purposes  therein 
eet  forth. 

Given  under  my  hand  and  (style  of  seal)  this  day  of  .  A. 

D.  18  .  (Signature.) 

[Official  seal.]  (Style  of  office.> 

Form  of  certificate  where  the  husband  and  wife  join  in  a  conveyance  ia  th« 
game  as  the  foregoing  form,  except  that  after  the  name  of  the  husband  or  wife, 
A.  B,,  is  inserted,  "  and  C.  !>.,  his  wife  "  (or  her  husband,  as  the  case  may  be), 
"  who  are  personally  known,  etc.,"  down  to  the  teste,  before  which  is  inserted 
the  following  : 

"  And  the  said  C.  D.,  wife  of  the  said  A.  &.,  having  been  first  examined  by 
me  separate  and  apart  from  and  out  of  the  hearing  and  presence  of  her  said  hus- 
band, and  the  contents,  meaning  and  effect  of  the  within  deed  having  been  by 
me  fully  explained  to  her,  acknowledged  to  me  that  she  executed  the  same  freely 
and  voluntarily,  and  without  any  coercion  or  compulsion  on  the  part  of  her  said 
husband,  and  that  she  does  not  wish  to  retract  the  same." 

Teste  as  in  foregoing  form.  Witnesses  to  deeds  are  not  necessary,  but  are  de- 
eirable. 

Any  married  women  may  bargain,  sell  and  convey  her  estate,  real  and  per-1 
sonal,  and  make  any  contract  with  reference  thereto,  as  though  a  fenime  sole.  ' 
She  may  also  sue  and  be  sued,  contract  debts  in  her  own  name  and  upon  her  owr 
execute  anyinstiument  of  writing,  and  judgments  maybe  pronounced 


and  enforced  against  her  as  though  a  fenime  sole. 

A  chattel  mortgage  shall  not  be  valid  as  against  third  parties,  unless  there  be  a 
delivery  to  the  mortgagee  of  such  property,  in  whose  possession  it  shall  remain 
until  the  lien  expires  ;  or  unless  the  mortgagor  shall  acknowledge  such  mort- 
gage before  a  justice  of  the  peace  in  the  justice's  district  where  such  mortgagor 
residas,  who  shall  keep  a  memorandum  of  the  same. 

If  the  mortgagor  retain  possession  of  the  property  mortgaged,  the  mortgage 
must  expressly  provide  for  such  possession  ;  otherwise  it  is  void.  A  mortgage  of 
a  stock  of  goods  wherein  the  mortgagor  has  the  right  to  sell  the  same  is  void. 
Chattel  mortgages  may  be  acknowledged  in  any  township  in  which  is  situated 
the  county  seat.  Where  the  mortgagor  resides  in  such  township,  before  any  jujr 
ttee  of  the  peace,  notary  public,  or  county  clerk. 


838  SPECIAL  LAWS   OF   CONNECTICUT. 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  CONNECTICUT. 

EXEMPTIONS  FROM  FORCED  SALE.— No  Home  exempted.— Personal  prop-srlff 
as  follows,  viz.  Of  the  property  of  any  one  person,  his  necessary  apparel  and 
bedding  and  household  furniture  necessary  for  supporting  life  ;  arms,  military 
equipments,  uniforms  or  musical  instruments  owned  by  any  member  of  the  mill* 
tia  for  military  purposes  ;  any  pension  moneys  received  from  the  United  State* 
'while  in  the  hands  of  the  pensioner  ;  implements  of  the  debtor's  trade,  his  li» 
brary,  not  exceeding  $500  in  value ;  1  cow,  not  exceeding  $150  in  value  ;  any 
tlimber  of  sheep  not  exceeding  10,  nor  exceeding  in  all  3150  in  value  ;  2  swine  ana 
the  pork  produced  from  2  swine,  or  2  s  win  ;  and  200  Ibs.  of  pork  ;  of  the  property  of 
any  one  person  having  wife  or  a  family,  25  bushels  of  charcoal,  2  tons  of  other 
coal,  200  Ibs.  of  wheat  flour,  2  cords  of  wood,  2  tons  of  hay,  200  Ibs.  each  of  beef 
and  fish,  5  bushels  each  of  potatoes  and  ^mips,  10  bushels  each  of  Indian  com, 
and  rye,  and  the  meal  or  flour  manufactured  therefrom,  20  Ibe.  each  of  wool  and 
•*^ax,  or  the  yarn  or  cloth  made  therefrom,  and  1  stove  and  the  pipe  belonging 
iereto ;  the  horse  of  any  practicing  phyg9<-ian  or  surgeon  of  a  value  not  exceeding 
3200,  and  his  saddle,  bridle,  harness  and  i^uggy  ;  1  boat  owned  by  one  person  and 
.Bed  by  him  in  the  business  of  planting  or  taking  oysters  or  clams,  or  taking 
Bhad,  together  with  the  sails,  tackle,  rigging  and  implements  used  in  said  busi- 
ness, not  exceeding  in  value  $200  ;  1  sewing  machine,  being  the  property  of  any 
one  person  using  it  or  haying  a  family  ;  one  pew,  being  the  property  of  any  person 
having  a  family  ordinarily  occupying  it,  and  lots,  in  any  burying  ground  appro- 
priated by  its  proprietor  for  the  burial  place  of  any  person  or  family.  The  hus- 
band's interest  in  the  wife's  estate  cannot  be  taken  for  his  debts  during  the  lif* 
of  the  wife  or  any  issue  of  their  marriage,  except  for  debts  contracted  for  th* 
support  of  such  wife  or  issue.  Any  debt  that  has  accrued  for  personal  service  not 
exceeding  $10,  or  if  the  debtor  have  a  wife  or  family  not  exceeding  $25,  and  all 
benefits  allowed  by  any  association  in  this  State  on  account  of  sickness,  are  ex* 
empt ;  provided,  that  in  suits  brought  for  a  debt  accruing  for  house  rent, 
provisions,  wearing  apparel  or  fuel,  furnished  to  the  debtor  or  for  the  use  of  hit 
family,  only  $10  are  exempt,  and  no  exemption  is  allowed  for  personal  board  of. 
the  debtor  or  his  family. 

MECHANICS'  LIEX.— Material  men  and  mechanics  have  a  lien  on  land  and 
t>uildings  for  the  amount  of  their  claim,  provided  the  same  exceeds  $25.  To 
render  the  lien  valid,  the  claimant  must  file  a  certificate  of  the  claim,  verified 
by  oath,  with  the  town  clerk  within  GO  davs  from  the  time  when  he  commenced. 
to  furnish  materials  or  render  services.  Where  the  claimant  is  a  sub-contractor 
"he  must,  unless  his  contract  with  the  original  contractor  is  in  writing,  assented 
to  by  the  proprietor,  give  notice  in  writing  to  the  proprietor  within  60  days  of 
the  time  he  commences  to  furnish  materials  or  render  services  that  he  intends 
to  claim  a  lien,  otherwise  he  can  have  none.  This-  lien  takes  precedence  of  all 
subsequent  incumbrances. 

COLLECTION  OF  DEBTS.— Attachment  in  civil  actions,  may  be  issued  and 
levied  upon  any  property  of  the  debtor  that  is  not  by  statute  exempt  from  attach- 
jnent  and  execution.  An  attachment  may  be  dissolved  by  the  substitution  of  & 
>}nd.  No  action  lies  for  damages  arising  from  an  attachment,  unless  the  suit  was 

"icious.    Where  the  amount  attached  is  so  great  as  to  be  vexatious  or  oppres- 


sive, the  court  will  order  a  release  of  a  portion  of  the  property.  An  attachment 
Lemains  a  lien  for  sixty  days  after  the  rendition  of  judgmei_t  in  the  case  of  p*r- 
•onal  property,  and  four  months  in  the  case  of  real  estate. 

The  debtor  IB  exempt  from  arrest  in  all  actions  founded  on  contract,  express 
or  implied.  In  actions  sounding  in  tort  and  for  fraud  the  debtor  may  be  im- 
prisoned, but  can  obtain  a  discharge  on  taking  the  "  poor  debtor's  oath." 

Assignments  in  insolvency  are  made  to  a  trustee  and  in  use  to  the  benefit  oi 
all  the  creditors.  A  transfer  of  property  made  60  days  before  the  assignment  is 
good.  Conveyances  made  in  the  regular  cov  rse  of  business,  or  for  a  present  con- 
sideration, are  valid  in  the  absence  of  fraud.  Jurisdiction  of  justice  courts  ex- 
tends to  $100,  and  either  party  has  the  right  of  .appeal  in  all  cases. 

Courts  of  common  pleas  and  the  district  court  have  original  jurisdiction  of  all 
causes  in  equity  where  the  matter  in  demand  does  not  exceed  $500  and  causes  in 
law  where  th»  demand  exceeds  $100  and  does  not  exceed  $500,  and  appellate  jur- 
isdiction in  cases  brought  by  appeal  from  justices. 

The  superior  court  has  originally  jurisdiction  in  law  and  equity  of  all  case* 
where  the  demand  exceeds  $500,  and  appellate  iurisdiction  where  there  is  no 
common  pleas  or  district  court  ia  the  county,  The  supreme  court  of  errors  hap 


SPECIAL   LAWS    OP    CONNECTICUT. 

final  and  conclusive  jurisdiction  in  all  matters.    In  determining  the  amount  cl 
the  demand,  interest  to  the  commencement  of  the  suit  is  included,  but  not  costs. 

Any  debt  owing  to  the  defendant,  or  any  goods  or  estate  in  the  hands  of  at 
Ihird  party  may  be  taken  by  process  of  garnishment. 

Execution  may  be  taken  out  any  time  during  the  lives  of  the  parties.  If 
either  be  dead,  scire  facias  on  the  judgment  must  be  brought.  A  judgment  that" 
fcas  lain  dormant  for  20  years  is  presumed  to  be  satisfied.  The  judgment  itself' 
creates  no  lien,  but  any  property  that  has  been  attached  in  the  suit  in  held  to 
Tespond  to  the  judgment. 

A  negotiable  note  must  be  for  the  payment  of  money  only,  payable  to  som« 
person  or  his  order  or  bearer.  A  negotiable  promissory  note  on  demand  is  con, 
sidered  over-due  and  dishonored  after  four  months.  Days  of  grace  are  not  at 
lowed  on  sight  or  demand  notes,  or  on  bank  checks.  Protests  of  inland  bills  ot 
exchange  and  promissory  notes,  protested  without  this  State,  are  prima  facie 
evidence  of  the  facts  therein  stated.  When  a  bill  of  exchange,  drawn  or  nego- 
tiated in  this  State  upon  any  person  in  any  other.  State,  territory  or  district  of 
the  United  States,  shall  be  returned  unpaid  and  duly  protested,  the  person  to 
whom  the  same  is  payable  is  entitled  to  recover  the  damages,  according  to  the 
place  where  payable,  over  and  above  the  principal  sum,  together  with  the  law- 
lul  interest  on  the  aggregate  amount  of  such  principal  sum  and  damages  from, 
the  time  at  which  notice  of  such  protest  shall  have  been  given,  and  payment  of 
eaid  principal  sum  and  damages  demanded. 

Sheriffs  refusing  to  pay  over  money  collected,  when  demanded,  are  liable  to- 
pay  two  per  cent,  a  month  on  the  amount  received  from  time  of  demand  ;  fail- 
fag  to  execute  process  or  making  false  or  illegal  returns,  are  liable  to  pay  all 
lamages.  Any  officer,  indorsing,  demanding  or  receiving  more  than  legal  fee* 
«n  any  civil  process,  is  liable  to  pay  to  the  person  against  whom  the  charge  was- 
made  threefold  the  amount  charged. 

No  person  is  disqualified  as  a  witness  in  a  civil  action  by  reason  of  any  inter, 
est  in  the  case  or  conviction  of  any  crime,  but  the  fact  may  be  shown  to  discredit 
4is  testimony. 

DEEDS,  MORTGAGES,  CHATTEL  MORTGAGES,  RIGHTS  of  married  women,  &c. 
Conveyances  of  real  estate  must  be  in  writing,  sealed  by  the  grantor  and  sub- 
scribed by  him  or  his  attorney  duly  authorized,  attested  by  two  witnesses,  with 
their  own  hands,  and  acknowledged  by  the  grantor  as  his  free  act  and  deed.  A 
scrawl  enclosing  the  letters  L.  S.  (L.  S.)  is  equivalent  to  a  seal.  The  acknowl- 
edgment, If  in  this  State,  is  made  before  a  judge  of  a  court  of  record  of  this  State- 
or  of  the  United  States,  justice  of  the  peace,  commissioner  of  the  school  fund, 
commissioner  of  the  superior  court,  notary  public,  town  clerk  or  assistant  town* 
clerk  ;  if  in  any  other  State  or  territory  of  the  United  States,  before  a  commis- 
flioner  appointed  by  the  Governor  of  this  State  and  residing  therein,  or  any  offi- 
cer authorized  to  take  the  acknowledgment  of  deeds  in  such  State  or  territory  ; 
*nd  if  in  a  foreign  country,  before  any  consul  of  the  United  States,  or  notary 
public  or  justice  of  the  peace  in  such  foreign  country. 

Conveyances  of  real  estate  situated  in  this  State  and  powers  of  attorney 
therefor,  executed  and  acknowledged  in  any  other  State  or  territory  in  conform- 
ity to  its  laws  relative  to  the  conveyance  of  lands  therein  situated,  are  valid.  Th» 
wife  need  not  be  privately  examined  apart  from  her  husband. 

The  husband  joins  with  the  wife  in  the  conveyance  of  her  real  estate,  but  con* 
veys  his  own  without  her  signature.  Dower  attaches  only  to  the  real  estate  b<w 
longing  to  the  husband  at  his  decease. 

The  following  form  of  acknowledgment  is  used  in  all  cases  : 
STATE  OF  CONNECTICUT.  )  „.  ^  .„ 

COUNTY  OF  ,  J •*•  » A>  D- 18 

Personally  appeared  ,  signer  and  sealer  of  the  foregoing  instru- 

ment, and  acknowledged  the  same  to  be  his  free  act  and  deed  before  me.  > 

(Signature.) 

Married  woman  may  hold  real  estate  to  their  separate  use  in  their  own  name. 
In  all  conveyances  of  the  same  the  husband  must  join.  The  husband  is  trustee, 
of  the  wife's  personal  estate,  and  accountable  to  her  for  the  avails.  He  may  be' 
removed  for  cause,  and  another  trustee  appointed.  She  may  be  sued  for  her 
contracts  and  acts  ;  her  husband  is  not  liable  upon  any  of  such  causes  of  action. 
She  may  also  enter  into  a  contract  jointly  with  her  husband  for  the  benefit  of  her 
eole  estate,  or  their  joint  estate,  and  be  sued  on  the  same.  She  may  also  carry  on 
business,  and  if  any  right  of  action  accrues  to  her  therefrom,  may  sue  upon  the 
*ame  as  if  she  were  unmarried.  The  widow  shall  have  the  right  of  dower  in  on* 
third  of  the  real  estate  of  which  her  husband  died  possessed  in  his  own  right,  to 
fee  to  her  during  her  natural  life. 


€40  SPECIAL  LAWS    OF   DISTRICT   OF   COLUMBIA. 

A  chattel  mortgage  of  property  not  perishable  in  its  nature  is  good, 
the  grantor  retains  possession,  but  the  deed  must  be  executed  with  all  the  fcrm« 
alities  required  in  town  records,  as  in  the  case  of  real  estate.  Property  exempt 
from  execution  is  also  a  proper  subject  for  a  chattel  mortgage.  Conveyances  of 
other  species  of  personal  property,  unaccompan''  ;d  by  possession,  are  void  as 
against  creditors.  Wills  must  be  in  writing,  subscribed  by  the  testator,  and  a> 
tested  by  the  witnesses,  all  of  them  subscribing  in  his  presence, 


SPECIAL   LAWS  OF  DISTRICT   OF   COLUM- 
BIA. 

EXEMPTIONS  FROM  FORCED  SALE.— No  Home  exempted,  Personal  Property 
Of  the  following  value  is  exempt  from  distraint,  attachment,  or  sale  on  execution, 
«xcept  for  servants  or  laborers  wages  due  :  Wearing  apparel,  household  furni- 
ture to  the  amount  of  $300  ;  provisions  and  fuel  for  3  months,  mechanics  tools 
or  implements  of  any  trade,  to  the  value  of  $200,  with  stock  to  the  same  amount ; 
the  library  and  implement  :f  a  professional  man  or  artist,  to  the  value  of  $300: 
«  farmer's  team  and  othc :  utensils,  to  the  value  of  $100,  family  pictures  and 
library  to  value  of  $400. 

MECHANICS'  LIENS.— Any  person  who,  by  virtue  of  any  contract  with  cwner 
of  any  building  or  his  agent,  performs  labor  or  furnishes  materials  for  construc- 
tion or  repair  of  such  building,  shall,  upon  tiling  in  office  of  clerk  oi'  the  suprem* 
court  of  the  District,  at  any  time  after  commencement  of  the  building  and  with- 
in three  months  after  completion  of  such  building  or  repairs,  a  notice  or  his  inten- 
tion to  hold  a  lien  upon  the  property  for  the  amount  due  or  to  become  due  to 
him,  specifically  setting  forth  the  amount  claimed,  have  a  lien  upon  such  build- 
ing and  lot  of  ground  upon  which  the  same  is  situated,  for  such  labor  done  or 
materials  furnirhed,  when  amount  exceeds  $20-  Any  sub-contractor,  journey- 
man or  laborer  employed  in  construction  or  repair  of  any  building,  or  in  furnish 
ing  any  materials  or  machinery  for  same,  may  give,  at  any  time,  owner  thereof 
notice  in  writing,  particularly  setting  forth  amount  of  liis  claim  and  services 
rendered  for  which  his  employer  is  indebted  to  him,  and  that  he  holds  the  owner 
responsible,  and  tne  owner  of  the  building  shall  be  liable  for  the  claims  but  not 
to  exceed  the  amount  due  from  him  to  employer  at  time  of  notice,  or  subsequently, 
which  may  De  recovered  in  an  action. 

COLLECTION  OF  DEBTS.  —  A  writ  of  attachment  and  garnishment  may  be 
issued  whenever  plaintiff,  his  agent  or  attorney  shall  lile  in  clerk's  office,  at 
-commencement  or  during  pendency  of  suit,  an  affidavit  (supported  by  testimony 
of  one  or  more  witnesses,)  showing  grounds  upon  which  he  bases  action,  and 
Betting  forth  plaintiff  has  just  right  to  recover  against  defendant ;  and  also 
stating  either  that  defendant  is  a  non-resident  of  district,  or  evades  service  of 
ordinary  process  by  concealing  himself  or  withdrawing  from  district  temporaily, 
or  has  removed  or  is  about  to  remove  some  of  his  property  from  district  to  defeat 
just  demands.  Plaintiff  mu.y'j  also  file  his  undertaking,  with  sufficient  surety,  to 
lj>e  approved  by  clerk,  to  make  good  all  costs  and  damages  by  reason  of  wrongful 
/VBuing  out  of  attachment, 
y  Arrest  in  civil  actions  is  unknown  here. 

Assignments  are  regulated  by  the  principles  of  common  law. 
Justices  of  peace  have  jurisdiction  in  all  civil  cases  where  amount  claimeC 
to  be  due  for  debt  or  damages  arising  out  of  contracts,  express  or  implied,  or 
damages  for  wrongs,  or  injuries  to  persons  or  property,  does  not  exceed  $100,  ex- 
cept in  cases  involving  title  to  real  estate,  actions  to  recover  damages  for  assault, 
or  assault  and  battery,  or  for  malicious  prosecution  or  actions  against  justices  of 
peace  or  other  officers  for  misconduct  in  office,  or  in  actions  for  slander,  verbal 
or  written.  Supreme  court  of  District  of  Columbia  possesses  same  powers  and 
exercises  same  jurisdiction  as  circuit  courts  of  United  States.  Any  one  of 
justices  of  said  court  may  hold  a  special  term  with  same  powers  and  jurisdiction, 
possessed  by  United  States  district  courts.  Any  one  of  said  justices  may  hold  a 
criminal  court  for  trial  of  all  crimes  and  offences  arising  in  the  District.  Su- 
preme court  of  District  has  jurisdiction  of  cases  arising  under  copy-right  aii<i 
patent  laws  ;  and  o"  all  applications  for  divorce  ;  and  also  has  jurisdiction  as  A 
probate  court- 


the 


SPECIAL   LAWS   OF   DISTRICT   OP    COLUMBIA.  841 

• 

Judgments  are  lien  on  real  estate  from  date  of  rendition  and  on  personal 
>perty  when  execution  is  issued  and  in  marshal's  hands.  Execution  may  Issue 
}  day  judgment  is  rendered.  There  is  no  redemption  after  execution  sale. 
DEEDS,  MORTGAGES,  RIGHTS  OF  MARRIED  WOMEN,  ETC.—  Acknowledgment* 
of  deeds  may  be  made  before  any  of  the  following  named  officers  of  State,  district, 
county  or  territory  within  United  States,  in  which  person  making  deed  may 
be  living,  namely  :  Before  any  judge  of  court  of  record  and  of  law  ;  any  chan- 
cellor of  State  ;  any  judge  of  supreme,  circuit,  district  or  territorial  courts  of  the 
United  States  ;  any  justice  of  the  peace  ;  any  notary  public  ;  any  commissioner 
cf  circuit  court  of  district  appointed  for  that  purpose.  The  officer  taking  ao» 
J.:iowledgment  must  annex  to  the  deed  a  certificate  under  his  hand  and  seal,  to 
following  effect  : 

'  (Or  city,  etc.),  to-wit  : 


I,  Joseph  Mercer,  a  notary  public,  (or  other  prescribe^  officer,  giving  his 
title)  in  and  for  the  county  (or  city,  <or  parish,  or  district)  aforesaid,  in-the  State 
(or  territory,  or  district)  of  ,  do  hereby  certify  that  A.  B.,  a  party  (or  A.  B. 

and  C.  D.,  parties)  to  a  certain  deed  bearing  date  on  the  day  of  , 

-and  hereto  annexed,  personally  appeared  before  me  in  the  county  (or  city,  etc.), 
aforesaid,  the  said  A.  B.  (or  A.  B.  and  C.  D.,  etc.,)  being  personally  well  kno\M» 
to  me  as  (or  proved  by  the  oaths  of  credible  witnesses  before  me  to  be)  the  person 
(or  persons)  who  executed  the  said  deed,  and  acknowledged  the  same  to  be  bit 
•{her  or  their)  act  and  deed. 

Given  under  my  hand  and  seal  this  day  of  ,  A.D,  18    . 

[SEAL.]     '  JOSEPH  MERCER. 

The  following  is  the  form  where  husband  and  wife  join  in  the  deed,  the  latte^ 
relinquishing  dower,  or  when  she  is  a  party  with  her  husband  tp  any  deed  : 

I}        (Or  city,  etc.),  to-wit: 

I,  Joseph  Mercer,  a  notary  public  in  and  for  the  county  aforesaid,  do  hereby 
certify  that  A.  B.  and  C.  D..  his  wife,  parties  to  a  certain  deed  bearing  uate  on  the 
day  of  ,  A,  D.  18    ,  and  hereto  annexed,  personally  appeared 

before  me,  in  the  county  aforesaid  ;  the  said  A.  B.  and  C.  D.,  his  wife,  being 
personally  well  known  to  me  as  (or  prov*d  by  the  oaths  of  credible  witnesses  be- 
fore me  to  be)  the  persons  who  executed  the  said  deed,  and  acknowleged  the  same 
to  be  their  act  and  deed  ;  and  the  said  C.  D.,  wife  of  said  A.  B.,  being  by  me  ex- 
.amined  privily  and  apart  from  her  said  husband,  arnd  having  the  deed  aforesaid 
freely  explained  to  her,  acknowledged  the  same  to  be  her  act  and  deed,  and  de- 
clared that  she  had  willingly  signed,  sealed  and  delivered  the  same,  and  that  she 
wished  not  to  retract  it. 

Given  under  my  hand  and  seal  this  day  of  ,  A.D.  18    . 

/  JOSEPH  MERCER. 

When  acknowledgments  are  made  beyond  limits  of  District,  within  United 
States,  the  certificate  of  the  same  must  be  accompanied  by  a  certificate  of  the 
register  clerk  or  other  public  officer  having  cognizance  of  the  fact  under  his  offi- 
cial seal,  that,  at  the  date  of  the  acknowledgment,  the  officer  taking  the  same 
wa?,  in  fact,  the  officer  ke  purported  to  be.  Deeds  made  in  a  foreign  country 
may  be  executed  and  acknowledged  before  any  judge  or  chancellor  of  any  court, 
master  or  master  extraordinary  in  chancery,  or  notary  public,  or  before  any 
-  secretary  of  legation  or  consular  officer  of  the  United  States. 

CHATTEL  MORTGAGES  —  Must  be  recorded  within  twenty  days  after  execution. 
Is  No  bill  of  sale,  deed  of  trust  or  mortgage  for  property  exempt  by  law  from- 
execution  is  binding,  unless  signed  by  wife  of  debtor.  The  right  of  any  married 
woman  to  property,  personal  or  real,  belonging  to  her  at  time  of  marriage  or  ac- 
quired during  marriage  in  any  other  way  than  by  gift  or  conveyance  from  her 
husband,  are  as  absolute  as  if  she  were  unmarried  and  are  not  subject  to  disposal 
of  her  husband  nor  liable  f«r  his  debts.  Any  married  woman  may  convey,  devise 
and  bequeath  her  property  or  any  interest  therein  in  the  same  manner  and  with 
like  effect  as  if  she  were  unmarried.  Any  married  woman  may  contract  and  sue 
and  be  sued  in  her  own  name,  in  all  matters  having  relation  to  her  sole  and 
separate  property,  in  the  same  manner  as  if  she  were  unmarried.  Neither  the 
husband  nor  his  property  is  bound  by  any  such  contract  made  by  a  msrried 
woman,  nor  liable  Tor  any  recovery  against  her  in  any  such  suit,  but  judgnent 
.may  be  enforced  by  execution  against  he';  gole  and  separate  estate  iu  same,  luaur 
aef  as  if  she  were  unmarried. 


SPECIAL   LAWS    OF   DELAWARE. 


DAKOTA,  HOMESTEAD  LAW. 

EXEMPTION  FROM  FORCED  SALE.— Home  of  W  Acres  icith  buildin 
and  one-half  acre  in  a  Village  or  City,  and  Personal  Property.    The 
is  entitled  to  a  homestead  consisting  of  not  more  than  80  acres  of  lan 
ings  and  appurtenances  thereon,  and  personal  property  aggregating  in  value  ao* 
to  exceed  $loOO,  which  personal  property  is  defined  by  statute. 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  DELAWARE. 

EXEMPTIONS  FROM  TORCED  SALE.— No  Ifyme  Exempted,  Personal  Property 
$275. — Family  library,  school  books,  family  Bible,  family  pictures,  seat  or  pew 
In  church,  lot  in  burial  ground,  all  wearing  apparel  of  debtor  and  family  ;  and 
in  addition  to  above,  tools,  implements  and  tixtures  necessary  to  carry  on  trade 
or  business,  not  exceeding  $75.  Head  of  family,  in  addition  to  above,  or  other 
personal  property  not  excee.dng  $200.  And  in  Newcastle  county,  wages  for  labor 
,'  find  service  are  exempt  from  execution  attachment. 

MECHANICS  LIEN — Mechanics,  builders,  artizans,  laborers  or  other  persons,, 
having  performed  or  furnished  work  and  labor  or  materials  or  both,  to  an 
amount  exceeding  $'25,  in  or  for  the  erection,  alteration  or  repair  of  any  house, 
building  or  structure,  in  persuance  of  any  contract,  express  or  implied,  with  the 
owner  or  agent  of  such  building  or  structure,  may  at  any  time  within  six  months 
from  the  completion  of  said  work  and  labor,  or  the  furnishing  of  such  material^ 
file  in  the  office  of  the  prothonotary  of  the  connty  in  which  said  building  i» 
situate  a  bill  of  particulars  of  his  claim,  with  an  affidavit  setting  forth  that  the 
defendant  is  justly  indebted  to  the  plaintiff  in  a  sum  of  $25,  and  has  refused  or 
neglected  to  pay  or  secured  to  be  paid  to  the  said  plaintiff  the  amount  due  on  his 
claim.  The  affidavit  must  identify  the  property  and  give  the  names  of  the  parties 
claimant,  and  the  owner  or  reputed  owner  of  said  building.  Judgment  obtained 
shall  be  a  lien  on  said  building  or  structure  and  the  real  estate  attached  thereto 
upon  which  the  same  is  erected,  and  shall  relate  back  to  the  day  upon  which  the 
work  or  laborer  furnishing  of  materials  was  commenced,  and  shall  take  priority 
i  according.  Where  several  contractors  are  employed,  in  pursuance  of  any  con- 
tract with  the  owner  or  agent,  there  shall  be  no  priority  of  lien,  but  all  be  paid  pro 
rata. 

COLLECTION  OF  DEBTS.— What  is  known  as  a  "  domestic  attachment,"  may  be 
issued  against  any  inhabitant  of  this  State  after  a  return  to  a  summons  or  capias 
issued  and  delivered  to  the  sheriff  or  a  coroner  ten  days  before  the  return 
thereof,  showing  that  the  defendant  cannot  be  found,  and  proof  satisfactory  to 
the  court  of  the  cause  of  action  ;  or  upon  affidavit  made  by  the  plaintiff  or  some 
other  credible  person,  and  filed  with  the  prothonotary  "that  the  defendant  is 
justly  indebted  to  the  plaintiff  in  a  sum  exceeding  $50,  and  has  absconded  from 
the  place  of  his  usual  abode,  or  gone  out  of  the  State  with  intent  to  defraud  hi* 
creditors  or  to  elude  process,  as  is  believed."  All  creditors  share  in  proceeds  of 
•ale  of  property. 

A  foreign  attachment  may  be  issued  against  a  person  not  an  inhabitant  of  this 
State,  after  a  return  to  a  summons  or  capias,  issued  and  delivered  to  the  sheriif 
or  coroner  10  days  before  the  return  thereof,  showing  that  the  defendant 
cannot  be  found*  and  proof, 
•upon  affidavit  made  by  the  p 

the  prothonotary,  "  that  the  defendant  res^^ , 

debted  to  the  said  plaintiff  in  a  sum  exceeding  $50.' 

No  capias  shall  be  issued  on  any  judgment  in  a  civil  action  (against  any  free 
white  person)  until  the  return  of  execution  determines  that  the  defendant  has 
not  sufficient  real  or  personal  property  within  the  county  to  satisfy  the  debt  or 
damage  therein  expressed ;  or  until  tbe  plaintiff  in  such  judgment,  or  some 
credible  person  lor  him,  sh  11  maka  a  written  affidavit,  to  be  tiled  in  prothonot  ary's 
office  before  the  issuing  of  the  writ,  to  the  same  effect ;  nor  th^n  unless  the  plain- 
tiffin  said  judgment  (or  decree),  or  some  credible  person  for  him.  h-lmll,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  above  requirement,  make  a  written  affidavit,  to  be  tiled  in  the  protho- 
notary's  office  (  r  register  in  chancery)  before  the  issuing  of  the  process  stating. 
"  that  the  defendant  in  such  judgment  <or  decree)  is  justly  indebted  tc  the  said 
plaintiff  in  a  sum  exceeding  $50,  and  that  he  verily  believes  the  said  defendar* 
LM  secreted,  conveyed  away,  assigned,  settled  or  disposed  of  either 


store  the    return  tnereol,  snowing    tnat   tne   aeienaant 
>roof ,  satisfactory  to  the  court,  of  the  cause  of  action  ;  or  _ 
the  plaintiff  or  some  other  credible  person,  and  filed  with  " 
it  the  defendant  resides  out  of  the  State,  and  is  justly  in- 


SPECIAL   LAWS   OP   DELAWAB*.  843 

goods,  chattels,  stocks,  securities  for  money,  or  other  real  or  personal  estate  of 
the  value  of  more  than  $50,  with  intent  to  defraud  his  creditors,  and  shall,  more* 
over,  in  such  affidavit,  specify  and  set  forth  the  supposed  fraudulent  transao 
tions." 

As  to  remedy,  the  party  arrested  may  have  a  hearing  before  any  judge,  upon 
the  specification  ox  fraud,  upon  petition  and  reasonable  notice  to  the  other  side. 

As  to  assignments,  all  bonds,  specialties,  and  notes  in  writing,  payable  to 
any  person,  or  order,  or  assigns,  may  be  assigned,  and  the  assignees,  or  indorsees, 
or  their  executors  or  administrators,  may  in  their  own  name  sue  for  and  recover/ 
the  money  due  thereon  :  provided,  that  all  such  assignments  of  bonds  and  speciaM 
ties  shall  be  under  hand  and  seal,  and  before  at  least  two  credible  witnesses. 

In  assignments  for  the  benefit  of  creditors,  the  assignee,  within  30  days  aftejf 
the  execution  of  said  assignment,  shall  iile  in  office  of  the  register  of  chancery  of' 
the  county  in  which  the  real  and  personal  estate  of  the  assignor  is  situate,  an  in- 
ventory or  schedule  of  the  estate  or  effects  so  assigned,  together  with  the  affidavit 
of  said  assignee  that  the  same  is  a  full  and  complete  inventory  of  all  such  estate 
and  effects,  so  far  as  the  same  has  coine  to  his  knowledge.  The  chancellor  shall 
appoint  two  appraisers,  who  shall  appraise  the  same  and  make  return  thereof  under 
oath.  The  assignee  shall  give  bond.  wi;h  at  least  two  sufficient  sureties,  to  be  ap- 
proved by  the  chancellor,  in  double  the  amount  of  the  appraised  value  of  the  es- 
tate so  assigned.  The  assignee  to  render  annual  accounts  of  his  trusteeship  until 
his  final  account  is  rendered  and  approved.  Exceptions  may  be  filed  to  the  ac- 
count of  said  assignee,  and  a  hearing  be  had  upon  the  same  and  proceedings  ba 
had  upon  said  bonus  for  the  protection  of  interest  ed  parties. 

As  to  garnishment,  in  writs  of  attachment,  domestic  or  foreign,  to  compel  ap- 
pearance of  defendant,  there  is  a  clause  commanding  the  sheriff,  "  That  he  sum- 
mon the  defendant's  garnishecs  to  appear  at  the  next  superior  court,  to  declare 
what  goods,  chattels,  rights,  credits,  money  or  effects  of  the  defendant  they  have 
in  their  hands  respectively."  The  writ  is  dissolved  at  any  time  before  judgment, 
by  the  defendant  giving  special  bail  to  the  action,  and  the  garnishees  are  dis- 
charged. If  a  garnishee,  duly  summoned,  does  not  appear  as  required,  he  may 
be  compelled  by  attachment  to  appear  and  answer  or  plead,  and  he  shall  be  so 
compelled  within  two  terms,  or  the  attachment,  as  to  him,  shall  be  dissolved.  If 
he  appear,  and  at  the  request  of  the  plaintiff,  answers  under  oath  that  he  had  no 
money,  goods,  chattels,  rights,  credits  or  effects  of  the  defendant  liable  to  attach* 
ment,  in  his  hands  or  possession,  at  the  time  he  was  notified  of  the  attach- 
ment,  or  at  any  time  after,  he  shall  be  discharged.  But  if  the  plaintiff  shall  re- 
quire him  to  plead,  he  shall  plead  nulla  bond,  on  which  the  plaintiff  may  take 
issue  and  go  to  trial ;  and  if  it  be  found  that  the  garnishee  had,  at  the  time  he 
•was  notified  of  the  attachment,  or  at  any  time  after  and  before  his  plea  pleaded, 
any  money,  goods,  chattels,  or  effects  of  the  defendant  in  his  hands  or  possession. 
the  jury  shall  render  a  verdict  for  the  plaintiff  and  assess  damages  to  the  value  of 
puch  property,  and  judgment  shall  be  entered  against  such  garnishee  therefor, 
with  costs  ;  such  judgment  shall  be  pleadable  by  the  garnishee  in  bar  to  any 
action  at  the  suit  of  the  defendant. 

Judgments  of  courts  are  liens  from  the  time  of  entering  upon  the  real  estate 
of  defendant  within  the  county  in  which  they  are  rendered  ;  after  the  lapse  of  20 
yeare  they  are  presumed  to  be  paid,  but  this  presumption  may  be  rebutted.  Upon 
a  return  of  nulla  bona,  on  execution  issued  by  a  justice  of  the  peace,  or  when  the 
defendant  pleads  his  freehold,  a  transcript  of  said  judgment  may  be  filed  in  the 
superior  court  of  the  county,  and  the  judgment  made  a  lien  upon  land,  and  er"" 
cution  then  issues  out  of  said  superior  court. 

Executions  may  issue  to  any  county :    personal  property  must  be  first  «|    ! 
hausted  before  real  estate  can  be  levied  n»o*.    Personal  property  is  bound  fro' 
I  the  time  the  writ  comes  into  the  hand*  of  the  sheriff,  if  an  actual  lev}  be  maae  t 
within  60  days  thereafter.     The  lien  of  such  a  levy  remains  in  full  iorce  for  3 
years,  as  against  a  subsequent  execution  levied  upon  the  same  goods.     Sale  at 
expiration  of  30  days  aft°r  levy.    Notice  by  advertisement,  posted  at  least  10  da^ 
in  five  or  more  public  places  in  tLj  county,  iwo  of  which  shall  be  in  the  hundrlp 
of  defendant's  residence.    Goods  and  chattels  of  a  tenant  are  liable  to  one  yea? 
rent  inarrear  or  growing  due,  in  preference  to  execution. 

After  exhausting  personalty,  inquisition  is  held  on  lands,  upon  10  days'  no- 
tice. If  the  rents  and  profits  for  seven  years  are  sufficient  to  satisfy  the  debt  and 
costs,  a  writ  of  clefjit  may  issue,  under  which  the  lands  are  delivered  to  the  plain- 
tiff, to  be  held  until  the  debt  is  satisfied.  If  not  sufficient,  a  writ  of  rendition* 
exponas  issues  and  the  land  is  sold,  upon  10  days'  notice  by  advertisements  and 
publication.  When  the  sale  is  confirmed  by  the  court  the  officer  makes  a  deed  t» 
purchaser,  capias  ad  satitfactendum. 


S44  SPECIAL   LAWS  OF  DELAWARE. 

Property  of  the  debtor  in  the  hands  of  third  persona  can  be  reached  either  fc* 
fore  or  after  final  judgment,  and  under  attachment  by  process  of  garnishment, 
upon  an  affidavit  being  made  by  the  plaintiff,  his  agent  or  attorney,  that  he  doef 
Hot  believe  the  debtor  will  have  in  his  possession  visible  property  in  this  State 
•f  sufficient  value  to  satisfy  his  demand. 

Damages  for  non-payment  or  non-acceptance  of  foreign  bills,  bills  of  exchanga 
are  at  the  rate  of  5  per  cent,  on  the  hundred  of  the  principal  sum.  Notes  and 
bills  in  this  State  are  assignable  as  at  common  law. 

Jurisdiction  of  justice  courts  extends  to  $50,  county  courts  to  3300,  beside* 

probate  powers,  and  final  jurisdiction  where  amount  in  controversy  does  not  ex- 

( ceed  $100.    Circuit  courts  have  general  jurisdiction  in  both  law  and  equity  cases, 

'  with  appellate  jurisdiction  from  cases  arising  in  the  county  courts,  arid  final 

,r jurisdiction  in  such  cases.    The  supreme  court  has  appellate  jurisdiction  in  all 

'  cases  in  equity,  and  all  cases  at  law  where  the  amount  in  controversy  exceeds 

$300. 

Judgments  obtained  in  courts  of  record  are  liens  on  all  the  estate  of  the  defend- 
ant in  the  county  where  the  judgment  was  obtained,  from  its  date.  If  obtained 
in  any  other  county  in  the  State  than  where  the  land  lies,  becomes  a  lien  on  the 
land  of  the  defendant  from  the  time  it  is  recorded  in  said  county.  Judgments 
cbtained  before  a  justice  of  the  peace  can  be  made  a  lien  on  the  real  estate  of  the 
defendant,  if  it  is  recorded  within  ten  days  after  it  is  obtained,  in  the  county  i 
clerk's  office.  Judgments  from  other  States  can  be  used  only  as  evidence  in  a 
Buit  brought  on  them  in  this  State. 

\ll  the  lands,  goods  and  chattels  of  the  defendant  may  be  levied  on  and  sold 
under  execution,  and  is  a  lien  on  the  personal  property  of  the  defendant  from 
the  time  it  comes  to  the  hands  of  the  sheriff.  There  is  no  stay  of  execution  and 
no  redemption  of  property  sold  under  execution. 

DEEDS,  MORTGAGES,  KIGHTS  OF  MARRIED  WOMEN,  &c.— Deeds  must  be  in 
vriting,  sealed  and  delivered  in  the  presence  of  not  less  than  two  witnesses — a 
scrawl,  with  the  word  seal  written  in  it,  is  sufficient  seal.  If  a  deed  is  executed 
in  this  State  it  must  be  before  two  witnesses,  and  the  grantor  may  acknowledge 
the  execution  of  the  same  before  any  judge,  clerk  of  the  circuit  court,  notary 
public  or  justice  of  the  peace  within  the  State.  If  executed  out  of  the  State 
and  in  any  other  State  or  territory,  the  deed  may  be  executed  according  to  the 
laws  of  the  State  or  territory  where  executed  and  the  execution  thereof  acknowl- 
edged before  any  judge  or  clerk  of  a  court  of  record,  notary  public,  justice  of  the 
peace  or  other  officer  authorized  by  the  laws  of  such  State  or  territory  to  taketho 
acknowledgment  of  deeds,  or  before  any  commissioner  of  the  State  of  Florida. 
If  executed  in  any  foreign  country,  it  may  be  executed  according  to  the  laws  of 
Buch  country,  and  acknowledged  before  any  notary  public,  or  any  minister  pleni- 
potentiary, extraordinary,  minister  resident,  charge  d'affaires,  commissioner  or 
consul  of  the  United  States— should  the  deed  be  acknowledged  in  any  other  State 
or  country,  before  any  officer  not  having  a  seai  of  office,  he  should  have  attached 
thereto  a  certificate  of  the  clerk  of  a  court  of  record,  a  certificate  of  the  secretary 
Df  state,  minister  plenipotentiary,  extraordinary,  minister  resident,  charge 
d'affaires,  commissioner  or  consul  (as  the  case  may  be),  that  the  person  whose 
name  is  subscribed  to  the  certificate  of  acknowledgment  was,  at  the  date  thereof, 
such  officer  as  he  is  therein  represented  to  be,  that  he  believes  the  signature  or 
Buch  persons  subscribed  thereto  to  be  genuine,  and  that  the  deed  is  executed 
and  acknowledged  according  to  the  laws  of  such  State,  territory  or  foreign, 
country. 

The  following  is  the  form  used  where  the  acknowledgment  is  taken  out  of  ttu " 

JSTATE  OF  ,  ) 

BOUNTY  OF  '     .  J  SSt 

Be  it  remembered  that  on  this  day  of  187    ,  personally  arW 

peared  before  me,  a  notary  public,  duly  appointed  and  authorized  by  the  executive 
authority  of  the  State  of  ,  under  the  laws  of  said  State,  to  take  within 

said  State  proof  and  acknowledgments  of  deeds  (or  other  officer  as  the  case  may 
Je),  to  be  used  and  recorded  in  such  State,  A.  B.,  to  me  well  known  to  be  the 
person  who  executed  the  foregoing  (and  annexed)  deed  by  him  sealed,  subscribed^ 
and  the  said  A.  B.  acknowleged  the  execution  thereof  to  be  his  free  act  and  deed, 
for  the  uses  and  purposes  therein  mentioned. 

In  witness  whereof,  I  have  hereunto  set  my  hand  and  affixed  my  official  seal 
the  day  and  year  first  above  written. 

J.  HILL,  A'ot&ry  Public* 


SPECIAL    LAWS    OF    FLORIDA.  §45 

They  take  priority  according  to  date  of  recording  in  proper  office,  and  are  liena 
Only  from  such  date  The  lien  of  a  purchase  money  mortgage  recorded  within 
sixty  days  after  it  is  made  has  preference  to  any  judgment  against  the  mortgagor, 
•r  other  lien  of  a  da:'.e  prior  to  the  mortgage  chattel,  unknown. 

The  real  and  personal  property  of  any  married  woman,  acquired  prior  to 
March  17, 1875,  or  which  she  then  held,  or  which  she  may  acquire  after  that  date, 
in  any  manner  whatever,  from  any  person  other  than  her  husband,  shall  be  her 
sole  and  separate,  property  ;  and  the  rents,  issues  and  profits  thereof  shall  not  ba 
subject  to  the  disponal  of  her  husband  nor  liable  for  his  debts.  Married  women, 
purchasers  of  real  Estate,  may  secure  purchase  money,  or  part  of  it,  by  recogniz-j 
ance,  bond,  mortgage  or  otherwise,  as  single  women  may  ;  her  husband  need  noti 
be  a  party  or  consent  to  such  act  of  giving  security,  and  is  not  liable  unless  he  is* 
a  party  thereto.  May  give  bond  with  or  without  warrant  of  attorney.  Married 
worneoi  may  receive  wages  for  her  personal  labor  and  maintain  an  action  therefor^ 
znay  deposit  same  or  other  moneys  belonging  to  her  in  bank,  etc.,  free  from  her 
husband's  control.  May  prosecute  and  defend  suits  at  law,  or  in  equity,  for  pres- 
ervation and  protection  of  her  property  ;  make  contracts  in  respect  to  her  prop- 
erty, upon  which  suits  may  be  brought  as  though  she  was/emme  sole,  whether 
the  contracts  were  made  before  or  after  marriage,  and  her  property  shall  b« 
charged  therewith. 

Wills  must  be  in  writing,  and  signed  by  the  testator,  or  by  soire  other  person. 
Subscribing  the  testator's  name,  in  his  presence  and  by  his  express  direction,  and 
attested  and  subscribed  by  two  competent  witnesses,  in  the  presence  of  the  tes- 
tator. 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  FLORIDA. 

EXEMPTIONS  FROM  FORCED  SALE.— Home,  Farm,  or  House  and  Lot,  and  Per-' 
tonal  Property.— A.  homestead  to  the  extent  of  160  acres  of  land,  or  the  hall  of  on* 
acre  within  the  limits  of  any  incorporated  city  or  town,  owned  by  the  head  of  a 
family  residing  in  this  State,  together  with  $1.000  worth  of  personal  property, 
and  the  improvements  on  the  real  estate,  shall  be  exempted  from  forced  sale 
under  any  process  c-f  law,  and  the  real  estate,  shall  not  be  alienable  without  the 
joint  consent  of  hu?band  and  wife,  when  that  relation  exists.  "  But  no  property 
shall  be  exempt  from  sale  for  taxes,  or  for  the  payment  of  obligations  contracted 
for  the  purchase  of  said  premises,  or  for  the  erection  of  improvements  thereon, 
or  for  house,  field  or  other  labor  performed  on  the  same.  The  exemption  herein 
provided  for,  in  a  city  or  town,  shall  not  extend  to  more  improvements  or  build- 
ings than  the  residence  or  business  house  of  the  owner." 

MECHANICS'  LIEN. — Mechanics  and  other  persons  performing  labor  or  furnish- 
ing materials  for  the  construction  or  repair  of  any  building,  or  who  may  have 
furnished  any  engine  or  other  machinery  for  any  mill,  distillery  or  manufactory, 
may  have  a  lien  on  such  building,  mill  or  distillery,  etc.,  for  the  same  to  the  ex- 
tent of  the  interest  of  the  tenant  or  contractor.  Sub-contractors,  journeymen  and 
laborers  have  also  lien,  upon  their  giving  notice  in  writing  to  the  owner  that  they 
hold  him  responsible  for  whatever  may  be  due  them. 

COLLECTION  OF  DEBTS.— There  is  no  imprisonment  for  debt  in  this  State. 
Attachment  may  be  had  of  the  debtor's  property  upon  affidavit  made  by  the 
plaintiff,  or  his  agent,  or  attorney,  that  the  defendant  is  removing  his  property, 
out  of  the  State,  or  about  to  remove  it,  or  is  a  non-resident  of  the  State,  or  is  re-' 
moving  or  about  to  remove  beyond  the  limits  of  the  State,  or  absconds  or  secretes 
himself,  or  is  fraudulently  disposing  of  his  property,  or  is  concealing  the  same, 
or  is  removing  same  out  of  the  judicial  district  where  defendant  resides.  Before 
the  attachment  can  issue  the  plaintiff  must  enter  into  a  bond  with  sufficient 
securities  in  an  amount  double  the  sum  claimed  by  him.  An  attachment  wii! 
also  be  issued  against  the  property  of  the  defendant  on  a  debt  that  is  not  due  ; 
pro  ided,  it  falls  due  in  nine  months  from  the  time  it  is  asked  for— upon  an  af- 
nd£.<  it  by  the  plaintiff  or  his  agent,  setting  forth  the  facts  of  the  case  ;  and,  also, 
that  the  defendant  is  actually  removing  his  property  from  out  the  State,  or  is 
fraudulently  concealing  or  disposing  of  the  same  for  the  purpose  of  evading  his 
juet  debts.  A  bond  shall  aiso  be  given,  as  in  the  case  where  the  debt  is  actually 
due. 

Assignments,  unless  fraudulent,  are  good  in  this  State,  though  preference  be 
given  to  creditors  ;  and  even  assignments  made  in  another  State,  conveying  pr<»p- 
•rty  situated  in  this  State,  are  held  good  against  an  attaching  creditor. 


84(5  SPECIAL   LAWS    OP   FLORIDA. 

Stay  of  execution  on  judgment,  for  want  of  affidavit  of  defense  ;  C  month*,  i£ 
Security  be  given  20  days  after  judgment.  On  judgments  before  justice  of  the 
peace  6  months'  stay  on  defendant  pleading  his  freehold,  and  <i  months'  stay  on  hia 
giving  security. 

All  checks,  notes,  drafts  or  bills,  inland  or  foreign,  payable  without  time  or  at 
eight,  are  duo  and  payable  on  presentment,  without  grace  ;  days  of  grace  shall  be 
allowed  on  all  checks,  drafi,s  or  bills,  foreign  or  inland,  payable  at  a  future  or 
different  time  from  that  in  which  thv,/  are  dated,  or  which  are  made  payable  om 
&  l»rticular  day  after  date. 

The  damages  on  bills  of  exchange  drawn  upon  any  person  beyond  the  seas,  ( 
and  returned  with  legal  protest,  shall  as  to  the  drawer,  indorser  and  all  con- 
cerned, be  at  the  rate  of  20  per  centum  on  the  contents  of  such  bills  in  addition. 
i  thereto-    Notes,  checks  and  other  negotiable  instruments,  becoming  payable  or* 
1  Christmas  day,   fourth  day  of  July,  Thanksgiving  day.  first  day  of  January,  an<J 
twenty-second  day  of  February,  shivll  be  deemed  to  become  due  on  the  secular  daj 
next  preceding  the  aforementioned  days  respectively. 

Summons  may  be  served  on  defendant  by  stating  the  substance  of  it  to  him 

personally,  or  by  leaving  a  copy  at  his  usual  place  of  abode,  in  the  presence  of  a 

white  adult  person.  6  days  before  the  returi>  thereof       And  whenever  suit  is 

brought  against  persons  not  residing  in  this  State  but  doing  business  here,  either  by 

_  branch  establishment  or  agency,  it  shall  be  sufficient  service  of  writ  of  summons  to 

"  leave  a  copy  thereof  with  any  agent,  or  at  the  usual  place  of  business  of  such 

person  or  persons,  or  his,  her  or  their  agent,  10  days  before  the  return  thereof. 

DKEDS,  RIGHTS  OF  MARRIED  WOMEN,  WILLS,  &c.—  Acknowledgments  may- 
be taken  out  of  the  State  before  any  consul-general,  consul  or  commercial  agent 
of  the  United  States,  duly  appointed  in  any  foreign  country,  at  thj  places  of  their 
respective  official  residences,  or  before  any  judge  of  the  district  or  circuit  court 
of  the  United  States,  or  the  chancellor  or  any  judge  of  a  court  of  record,  or  the 
mayor  or  chief  officer  of  any  city  or  borough,  and  certified  under  the  hand  of  such 
chancellor,  judge,  mayor  or  officer  and  the  seal  of  his  office,  court,  city  or  borough; 
or  in  open  court,  certified  under  the  hand  of  the  clerk,  and  the  seal  of  the  court; 
or  before  a  commissioner  of  deeds,  appointed  by  the  Governor  (whose  seal  shall 
be  so  engraved  as  to  make  an  impression  that  will  show  distinctly  the  name, 
official  title,  date  of  appointment  and  term  of  office  of  such  commissioner).  Only 
one  witness  is  necessary  to  a  deed.  A  scrawl  is  regarded  as  a  seal. 

The  certificate  of  acknowledgment  must  show  the  wife  relinquishes  her 
dower,  and  the  private  examination  should  be  certified  iu  the  words  stated  iu  the. 
following  form : 

[Form  by  Man  and  Wife.] 
STATE  OF  DELAWARE,  )  ce 
COUNTY  OF  . J  ss" 

Be  it  remembered,  that  on  the  day  of  ,  in  the  year  of  our 

Lord  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  ,  personally  came  before  the 

subscriber  (name  and  title),  John  Wilson  and  Mary  Wilson,  his  wife,  parties  to 
this  indenture,  known  to  me  personally  (or  proved  on  oath  of  Richard  Roe)  to  be 
Buck,  and  severally  acknowledged  said  indenture  to  be  their  act  and  deed  re- 
Bpectively,  and  the  said  Mary  Wilson  being  at  the  pame  time  privately  examined 
by  me,  apart  from  her  husband,  acknowledged  that  she  executed  the  paid  inden- 
ture willingly,  without  compulsion,  or  threats  or  fear  of  her  husband's  dis- 
pleasure. 

Given  under  my  hand  and  official  seal  the  day  and  year  aforesaid. 

(Signature  and  title.) 

[Form  of  Certificate  where  Grantor  is  Unmarried.] 
jpTATE  OF  DELAWARE,  )  ce 
COUNTY  OF  . }  ss' 

Be  it  remembered,  that  on  the  day  of  ,  in  the  year  of  our" 

Lord  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  ,   personally  came  before  th« 

Subscriber  (name  and  title),  John  Wilson,  party  to  this  indenture,  known  to  m4 
personally  (or  proved  on  oath  of  Peter  Smith),  to  be  such,  and  acknowledged  said 
indenture  to  be  his  act  and  deed. 

Given  under  my  hand  and  official  seal  the  day  and  year  aforesaid. 

(Signature  and  title.) 

There  is  no  statutory  provision  for  proof  of  deed  bv  subscribing  witness  out  of 
Che  State.  Deeds  must  be  recorded  within  one  year  after  the  sealing  and  delivery 
cf  the  instrument. 

Mortgages  are  executed  and  acknowledged  in  the  same  manner  as  deeds,  and  ar* 
foreclosed  by  proceedings  in  th»j  superior  court  by  writ  of  scire  facias,  and  after 
Judgment,  sale  of  the.  premises  is  made  by  writ  of  levari/acias. 


SPECIAL   LAWS    OP    GEORGIA  847 

<he  wife  must  join  with  the  husband  in  the  execution  of  4«<?<i&  to  relinquish 
fcer  dower,  and  the  following  should  be  in  the  eertiticaie  of  aoknow  \cdgmerit : 

"  Personally  came  C.  .D.,  wife  of  the  said  A.  B.,  to  me  w^ll  known,  etc.,  and 
Acknowledged  she  made  herself  a  party  to  and  executed  the  same  for  the  purpose 
of  relinquishing  her  dower,  in  and  to  the  lands  and  tenements  therein  described . 
and  the  said  C.  1).,  on  a  private  examination  taken  and  made  before  me,  separate!- 
and  apart  from  her  said  husband,  acknowledges  and  says  that  the  said  relhl 
quishment  and  renunciation  of  dower  was  and  is  made  freely  and  voluntarily,  ar.:- 
without  any  compulsion  or  constraint,  apprehension  or  fear  from  her  said  hu./ 
aand,  the  said  A.  B.,  to  which  ackn  Dwledgment  the  said  C.  D.  has  in  my  presenc- 
and  this  day  set  her  handaiul  seal."  (Signature  and  title.) 

All  personal  and  real  property  owned  by  the  wife  before  her  marriage,  or  to 
which  she  shall  become  entitled  by  inheritance,  gift,  purchase  or  devise  durin«» 
marriage,  shall  be  and  remain  her  sole  and  separate  property,  and  free  from  the 
debts  of  the  husband.  But,  in  order  that  it  shall  be  free  from  his  debts,  an  inven- 
tory of  the  same  must  be  made  out  in  six  months  after  marriage,  or  after  the  same 
•hall  be  acquired  by  her,  and  recorded  in  the  circuit  court  clerk's  office  in  the 
county  in  which  it  is  situated.  A  married  woman  tan  sell  and  convey  all  real 
estate' inherited  by  her  in  the  same  way  as  she  could  if  she  were  sole  ;  but  in  all 
conveyances  of  any  of  her  real  estate  her  husband  must  join  in  the  execution  and 
Acknowledgment.  She  is  also  entitled  to  dower  in  one-third  of  all  the  real  estate 
seized  by  her  husband  at  the  time  of  his  death,  or  at  any  time  during  his  life, 
unless  she  has  relinquished  the  same  ;  and  she  is  also  entitled  to  one-third  of  his 
personalty. 

No  mortgage  of  personal  property  shall  be  effectual  or  valid  to  any  purpose 
whatever,  unless  such  mortgage  shall  be  recorded  in  the  office  of  record  for  the 
county  in  which  the  mortgaged  property  shall  be  at  the  time  of  the  execution  of 
•the  mortgage,  and  unless  the  mortgaged  property  be  delivered  at  the  time  of 
execution  of  the  mortgage,  or  within  twenty  days  thereafter,  to  the  mortgagee, 
and  shall  continue  to  remain  truly  and  bonafide  in  his  possession.  Mortgages  of 
personal  property  shall  be  admitted  to  record  upon  the  same  proof  as  real  prop- 
erty, or  by  proof  being  made  upon  oath  by  at  least  one  credible  person,  before  the 
recording  officer,  of  the  hand-writing  of  the  mortgagor,  in  cases  in  which  there 
ehall  be  no  attesting  witnesses  to  the  mortgage. 

Wills  must  be  in  writing,  signed  by  the  testator  or  by  some  other  person  in 
tus  presence,  and  by  his  express  directions,  and  shall  be  attested  and  su'jscribe4 
in  the  presence  of  the  testator  by  THREE  or  more  witnesses. 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  GEORGIA. 

EXEMPTIONS  FROM  FORCED  SALE.— A  Home  worth  $2000,  and  personal  Prop- 
erty worth  $1000.  Each  head  of  a  family,  or  guardian  or  trustee  of  a  family,  of 
3n?hor  children,  shall  be  entitled  to  a  homestead  or  realty  to  the  value  of  $2,004 
iiv  specie,  and  personal  property  to  the  value  of  $1,000  in  specie,  both  to  be  valued 
at  the  time  they  are  set  apart.  And  no  court  or  ministerial  officer  in  this  State 
shall  ever  have  jurisdiction  or  authority  to  enforce  any  judgment,  decree  or 
execution  against  said  property  so  set  apart— including  such  improvements  as 
may  be  made  thereon  from  time  to  time — except  for  taxes,  money  borrowed  and 
expended  in  the  improvement  of  the  homestead,  or  for  the  purchase  money  of 
the  same,  and  for  labor  done  thereon,  or  material  furnished  therefor,  or  removal 
of  incumbrances  thereon.  And  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  General  Assembly  as 
•arly  as  practicable,  to  provide,  by  law,  for  the  setting  apart  wid  valuation  of  said 
property,  and  to  enact  laws  for  the  full  and  complete  protection  and  security  of 
the  same  to  the  sole  use  and  benefit  of  said  families  as  aforesaid. 

MECHANICS'  LIEN. — Laborers  shall  have  a  general  lien  upon  the  property  of 
their  employers  liable  to  levy  and  sale  for  their  labor,  which  is  superior  to  all 
other  liens,  except  liens  for  taxes,  the  special  liens  of  landlords  on  yearly  crops, 
and  such  other  liens  as  are  declared  by  law  superior  to  them.  Laborers  shall 
also  have  a  special  lien  on  the  products  of  their  labor  superior  to  all  other  liena, 
except  liens  for  taxes,  and  special  liens  of  landlords  on  yearly  crops,  to  which 
they  shall  be  inferior.  All  mechanics  jf  every  sort,  who  have  taken  "no  personal 
security  therefor,  shall,  for  work  done  and  material  furnished  in  building,  re- 
pairing or  improving  any  real  estate  of  their  employers,  all  contractors,  material 
men  and  persons  furnishing  material  for  the  improvement  of  real  estate,  all  con- 
tractors for  building  factories,  furnishing  material  lor  Ui«  game  or 


$48  SPECIAL   LAWS   OP    GEORGIA. 

machinery  for  the  same,  and  all  machinists  and  manufacturers  of  machinery  fan 
eluding  corporations  engaged  in  such  business,  wtio  may  furnish  or  put  up  in  any 
county  of  this  State  any  steam  mills  or  other  machinery,  or  who  may  repair  the 
came,  and  all  contractors  to  build  railroads  shall  each  have  a  special  lien  on  such 
real  estate,  factories  and  railroads. 

COLLECTION  OF  ACCOUNTS.— Attachment  may  issue  where  the  debtor  resides! 
out  of  the  State  ;  when  he  is  actually  removing  or  about  to  remove  without  the. 
limits  of  the  county ;  when  he  absconds  ;  when  he  conceals  himself  ;  when  he 
resists  a  legal  arrest ;  when  he  is  causing  his  property  to  be  removed  beyond  the 
limits  of  the  State  ;  when  the  debt  is  created  by  the  purchase  of  property,  upon 
such  debt  becoming  due  ;  when  the  debtor  who  created  such  debt  is  in  the  pos- 
'•^session  of  the  property  for  the  purchase  of  which  the  debt  was  created ;  when  a 
debtor  shall  sell  or  convey  or  conceal  his  property  liable  for  the  payment  of  his 
debts,  for  the  purpose  of  avoiding  the  payment  of  the  same,  orwhene\%r  a  debtor 
shall  threaten  or  prepare  so  to  do.  Attachment  b^nds  must  be  in  double  the- 
amount  of  the  debt,  and  conditioned  to  pay  the  defendant  all  damage's  sustained, 
in  consequence  of  the  attachment,  in  the  event  the  plaintiff  shall  fail  to  recover. 

Arrest  and  imprisonment  for  debt  is  unknown  in  this  State. 

An  assignment  or  transfer  by  a  debtor,  insolvent  at  the  time,  of  real  or  person, 
al  property,  or  choses  in  action  of  any  description,  to  any  person,  either  in  trust 
•r  for  the  benefit  of  or  in  behalf  of  creditors,  when  any  trust  or  benefit  is  reserved- 
to  the  assignor,  or  any  perscn  for  him,  is  fraudulent  in  law  against  creditors,  and 
as  to  them  null  and  void.  A  debtor  may  prefer  one  creditor  to  another,  and  to- 
that  end  he  may  bona  fide  give  a  lien  by  mortgage,  or  other  legal  means,  or  he 
may  sell  in  payment  'of  the  debt,  or  he  may  transfer  negotiable  papers  as  col- 
laterial  security,  the  surplus  in  such  cases  not  being  reserved  for  his  own  benefit, 
or  that  of  any  other  favored  creditor,  to  the  exclusion  of  other  creditors.  All 
choses  in  action  arising  upon  contract  may  be  assigned  BO  as  to  vest  the  title  in 
the  assignee,  but  he  takes  it,  except  negotiable  securities,  subject  to  the  equities 
existing  between  the  assignor  and  debtor  at  the  time  of  the  assignment  and  until 
notice  of  the  assignment  is  given  to  the  person  liable. 

In  cases  where  suit  is  pending,  or  where  judgment  has  been  obtained,  the- 
plaintiff  shall  be  entitled  to  the  process  of  garnishment  under  the  following  reg- 
ulations. The  plaintiff,  his  agent  or  attorney-at-law,  shall  make  an  affidavit 
"before  some  officer  authorized  to  issue  an  attachment  by  this  code,  stating  the 
amount  claimed  to  be  due  in  such  action,  or  on  such  judgment,  and  that  he  has. 
reason  to  apprehend  the  loss  of  the  same,  or  some  part  thereof,  unless  the  process 
of  garnishment  do  issue,  and  shall  give  bond,  with  good  security,  in  a  sum  at- 
least  equal  to  double  the  amount  sworn  to  be  due,  payable  to  the  defendant  in 
the  suit  or  judgment,  as  the  case  may  be,  conditioned  to  pav  said  defendant  all 
costs  and  damages  that  lie  may  sustain  in  consequence  of  suing  out  said  garnish- 
ment, in  the  event  that  the  plaintiff  fails  to  recover  in  the  suit  pending,  or  it 
should  appear  that  the  amour  t  sworn  to  be  due  on  such  judgment  was  not  due. 

If  any  bill  of  exchange,  draft  or  order,  is  made  pa'Tble  at  any  place  out  of  thi* 
State  and  within  the  United  States,  and  the  same  is  returned  under  protest  for 
non-acceptance  or  non-payment,  the  holder  thereof  shall  be  entitled  to  recover 
of  the  drawer  and  encrorsers  in  the  fin*  case,  and  the  acceptor  also  in  the  latter- 
case,  in  addition  to  the  principal,  interest  and  protest  fees,  five  per  cent,  on  the 
principal  as  damages  for  non-acceptance  or  non-payment.  If  such  bill,  draft 
or  order  is  payable  at  a  place  without  the  limits  of  the  United  States,  the  holder 
may  recover  ten  per  cent,  damages  as  right  for  non-acceptance  or  non-pay-  * 
>ment. 

The  superior  courts  are  the  highest  courts  of  general  original  jurisdiction. 
They  have  exclusive  jurisdiction  of  divorce  suits,  cases  respecting  titles  to  land 
and  equity  cases.  The  powers  of  a  court  of  ordinary  and  probate  are  vested  in 
an  ordinary  for  each  county.  Justices  of  the  peace  have  jurisdiction  in  all 
civil  cases  where  the  principal  sum  claimed  does  not  exceed  §100,  except 
where  jurisdiction  is  exclusively  vested  in  other  courts. 

Writs  to  the  superior  courts  must  be  filed  twenty  days,  and  served  fifteeen 
days  before  the  first  day  of  the  term  to  which  they  are  returnable.  Actions  are 
triable  only  at  the  second  term,  except  suits  for  rent,  which  are  triable  at  the 
first  term.  In  justices'  courts,  summonses  shall  bear  date  15  days  before  the 
time  of  trial,  if  the  amount  is  under  $50,  and  shall  bear  date  20  days  before  tha 
time  of  trial  when  the  amount  is  over  §50,  and  shall  be  served  .n-t  least  10  day» 
before  the  time  of  trial. 

All  judgments  obtained  in  the  superior,  inferior,  justices'  or  other  courts  of 
this  State  shall  be  of  equal  dignity  and  shall  bind  all  the  property  of  the  de- 
fond&it,  both  real  and  personal,  from  the  date  J>f  such  judgment,  except  aft 


SPECIAL   LAWS   OF   GEORGIA   AND   IDAHO.  849 

otherwise  provided  in  this  code.  When  any  person  has  bonafide  and  for  a  val- 
uable consideration  purchased  real  or  personal  property,  and  has  been  in  pos~ 
session  of  such  real  property  for  four  years,  or  of  such  personal  property  two 
years,  the  same  shall  be  discharged  from  the  lien  of  any  judgment  against  the 
person  from  whom  he  has  purchased.  When  a  judgment  lien  has  attached  on 
personal  property  which  is  removed  to  another  State  and  sold,  if  brought  back 
again  to  this  State  it  will  be  subject  to  the  judgment  lien.  No  judgment  here- 
after obtained  in  the  courts  of  this  State  shall  be  enforced  after  the  expiration 
of  seven  years  from  the  time  of  its  rendition,  when  no  execution  has  been  issued 
upon  it ;  or  when  execution  has  been  issued,  and  seven  years  shall  have  expired 
from  the  time  of  the  entry  upon  the  execution,  made  by  an  officer  authorized  to 
fexecute  and  return  the  same  ;  such  judgments  may  be  revived  by  scire  facias,  or. 
toe  sued  on.  within  three  years  from  the  time  they  become  dormant.  Execution 
may  issue  immediately  upon  the  rendition  of  judgment. 

DEEDS,  MORTGAGES,  RIGHTS  OF  MARRIED  WOMEN.  WILLS,  &c.,  A  deed  to- 
lands  in  this  State  must  be  in  writing,  under  seal,  signed  by  the  maker,  attested 
by  at  least  two  witnesses  and  delivered  to  the  purchaser,  or  some  one  for  him, 
and  be  made  on  a  valuable  or  good  consideration.  No  prescribed  i'orm  is  essential 
to  the  validity  of  a  deed  to  lands  or  personalty.  If  sufficient  in  itself  to  make 
known  the  transaction  between  the  parties,  no  want  or  form  will  invalidate  it. 
A  deed  to  personalty  needs  no  attesting  witness  to  make  it  valid  ;  in  other  re- 
spects, the  principles  applicable  to  deeds  to  lands  are  applicable  to  it.  Gener- 
ally a  deed  is  not  necessary  to  convey  title  to  personalty.  Every  deed  convoying 
lands  shall  be  recorded  in  the  office  of  the  clerk  of  the  superior  court  of  the 
county^yvhere  the  land  lies  within  one  year  from  the  date  of  such  deed  ;  en  fail- 
ure to  record  in  this  time,  the  record  may  be  made  at  any  time  thereafter  ;  bat 
such  deed  loses  its  priority  over  a  subsequent  deed  from  the  game  vendor  re- 
corded in  time  and  taken  without  notice  of  the  existence  of  the  first.  To  au- 
thorize the  record  of  a  deed  to  realty  or  personalty,  it  must  be  attested,  if  execu- 
ted out  of  this  State,  by  a  commissioner  of  deeds  for  the  State  of  Georgia,  or  a 
consul  or  vice-consul  of  the  United  States  (the  certificates  of  these  officers  under 
their  seals  being  evidence  of  the  fact),  or  by  a  judge  of  a  court  of  record  in  the 
State  where  executed,  with  the  certificate  of  the  clerk,  under  the  seal  of  such 
court,  of  the  genuineness  of  tlie  signature,of  such  judge.  If  executed  in  this 
State,  it  must  be  attested  by  a  judge  of  a  court  of  record  of  this  State,  or  a  justice 
of  the  peace,  or  notary  public,  or  clerk  of  the  superior  court  in  the  county  HI 
which  the  last  three  mentioned  officers  respectively  hold  their  appointments ; 
or  if  subsequently  to  its  execution  the  deed  is  acknowledged  in  presence  of 
either  of  the  above-named  officers  that  fact  certified  on  the  deed  by  such  officer 
shall  entitle  it  to  be  recorded.  If  a  deed  is  neither  attested  by  nor  acknowledged 
before  either  of  the  officers  aforesaid,  it  may  be  admitted  to  record  upon  'tha 
affidavit  of  a  subscribing  witness  before  either  of  the  above-named  officers  tes- 
tifying to  the  execution  of  the  deed  and  its  attestation  according  to  Jaw. 

All  property  of  the  wife  at  the  time  of  her  marriage,  whether  real  or  personal 
or  choses  in  action,  shall  be  and  remain  the  separate  property  of  the  wife,  and 
all  property  given  to,  inherited  or  acquired  by  the  wife  during  coverture,  shall 
Shall  vest  in  and  belong  to  the  wife,  and  shall  not  be  liable  for  the  payment  of 
any  debt,  default  or  contract  of  the  husband.  The  wife  is  &femme  sole  as  to  her 
separate  estate,  Tinless  controlled  by  the  settlement.  Every  restriction  upon 
her  power  in  it  must  be  complied  with  ;  but  while  the  wife  may  contract,  she 
cannot  bind  her  separate  estate  by  any  contract  of  suretyship,  nor  by  any  as- 
sumption of  the  debts  of  her  husband,  and  any  sale  of  her  separate  estate,  made 
(to  a  creditor  of  her  husband  in  extinguishment  of  his  debts,  shall  be  absolutely 
,void. 

Wills  must  be  in  writing,  signed  by  the  testator  or  some  person  in  his  presence 
and  by  his  express  direction,  and  attested  and  subscribed,  in  the  presence  of 
the  testator,  by  three  competent  witnesses  if  to  pass  real  estate,  and  two  if  per- 
sonal property. 

SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  IDAHO. 

EXEMPTIONS  FROM  FORCED  SALE.— Home  worth  $ 2000,  and  Personal  Property 
worth  $300.  The  head  of  a  family,  being  a  householder,  either  husband  or  wife,  may 
•elect  a  homestead  not  exceeding  in  value  $2000  ;  while  furniture,  teams,  tools, 
Btock,  and  other  personal  property  enumerated  by  statute,  to  the  value  of  $300  or 
more,  according  to  valuation,  shall  be  exempt  from  execution,  except  upon  a 
judgment  recovered  for  its  price,  or  upon  a  mortgage  thereon. 


S50  SPECIAL    LAWS    OF    ILLINOIS, 

SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  ILLINOIS. 

EXEMPTIONS  FROM  FORCED  S ALE  .— Home  worth  §1000,  and  Personal  Property. 
Exemptions  are  as  follows,  except  for  wages  of  any  laborer  or  servant :  An 
estate  of  homestead  to  the  extent  in  value  of  $1,000.  and  proceeds  of  the  sjile 
thereof  to  that  amount  for  one  year  after  such  sale.  Insurance  on  homestead  is 
exempt  where  a  loss  occurs  thereon  to  the  extent  property  insured  would  have 
been  if  not  destroyed.  Personal  property  is  exempt  as  follows  :  1.  The  necessary 

2.    One  sewing  machine.    3,    The  furniture, 


wearing  apparel  of  every  person 

d  i       '  - 
s,  n 
db; 


tools  and  implements  of  any  person  necessary  to  carry  on  his  or  her  trad*  or 
trasiness,  not  exceeding  in  value  $100.    4.    Materials  and  stock  designed  and 


procured  by  him  or  her  and  necessary  for  carrying  on  his  or  her  trade  and  business, 
•and  intended  to  be  used  or  wrought  therein,  not  exceeding  $  too  in  value.  5.  The 
implements  or  library  of  any  professional  person,  not  exceeding  $100  in  value. 

And  in  addition  to  the  above  property,  when  the  debtor  is  the  head  of  a  fam- 
ily and  resides  with  the  same,  the  following  :  1.  Necessary  beds,  bedsteads  and 
bedding,  two  stoves  and  pipe.  2.  Necessary  household  furniture,  not  exceeding 
in  value,  $200.  3.  One  cow  and  calf,  and  two  swine.  4.  One  yoke  of  oxen,  or 
two  horses  in  lieu  thereof,  used  by  the  debtor  in  obtaining  the  support  of  hia 
family,  not  exceeding  in  value  $200,  and  the  harness  thereof,  not  exceeding  in 
value  $40.  5.  Necessary  provisions  and  fuel  for  the  use  of  the  family  for  three 
months,  and  necessary  food  for  the  stock  hereinbefore  exempted  for  the  same 
time.  6.  The  bibles,  school  books  and  family  pictures.  7.  The  family  library. 
8.  Cemetery  lots  or  rights  of  burial,  and  tombs  for  repositories,  for  the  dead.  9. 
$100  worth  of  other  property  suited  to  his  or  her  condition  in  life,  selected  by  the 
debtor. 

When  the  head  of  a  family  dies,  deserts,  or  does  not  reside  with  same,  such 
family  is  entitled  to  the  benefit  of  exemptions  just  mentioned.  The  wages  and 
gervices  of  a  defendant,  being  the  head  of  a  family  and  residing  with  the  same, 
to  an  amount  not  exceeding  $25,  are  exempt  from  garnishment, 

M*  JHAXICS'  LIEX.— Any  person,  by  contract,  express  or  implied,  or  both, 
•with  the  owner  of  any  lot  or  piece  of  ground,  furnishing  labor  or  materials  in 
.  building,  altering,  repairing  or  ornamenting  any  house  or  building  on  such  lot 
has  a  lien  upon  such  lot  or  building  for  the  amount  due  him  for  such  labor  or 
material.  To  the  extent  that  the  furnishing  -such  labor  or  materials  has  increased 
the  value  of  such  property,such  lien  takes  precedence  over  prior  incum- 
brances.  Proceedings  to  enforce  a  mechanics'  lien  must  be  commenced  by 
the  original  contractor  within  six  months  from  the  time  when  the  last  pay- 
ment for  labor,  or  materials  becomes  due,  in  order  to  enforce  such  lien  against 
other  creditors  or  iiicumbrances 

COLLECTION  OF  DEBTS. — Arrests  in  civil  actions,  maybe  made  under  a  Statute 
•which  provides  that  when  any  person  shall  be  about  to  commence  a  suit  in  any 
court  of  record  in  this  State  founded  upon  contract,  if  he  shall  file  an  affidavit 
setting  forth  the  cause  of  action,  the  amount  due  the  plaintiff,  and  facts  showing 
that  defendant  fraudulently  contracted  the  debt,  or  that  he  has  concealed, 
assigned,  removed  or  disposed  of  his  property  with  intent  to  defraud  such  plain- 
'  tiif  ;  and  shall  present  such  affidavit  to  a  judge  of  a  court  of  record,  or  if  there  be 
no  such  judge  in  the  county  at  the  time,  then  to  a  master  in  chancery  ;  and  if 
guilicient  cause  be  shown,  bail  may  be  given.  The  judge  or  officer  ordering  the 
issuing  of  such  capias  must  require  bond  from  the  plaintiff,  with  security  to  be 
approved  by  the  clerk  issuing  the  writ,  in  double  the  amount  sued  for,  con- 
ditioned for  the  effectual  prosecution  of  the  capias  by  plaintiff  and  payment  of  all 
damages  defendant  by  him  sustained,  on  account  of  the  wrongful  suing  out  of 
•writ. 

1  Writs  of  attachment  may  issue  for  the  following  causes :  1.  Where  the  credi- 
tor is  a  non-resident.  2.  When  the  debtor  conceals  himself  or  stands  in  de- 
fiance of  an  officer  so  that  process  cannot  be  served  on  him.  3.  Where  the 
debtor  has  departed  from  the  State  with  'the  intention  of  having  his  effects  re- 
moved therefrom.  4.  Where  the  debtor  is  about  to  remove  his  property  from 
this  State  to  the  injury  of  creditor  seeking  to  attach.  5.  Where  the  debtor  has 
Avithin  two  years  preceding  the  filing  of  the  affidavit  required  in  this  proceeding 
to  be  filed  by  attaching  creditor,  fraudulently  conveyed  or  assigned  his  effects, 
or  a  part  thereof,  so  as  to  hinder  or  delay  his  creditors.  6.  Where  the  debtor 
has,  within  two  years  prior  to  the  filing  of  such  affidavit,  fraudulently  concealed 
or  disposed  of  his  property  so  as  to  hinder  or  delay  his  creditors.  7.  When  th« 
debtor  is  about  fraudulently  to  conceal,  assign  or  otherwise  dispose  of  his  prop- 
erty or  eflects  so  as  to  hinder  or  delay  his  creditors.  8.  Wfcen  the  debt  sued 


SPECIAL  LAWS   OP  ILLINOIS.  851 

for  WM  fraudulently  contracted  on  the  part  of  the  debtor;  provided,  tb* 
statements  of  the  debtor,  his  agent  or  attorney,  which  constitute  the  fraud,  shall 
have  been  reduced  to  writing  and  his  signature  attached  thereto  by  himself,  hi* 
Sageut  or  attorney. 

To  entitle  a  creditor  to  sue  out  an  attachment,  the  claim  which  he  seeks  to 
make  the  basis  of  this  proceeding  must  exceed  $20  in  a  court  of  record.  Plain- 
tiff, in  attachment  before  issuance  of  writ,  is  required  to  file  with  the  clerk 
issuing  same  a  bond  to  the  defendant  with  sufficient  surety  in  double  the  sum 
•worn  to  be  due  to  him,  conditioned  for  the  payment  of  all  damages  and  costs  re- 
covered against  him  for  wrongfully  suing  out  such  attachment.  ^  Attachments 
may  be  issued  by  justices  of  the  peace  where  the  amount  claimed  ia  within  their 
.jurisdiction  for  the  same  causes  when  authorize  their  issue  from  courts  of  record 
jSind  under  substantially  the  same  restrictions. 

Assignments  for  the  benefit  of  creditors  may  be  made  so  as  to  prefer  one  or 
more,  or  a  certain  class  of  creditors. 

If  no  preference  is  made  by  the  debtor  the  creditors  have  an  equitable  lien  for 
their  pro  rata  proportions.  If  the  assignment  is  made  with  the  intent  of  delay- 
ing or  defrauding  creditors,  it  is  void— not  necessarily  so,  if  its  effect  is  to  delay 
creditors. 

One  partner  can  assign  all  the  partnership  assets  for  the  payment  of  firm 
debts,  {'hoses  in  action,  except  negotiable  instruments,  can  not  be  assigned 
here  so  as  to  give  assignee  a  right  of  action  on  them  in  his  own  name. 

Garnishee  process  may  issue  both  from  justices  courts  and  courts  of  record, 
either  on  attachment  or  after  judgment  and  execution  returned  nulla  bona 
against  any  person  owing  debtor  or  having  money,  property  or  effects  belonging 
to  the  debtor  in  his  possession. 

The  acceptance  of  a  bill  need  not  be  in  writing.  "Where  foreign  bills,  drawn 
within  this  State  and  payable  out  of  the  United  States,  are  duly  protested  for 
non-payment  or  non-acceptance,  the  holder  is  entitled  to  ten  per  cent,  damages, 
in  addition  to  the  costs  of  protest,  from  the  drawer  or  indorser.  On  bills  drawn 
in  this  State  and  payable  out  of  tiie  State,  but  within  the  United  States,  dul,* 
protested  as  aforesaid,  to  five  per  cent,  damages.  Any  note,  bond,  bill  or  in 
etrument  in  writing,  made  payable  in  money  or  articles  of  personal  property  to 
any  person  named  as  payee  therein,  is  assignable  by  indorsement  under  tho 
hand  of  such  person,  in  the  same  manner  as  all  bills  of  exchange.  Every  assignor 
or  indorser  of  such  instrument  is  liable  to  the  action  of  any  subsequent  assignee 
thereof,  if  such  assignee  has  used  due  diligence  by  the  institution  and  prosecu- 
tion of  a  suit  against  the  make*  thereof  for  the  recovery  of  the  money  or  proper- 
ty due  thereon,  or  damages  in  lieu  thereof,  and  has  obtained  judgment,  but  by 
the  use  of  due  diligence  lias  been  unable  to  obtain  satisfaction  thereof.  A  note, 
bond,  bill  or  other  instrument  in  writing,  payable  to  bearer,  is  transferable  by 
delivery,  and  every  indorser  thereof  is  a  guarantor,  unless  otherwise  expressed  ia 
his  indorsement. 

Justices  01  the  peace  have  jurisdiction  in  their  respective  counties,  where  the 
amount  claimed,  including  interest,  does  not  exceed  $200.  1.  In  all  action* 
arising  on  contract  for  the  recovery  of  money  only.  2.  In  actions  for  damages 
for  injury  to  real  property,  or  for  taking,  detaining  or  injuring  personal  property. 
3.  In  actions  for  rent  and  distress  for  rent.  4.  In  actions  against  railway  com- 
panies  and  those  operating  railways  for  killing  or  injuring  horses  or  other  stock  ; 
f  >r  loss  or  injury  to  baggage  or  freight ;  and  for  injury  or  damage  to  real  or  personal 
'f-operty,  caused  by  setting  fire  to  the  same  by  their  engines  orotherwise.  5.  In 
j  'plevin  when  the  value  of  the  property  claimed  does  not  exceed  $200.  6.  In 
actions  for  damages  for  fraud  in  the  sale,  purchase  or  exchange  of  personal 
property,  and  in  all  cases  where  the  action  of  debt  or  assumpsit  will  lie. 

Circuit  courts  have,  by  the  Constitution,  original  jurisdiction  of  all  causes  at 
.  '1\w  and  in  equity,  and  such  appellate  jurisdiction  as  may  be  provided  for  by 
'law.  Appeals  lie  from  justices' courts  directly  to  these  courts,  defendant  to 
plead  at  sa.ul  term.  Before  justices,  summons  must  be  served  three  days  before 
returned. 

Judgments  from  courts  of  record  are  a  lien  on  the  real  estate  of  the 
Jndgment  debtor,  situated  in  the  county  wherein  judgment  ia  obtained 
from  the  time  same  are  obtained,  are  revived  for  the  period  of  7  years. 
When  execution  is  not  issued  on  a  judgment  wilhin  one  year  from  the  time  the 
same  becomes  a  lien,  it  shall  thereafter  cease  to  be  a  lien  ;  but  execution  may 
issue  on  such  judgment  at  any  time  within  said  7  years,  and  it  becomes  a  lien 
on  such  real  estate  from  the  time  of  the  delivery  of  such  writ  to  the  officer  for 
service.  Such  judgments  may  be  sued  upon  or  revived  within  20  years  after  the 
4*te  thereof  aud  not  after.  Judgments  rendered  by  justices  of  the  peace  may 


852  SPECIAL   LAWS    OF   ILLINOIS. 

be  made  a  lien  on  real  estate  by  filing  a  transcript  thereof  in  the  office  of  th* 
clerk  of  the  circuit  court  for  the  county  in  which  judgment  was  rendered.  Such 
transcripts  can  only  be  filed  when  it  appears  by  return  of  execution  on  judg- 
ment that  defendant  has  not  personal  property  in  the  county  where  seme  was 
obtained  to  satisfy  such  judgment  and  costs. 

Executions  issue  from  courts  of  record  immediately  after  rendition  of  judg- 
ment and  at  any  time  thereafter  for  seven  years,  and  to  any  county  in  the  State. 
They  are  a  lien  upon  the  personal  property  of  the  judgment  debtor  from  the 
time  of  delivery  to  the  officer.  Real  estate  sold  under  execution  may  be  redeemed 
in  twelve  months.  Executions  from  justices'  courts  cannot  be  levied  on  real  es- 
tate, and  do  not  issue  until  twenty  days  after  judgment,  unless  the  judgment 
creditor  or  his  agent  make  oath  that  the  benefit  of  the  judgment  is  in  danger  of 
being  lost  unless  execution  issue  immediately.  Executions  from  justices'  courts 
are  also  a  lien  upon  the  personal  property  of  the  defendant  from  the  time  of  their 
delivery  to  the  constable.  There  is  no  way  of  staying  executions  in  this  State  ex- 
cept by  appeal. 

DEEDS,  MORTGAGES,  RIGHTS  OF  MARRIED  WOMEN,  WILLS,  &c.  Deeds 
and  other  conveyances  of  real  estate,  must  be  under  seal ;  any  scrawl  intended 
for  a  seal  is,  however,  sufficient.  No  subscribing  witness  is  necessary,  either  to 
the  validity  of  the  instrument  or  to  entitle  the  same  to  record.  Such  instruments 
may  be  acknowledged  within  this  State  before  a  master  in  chancery,  a  notary 
public,  a  United  States  commissioner,  circuit  or  county  clerk,  justice  of  the  peace, 
/r  any  court  of  record  having  a  seal,  or  any  judge,  justice  or  clerk  of  such  court. 
Such  acknowledgment  must  be  attested  when  taken  before  a  notary  public  or 
United  States  commissioner  by  his  official  seal.  When  taken  before  a  court  or 
clerk  thereof,  by  the  seal  of  such  court  ;  and  when  taken  before  a  justice  of  the 
peace  residing  out  of  the  county  where  the  land  conveyed  is  situated,  a  certificate 
r,l  the  county  clerk  of  the  county  wherein  such  justice  resides,  must  be  added, 
under  his  seal  of  office,  to  the  effect  that  tha  person  taking  such  acknowledg- 
ment or  proof  was  a  justice  of  the  peace  in  said  county  at  the  date  thereof. 
When  acknowledged  without  the  State,  but  within  the  United  States,  such 
acknowledgment  may  be  taken  before  a  justice  of  tiie  peace,  a  notary  public, 
United  States  commissioner,  commissioner  to  take  acknowledgments  of  deede, 
mayor  of  a  city,  clerk  of  a  county,  or  before  any  judge,  justice  or  clerk  of  th«» 
supreme  court,  or  any  circuit  or  district  court  of  the  United  States,  or  any  judge, 
justice  or  clerk  of  the  supreme,  circuit,  superior,  district,  county  or  common 
i^eas  court  of  any  of  the  United  States  or  their  territories.  When  such  acknowl- 
edgment is  made  before  any  notary  public,  United  States  commissioner,  com- 
missioner of  deeds  or  clerk,  it  shall  be  certified  by  such  officer  under  his  official 
seal ;  if  before  the  mayor  of  a  city,  under  the  seal  of  the  city  ;  if  before  a  justice 
of  the  peace,  a  certificate  must  be  added  as  in  case  of  proof  or  acknowledgment 
within  the  State  before  a  justice  of  the  peace  residing  without  the  county  where 
the  land  conveyed  is  situated.  Acknowledgments  muy  be  made  in  accordance 
w'tfc  the  laws  of  the  State,  territory  or  district  where  made,  and  the  cenifkiate  of 
a  elerk  of  a  court  of  record  in  such  jurisdiction  to  that  effect,  under  his  Land 
and  the  seal  of  said  court,  is  evidence  that  such  acknowledgment  was  so  made. 

When  acknowledged  without  the  United  States,  such  acknowledgment  may 
be  taken  before  any  court  of  any  repi»Wlc,  State,  kingdom  or  empire  having  a 
seal,  or  any  mayor  or  chief  officer  of  any  city  or  town  having  a  seal,  or  before 
any  minister  or  secretary  of  legation,  or  consul  of  the  United  States  in  any 
foreign  country,  attested  by  his  official  seal,  or  before  any  officer  authorized  by 
the  laws  of  such  foreign  country  to  take  acknowledgments  of  conveyances  of 
real  estate,  if  he  have  a  seal  ;  such  acknowledgment,  in  all  cases,  must  be  at- 
tested by  the  official  seal  of  such  court  or  officer  ;  and  in  case  such  acknowledg- 
ment or  proof  is  taken  other  than  before  a  court  of  record,  or  mayor,  or  chief 
officer  of  a  town  having  a  seal,  proof  that  the  officer  taking  the  same  was  duly 
authorized  by  the  laws  of  his  country  so  to  do  must  accompany  the  certificate  of 
•ucli  acknowledgment. 

The  following  in  the  statutory  form  of  certificate.    It  is  the  same,  substan* 
tially,  whether  grantor  is  unmarried  or  deed  executed  by  husband  and  wife  : 
STATE  OF  ILLINOIS,          1 
COUNTY  OF  SANGAMON.  )  SSl 

I,  (name  of  officer  and  title),  do  hereby  certify  that  (grantor  and  if  wire  join 
ber  name  "  his  wife  ")>  personally  known  to  me  to  be  the  same  person  whosa 
name  is  subscribed  to  the  foregoing  instrument,  appeared  before  me  this  day  itt 
person  and  acknowledged  that  he  signed,  sealed  and  delivered  the  said  ins'tn* 
meat  a*  his  free  and  voluntary  act,  for  the  uses  and  purposes  therein  set  forth. 


SPECIAL   LAWS    OT   INDIANA.  855 

Glren  under  my  hand  and  (private  or  official  as  the  case  may  be)  seal,  this  (d»j 
Of  month)  day  of  (month),  A .  D.  (year). 

[SEAL.]  (Signature  of  officer.) 

No  deed  or  other  instrument  can  be  construed  as  releasing  or  waiving  th«| 
right  of  homestead,  unless  the  same  shall  contain  a  clause  expressly  releasing  or 
waiving  such  right  ;  and  in  such  case,  the  certificate  of  acknowledgment  must 
contain  a  clause  substantially  as  follows  :  "  including  the  release  and  waiver  of 
the  right  of  homestead." 

No  chattel  mortgage  or  trust  deed  is  valid  as  against  the  rights  of  third  persons, 
unless  possession  thereof  shall  be  delivered  to  and  remain  with  the  grantee,  or  th« 
instrument  shall  provide  for  the  possession  of  the  property  with  the  grantor,  and 
be  properly  acknowledged  and  recorded.  Such  instruments  may  be  ackowledged 
as  deeds.  They  are  valid  for  any  period  not  exceeding  two  years.  After  the  ex- 
piration of  th«  time  provided  in  the  mortgage  for  the  possession  of  the  mort- 
gaged property  by  the  mortgagor,  such  possession,  if  continued, '  renders  tho 
mortgage  fraudulent  and  void  as  to  third  parties  with  or  without  notice,  actual 
or  constructive,  of  such  mortgage. 

Married  women  may  own  in  their  own  right  real  and  personal  property,  an<i 


woman  may  make  contracts  and  incur  liabilities  which  may  be  enforced  against 
her  to  the  same  extent  as  if  she  were  sole,  but  she  cannot  enter  intc  or  carry  on 
any  partnership  business  without  her  husband's  consent,  unless  he  has  abandoned 
or  deserted  her,  is  idiotic  or  insane,  or  is  confined  in  the  penitentiary.  The  es- 
tate of  courtesy  is  abolished,  and  the  surviving  husband  or  wife  is  endowed  of 
one-third  part  of  all  lands  whereof  the  deceased  husband  or  wife  was  seized  of 
an  estate  of  inheritance  at  any  time  during  the  marriage,  unless  the  same  h;i9 
been  relinquished  in  legal  form.  Dower  may  be  barred  by  release  thereof  in  dua 
form  of  law,  and  by  jointure  or  devise,  accept  in  lieu  thereof. 

Wills  must  be  in  writing,  signed  by  the  testator,  or  by  some  one  in  his  presence 
•nd  by  his  direction,  and  attested  by  two  credible  witnesses, 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  INDIANA. 

EXEMPTIONS  FROM  FORCED  SALE.— Home  and  Personal  Property  of  the  fol- 
lowing value. — Any  resident  householder  has  an  exemption  from  levy  and  salo 
under  execution,  of  real  and  personal  property,  or  both,  as  he  may  select,  to  tha 
value  of  $300.  The  law  further  provides  that  110  property  snail  be  sold  by  virtue 
of  an  execution  for  less  than  two  thirds  of  its  appraised  cash  value,  The  pro- 
visions of  this  law  can  be  waived  in  contracts.  To  do  this,  the  note  or  contract 
ehould  read  :  "  Payable  without  any  relief  whatever  from  valuation  or  apprais- 
ment  laws." 

MECHANICS'  LIEN.— Material  men  and  mechanics  have  lien  for  labor  an<i 
material  on  the  land  and  improvements  to  the  extent  of  their  claims.  The  ori- 
( ginal  contractor  must  file  his  claim  within  two  months,  laborers  within  ft' 
days,  and  all  other  persons  claiming  a  lien  within  two  months  after  the  debt, 
accrued.  This  lien  has  precedence  over  all  other  liens  or  encumbrances  placed 
on  the  property  subsequent  to  the  commencement  of  the  building  or  improve- 
ments. Must  be  foreclosed  in  12  months. 

COLLECTION  OF  DEBTS. — No  persons  can  be  arrested  here  except  in  cases 
of  fraud,  actual. 

"Writs  of  attachment,  which  may  be  obtained  by  any  creditor,  can  only  be  issued 
on  the  following  grounds :— 1.  Non-residence  of  any  of  defendants.  2.  Where 
any  of  defendants  is  secretly  leaving  the  State,  or  has  left  the  State  with  intent 
to  defraud  his  creditors.  3.  Or  conceals  himself  that  summons  cannot  be  served 
upon  him.  4.  Or  is  removing,  or  about  to  remove,  his  property  subject  to  execu- 
tion, or  part  thereof,  out  of  the  State,  not  leaving  enough  to  satisfyplaintiff' s  claim. 
5.  Or  has  sold,  conveyed  or  otherwise  disposed  of  his  property  sn-bject  to  execu- 
tion, or  has  suffered  or  permitted  it  to  be  sold  with  the  fraudulent  intent  to' 
cheat,  hinder  or  delay  his  creditors.  6.  Or  is  about  to  sell,  convey  or  dispose  of  * 
same  with  such  intent.  A  statutory  undertaking  in  all  case?  JT\  attachment  must 
be  executed,  the  measure  of  damages  in  au  action  on  whic<  \.  in  the  discw*iop 
«f  the  jury. 


<J54  SPECIAL   LAWS    OF   INDIANA. 

In  attachments  levied  on  real  estate,  the  levy  and  dispenrfens  are  notice  tot 
all  purposes.  In  attachments,  except  on  ground  of  non-residence,  caution  elwuld 

An  assignment  in  trust,  for  the  benefit  of  creditors  inure  for  the  benefit  of  all 
creditors  of  the  grantor,  whether  named  in  the  deed  of  assigment  or  not ;  the 
\eed  ojE  assignment  must  be  acknowledged  and  recorded  like  other  deeds.  Ona 
>artner  cannot  assign  all  the  partnership  assets  for  the  payment  of  partner- 
Jiip  debts,  but  only  his  own  share  of  them.  Assignments  made  to  secure 
sureties  or  endorsers  prior  to  any  payment  by  them,  are  valid.  Notes,  bills,  ac- 
counts and  every  species  of  contractor  claim  are  assignable,  and  the  assignee  can 
sue  on  it  in  his  own  name. 

In  notes  and  bills,  acceptors  are  chargeable  only  when  their  acceptance  is  in 
writing  on  the  bill ;  or,  if  on  asepcrato  piece-  of  paper,  when  the  party  who  gave 
the  credit  sa\v  the  seperate  paper  ;  or  if  a  promise  is  made  in  writing  to  accept 
a  draft  before  it  is  drawn,  and  the  draft  is  iu  the  hands  of  any  pernoii  who  gave 
credit  on  the  strength  of  of  this  writing. 

All  parties  to  notes  or  bills,  whether  indorsers,  makers  or  acceptors,  or  parties 
In  any  manner,  can  be  sued  jointly  or  separately  in  tke  same  or  in  several  ac- 
tions. Drafts,  orders  or  bills  of  exchange,  payable  at  sight  or  en  demand,  are 
deemed  due  the  day  they  are  presented  for  payment,  and  if  unpaid,  may  be  pro- 
tested. Notarial  protest  is  evidence  of  demand  and  refusal  cf  payment,  at  the 
time  and  in  the  manner  stated  in  the,  protest. 

A  bill  in  the  State,  payable  out  of  the  State,  protested,  if  payable  in  the  United 
States,  is  entitled  to  eight  per  cent,  damages ;  if  payable  out  of  the  United 
States,  ten  per  cent,  damages.  Sheriff's  fire  liable  to  pay  ten  per  cent,  damages 
on  failure  to  pay  over  any  money  collected  by  them. 

Justice  Courts  have  exclusive  jurisdiction  of  all  sums  under  $50,  and 
concurrent  jurisdiction  with  the  circuit  courts  to  ?UOO.  Service  of  summon  a 
must  be  made  in  circuit  courts  10  days  before  the  llrst  day  of  term,  and  in  justice 
courts  3  days  before  tnal. 

Judgments  in  courts  of  record  are  liens  on  real  estate  for  a  period  of  ten 
years  ;  the  judgment  may  then  be  revived  for  ten  years  longer  ;  judgments  are 
no  liens  on  personal  properly.  Transcripts  of  judgment  before  justice,  if  filed 
in  the  circuit  court,  are  liens  on  real  estate. 

Executions  issue,  on  plaintiff's  order,  the  day  after  judgment,  and  are  a  lien 
on  personal  property,  when  issuing  out  of  a  justice's  court,  from  the  time  they 
are  delivered  to  the  officer  ;  when  issuing  f ro:u  courts  of  record,  from  the  time 
they  are  issued.  Executions  from  a  justice  cannot  be  levied  on  real  estate.  Every 
species  of  property,  real  or  person.".!,  books  of  account,  debts  and  judgments, 
whether  the  interest  iu  real  estate  be  a  legal  or  equitable  title,  is  subject  to 
execution  and  sale  at  law.  Redemption  after  execution  sale  is  permitted.  If 
an  execution  from  a  court  of  record  is  returned  unsatisfied,  the  debtors  can  be 
summoned  and  required  to  state  under  oath  what  property  or  interests  they  have 
or  own  which  may  be  reached  by  execution. 

DEEDS,  RIGHTS  OF  MAKKIED  WOMEX,  WILLS,  &r.— Deeds,  must  be  under 
seal,  a  scrawl,  however,  is  regarded  as  a  seal.  The  acknowledgment,  if  made  in 
this  State,  may  be  made  before  a  justice  of  the  peace  of  the  county  where  the 
land  lies,  before  a  judge  or  before  a  notary  public  ;  if  out  of  the  State,  before  a 
commissioner  of  this  State,  notary  public,  or  before  the  chief  officer  or  mayor  of 
a  town  or  city  who  has  a  seal,  or  before  a  consul  or  minister  of  the  United 
States  who  has  a  seal.  The  seal  must  be  attached,  and  the  deed  recorded  in  the 
county  where  the  land  lies. 

The  following  is  the  form  of  certificate  where  the  grantor  is  unmarried  : 

[Form.] 

STATE  OF  IXDIAXA,  ) 
COUNTY  OF  STARK.    j 

Before  me,  ,  a  in  and  for  said  county,  this  day  of  , 

187    ,  personally  appeared  the  within-named,  and  acknowledged  the  execution 
of  the  within  and  foregoing  deed  of  conveyance. 

Witness  my  hand  and  official  seal.  (Signature  and  title.) 

Married  women  can  hold  real  or  personal  property  to  their  seperate  use.  A 
note  or  endorsement  by  a  married  woman  will  not  bind  her  seperate  estate  ;  it 
will  be  a  nullity.  The  widow  is  endowed  with  one  full  and  equal  third  part  of  all , 
the  lands,  the  legal  title  to  which  was  in  her  husband  during  coverture,  unless 
such  right  of  dower  was  legally  barred. 

A  chattel  mortgage  of  perishable  articles  which  are  left  in  the  hands  of  the 
grantor,  with  right  to  use  the  same,  is  void  ;  so  is  a  mortgage  of  a  stock  of  goods, 
She  grantor  having  a  right  to  sell ;  so  is  any  mortgage,  if  unregistered  and  th* 


SPECIAL   LAWS   OP   IOWA.  855 

Aattels  left  with  the  grantor  ;  a  chattel  mortgage  unrecoraeh  more  tuan  ten 
days  is  void,  except  between  the  parties  ;  so  is  also  a  recorded  mortgage,  if  th« 
goods  are  left  unreasonably  long  with  the  grantor  after  default  is  made  in  pay- 
ment. 

Wills  must  be  in  writing,  and  signed  by  the  testator,  or  by  some  person  in  hia 
presence  and  by  his  express  direction,  and  attested  and  subscribed  in  the  pre- 
*«iice  of  the  testator  by  two  or  more  competent  witnesses. 


'  SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  IOWA. 

EXEMPTIONS  FROM  FORCED  SALE.— Farm  of  40  Acres  or  House  and  Lot  in  City 
ttnd  Personal  Property.— The  homestead  must  embrace  the  house  used  as  a  home  by 
the  owner  thereof,  and  if  he  has  two  or  more  houses  thus  used  by  him,  at  differ- 
ent times  aad  places,  he  may  select  which  he  will  retain  as  a  homestea  i.  If  with- 
in a  town  plat  it  must  not  exceed  %  acre  in  extent,  if  not  in  a  town  plat  it  mu^t 
not  embrace  in  the  aggregate  more  than  40  acres.  But  if  when  thus  limited,  in 
either  case  its  value  is  less  than  $500,  it  may  be  enlarged  until  its  value  reaches 
that  amount. 

Wearing  apparel  kept  for  actual  use;  trunks  to  contain  same;  1  gun  ;  private  li- 
braries and  family  portraits  :  musical  instruments  not  kept  for  sale;  2  cows  ;  1 
horse  ;  60  sheep  ;  6  hogs  ;  6  hives  of  bees  ;  1  bed  and  bedding  for  every  two  in  the 
family  ;  household  and  kitchen  furniture  not  exceeding  §200 ;  spinning-wheel ,  loom 
and  sewing  machine  ;  provisions  and  fuel  for  6  months  ;  the  tools,  instruments  or 
books  of  debtor,  if  a  farmer,  mechanic,  surveyor,  lawyer,  clergyman,  physician, 
teacher  or  professor.  If  a  printer,  printing-press,  and  types,  etc.,  for  the  use  of 
such  newspaper  office,  not  exceeding  §1200.  The  personal  earnings  of  the  debtor 
and  his  family  for  the  90  davs  preceding  the  execution.  To  an  unmarried  person, 
a  person  not  the  head  of  a  family,  ordinary  wearing  apparel  and  trunks  te>  con- 
tain the  same  are  exempt.  If  a  debtor  absconds  and  leaves  his  family,  such  pro- 
perty allowed  to  the  head  of  a  family  shall  be  exempt  in  hands  of  his  wife  and 
children,  or  either.  A  single  man,  not  the  head  of  a  family,  non-residents,  and 
those  who  have  started  to  leave  the  State  are  excluded  from  the  above  exemp- 
tions ;  their  property  is  liable  to  execution,  with  the  exception  of  ordinary  wear- 
ing apparel,  and  trunks  to  contain  the  same;  value  not  to  exceed  §75. 

No  exemption  shall  protect  property  against  execution  foi  the  purchase  money 
thereof. 

MECHANICS'  LIEN.— Every  mechanic  or  other  person  doing  any  labor,  or  fur- 
nishing any  material,  machinery  or  fixtures  for  the  erection  or  improvement  of 
any  building,  by  virtue  of  any  contract  with  the  owner,  agent,  trustee,  contrac- 
tor or  sub-contractor,  shall  have  a  mechanics'  lien  on  the  buildings,  fixtures  and 
real  estate.  Railways  are  liable  in  the  same  way  as  other  property  for  construc- 
tion and  improvements.  No  person  who  takes  collateral  security  on  the  iama! 
contract  is  entitled  to  a  lien.  The  lien  must  be  filed  in  ninety  days  after  the  la^ 
bor  to  affect  purchasers  or  incumbrances  without  notice  ;  as  between  the  ori- 
ginal parties,  it  can  be  filed  any  time  in  five  years. 

COLLECTION  of  DEBTS.— Arrest  in  civil  action  is  unauthorized  by  law  in  this 
State. 

Writs  of  attachment  may  issue,  by  sworn  petition,  on  one  or  more  of  th« 
following  grounds :  1.  That  defendant  is  a  foreign  corporation  or  acting  as  such. 
,3.  That  he  is  a  non-resident  of  the  State.  3.  That  he  is  about  to  remove  his  prop- 
erty out  of  the  State,  without  leaving  sufficient  remaining  for  the  payment  of 
debts.  4.  That  he  has,  or  is  about  to  dispose  of  his  property,  in  whole  or  in 
part,  with  intent  to  defraud  creditors.  5.  That  he  has  absconded,  so  that  ordin- 
ary process  cannot  be  served  upon  him.  6.  That  he  is  about  to  remove  perma- 
hently  from  the  State  and  refuses  to  secure  the  debt.  7.  That  he  is  about  to 
convert  property  into  money  for  purpose  of  placing  it  beyond  the  reach  of  credit- 
ors. 8.  He  has  property  and  rights  which  he  conceals.  9.  That  the  debt  is  f  r 
property  obtained  under  false  pretenses.  In  No.  4,  6,  and  9,  attachment  may  bo 
commenced  before  the  debt  is  due.  Bond  must  be  three  times  the  amount 
claimed,  and  sheriff  may  attach  fifty  per  cent,  in  value  more  than  amount 
Claimed.  Attachment  can  only  be  levied  on  property  not  exempt  from  execution. 

Assignments  for  the  benefit  of  creditors  must  be  made  for  the  benefit 
«f  all  creditors  pro  rata.  An  inventory  of  assets  and  liabilities  must  be 
ewern  to  by  the  insolvent,  with  a  list  of  the  creditors  and  their  respec- 
tive demands.  Assignments  must  be  duly  acknowledged  as  transfers  ot 


856  SPECIAL  LAWS   OP  IOWA, 

Teal  estate,  and  recorded  in  the  county  where  the  insolvent  resides,  o?  where  th« 
business  in  respect  of  which  the  same  is  made  has  been  conducted.  The  assignee 
phall  tile  the  assignment  and  inventory  with  the  clerk  of  the  district  court,  and 
shall  give  bond  for  the  performance  of  his  duty  in  double  the  amount  of  the  invent- 
ory and  valuation.  No  dividend  can  be  declared  in  less  than  three  months. 
Creditors  may  accept  their  pro  rata  of  assets,  and  take  judgment  for  the  remain- 
der if  they  choose. 

Garnishment  can  be  issued  either  on  execution  or  attachment  against  any 

person  owing  the  debtor  or  haying  his  property  in  possession.    The  garnishee  if 

'  entitled  to  compensation  for  bis  trouble  and  expense  ;  this  is  payable  out  of  th« 

•fund,  if  any  is  found  in  his  hands,  or  if  nothing  is  due  from  the  garnishee,  then 

•the  plaintiff  is  bound  to  pay  this  sum. 

Acceptors  of  notes  and  bills  are  liable  only  when  their  acceptance  is  in- 
dorsed in  writing  ;  or,  if  on  seperate  piece  of  paper,  when  the  party  who  gave 
the  credit  saw  the  seperate  paper  ;  or  if  a  promise  is  made  in  writing,  to  accepl 
a  draft  before  it  is  drawn,  and  the  draft  is  in  the  hands  of  any  person  who  gave 
credit  on  the  strength  of  this  writing.  The  rate  of  damages  to  be  allowed  an<i 
paid  on  the  non-acceptance  or  non-payment  of  bills  of  exchange  drawn  or  en- 
dorsed in  this  State  is  as  follows  :  If  bill  be  drawn  upon  a  person  at  a  place  put 
of  the  United  States,  or  in  California,  Oregon,  Neveda,  or  any  of  the  territories, 
five  per  cent,  upon  principal  specified  in  the  bill,  and  interest  on  the  same  from 
the  time  of  protest.  If  drawn  upon  a  person  at  any  other  place  in  the  United 
States,  other  than  in  this  State,  three  per  cent,  with  interest.  All  parties  to 
notes  and  bills,  whether  endorsers:  acceptors  or  makers,  can  be  sued  jointly  or 
eeperatelv.  Notarial  protest  is  evidence  of  demand  and  refusal  of  payment  a» 
elated  therein. 

Jurisdiction  of  Justices  of  the  peace,  5100,  but  by  agreement  of  parties  may 
"be  extended  to  $300. 

Circuit  court  has  exclusive  jurisdiction  of  probate  business  and  appeals  from 
justices  of  peace.  District  court  has  exclusive  criminal  jurisdiction.  The  two 
courts  have  concurrent  jurisdiction  in  civil  cases,  except  such  as  are  special  to 
circuit  court  as  above.  Service  of  summons  muet  be  ten.  clear  days  in  district 
and  circuit,  and  five  in  justice  courts. 

Judgments  in  courts  of  record  are  a  lien  from  their  rendition  and  for  10  yews 
thereafter,  on  all  real  estate  owned  by  the  defendant,  or  subsequently  acquii  *d 
"by  him,  and  situated  in  the  county  where  the  judgment  is  rendered.  The  judg- 
ment can  be  revived  at  the  end  of  that  time.  No  execution  can  issue  on  a  juulg- 
.ment  in  a  court  of  record  older  than  ten  years  ;  new  suit  has  to  be  brought  on^he 
eame.  Judgments  in  courts  of  record  create  no  lien  on  personal  property,  tfo 
execution  can  issue  on  a  justice's  judgment  five  years  after  its  rendition,  without 
reyivor.  Judgments  before  justice  can  be  made  to  create  lien  on  real  estate  by 
filing  a  transcript  of  the  judgment  in  the  circuit  court. 

Execution  may  issue  as  soon  as  judgment  is  obtained,  but  one  can  be  out  at 
the  same  time.  Execution  from  a  court  of  record,  may  issue  to  any  county  in  t'ae 
.State.  From  a  justice,  can  be  levied  on  personal  property  only.  Real  estUe 
may  be  redeemed  within  a  vear  after  sale ;  but  if  defendant  files  stay  bond,  or 
appeals  to  supreme  court,  his  equity  of  redemption  is  cut  off.  If  the  defendant 
fails  to  redeem  in  six  months,  any  creditor  of  the  defendant,  whose  depnand  is  9 
lien  on  the  real  estate  sold,  may  redeem  within  nine  months  from  date  of  sale. 

DEEDS,  RIGHTS  OF  MARRIED  WOMEN,  WILLS,  &c. — Acknowledgment  of 
deeds,  made  in  the  State,  must  be  before  a  judge  of  any  court  of  record,  clerk  of 
supreme,  district  and  circuit  courts,  or  their  deputies,  county  auditor  or  his 
deputy,  each  notary  public  and  justice  of  the  peace  in  his  own  county.  Acknow- 
ledgments out  of  State  must  be  before  some  court  of  record,  before  some  conv> 
'missioner  for  the  State  of  Iowa,  or  before  a  notary  public  or  justice  of  the  peace. 
If  before  a  justice  of  the  peace  the  certificate  of  clerk  of  the  district  court  of  th» 
county  as  to  his  official  character  must  be  attached. 

Chattel  mortgages  must  be  acknowledged  as  other  conveyances  and  recorded 
In  the  county  where  property  is  situate.  Foreclosures  can 'be  made  by  sheriff 
without  action  in  court.  The  mortgaged  property  is  left  in  possession  of  rnort- 
>r,  unless  otherwise  provided.  Sales  under  chattel  mortgage  foreclosures 
1  be  in  the  same  manner  as  other  sheriff's  sales. 

Married  women  can  hold  property  the  same  as  any  other  person,  and  are  lia- 
ble on  all  contracts  made  by  them,  but  her  own  property  is  in  no  case  liable  for  - 
\  he/ husband's  debts.    The  common  law  right  of  dower  exists  in  thi?  State,  and 
•  in  executing  deeds,  she  must  acknowledge  separate  and  apart  from  her  husba*~v 
'  -ihat  she  was  made  acquainted  with  the  contents  of  such  conveyance,  and  relto 
^uieLed  her  dower  freely  and  without  compulsion  from  her  husband. 


SPECIAL   LAWS   OF   KANSAS,  851 

All  Wills,  except  noncupative,  must  be  in  writing,  signed  by  the  testator,  of 
by  some  person  in  his  presence  and  by  his  express  direction,  and  attested  and  sub- 
scribed  in  his  presence  by  two  or  more  competent  witnesses.  Subsequent  incom- 
petency  of  the  witness  will  not  invalidate  the  will.  Noncupative  wills,  proved 
by  two  competent  witnesses,  when  the  value  of  the  estate  does  not  exceed  §304, 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  KANSAS. 

_  EXEMPTIONS  FROM  FORCED  SALE.— Home  f\f  160  Acres  of  Farm  Land,  or  Hcwsti 
cmd  One  Acre  in  a  Village  or  City,  and  Personal  Property.  A  homestead  to  the1 
extent  of  160  acres  of  farming  land,  or  of  one  acre  within  the  limits  of  an  incor- 
porated town  or  city,  occupied  as  a  residence  by  the  family  of  the  owner,  to- 
gether with  all  improvements  on  the  same,  of  whatever  value  is  exempt.  Exemp- 
tions of  personal  property  allowed  a  resident,  being  the  head  of  a  family,  are  : 
the  family  library,  bible  and  school  books  ;  family  pictures  and  musical  instru-» 
Kients  in  use  ;  a  pew  ».i  a  church  and  lot  in  a  burial  ground ;  all  the  wearing  ap- 
parel and  all  beds,  bedsteads  and  bedding  used  by  the  family  ;  cooking-stove, 
appendages  and  cooking  utensils,  and  other  stoves  and  appendages  necessary 
for  the  use  of  the  family  ;  a  sewing  machine  ;  all  spinning  wheels  and  looms, 
?.nd  other  implements  of  industry  and  other  household  furniture  not  abve  enu- 
merated, not  to  exceed  $500  in  value  ;  2  cows,  10  hogs,  1  yoke  of  oxen,  and  1 
horse  or  mule,  or,  in  lieu  of  the  yoke  of  oxen  and  horse  or  mule,  a  span  of  horses 
or  mules  ;  20  sheep  and  wool  from  same,  either  raw  or  manufactured  ;  the  neces- 
sary food  for  the  stock  mentioned  above  for  one  year ;  1  wagon,  cart  or  dray ; 
2  plows,  one  drag  and  other  farming  utensils  not  exceeding  $300  in  value  ;  pro- 
visions and  fuel  on  hand  sufficient  for  a  year  ;  the  necessary  tools  and  imple- 
ments of  any  mechanic,  miner  or  other  person,  used  and  kept  for  the  purpose  of 
carrying  on  his  trade  and  business,  together  with  stock  in  trade  not  exceeding 
$400  in  value  ;  the  library,  implements  and  office  furniture  of  any  professional 
man.  Exemptions  of  personal  property  allowed  a  resident  of  this  State,  not  the 
head  of  the  family,  are  :  wearing  apparel ;  pew  in  a  church  and  lot  in  a  burial 
ground  ;  necessary  tools  and  instruments  of  any  mechanic,  miner  or  other  per- 
son, used  and  kept  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  on  his  trade  or  business,  together 
•with  stock  in  trade  as  above.  The  earnings  of  a  debtor  also,  for  personal  ser- 
vices rendered  within  3  months  next  preceding  the  issuing  of  an  execution,  are 
exempt,  if  it  appear  they  are  necessary,  in  whole  or  in  part  for  the  support  of  his 
family.  No  personal  property  is  exempt  from  attachment  or  execution  for  the 
wages  of  any  clerk,  mechanic,  laborer  or  servant- 

MECHANICS'  LIEX.— Material  men  and  mechanics  have  lien  for  labor  and 
material  on  the  land  and  improvements  to  the  extent  of  their  claims.  The 
original  contractor  must  file  his  claim  within  four  months  ;  all  other  persons 
claiming  a  lien,  within  two  months  after  the  debt  accrued.  This  lien  has  prece- 
dence- over  all  other  liens  or  encumbrances  placed  on  the  property  subsequent  to 
the  commmencement  of  the  building  or  improvements. 

COLLECTION  OF  DEBTS.— Arrest  and  bail,  in  civil  actions,  are  provided  for  by 
the  laws  of  this  State. 

The  order  of  arrest  is  issued  by  the  clerk,  or  by  the  justice,  only  upon  positive 
affidavit  showing  one  or  more  of  the  statutory  grounds  therefor  ,similar  to  those 
on  which  writs  of  attachment  issue.  (See  Attachments.)  Before  the  order 
issues,  the  plaintiff  must  also  file  an  undertaking,  with  sufficient  surety,  con- 
ditioned for  the  payment  of  damages  occasioned  by  the  arrest,  if  wrongful.  In 
practice,  this  remedy  is  seldom  resorted  to  in  Kansas. 

Attachment,  against  the  .property  of  defendant  may  issue  in  civil  cases,  when 
the  defendant,  or  one  of  several  defendants,  is  a  foreign  corporation  or  non-resi- 
dent (but  not  in  either  of  these  instances  for  any  claim  other  than  a  debt  or  de- 
mand arising  on  contract,  judgment  or  decree,  unless  the  cause  of  action  arose 
wholly  within  the  limits  of  this  State.  It  may  also  issue  when  the  defendant  or 
one  of  several  Defendants  has  absconded  with  fraudulent  intent, .or  has  left  the 
Bounty  of  his  residence  to  avoid  summons,  or  concealed  himself  to  avoid  sum- 
mons, or  is  about  to  remove  his  property,  or  a  part  thereof,  out  of  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  court  with  fraudulent  intent  ;  or  is  about  to  convert  it  into  money  to  put 
it  beyond  reach  of  creditors  ;  or  has  property  which  he  conceals,  or  has  assigned, 
removed  or  disposed  of  his  property  ;  or  is  about  to  do  so,  with  intent  to  defraud, 
tinder  or  delay  creditors  ;  or  fraudulently  contracted  or  incurred  the  debt, 
liability  or  obligation  ;  or  where  the  action  is  bought  for  damages  arising  from 


58  SPECIAL   LAWS   OF   KANSAS. 

the  commission,  of  any  crime,  or  for  seduction,  or  where  tho  debtor  fails  to  pay 
'MI  delivery  where,  by  the  contract,  he  was  to  p;iy  on  delivery.  The  order  iff 
issued  (as  in  case  of  arrest  and  bail,  supra),  only  upon  affidavit  and  undertaking, 
put,  where  the  defendant  is  a  foreign  corporation,  or  where  the  clef  enfant  or  de- 
fendants are  all  non-residents  of  the  State,  the  undertaking  is  not  required. 

Garnishee  process,  in  attachment  proceedings,  is  also  provided  for  a^nir.st  any 
person  or  corporation  having  possession  of  property  or  being  indebted'to  the  cle- 
"  (endant. 

Assignments  in  trust,  for  the  benefit  of  creditors,  iuuro  for  tho  benefit  of  all' 
Creditors  of  the  grantor,  whether  named  in  the  deed  of  assignment  cr  not  ;  the 
leed  of  assignment  must  be  acknowledged  and  recorded  like  otlicr  deeds. 
Assignments  made  to  secure  sureties  or  indorsers,  prior  to  any  j  aymer.t  by  them, 
are  valid  here.  Assignment  of  every  species  of  contract  or  claim  may  be  made  iu 
this  State,  and  the  assignee  may  sue  thereon  in  his  own  name. 

Acceptors  of  notes  and  bills  are  chargeable  only  when  their  acceptance  is  in 
•writing  on  the  bill  ;  or,  if  on  separate  piece  of  paper,  when  tho  party  who  gave 
the  credit  saw  the  separate  paper  ;  or  if  a  promise  is  made  in  writing  to  accept  a 
draft  before  it  is  drawn,  and  the  draft  is  in  the  hands  of  any  person  w!:o  r/ave 
credit  on  the  strength  of  this  writing.  (Bills  of  exchange  and  notes  duly  pro- 
tested for  non-payment  or  non-acceptance,  entitle  the  holder  to  recover  dsinarcs  (' 
as  follows  :  if  drawn  on  or  made  by  a  person  outside  the  State,  six  per  cent,  f  if  ' 
outside  any  of  tli e  United  States  or  territories,  ten  per  cent,  damages  on  the 
principal  sum).  All  parties  to  notes  or  bills,  whether  endorsers,  makers  or  ac- 
eeptors,  or  parties  in  any  manner,  can  be  sued  jointly  or  separately  in  the  same 
or  in  several  actions. 

Justices  of  the  peace  have  jurisdiction  in  actions  on  contract  on  account,  bill,. 
note  or  bond  where  the  amount  claimed  or  balances  due  does  not  exceed  §300,  in 
actions  on  undertakings  given  in  civil  proceedings  before  them  where  the  sum. 
due  or  demanded  does  not  exceed  $500 ;  in  replevin  where  the  value  of  the 
property  does  not  exceed  $100,  District  courts  have  general  original  jurisdiction 
in  all  cases,  and  appellate  jurisdiction  from  inferior  courts.  Upon  default,  judg- 
ments may  be  obtained  before  justices  after  three  days'  service  of  summons,  but 
in  contested  cases,  a  delay  of  thirty  days  may  be  readily  obtained  befone  judg- 
ment, and  afterward  by  a  stay  of  execution  as  above  stated.  (See  Executions.) 
In  the  district  court,  if  in  session,  judgment  maybe  taken  upon  default  after 
forty  days'  service  of  summons,  but  in  contested  cases,  issues  must  be  made  up 
for  trial  ten  days  prior  to  the  term.  Terms  of  the  several  district  courts  of  the 
State  are  held  as  often  as  every  six  months. 

Judgments  are  a  lien  upon  the  real  estate  of  the  debtor  in  the  county  where 
rendered,  for  the  period  of  five  years,  and  maybe  made  a  lien  upon  real  estate  in 
other  counties  by  filing  in  the  clerk's  office  therein  an  attested  copy  of  the  jour- 
nal entry  of  the  judgment.  Justices'  judgments  may  be  made  a  lien  upon  real 
estate  in  same  manner.  But  if  execution  be  not  taken  out  and  levied  within  onfc 
year  after  rendition  of  judgmant,  the  lien  becomes  inoperative  as  against  othe* 
judgment  creditors.  Judgments  which  have  become  dormant  may  be  revived 
by  the  court  upon  motion  of  the  judgment  creditor  and  notice  to  the  parties  in- 
terested. 

Executions  may  issue  the  day  judgment  is  rendered. — Exceptions. — If  the 
word  "  appraisement  waived,"  or  words  of  similar  import,  be  inserted  in  any 
mortgage,  bond;  note,  bill  or  written  contract,  judgment  shall  be  rendered  ac-i' 
cordingly,  and  execution  shall  not  issue  thereon  for  6  days.  If  upon  the  docket/ 
in  cases  of  judgment  rendered  by  justices  of  the  peace:  any  person,  resident  or 
the  county,  being  good  and  sufficient  security,  shall,  within  10  days,  undertake 
that  the  judgment  shall  be  duly  paid,  execution  shall  be  stayed  for  periods 
ranging  from  30  to  120  days,  according  to  the  amount  of  the  judgment. 

Executions  are  alien  on  personal  property  only  from  the  time  they  are 
actually  levied.  Executions  from  a  justice  cannot  bo  levied  on  real  estate. 
Redemption,  after  execution  sale,  is  unknown.  If  an  execution  (from  a  court 
of  record)  is  returned  unsatisfied,  the  debtors  can  be  summoned  and  required 
to  state  under  oath  what  property  or  interest  they  have  or  own,  which  may  be 
reached  by  execution. 

DEEDS,  RIGHTS  OF  MARRIED  WOMEN,  &c.— Deeds  in  this  State  need  not  be 
under  seal.  "When  acknowledged  within  this  State,  it  must  be  before  some  court 
Laving  >a  seal,  or  some  judge,  justice  or  clerk  thereof,  or  some  justice  of  the 
peace,  notary  public,  county  clerk  or  register  of  deeds,  or  mayor  or  clerk  cf  an 
incorporated  city.  When  acknowledged  without  this  State,  it  must  be  before 
some  court  of  record,  or  clerk  or  officer  holding  the  seal  thereof,  or  before  some 
notary  public  or  justice  of  the  peace,  or  commissioner  to  take  acknowledgment* 


SPECIAL    LAWS    OF    KENTUCKY.  859 

appointed  by  the  Governor  of  this  State,  or  before  any  consul  of  the  United 
States,  resident  in  a  foreign  port  or  country.  If  taken  before  a  justice  of  th« 
peace,  the  acknowledgment  must  be  accompained  by  a  certificate  of  his  official 
•haracter.  under  the  hand  of  some  court  of  record,  to  which  the  seal  of  sal4 
court  shall  be  affixed. 

The  following  is  the  form  of  acknowledgment  required  : 

STATE  OF  , \  ( 

COUNTY  OF  . )  ss' 

On  this  day  of  ,  A.  D.  187      ,  before  me,  a  in  and  fo* ' 

said  ,  personally  came  ,  to  me  personally  known  to  be  the  same  per-1 

son  whose  naaie  affixed  to  the  foregoing  conveyance  as  grantor  and 

duly  acknowledged  the  execution  of  the  same. 

In  testimony  whereof,  I  have  hereunto  subscribed  my  name  and  affixed  my 
seal,  the  day  and  year  last  above  written. 

(Husband  and  wife  should  always  join  in  conveyances.)  Jso  separate  ao- 
knowledgment  is  required -on  the  part  of  the  wife. 

Married  women  can  hold  real  or  personal  property,  to  their  separata  use, 
the  same  as  unrsarrried.  A  note  or  endorsement  made  by  a  married  woman 
will  bind  her  property  the  same  as  if  she  were  unmarried. 

Chattel  mortgages 'of  perishable  articles,  which  are  left  in  the  hands  of  the 
mortgagor,  with  the  right  to  use  the  same  ;  or  of  a  stock  of  merchandise  whicb 
is  left  in  the  hands  of  the  mortgagor  with  privilege  to  sell  in  due  course  of  hiw 
business,  or  in  any  manner  for  his  own  benefit ;  or  of  any  chattels  which  are  left 
in  the  possession  of  the  mortgagor,  the  mortgage  not  being  duly  registered,  are 
void  as  to  the  creditors  of  the  mortgagor,  unless  they  have  notice  of  the  same. 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  KENTUCKY, 

EXEMPTIONS  FROM  FORCED  SALE.— Home  worth  $1,000,  and  Personal  Prop- 
erty. To  bona  fide  housekeeper  with  a  family,  resident  in  the  State :  2  work 
beasts,  or  1  work  beast  and  1  yoke  of  oxen  ;  2  plows  and  gear ;  1  wagon  and  a  set 
of  gear,  or  1  cart  or  dray  ;  2  cows  and  calves  ;  10  head  of  sheep ;  provisions  suf- 
ficient to  sustain  the  family  one  year,  and  provender  sufficient  to  support  the 
stock  one  year  ;  1  sewing  machine  ;  the  usual  household  and  kitchen  furniture 
of  limited  value,  etc.;  the  tools  of  a  mechanic  not  exceeding  $100  in  value;  the 
libraries  of  ministers  of  the  gospel,  physicians  and  attorneys-at-law  not  to  ex- 
ceed in  value  $500,  but  the  last  is  not  in  addition  to  the  two  work  beasts, 
wagon,  cart  or  dray.  In  addition  to  the  personal  property  exempt  from  execu- 
tion on  all  debts  or  liabilities  created  after  the  1st  of  June,  1866,  so  much  land, 
including  the  dwelling-hotise  and  appurtenances  owned  by  the  debtor  as  shall 
not  exceed  §1,000,  shall  also  be  exempt  to  the  bona  fide  housekeeper  with  a  fam- 
ily. 

MECHANICS'  LIENS.— There  is  a  general  law  for  the  State  (not  applying  to 
Jefferson  county,  which  has  a  special  act  in  some  respects  different)  giving 
aiechanics  and  material  men  liens  upon  the  improvements  and  interest  of  the 
employer  in  the  land  for  work  done  and  material  furnished.  Sub-contractors 
and  laborers  may  acquire  a  lien,  by  giving  the  employer  written  notice  of  their 
claim,  and  that  they  look  to  the  land  and  improvements  for  compensation.  Liens 
must  be  filed  in  sixty  days  and  suit  brought  in  six  months,  to  enforce  claims,  or 
they  are  lost. 

COLLECTION  OF  DEBTS.— A  defendant  in  a  civil  action  may  be  arrested  when 
an  affidavit  is  filed  and  bond  given,  for  causes  for  which  an  attachment  will 
lie. 

The  defendant  may  give  bail,  or  in  lieu  of  bail,  deposit  in  the  hands  of  the 
sheriff,  or  in  court,  the  amount  of  money  mentioned  in.  the  order  of  arrest.  In 
default  of  both,  he  will  be  committed  to  jail,  there  to  remain  until  he  pays  tho 
debt,  gives  bail  or  take  the  insolvent  debtor's  oath. 

Attachment,  in  a  civil  action  for  the  recovery  of  money,  may  issue  against  tho 
property  of  the  defendant,  or  a  garnishee  where  the  action  is  against :  1.  A  de- 
fendant, or  several  defendants,  who,  or  some  one  of  whom,  is  a  foreign  corpora- 
tion or  a  non-resident  of  the  State.  2.  Who  has  been  absent  theretrom  fout 
months.  3.  Has  departed  from  the  State  with  intent  to  defraud  his  creditors.  4. 
Who  hae  left  the  county  of  his  residence  to  avoid  the  service  of  a  summons.  5. 


860  SPECIAL  LAWS   OF  KENTUCKY. 

So  conceals  himself  that  a  summons  cannot  be  served  on  him.  6.  Is  about  tl 
remove,  or  has  removed  his  property,  or  a  material  part  thereof ,  out  of  this  State. 
not  leaving  enough  therein  to  satisfy  the  plaintiff's  claim  or  the  claim  of  saiq 
Nfendant's  creditors.  7.  Has  sold,  conveyed  or  otherwise  disposed  of  his  property, 
^,  suffered  or  permitted  it  to  be  sold,  with  the  fraudulent  intent  to  cheat,  hinder 
or  delay  his  creditors.  8.  Is  about  to  sell,  convey  or  otherwise  dispose  of  his 
property  with  such  intent.  An  attachment  shall  iiot  be  granted  on  the  ground 
that  the  defendant,  or  defendants,  or  any  of  them,  is  a  foreign  corporation,  or  a 
non-resident  of  this  State,  for  any  claim  other  than  a  debt  or  demand  arising  on 
contract.  To  obtain  an  attachment,  the  plaintiff  must  file  an  affidavit,  showing  : 
1.  The  nature  of  his  claim.  2.  That  it  is  just.  3.  The  amount  which  the  affiant 
Believes  the  plaintiff  ought  to  recover.  4.  The  existence  in  the  action  of  some 
one  of  the  grounds  above  enumerated.  No  attachment  will  issue  until  bond  anc\ 
eecurity  in  double  the  amount  of  the  debt  is  given. 

A  defendant  may  be  arrested  in  a  civil  action  for  causes  for  which  an  attach- 
ment may  issue,  on  filing  affidavit  and  giving  bond. 

Assignments,  sales,  mortgages,  judgments  suffered  in  contemplation  of  insol- 
vency and  wxth  a  design  to  prefer  one  or  more  creditors  to  the  exclusion  in  whol« 
or  iii  part  of  others,  shall  operate  as  an  assignment  and  transfer  of  all  the  prop- 
erty and  effects  of  the  grantor,  and  shall  enure  to  the  benefit  of  all  his  credit- 
ors. 

Garnishee  may  be  summoned  on  attachment.  He  shall  not  be  subject  to 
costs  beyond  those  caused  by  his  resistance  of  the  claim  against  him.  After  re- 
turn of  execution,  endorsed  "  no  property  found,"  an  equitable  action  maybe 
brought  for  the  discovery  by  the  defendant  of  money,  choses  in  action,  equitable 
and  legal  interests,  etc.  In  such  an  action,  any  one  indebted  to  the  defendant  or 
holding  money  or  property  belonging  to  him  may  be  made  defendant.  Attach- 
ments may  issue  without  affidavit  or  bond.  The  court  shall  enforce  the  surren- 
der of  money,  property,  etc.,  and  may  commit  to  jail  any  defendant  or  garnished 
refusing  to  make  such  surrender. 


is  discharged,  unless  the  holder  brings  suit  against  the  maker,  if  note  remains 
unpaid,  at  the  first  court  held  after  its  maturity,  and  prosecutes  the  maker  to  in- 
solvency. Promissory  notes,  payable  and  negotiable  at  a  bank  in  this  State, 
which  shall  be  endorsed  and  discounted  by  said  bank,  or  by  any  other  bank,  shall 
and  are  placed  on  the  same  footing  as  foreign  bills  of  exchange. 

Justice  courts  have  jurisdiction  exclusive  of  the  Circuit  Court,  but  concurrent 
with  the  quarterly  court,  of  all  actions  and  proceedings  for  the  recovery  of  money 
or  personal  property,  where  the  matter  in  controversy,  exclusive  of  interest  and 
costs,  does  not  exceed  $50  in  value,  and  in  other  cases  specially  provided  by  stat 
ute.  Justices  of  the  peace  in  Jefferson  county  and  a  few  other  counties  have 
jurisdiction  to  the  extent  of  $100,  exclusive  of  interest  and  costs. 

The  Court  of  Appeals  has  general  appellate  jurisdiction  over  all  courts,  except 
Trhere  the  judgment  grants  a  divorce,  or  is  rendered  by  a  quarterly,  county,  police, 
city,  mayor's  or  justice's  court.  Circuit  Courts  have  general  original  jurisdic- 
tion of  all  actions  and  proceedings  for  the  enforcement  of  civil  rights  and  redress 
X>f_  civil  wrongs,  except  when  exclusive  jurisdiction  is  given  to  other  courts. 
^Civil  Code,  §  18.)  They  have  appellate  jurisdiction  of  the  judgments  of  quarterly 
courts  when  the  amount  in  controversy  exceeds  $20.  Quarterly  Courts  have 
jurisdiction  of  actions  to  recover  money  or  personal  property  not  exceeding  in 
yalue  $100.  They  have  appellate  jurisdiction  from  judgments  of  justices  of  the 
peace  for  $5  and  over. 

Summons  must  be  issued  and  served  10  days  before  return  day  thereof.  In 
equitable  proceedings  the  summons  is  returnable  in  twenty  days.  In  justice*' 
courts,  on  sums  less  than  $50,  it  is  returnable  in  five  days,  and  on  sums  greater 
than  $50,  hi  ten  days. 

Executions  issue,  from  magistrates  courts  for  sums  less  than  $50,  in  5  days, 
.for  sums  over  $50,  in  10  days  ;  from  the  Jefferson  court  of  common  pleas,  quar 
lerly  courts  and^circuit  courts,  in  ten  days  ;  from  the  Louisville  Chancery  court 
in  15  days  after  judgment  rendered  ;  is  returnable  to  some  rule  day  of  the  court, 
not  under  30  nor  over  70  days  from  the  test,  and  binds  the  real  estate  but  not  th» 
personal  estate  (until  levied)  of  the  defendant  only  from  the  time  the  same  is  de- 
livered to  the  proper  officer  to  execute.  For  cause  sho^iQi,  the  court  may  order 
Jjmnediate  execution. 

A  judgment  is  not  a  lien  on  the  property  of  the  defendant.  A  judgment  may  b% 
«oloreed  by  issuing  execution  at  any  time  witiiiii  15  years  from  its  reawiitioin, 


f  SPECIAL    LAWS    OF   KENTUCKY.  861 

Each  renewal  of  execution  revives  the  judgment  for  16  years  from  the  date  of 
ench  renewal.  Foreign  judgments  must  be  proven  by  certificate  of  judge  and 
clerk. 

Writs  of  provisional  seizure  may  also  issue,  without  the  plaintiff  giving  bond» 
A  defendant  may  replevy  for  3  mouths  a  judgment  or  execution  against  him, 
at  any  time  before  a  sale  of  property  under  the  same,  by  giving  to  the  officer  an 
obligation,  payable  to  the  plaintiff  with  good  security  for  the  aipount  thereof,  in- 
eluding  interest,  costs  and  half  commissions  up  to  that  time. 

If  land  sold  under  execution  does  not  bring  two-thirds  of  its  value,  the  defend* 
ant  or  his  representatives  shall  have  the  right  to  redeem  the  game  within  a 

DEEDS,  RIGHTS  OF  MARRIED  WOMEN,  WILLS,  &c.— Deeds  need  not  be  un> 
der  seal.  Deeds  executed  in  this  State  by  persons  other  than  ma,,  ried  wcmen, 
may  be  admitted  to  record  :  first,  on  the  acknowledgment  before  the  clerk  of  a 
county  court  by  the  party  making  the  deed  ;  or  second,  by  the  proof  of  two  subv 
acribing  witnesses,  or  by  the  proof  of  their  signatures.  Deeds  executed  out  ot 
the  State,  and  within  the  United  States,  by  persons  other  than  married  women. 
may  be  admitted  to  record  when  the  same  shall  be  certified  under  his  seal  ot 
office  by  the  clerk  of  a  court  or  his  deputy,  or  by  a  notary  public,  mayor  of  a  city 
or  secretary  of  state,  or  commissioner  to  take  the  acknowledgment  of  deeds,  01 
by  a  judge  under  the  seal  of  his  court  to  have  been  acknowledged  or  proved  be- 
fore him  in  the  manner  hereby  required.  Deeds  executed  out  of  the  Unitedi 
States  by  persons  other  than  married  women,  may  be  admitted  to  record  •when 
the  same  shall  be  certified  by  any  foreign  minister  or  consul,  secretary  of  lega- 
tion of  the  United  States,  or  by  the  secretary  of  foreign  affairs,  certified  under 
his  seal  of  office  or  the  judge  of  a  superior  court  of  the  nation  where  the  deed 
ehall  be  executed,  to  have  been  acknowledged  or  proved  before  him  in  the  man* 
Her  prescribed  by  law. 

A  deed  of  a  married  woman,  to  be  effectual,  shall  be  acknowledged  before 
Borne  of  the  officers  named  in  the  preceding  sections,  and  lodged  in  the  proper 
office  for  record.    Previous  to  such  acknowledgment,  it  shall  bo  the  duty  of  the  . 
officer  to  explain  to  her  the  contents  and  effect  of  the  deed  separately  and  apart, 
from  her  husband,  and  thereupon,  if  she  freely  and  voluntarily  acknowledge  the 
eame,  and  is  willing  for  it  to  be  recorded,  the  officer  shall  certify  the  same. 
(Privy  examination  need  not  be  stated  in  certificate.)    When  the  acknowledge 
ment  shall  be  taken  by  an  officer  out  of  this  State,  the  same  shall  be  acknowl- 
edged and  certified  to  the  effect  following  : 
STATE  OP  KENTUCKY,  ) 
COUNTY  OF  MERCER.     ( 
(or  town,  city,  department  or  parish  ot  .) 

I,  A.  B.  (here  give  his  title),  do  certify  that  this  instrument  of  writing  from 
C.  D.  and  wife  (E.  F.,  or  from  E.  F.,  wife  of  C.  D.),  was  this  day  produced  to  me 
by  the  parties,  and-whioh  was  acknowledged  by  the  said  C.  D.  to  be  his  act  and 
deed,  and  the  contents  and  the  effect  of  the  instrument  being  explained  to  the 
eaid  E.  F.  by  me  separately  and  apart  from  her  husband,  she  thereupon  declared 
that  she  did" freely  and  voluntarily  execute  and  deliver  the  same,  to  b«  her  actf 
and  deed,  and  consented  that  the  same  might  be  recorded. 

Given  under  my  hand  and  seal  of  office. 
[SEAL.]  A.  B.  (signature  and  title.) 

Proof  by  subscribing  witness. 
STATE  OP  KENTUCKY,  \ 
COUNTY  OF  MERCER.    ) fti> 

I,  A.  B.  (here  give  the  title),  do  certify  that  this  day  came  before  me  O.  H.  and 
,  J .  the  subscribing  witnesses  to  the  foregoing  deed  (or  other  instrument)  by  C.  D0 
,$L.M.,  which  witnesses  are  personally  known  tome  to  be  the  same  whose  narnef 
re  so  written  as  witnesses,  and  being  solemnly  sworn  by  me  in  due  manner,  did 
everally  declare,  on  their  oaths,  that  the  said  C.  D.  did  acknowledge  this  instru- 
ment to  be  hisacrt  and  deed,  and  that  the  signature  thereto  was  made  by  him  ; 
th.«t  they  know  him  to  be  the  same  person  who  is  named  as  the  grantor  th^reinj 
5iud  that  they  did  subscribe  said  deed  as  witnesses  by  his  request. 

Given  under  my  hand  and  seal  this  day  of  ,18     . 

[SEAL.]  (Signature  and  title.) 

Deeds  made  by  residents  of  the  State,  must  be  legally  lodged  for  record  wit5>- 
In  sixty  days  from  the  date  thereof.  By  non-residents,  and  in  the  United  States, 
•within  four  months :  if  out  of  the  United  States,  within  twelve  months.  Deeds  ar« 
not  legally  recorded' until  the  clerk's  tax  is  paid.  The  county  clerk  is  the  re- 
corder of  deeds.  Deeds  must  be  recorded  in  the  county  vrhere  the  land  lies,  *i>4 
take  effect  in  the  order  in  which  they  are  recorded. 


862  SPECIAL   LAWS    OP    LOUISIANA, 

Chattel  mortgage*  must  be  duly  acknowledged  and  recorded.  The  posse* 
sion  of  the  property  mortgaged  may  remain  in  the  mortgagor.  Five  years'  pos- 
session operates  as  a  bar  to  the  mortgagee.  A  mortgage  on  a  stock  of  goods  it 
only  valid  as  to  the  goods  in  store  at  the  time  it  is  given,  and  is  not  good  at 
to  after-acquired  stock. 

The  real  estate  of  a  married  woman  owned  before,  or  acquired  after  marriage, 
•hall  not  be  liable  for  the  debts  of  her  husband,  bu";  are  1'able  for  debts  of  he* 
and  her  husband  jointly  created,  in  writing,  for  necessaries  furnished  her  01  any 
member  of  her  family.  The  property  of  the  husband  shall  not  be  subject  to  the 
payment  of  any  of  the  wife's  debts  incurred  previous  to  marriage. 

Wills  must  be  in  writing,  signed  by  the  testator  or  by  some  other  person  in  hi9 
presence  and  by  his  direction  ;  and  if  not  written  wholly  by  himself,  must  be  at- 
tested by  two  or  more  competent  witnesses,  subscribing  their  names  in  his 
presence. 

SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  LOUISIANA. 

EXEMPTIONS  FROM  FORCED  SALE.— Home  o/lGO  Acres  ofL(*nd,,an£  Personal 
Property,  in  all  worth  $2,000. — 160  acres  of  land,  with  buildings  and  improvements 


therson,  occupied  as  a  residence,  and  bona  fide  owned  by  the  debtor,  having  a 
family,  a  person  or  persons  dependant  upon  him  for  support  :  together  with 
personal  property,  making  in  all  a  value  not  exceeding  $2,000.  Tools  of  trade, 


salaries,  wages,  and  personal  services,  all  wearing  apparel,  all  agricultural  im- 
plements, working  cattle,  and  provisions  and  supplies  necessary  for  carrying  on 
the  plantation  for  the  coming  year.  No  home  exempted  in  the  city  or  villages, 
and  iii  any  case  only  for  benefit  of  persons  having  a  family. 

MECHANICS'  LIEN — The  contractor  has  a  lien  for  the  payment  of  his  labor  on 
the  building  or  other  work  which  he  may  have  constructed.  Workmen  em« 
ployed  immediately  by  the  owner  in  the  construction  or  repair  of  any  building 
fcave  the  same  privilege.  If  the  contractor  be  paid  by  the  employer,  actions  for 
Vork  and  supplies  furnished  the  former  will  not  lie  against  the  latter,  but 
moneys  due  the  contractor  by  the  employer  may  be  seized  and  applied  towards 
payment.  No  agreement  for  work  exceeding  §500,  unless  reduced  to  writing 
and  registered  with  the  recorder  of  mortgages,  shall  be  privileged  as  above.  For 
amounts  less  than  §500,  this  formality  is  dispensed  \rith,  but  the  privilege  is 
limited  to  6  months  from  the  time  of  completed  work.  Workmen  employed  on 
vessels  or  boats  have  a  lien  on  the  same,  and  are  not,  in  any  case,  bound  to  re- 
duce their  contracts  to  writing,  but  their  privileges  closes  if  they  allow  the  ves- 
sels to  depart  without  exercising  their  right. 

COLLECTION  OP  DEBTS.— A. rest,  in  civil  action,  ma>  be  made  of  a  debtor 
who  is  about  to  leave  the  State  without  leaving  sufiicieiit  property  to  satisfy  the 
judgment  sought  to  be  obtained  by  the  creditor,  and  held  until  security  is  given 
that  he  will  not  depart  from  the  State  without  leave  of  court  ;  provided,  that 
no  citizen  of  another  State  shall  be  arrested  at  suit  of  resident  or  non-resident 
creditor,  except  upon  oath  that  the  debtor  has  absconded  from  his  residence.  Ar- 
rest or  attachment  may  be  made  whether  the  debt  is  due  or  not,  and  agent  or 
attorney  may  swear  to  the  best  of  his  knowledge  and  belief. 

writ  of  attachment  may  issue  against  a  defendant  for  the  following  causes  : 

1.  Where  the  defendant  is  a  non-resident.    2-    Where  he  is  about  to  leave  the 
State  permanently.    3-  Where  he  conceals  himself  to  avoid  being  cited.  4.  Where 
lie  has  mortgaged,  assigned  or  disposed  of  his  property,  or  is  about  to  do  so,  with 
intent  to  give  an  unfair  preference  to  some  of  his  creditors,  or  place  his  property 
Or  evidence  of  debt  beyond  the  reach  of  his  creditors.    In  every  case  where  an 
Attachment  is  sought,  the  petitioning  creditor  must  give  a  bond,  payable  to  the 
clerk  of  the  court  for  an  amount  <  lie-half  over  the  claim  demanded,  with  surety 
tending  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the  court.  Writs  of  sequestration  may  issue  in 
this  State  upon  an  affidavit  made  by  party,  or  agent,  or  attorney  in  his  absence, 
Showing  one  of  the  following  grounds,  after  executing  a  bond  with  one  good  resi- 
dent surety  in  an  amount  to  be  determined  by  the  judge  ;  1,  Where  the  plaintiff, 
who  has  had  possession  of  the  property  for  one  year,  has  been  ejected  by  force. 

2.  Where  the  plaintiff  seeks  the  possession  of  movable  property,  and  fears  the 
party  having  possession  of  the  same  may  impair  its  value,  may  remove  it  beyond 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  court,  or  may  conceal  or  dispose  of  it  during  the  continu- 
ance of  the  suit.    3.  Where  a  wife  sues  for  separation  from  bed  and  board,  or  for 
separation  from  property  alone,  and  has  reason  that  her  husband  may  injure  her 
dotal  property  or  waste  the  fruits  and  revenues  produced  by  the  same  dnriag  the 
pendency  of  the  suit,    4.  Where  the  defendant  has  asked  for  a  stay  of  proceeedr 


SPECIAL   LATtfS    OF   LOUISIANA.  863 


i,  and  at  a  meeting  of  his  creditors  they  should  fear  he  will  avafl 
stay  of  proceedings  to  dispose  of  the  whole  or  part  of  his  property, 
aintiff  has  a  lien  or  privilege  cu  property. 


l*gt  against  him 
!him»eTf  of  such  s 

B.  Where  the  plaintiff  has  a  lien  or  privilege  cu  prope 

Writs  of  sequestration  may  also  issue,  without  the  "plaintiff  giving  bond,  in 
cases  where  he  eeeks  to  enforce  a  landlord's,  seaman's,  mechanic's  or  laborer'! 
lien. 

The  assignment  of  notes,  bills,  accounts,  or  claims  of  any  kind  is  valid,  an«L 
\  the  assignee  may  sue  in  his  own  name,  but  the  assignment  of  a  debt  must  be  no- 
ftified  to  the  debtor.  Garnishment  can  issue  on  an  execution  or  attachment 
against  any  person  owing  the  debtor,  or  having  his  property  in  possession. 

Justice  of  the  peace  has  jurisdiction  up  to  $100,  including  parish  courts,  origi- 
nal jurisdiction,  from  $100  to  $500.  District  courts  on  all  amounts  over  $500. 
Apdeals  from  justices,  when  over  $10,  returnable  to  the  parish  courts,  except  to 
the  parish  of  Orleans,  where  returnable  to  third  district  court  when  over  $10. 
Appeals  lie  from  parish  court  on  sums  over  $100.  From  district  court  to  Gr.prem* 
court  over  $500.  Service  of  citation  must  be  made  for  ten  days  before  any  action 
Can  be  taken. 

Judgments,  to  operate  as  a  lien,  must  be  recorded  in  the  mortgage  book  ol 
the  parish  recorder.  It  then  becomes  a  judicial  mortgage  on  all  the  real  estate  ot 
the  debtor  where  recorded. 

There  is  no  stay  of  execution,  and  it  can  issue  at  any  time  after  judgment. 
Ko  redemption  of  property  sold  under  execution  or  mortgage. 

DEEDS,  RIGHTS  OF  MAIIRIED  WOMEN,  WILLS.— Deeds  are  valid  without 
*cra\rl  or  seal.  They  must  be  acknowledged  in  the  State  before  a  notary  public 
or  recorder,  or  in  presence  of  two  witnesses,  who  may  prove  the  signature.  If 
acknowledged  oat  of  the  State,  before  a  commissioner  or  Louisiana,  or  in  confor- 
mity to  the  laws  of  the  State  where  acknowledged,  and  in  the  latter  case  the 
official  character  of  the  officer  before  whom  the  acknowledgment  is  taken  muat  be 
properly  verified.  The  husband  must  join  in  the  execution  of  a  deed  made  by  tho 
•wife  conveying  her  real  estate,  and  authorize  her. 

When  the  husband  sells  his  own  real  estate,  the  wife  must  join  him  and  re- 
Bounce  all  her  rights,  and  she  must  be  examined  apart  from  her  husband  and 
duly  informed  of  the  nature  of  the  act.    No  particular  form  of  words  is  necessary, 
«xcept  the  above  must  be  shown.    This  form  is  used  : 
STATE  OF  , ) 

COUNTY  OP  .}** 

Be  it  remembered  that  on  this  day  came  before  me,  John  Hampden,  a  notary 
public  within  and  for  the  county  aforesaid,  duly  commissioned  and  acting  as  such, 
A.  B.  and  his  wife,  C.D.,  tome  known  personally  (or  proved  such  by  two  credible 
witnesses)  to  be  the  persons  whose  names  are  subscribed  to  the  foregoing  deed ; 
and  the  said  A.  B.  acknowledged  that  he  had  executed  the  said  conveyance,  for 
the  consideration  and  purposes  therein  mentioned  and  set  forth  ;  and  the  said 

C.  D.,  being  by  me  first  made  acquainted  with  the  contents  of  said  instrument. 
i«  an  examination  apart  from  her  husband,  and  fully  advised  of  the  nature  of 
her  rights  upon  his  property,  acknowledged  that  she  executed  the  same  freely, 
and  without  compulsion  or  undue  influence  of  her  said  husband. 

Witness  my  hand  and  seal  of  office,  on  this  day  of  ,  187  . 

JOHN  HAMPDEN,  Notary  Public. 

The  estate  of  a  married  woman,  whether  acquired  before  or  after  marriage, 
remains  her  separate  estate,  and  cannot  be  sold  by  her  husband.  All  property 


Required  during  marriage  from  the  joint  or  separate  earnings  of  husband  ana 
tvife,  and  the  revenues  of  the  separate  property  of  each,  is  equally  divided  be' 
iween  them.  A  married  woman  has  no  dower  in  her  husband's  estate,  but  it  is 


best  for  her  to  join  in  any  conveyance  made  by  him,  in  order  to  renounce  anif 
claims  she  may  have  on  his  estate.  (She  has  no  claim  unless  her  lien  or  moid* 
gage  is  lecorded.)  The  husband  must  join  his  wife  in  any  conveyance  of  her 
separate  estate. 

There  is  no  chattel  mortgage  in  this  State,  but  the  law  creates  certain  privi- 
leges upou  movables,  which  are  as  follows  :  1.  The  vendor's  privilege  on  the 
movables  not  paid  for ;  2.  For  debts  due  for  necessary  supplies  furnished  to 
any  farm  or  plantation  and  for  money  actually  advanced  for  the  supplies  and 
necessary  expenses  for  any  farm  or  plantation  on  the  crops  of  the  year  ot 
the  proceeds  thereof  ;  3.  The  lessor's  privilege  on  the  crops  ancl  movables 
on  the  property  leased  ;  4.  Architects,  undertakers,  furnishers  of  material,  etc., 
on  the  edifices  or  other  works  built  or  repaired. 

These  privileges  are,  however,  preserved,  andean  be  acquired  only  by  having 
recorded  in  the  pari?li  where  the  property  is  the  account  containing  the  stat* 
Iftcut  o£  i-udebtednesa  in  detail,  and  tue  balance  due,  under  the  oatl  of  the  tartt 


864  SPECIAL  LAWS    OF    MAINE. 

doing  or  having  the  work  done,  and  this  to  be  recorded  th«  day  the  contract  waf 
entered  into,  to  have  effect  against  third  parties. 

The  estate  of  a  married  woman,  whether  acquired  before  or  after  marriage, 
remains  her  separate  estate,  and  cannot  be  sold  by  the  husband*  All  property 
acquired  during  marriage  from  the  joint  or  separate  earnings  of  husband  and 
wife,  and  the  revenues  of  the  separate  property  of  each,  is  equally  divided  be- 
tween them.  A  married  woman  has  no  dower  in  her  husband's  estate,  but  it  is 
best  for  her  to  join  in  any  conveyance  made  by  him,  in  order  to  renounce  any 
claims  she  may  have  on  his  estate.  (She  has  no  claim  unless  her  lien  or  rnort- 
gage  is  recorded.")  .The  husband  must  join  his  wife  in  any  conveyance  of  her.1 
separate  estate.  The  wife  may  make  her  last  will  without  the  authority  of  l\  r 
husband. 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  MAINE. 

.EXEMPTIONS  FROM  FORCED  SALE.— Home  worth  $500  and  Personal  Property. 
Homestead  to  the  value  of  $500,  or  lot  purchased  from  the  State,  for  a  homestead. 
After  the  death  of  the  debtor,  his  widow  and  minor  children  are  entitled  to  the 
same  exemption.  A  lot  in  a  burying-ground  ;  wearing  apparel ;  necessary  house 
hold  furniture  not  exceeding  §50  ;  1  bed,  bedstead  and  bedding  for  every  two  in 
the  family  ;  all  family  portraits  ;  bibles  and  school-books  in  use  ;  copy  of  the 
statutes,  and  a  library  not  exceeding  $150;  one  cooking-stove,  12  cords  wood,  5 
tons  anthracite  coal  and  50  bushels  bituminous  coal ;  $10  worth  of  lumber,  wood 
or  bark  ;  all  produce  until  harvested ;  1  barrel  of  flour ;  30  tushels  corn  and 

Sain  ;  all  potatoes  ;  all  flax  raised  on  1  acre  of  land  and  all  articles  manufactured 
erefrom  for  the  family ;  tools  in  trade ;  1  sewing  machine  worth  $100 ;  1 
pair  working  cattle  or  mules  ;  1  or  2  horses,  not  exceeding  in  value  $300,  and  hay 
to  keep  them  through  the  winter  ;  one  cow  and  heifer  ;  10  sheep,  and  the  lambs 
and  wool  raised  from  them,  and  hay  to  keep  them  during  the  winter;  1  plow  ; 
a  cart  or  truck  wagon  ;  harrow  ;  yoke  with  bows,  ring  and  staple ;  2  chains ;  a 
mowing  machine,  and  one  boat  of  2  tons. 

MECHANICS'  LIEN. — Mechanics  have  a  lien  oti  buildings  for  labor  and  mate- 
rials furnished  for  erecting  or  T'ef  airing  same,  which  may  be  enforced  by  attach- 
ment in  ninety  days  after  same  are  furnished  or  labor  done,  and  against 
vessels  for  four  days  after  same  is  launched. 

COLLECTION  OF  DEBTS. — Arrests  in  civil  actions  can  be  made.  In  actions  of 
tort,  the  body  is  committed,  unless  bail  is  given.  In  actions  on  contract  over 
ten  dollars,  and  the  debtor  is  about  to  depart  from  the  State  to  reside  beyond  the 
limits  of  the  State,  and  carries  with  him  property  more  than  sufficient  for  Ms 
support,  he  can  be  arrested. 

Every  assignment  made  by  a  debtor  for  the  benefit  of  creditors  shall  provide 
for  a  proportional  distribution  of  all  his  real  and  personal  estate,  except  what  is 
by  law  exempt  from  attachment,  among  all  his  creditors,  becoming  parties 
thereto,  and  in  whatever  form  made  shall  have  the  effect  aforesaid,  and  be  also 
construed  to  pass  all  such  estate,  whether  spe«ifted  therein  or  not-  A  release  may 
be  inserted  in  the  deed  of  assignment,  which  shall  forever  discharge  the  as^ignof 
from  the  claims  of  such  creditors  as  become  parties  thereto.  The  assignor  shall 
make  oath  as  to  the  truth  of  the  assignment.  The  assignee  must,  within  fourteen 
days  after  the  assignment  is  made,  give  public  notice  of  his  appointment  in 
some  newspaper  printed  in  the  county  where  the  assignor  lives,  such  notice  to 
by  continued  three  weeks  successively.  Three  months  from  such  assignment  is 
allowed  creditors  to  become  parties  thereto.  If  the  assignment  is  not  sworn 
to  and  not  ice  not  given,  then  the  same  is  void  against  attaching  creditors.  All 
property  conveyed  by  the  assignor  previous  to  and  in  contemplation  of  the 
assignment,  with  the  design  to  delay,  hinder  or  defraud  creditors,  or  to  giy.e 
preference  to  one  creditor  over  another,  shall  pass  to  the  assignee  notwithtfand- 
Jng  such  transfer. 

Writ  of  attachment  may  be  issued  in  any  civil  action  and  can  be  levied  on  all 
property  not  exempt,  which  creates  a  lien  that  continues  for  30  days  afw;r  exe- 
cution issues. 

Negotiable  notes,  bills,  and  bonds  are  assignable,  so  that  assignees  may  sue  in. 

'  their  own  name.    Any  person  who  holds  any  goods,  effects  -jr  credits  belonging 

to  a  debtor  may  be  required,  under  tbe  "  trustee  process,"  to  deliver  up  the  sarr.9 

for  the  credtitor  to  reach,  except  $20  due  the  debtor  for  vo^e.4  u.i4  even  thea 

when  the  debt  is  for  necessaries. 

A£  to  notes  and  bills,  on  any  promissory  note,  inland  hrU  ot 


SPECIAL  LAWS   OF   MAINS'  365 

«r  order  for  payment  of  money,  payable  in  this  State  at  a  future  day,  or  *t  sigfht, 
and  not  on  demand,  a  grace  of  thre?  days  shall  be  allowed.  In  an  action  on  .1 
promissory  note,  payable  at  a  certain  place,  either  on  demand  or  on  demand  at 
or  after  a  time  specified  therein,  the  plaintiff  shall  not  recover  unless  he  prove* 
&  demand  made  at  the  place  of  payment  prior  to  the  commencement  of  the  suit. 
No  person  shall  be  charged  as  an  acceptor  of  a  bill  of  exchange,  draft  or  written 
order,  unless  his  acceptance  shall  be  in  writing,  signed  by  him  or  his  lawful 
agent ;  and  no  waiver  of  demand  and  notice  l?y  an  indorser  of  any  promissory 
note  or  bill  of  exchange  shall  be  valid  unless  it  is  in  writing  and  signed  in  liko 
'manner.  No  action  can  be  maintained  upon  any  note  or  other  security  given  for 
Intoxicating  liqjiors,  sold  in  violation  of  the  act  relating  to  sales  of  intoxicating 
liquors,  unless  the  security  is  negotiable  paper  in  the  hands  of  an  innocei  fc 
holder,  and  for  value.  No  agreement  that  personal  property,  bargained  and  de« 
livered  to  another,  tor  which  a  note  is  given,  shall  remain  the  property  of  the 
payee  till  the  note  is  paid,  is  valid,  unless  it  is  made  and  signed  as  a  part  of  the 
note  ;  nor  when  it  is  so  signed  in  a  note  for  more  than  $30,  unless  it  is  recorded  like 
mortgages  of  personal  property.  Damages  on  protest  of  bills  of  exchange,  of 
§100  or  more,  payable  by  the  acceptor,  drawer  or  indorser  of  one,  in  this  Stato 
are,  if  payable  at  a  place  75  miles  distant,  one  per  cent. ;  if  payable  in  the  State 
of  New  York,  or  in  any  State  northerly  of  it,  and  not  in  this  State,  three  per 
cent. ;  if  payable  in  any  Atlantic  State  or  territory  southerly  of  New  York  and 
northerly  of  Florida,  six  per  cent. ;  and  in  any  other  State  of'  territory,  nine  per 
cent. 

The  jurisdiction  of  justice  courts  extends  to  $20,  supreme  judicial  court,  of 
all  civil  and  criminal  matters,  and,  except  in  county  of  Cumberland,  exclusive 
of  all  sums  over  $20  ;  in  county  of  Cumberland  over  §500,  concurrent  jurisdiction. 

Service  must  ba  had,  in  cases  before  justice  of  the  peace,  7  days  before  the  re- 
turn day.  In  the  courts  of  record,  on  individuals,  14  days,  and  on  corporations, 
30  days,  before  the  return  day. 

Judgments  are  liens  for  30  days  where  it  is  created  by  attachment,  but  not 
otherwise.  Execution  can  issue  on  judgments  after  term  of  the  court  expires  ufc 
•which  judgment  was  obtained  for  3  years,  and  for  the  same  length  of  time  after 
the  last  execution.  Judgments  can  be  sued  on  for  20  years.  The  execution  can- 
not be  stayed  unless  it  is  issued  wrongfully,  and  then  only  upon  giving  bond  to 
the  judgment  creditor. 

DEEDS,  RIGHTS  OF  MARRIED  WOMEN,  WILLS,  &c.— Deeds  must  be  under  seai , 
a  scrawl  is  not  sufficient.  It  is  not  necessary  to  have  witnesses,  but  it  must  be  ac- 
knowledged in  the  State  before  a  justice  of  the  peace.  Out  «f  the  State,  before  any 
justice  of  the  peace,  magistrate,  notary  public,  commissioner  for  the  State,  or  by 
any  United  States  minister,  consul,  or  any  notary  public  in  any  foreign  country. 
The  wife  must  join  in  the  deed  to  relinquish  dower,  or  she  may  do  it  by  a  separata 
deed.  When  she  joins  with  her  husband  in  the  same  deed,  either  can  acknowl- 
edge the  instrument.  No  separate  examination  of  the  wife  is  necessary. 

The  following  is  the  form  of  acknowledgment  to  be  used  in  this  Statt  • 
STATE  OF  MAINE,        ) 
COUNTY  OF  WALDO.   )     * 

On  this  day  of  ,  187  ,  personally  appeared  the  above-named 

grantor,  and  aknowledged  the  foregoing  Instrument,  by  him  signed,  to  be  his  frea 
»ct  and  deed. 

Before  me,  SAM  JOHNSON, 

Justice  of  the  Pear?., 

If  acknowledged  out  of  this  State,  use  this  form  : 
STATE  OF  VERMONT,      ) 
COUNTY  OF  WINDHAM.  } 

Oil  this  day  of  ,  187  ,  personally  appeared  before  me  R. 

Anderson,  notary  public,  the  above-named  ,  the  grantor,  and  ac- 

knowledged this  instrument  to  be  his  free  act  and  deed. 

In  witness  whereof,  I  have  hereunto  set  my  hand  and  affixed  my  official  seal 
the  day  and  year  aforesaid. 

TSEAL.]  R.  ANDERSON,  Notary  Public* 

As  to  property,  both  real  and  personal  not  obtained  by  them  from  their  hus- 
.  bands,  married  women  can  control,  dispose  of,  and  encumber  as  though  they  were 
femme  sole,  and  free  from  the  debts  of  their  husbands.  They  can  make  contracts, 
lor  which  they  and  their  property  are  liable,  whether  notes  or  otherwise,  and 
iueir  property  may  be  attached  and  taken  on  execution  to  satisfy  any  iudgment 
received  against  them.  They  cannot  be  arrested.  A  wife  must  join  in  a  deed 
from  the  husband  in  selling  his  real  estate,  te  relinquish  dower,  and  he  must 
join  with  her  in  s«lling  her  real  estate  only  when  it  oomes  to  her  froc>  him. 


866  SPECIAL   LAWS    OP   MARYLAND. 

All  chattel  mortgages  made  to  secure  ever  830  are  void,  unless  possession  ifc 
given  to  the  mortgagee,  or  rather  taken  out  of  the  possession  of  the  mortgagor, 
and  the  mortgage  recorded  in  the  town  where  the  mortgagor  lives. 

In  this  State  all  wills  must  be  in  writing,  signed  by  the  testator,  or  by  some/ 
person  in  his  presence  and  by  his  express  direction,  and  shull  be  attested  and 
•ubscribed  in  his  presence  by  three  credible  witnesses. 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  MARYLAND. 

EXEMPTIONS  FKOM  FORCED  SALE. — No  Homestead  Exemption,  but  Personiff 
Property.  The  property  exempted  is  the  personal  property  actually  necessary 
for  the  sustenance  of  the  family  and  the  implements  or  tools  necessary  to  earn 
*  livlihood,  and  wearing  apparel.  The  Constitution  of  the  State  directs  the  Leg- 
islature to  pass  laws  exempting  from  judicial  sale  property  pot  exceeding  §500. 
$100  is  the  amount  fixed  and  exempted  \n  pursuance  of  this  constitutional  re- 
quirement. The  exact  language  of  tl^j  law  is,  "  all  wearing  apparel,  books, 
and  the  tools  of  mechanics." 

MECHANICS'  LIEX.— -Every  building  erected,  and  every  building  repaired, 
rebuilt  or  improved  to  the  extent  of  one-fourth  of  its  value,  shall  be  subject  to 
a  lien  for  the  payment  of  all  debts  contracted  for  work  done  or  material  fur- 
nished for  or  about  the  same  ;  also  vessels,  boats  or  machines  constructed  or 
repaired  within  this  State  are  subject  to  mechanics'  lien.  The  lien  must  be  filed 
in  the  record  offlce  within  six  months  after  the  work  has  been  finished  or  mate- 
rials furnished.  If  the  contract  shall  have  been  made  with  an  architect  or 
builder,  or  nny  person  other  than  the  owner  of  the  ground  on  which  the  building 
is  erected,  or  nis  agent,  iio^ce  of  intention  to  claim  a  lien  must  be  given  to  the 
owner  within  sixty  days.  The  mechanics'  lien  has  priority  over  all  other  liens  or 
incumbrances  placed  on  the  property  after  the  commencement  of  the  building, 
and  over  mortgages  to  secure  future  advances,  where  the  loan  or  advance  is  not 
actually  made  until  after  the  commencement  of  the  building. 

COLLECTION  op  DEBTS — No  person  can  be  arrested  in  civil  action  here. 
"Writs  of  attachment  may  be  obtained  on  the  following  grounds :  Non-residence 
of  the  defendant,  absconding  or  secretly  removing  from  his  place  of  abode,  with 
intention  to  evade  payment  of  his  debts.  When  two  summons  have  been  re- 
turned non  est  in  any  action.  No  bond  is  required  before  issuing  in  the  foregoing 
cases.  Attachment  may  be  had  on  any  debt  due  by  a  married  woman  trading  as 
SL/emme  sole-  Upon  affidavit  and  approved  bond  in  double  the  debt  claimed, 
attachment  for  fraud  will  be  issued  where  debtor  is  about  to  abscond  from  the 
State;  or  has,  or  is  about  to  assign,  dispose  of ,  or  conceal  his  property,  or  some 
part  thereof,  or  to  remove  the  same  with  intent  to  defraud  his  creditors  ;  cr  has 
fraudulently  contracted  the  debt.  In  these  cases  caution  should  be  used  not  to 
resort  to  attachment  unless  the  proof  of  the  alleged  fraud  is  such  as  would  satisfy 
a  jury  upon  trial. 

Every  species  of  property,  01  legal,  or  equitable  interest  in  property,  is  sub- 
ject to  attachment  and  execution  at  law. 

Assignments,  in  trust,  for  the  benefit  of  creditors,  are  not  regulated  by  any 
special  enactments  and  are  common  in  use.  The  debtor,  so  far  as  the  State  law* 
are  concerned,  may  prefer  any  creditor  or  class  of  creditors,  or  may  exact  releases, 
If  he  assigns  all  his  property.  Any  chose  in  action,  judgment,  bond,  legacy  or 
"distributive  share  of  an  estate  may  be  assigned  in  writing,  signed  by  the  person 
authorized  to  assign  the  same,  and  the  assignee  may  sue  in  his  own  name. 

As  to  garnishment,  attachments,  either  on  judgment  or  on  original  process,  in 
those  cases  where  attachments  are  authorized,  may  be  laid  in  the  hands  of  any 
person  or  corporation  who  may  then  be  made  to  disclose  under  oath  whether 
they  owe  or  are  indebted  to  the  defendant  or  have  any  property  of  his  in  their 
possession.  §100  of  the  wages  due  to  any  laborer,  or  employee  is  exempt  from 
attachment  or  garnishment. 

As  to  notes  and  bills,  a  protest  made  by  a  notary  public  for  non-payment  or 
non-acceptance,  is  prlma  facie  evidence  of  the  presentment  and  non-payment  or 
non-acceptance  at  the  time  and  in  the  manner  stated  in  the  protest,  and  that  notices 
thereof  have  been  sent  or  delivered  in  the  manner  therein  stated.  The  holder 
cf  a  protested  bill  of  exchange,  drawn  in  this  State  on  a  foreign  country,  shall 
recover  so  much  current  money  as  will  purchase  a  good  bill  cm  the  same  country, 
find  tif  ten  per  cent,  damages,  and  costs  and  legal  interest.  If  the  bill  is  drawn 
3pon  any  penon  in  ar.y  other  State,  district  or  territory  of  th«  United  States. 


SPECIAL   LAWS    OP   MAEYLAND.  867 

ih«  holder  shall  recover  so  much  current  money  as  will  produce  t,  good  bill  o» 
•the  same  place  and  eight  per  cent,  damages,  and  costs  and  legal  iV,er<5st. 

Justices  of  the  peace  have  jurisdiction  in  cases  where  the  deoi  or  damage 
claimed  does  not  exceed  one  hundred  dollars,  and  in  all  cases  of  greater  amount 
the  circuit  courts  of  the  several  counties  have  jurisdiction,  and  u»  Baltimore  city 
aither  tho  superior  court,  court  of  common  pleas,  or  city  court. 

An  execution  or  attachment  may  issue  at  any  time  within  12  years  from  th« 
date  of  such  judgment,  or,  if  there  be  a  stay  thereon,  at  any  time  within  12  years 
after  tho  expiration  of  such  stay,  where  there  has  been  no  change  of  parties  to 
.ouch  judgment.  In  the  city  of  ^Baltimore,  execution  can  issue  on  the  day  judg- 
ment is  rendered.  In  some  of  the  counties,  when  judgment  is  rendered  at  the 
first  trial  term,  there  is  a  stay,  by  rule  of  court,  until  the  next  term.  Every 
kind  of  property  can  bo  reached  either  by  execution  or  attachment.  Redemp- 
tion after  sale  upon  execution  is  not  allowed.  Execution  may  be  stayed  for  six 
months  by  superseding  the  judgment  within  sixty  days  after  it  is  entered,  by 
giving  two  securities  who  must  confess  judgment- 

Judgments  are  a  lien  upon  the  real  estate  of  the  defendant  from  the  date  of 
the  judgment,  and  upon  all  leasehold  interests  and  terms  for  years,  except 
leases  for  not  more  than  five  years  and  not  renewable.  But  a  judgment  is  not 
&  lien  upon  personal  property  until  execution  is  put  into  the  hands  of  the  sheriff. 
^Execution  may  issue  at  a:'.y  time  within  twelve  years,  but  after  twelve  yeara 
-the  judgement  is  barred  by  limitations,  unless  previously  renewed  by  scire  facias. 
Judgments  of  justices  of  the  peace  can  be  made  a  lien  on  real  estate  by  being 
recorded. 

DEEDS,  RIGHTS  OP  MARRIED  WOMEJT,  WILLS,  &c.— The  form  of  convey- 
ances have  been  simpliiied  by  the  code.  No  words  of  inheritance  are  neces- 
sary. A  fee  simple  estat3  passes,  unless  a  contrary  intention  shall  appear  by 
express  terms  or  be  necessarily  implied.  Deeds  must  be  under  seal  (a  scrawl 
is  sufficient),  and  the  signature  must  be  attested  by  at  least  one  witness.  A  con- 
i^idevation  must  be  stated.  lu  deeds  of  fee  simple  property,  the  wife  must  join 
io  release  her  right  of  dower.  No  special  form  of  acknowledgment  or  separata 
examination  is  necessary  for  a  married  woman. 

The  following  is  the  form  of  certificate. 
STATE  OF  MARYLAND,  ) 
COUNTY  OP  CARROL.      }  s' 

I  hereby  certify  that,  on  this  day  ,  in  the  year  ,  before  th« 

•ubscriber  (here  insert  the  official  style  of  the  officer  taking  the  acknowledgment), 
personally  appeard  (here  insert  the  name  of  person  or  persons  making  the  ac- 
knowledgment), and  acknowledged  the  aforegoing  deed  to  be  his  act  (or  did  each 
acknowledge  the  aforegoing  deed  to  be  their  respective  act). 

[SEAL.]  (Signature.) 

In  testimony  whereof,  I  have  hereunto  set  my  hand  and  affixed  my  official  seal 
tne  day  and  year  aforesaid. 

The  acknowledgment,  if  made  within  the  State,  may  be  made  before  a  justice 
of  the  peace  for  any  county  or  city,  or  a  judge  of  a  court  of  a  county  or  city 
having  a  seal.  If  acknowledged  before  a  justice  of  the  peace  within  the  State, 
but  put  of  the  county  or  city  in  which  the  real  estate  lies,  the  official  character  of 
the  justice  of  the  peace  must  be  certified  by  the  clerk  of  the  circuit  court  Off 
•uperior  court  under  his  official  seal. 

If  acknowledged  without  the  State,  but  within  the  United  States,  the  acknowl- 
edgment may  be  made  before  :  First,  a  notary  public  (who  must  affix  his  notarial 
leal);  second,  a  judge  of  any  court  of  the  United  States;  third,  a  judge  of  any 
eourt  of  any  State  or  territory  having  a  seal  j  fourth,  a  commissioner  of  Mary- 
Jand  to  take  acknowledgment  of  deeds. 

If  acknowledged  without  the  United  States,  the  acknowledgment  may  be 
Snade  before  :  First,  any  ministeror  consul  of  the  United  States  ;  second,  a  notary 
public ;  third,  a  commissioner  of  Maryland  to  take  acknowledgments.  To  every 
eertiticate  before  a  judge  the  seal  of  the  court  must  be  affixed. 

Married  women  hold  their  real  and  personal  property  for  their  own  separate 
use  and  entirely  protected  from  the  debts  of  the  husband,  and  there  is  no  neces- 
sity for  a  trustee.  They  may  devise  tho  came  as  fully  as  a  femme  sole,  or  may 
tonvey  the  same  by  a  joint  deed  with  the  husband,  if  the  wife  die  intestate, 
leaving  children,  her  husband  has  a  life  estate  in  her  property ;  if  she  die  in- 
•  testate  leaving  no  children,  her  husband  has  a  life  estate  in  her  real  estate  and 
her  personal  property  vests  in  him  absolutely.  A  married  woman  may  be  sued 
jointly  with  her  husband  on  any  note,  contract,  or  agreement  which  she  has  ex- 
ecuted jointly  with  him,  and  the  judgments  recovered  in  such  cases  are  liens  ou 
tli«  property  of  both,  and  may  b«  collected  in  the  same  manner  as  if  th«  defe.n4- 


SPECIAL   LAWS    OF   MASSACHUSETTS. 

Ants  were  not  husband  and  wife.  A  woman  becomes  of  legal  age  to  convey  re4| 
•state  at  twenty-one,  but  may  receive  her  property  and  release  her  guardian  At 
eighteen,  or  upon  marriage. 

Bills  of  sale  or  chattel  mortgages  aie  valid,  although  the  vendor  or  mortgagor 
of  the  chattels  remains  in  possession  ;  provided,  they  are  properly  acknowledged 
and  recorded,  and  the  vendee  or  mortgagee  shall  make  oath  at  the  time  of  ex- 
ecution before  some  person  authorized  to  take  the  acknowledgment,  that  the 
consideration  stated  in  the  bill  of  snle  or  mortgage  is  true  and  bouajide.  They 
maybe  acknowledged  out  of  the  State  before  any  person  authorized  to  take  ac- 
knowledgment of  deeds,  and  must  be  recorded  in  the  county  or  city  where  the 
,  rendor  resides,  within  twenty  days  from  date.  If  acknowledged  within  the  State( 
it  must  be  before  a  justice  of  the  peace  or  judge  of  the  orphans'  court  of  the  city 
or  county  where  the  vendor  resides . 

Wills  should  be  in  writing,  and  signed  by  the  party  making  them,  or  by  some 
other  person  in  his  presence  and  by  his  express  directions,  and  shall  be  attested 
and  subscribed  in  the  presence  of  the  testator,  by  three  or  four  credible  wit- 
nesses. A  wife  may  make  a  will  and  give  all  her  property,  or  any  part  thereof 
to  her  husband,  or  any  one  other  person,  with  the  consent  of  the  husband  sub- 
scribed to  said  will.  Provided  the  wife  shall  have  been  privately  examined  1  v 
witnesses  to  said  Avill,  apart  out  of  the  presence  and  hearing  of  her  husband,  &  ". 
(in  the  same  manner  as  provided  for  in  deeds),  and  provided  alse  said  will  4 
made  60  days  before  death  of  the  testatrix. 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  MASSACHUSETTS. 

EXEMPTIONS  FROM  FORCED  SALE.— Home  worth  §800,  and  Personal  Property* 
•very  householder  having  a  family  shall  be  entitled  to  an  estate  of  homestead 
to  the  extent  in  value  of  §800,  in  the  farm  or  lot  of  land  and  buildings  thereon 
owned  or  rightly  possessed  by  lease  or  otherwise  and  occupied  by  him  as- a  resi- 
dence, and  suclihomestead  and  all  right  and  title  therein  shall  be  exempt  from 
attachment,  levy  or  execution,  sale  for  the  payment  of  his  debts  or  other  pur- 
poses. To  constitute  such  estate  of  homestead  and  to  entitle  property  to  such 
exemption,  it  shall  be  set  forth  in  the  deed  of  conveyance  by  which  the  property 
is  acquired  that  it  is  designed  to  be  held  as  a  homestead,  or  after  the  title  ha*s 
been  acquired  such  design  shall  be  declared  by  n  writing  duly  signed,  sealed, 
acknowledged  and  recorded  on  the  registry  of  deeds  for  the  county  or  district 
where  the  property  is  situated.  Personal  property  is  exempt  as  follows  :  The 
necessary  wearing  apparel  of  the  debtor  and  his  family ;  1  bedstead,  bed.  and  the 
necessary  bedding  for  every  two  persons  of  the  family  ;  stove  and  fuel  not 
exceeding  §50  iti  value ;  other  necessary  household  furniture  not  exceeding 
in  value  §300 ;  the  family  library  not  exceeding  §50  in  value ;  1  CQW,  6  sheen, 
1  swine  and  2  tons  of  hay  ;  tools,  implements  and  fixtures  for  carrying  on  trade 
or  business  not  exceeding  §100  ia  value;  materials  and  stock  designed  for  his 
trade  or  business  not  exceeding  §100  in  value  ;  necessary  provisions  not  exceed- 
ing ?50  in  value  ;  the  boat,  fishing  tackle  and  nets  of  fishermen,  actually  in  us* 
In  their  business,  not  exceeding  §100  in  value  ;  the  uniform,  arms  and  accoutre- 
ments required  by  law  to  be  kept  by  the  citizens  ;  1  sewing  machine  to  the 
value  of  §100,  and  the  wages  for  personal  labor  are  exempt  from  attachment  to 
the  extent  of  §23  for,  a  debt  or  demand  other  than  for  necessaries  furnished  to  the 
debtor  or  his  family. 

MECHANICS'  LIEN. — Any  person  furnishing  labor  and  materials  for  the  erec- 
tion, alteration  or  repairs  of  any  building,  shall  have  a  lien  on  the  same,  but  no 
lien  for  the  materials  shall  attach  unless  he  shall  notify  the  owner,  in  case  he  is 
not  the  purchaser,  in  writing,  that  he  intends  to  claim  a  lien  for  the  same  bel'or  j 
they  are  furnished.  Where  the  contract  for  furnishing  labor  and  materials  is  for 
an  entire  sum,  a  lien  will  attach  for  the  labor,  if  its  value  can  be  ascertained 
•eparate  from  the  materials,  but  not  beyond  such  entire  sum.  Notice  in  writing 
from  the  owner  of  guch  building,  that  he  will  not  be  responsible  for  the  labor 
and  materials  to  be  furnished  to  the  party  furnishing  or  performing  the  same, 
will  prevent  the  lien  from  attaching. 

,       COLLECTION  OF  DEBTS.— AVhen  an  arrest  of  the  defendant  in  a  civil  action, 

•  on  mesne  process,  in  an  action  of  contract,  is  desired  by  the  plaintiff,  the  plain* 

I  tiff,  or  some  person  in  his  behalf,  makes  affidavit,  and  proves  to  the  satisfaction 

of  some  justice  of  a  court  of  record,  police  court,  judge  of  a  probate  court,  n  aster 

in  chancery,  commissioner  of  insolvency,  and,  except  in  the  county  of  Suffolk, 

trial  justice  or  of  any  justice  of  the  peace, — 1.  That  he  has  a  good  cause  of  action,, 

•ad  reasonable  expectation  of  recovering  asuxu  amounting  to  §^0.  exclusive  oi'all 


SPECIAL   LAWS    OF    MASSACHUSETTS. 

Joets  which  have  accrued  in  any  former  action.  2-  That  he  believes,  and  ha» 
reason  to  believe,  the  defendant  has  property  not  exempt  from  being  taken  on 
•xecutiou,  which  he  does  notintenu  to  apply  to  payment  of  the  plantiff's  claim ; 
and,  3.  That  he  believes,  and  has  reason  to  believe,  that  the  defendant  intends 
to  leave  the  State,  so  that  execution,  if  obtained,  cannot  be  served  upon  him; 
or  (instead  of  the  seconder  third),  that  the  defendant  is  an  attorney-at-la\v ; 
that  the  debt  Bought  to  be  recovered  is  for  money  collected  by  the  defendant  for 
the  plaintiff,  and  that  the  defendant  unreasonably  neglects  to  pay  Jhe  rame  to 
the  plaintiff.  And  such  affidavit,  and  the  certificate  of  the  ma  '.'. otr  e  .uav  ne  if 
•atisned  the  same  is  true,  shall  be  annexed  to  the  writ. 

In  actions  of  tort,  the  arrest  of  the  defendant  may  oe  procured  tPfaen  the 
plaintiff,  or  some  one  in  his  behalf,  makea  oath,  to  the  satisfaction  o"  iny  one  of 
$aid  magistrates,  that  he  believes,  and  has  reason  to  believe,  tlia.,  h  a  s  a  good 
eause  of  action  against  the  defendant;  that  he  has  reasonable  expectation  of 
recovering  a  sum  equal,  at  least,  to  one-third  the  damages  claimed  In  the  writ ; 
and  that  he  believes,  and  has  reason  to  believe,  that  the  defendant  intends  to 
leave  the  State,  so  that  if  execution  be  obtained  it  cannot  be  served  on  him.  An 
order  for  arrest  on  an  execution  issued  on  a  judgment  for  debt  or  damages  in  a 
sivil  action,  except  in  actions  of  tort,  may  be  obtained  when  tho  plaintift,  or  some 
one  in  his  behalf,  makes  affidavit  and  proves  to  tho  satisfaction  of  any  one  of  said 
magistrates  :  1.  That  he  believes,  and  has  good  reason  to  believe,  that  the  debtor 
fcas  property  not  exempt  from  being  taken  on  execution,  which  he  does  not  intend  to 
apply  to  the  payment  of  the  plaintifFs  claim  ;  or,  2.  That  since  the  debt  was  con- 
tracted, or  the  cause  of  action  accruea,  the  debtor  has  fraudulently  conveyed,  con- 
cealed, or  otherwise  disposed  of  some  part  of  his  estate,  with  a  design  to  secure 
ihe  same  to  his  own  use  and  defraud  his  creditors  ;  or,  3.  That  since  the  debt 
was  contracted,  or  cause  of  action  accrued,  the  debtor  has  hazarded  and  paid 
money  or  other  property  to  the  value  of  $100  or  more  in  some  kind  <  gaming 
prohibited  by  the  laws  of  this  State  :  or,  4.  That  since  the  debt  was  contracted 
the  debtor  has  wilfully  expended  and  misused  his  goods  and  estate,  or  some  park 
thereof,  for  the  purpose  of  enabling  himself  to  swear  that  he  has  not  any  estate  to 
the  amount  of  $20,  except  such  as  is  exempt  from  being  taken  ca  execution; 
or,  5.  (If  the  action  was  founded  on  contract.)  That  the  debtor  contracted  tha 
debt  with  an  intention  not  to  pay  the  samo ;  or,  6.  That  the  debtor  is  an  attorney- 
Ht-law  ;  that  the  debt  upon  which  the  judgment  on  which  the  execution  issued 
wras  for  money  collected  by  the  debtor  for  the  creditor,  aiu!  that  said  attorney 
unreasonably  neglects  to  pay  the  same.  And  such  affidavit  and  the  certificate  of 
the  magistrate  that  he  is  satisfied  there  is  reasonable  cause  to  believe  the  charges 
therein  contained,  or  some  one  of  them,  are  true,  shall  be  annexed  to  the  execu- 
tion. 

No  woman  shall  be  arrested  on  any  civil  process  except  for  tort.  But  when- 
ever any  person  shall  obtain  a  judgment  against  any  woman,  whether  married 
er  unmarried,  for  the  sum  of  $20  and  upwards,  exclusive  of  all  costs,  which  make 
ft  part  of  said  judgment,  and  while  so  much  as  that  amount  remains  uncollected, 
and  shall  take  any  execution  upon  the  same,  he  may  demand  payment  of  the 
•ame,  and  upon  failure  to  satisfy  said  execution,  the  judgment  creditor  may  cite 
the  judgment  debtor  to  appear  before  the  court  and  submit  to  an  examination 
touching  her  estate  and  the  disposition  of  the  same. 

When  a  person  is  arrested  on  mesne  process  in  actions  of  contract,  as  above 
described,  he  may  obtain  his  release  by  proving,  to  the  satisfaction  of  any  one  of 
Said  magistrates,  that  he  does  not  intend  to  leave  the  State,  so  that  execution,  if 
r  Obtained,  cannot  be  served  on  him,  or  by  taking  the  oath  for  the  relief  of  poor 
'debtors,  or  by  giving  bail  either  to  pay  the  judgment  or  to  answer  to  the  execu- 
tion. When  a  person  is  arrested  on  mesne  process  in  an  action  of  tort,  he  may 
obtain  his  release  by  giving  bail.  When  arrested  on  execution,  the  defendant 
may  obtain  his  discharge  by  taking  the  oath  for  the  relief  of  poor  debtors,  before 
any  one  of  said  magistrates,  and  satisfying  said  magistrates  of  its  truth.  The-oath 
is  as  follows  :  "  I,"  A.  B.,  '<  do  solemnly  swear  that  I  have  not  any  estate,  real 
or  personal,  to  the  amount  of  thirty  dollars,  except  the  estate,  goods  and 
chattels  which  are  bylaw  exempt  from  being  taken  on  execution,  and  that  I 
have  not  any  other  estate  now  conveyed,  concealed,  or  in  any  way  disposed  c* 
with  the  design  to  secure  tho  same  to  my  own  use  or  to  defraud  my  creditors." 

When  any  of  the  charges  of  fraud  aforesaid  are  proved,  the  debtor  shall  har<?' 
no  benefit  from  the  provisions  for  the  relief  of  poor  debtors,  and  may  be  sentence 
to  confinement  at  hard  labor  in  the  house  of  correction.  If  the  debtor  is  di«- 
charged  on  execution  by  taking  the  poor  debtors'  oath,  the  judgment  remains  ia 
ViH  force  against  his  goods  and  estate,  but  he  is  not  liable  to  a  second  arrett  ot 
Itabody. 


8TO  SPECIAL  -LAWS    OP    MASSACHUSETTS. 

An  attachment  of  the  property  of  defendant  is  permitted  in  all  cases  in  mesnt 
process;  either  by  ditect  attachment  or  by  trustee  or  garnishee  process.  And 
when  the  property  of  the  defendant  cannot  be  reached,  so  a s  to  be  attached  in  & 
suit  at  law,  it  may  be  reached  in  equity.  In  cases  of  doubt  as  to  the  ownership 
of  the  property  to  be  attached,  the  officer  requires  a  bond  of  indemnity. 

Besides  the  courts  of  minor  jurisdiction,  as  ol  a  justice  of  the  peace  outside 
of  Suffolk  county  having  a  jurisdiction  not  exceeding  $100,  and  of  police,  dis- 
trict, and  municipal  courts  having  jurisdiction  not  exceeding  $300,  and  establish- 
ed in  the  larger  towns  and  cities  of  the  State,  there  are  two  courts  established 
having  jurisdiction  throughout  the  State,  first — The  superior  court  holds  term* 
in  most  of  the  counties  every  three  months.  It  has  concurrent  jurisdiction  with 
the  first-named  courts  from  §20  to  their  limit,  and  exclusive  jurisdicti«n  of 
kclaims  exceeding  $300  and  not  exceeding  §1000  in  all  counties  except  Suffolk 
county.  In  the  latter  county,  the  jurisdiction  extends  to  $4000,  and  concurrent 
jurisdiction  with  the  supremo  judicial  court  of  all  claims  exceeding  said  sums 
of  §1000  and  84000.  Service  of  process  must  be  made  in  the  superior  court  14 
days  before  return  day.  Second— The  supreme  judicial  court  has  jurisdiction  in 
equity,  concurrent  jurisdiction  with  the  superior  court  as  above  described,  ex- 
clusive jurisdiction  of  libels  for  divorce,  and  jurisdiction  of  questions  of  lavr 
* — tught  up  from  the  superior  court. 

Judgments  are  not  a  lieu  upon  property,  but  when  an  attachment  has  been 
Hide  on  mesnc  process,  the  lien  holds  for  30  days  after  judgment,  in  which  to 
Ike  a  levy  on  the  execution.  Ko  execution  will  be  issued  within  24  hours 
after  judgment  has  been  entered,  and  all- original  executions  must  be  issued 
within  one  year  after  the  party  is  entitled  to  sue  it  out,  and  no  successive  execu- 
tion will  be  issued  unless  within  five  years  after  the  return  day  of  the  0110  preced- 
ing it.  All  executions  are  returnable  in  sixty  days  from  their  date. 

DEEDS,  RIGHTS  OF  MARRIED  WOMEN,  WILLS,  &c.— Conveyances  of  lands,  or 
of  any  estate  or  interest  therein,  may  be  made  by  deed  executed  by  any  person 
having  authority  to  convey  the  same,  or  by  his  attorney,  and  acknowledged  and 
recorded  in  the  registry  of  deeds  for  the  county  or  district  where  the  lands  lie, 
without  any  other  act  or  ceremony. 

A  wafer,  or  other  tenacious  substance  upon  which  an  impression  may  be 
made,  is  a  valid  seal  in  this  State.  The  acknowledgment  of  deeds  shall  be  by 
the  grantors,  or  one  of  them,  or  by  the  attorney  executing  the  same,  and  may  be 
jnade  before  any  justice  of  the  peace,  magistrate  or  notary  public,  or  commis- 
sioner appointed  for  that  purpose  by  the  Governor  of  this  State  within  the 
United  States,  or  in  any  foreign  country,  or  before  a  minister  or  consul  of  the 
United  States  in  any  forign  country.  No  subscribing  witness  is  required 
When  the  deed  is  acknowledged  by  one  of  the  grantors.  In  case  the  granto* 
refuses  to  acknowledge  the  same,  it  may  be  proved  before  a  justice  of  the  peace 
in  the  county  where  the  land  lies,  or  where  the  grantor  or  any  subscribing  wit- 
ness to  the  deed  resides,  by  the  testimony  of  the  subscribing  witness,  ar-dihe  shall 
certify  the  due  execution  of  same.  In  signing  deeds  it  is  not  necessary  that  the 
wife  be  separately  examined  ;  it  is  sufficient  to  bar  her  dower,  if  she  join  with 
her  husband  in  the  conveyance. 

A  married  woman  may  hold  real  and  personal  property.  May  convey  the 
lame,  make  contracts,  sue  and  be  sued  in  the  same  manner  as  if  she  were  sole  ; 
fcut  her  separate  conveyance  of  her  real  estate  shall  be  subject  to  her  husband's 
tenancy  by  the  courtesy.  Conveyances,  contracts  and  suits  are  not  authorized 
between  husband  and  wife.  Every  woman  shall  be  entitled  to  her  dower  at 
common  law  in  the  lands  of  her  husband,  to  be  assigned  to  her  after  his  decease, 
unless  she  is  lawfully  barred  thereof. 

Chattel  mortgages  of  personal  property  shall  be  recorded  on  the  records  of 
the  city  or  town  where  the  mortgagor  resides  when  the  mortgage  is  made,  and  on 
the  records  of  the  city  or  town  in  which  he  then  principally  transacts  his  busi- 
ness, or  follows  his  trade  or  calling.  If  the  mortgagor  resides  without  the  Statee 
his  mortgage  of  personal  property  within  the  State  when  the  mortgage  is 
made,  shall  be  recorded  on  the  records  of  the  city  or  town  where  the  property 
then  is ;  unless  a  mortgage  is  so  recorded  within  fifteen  days  from  the  date 
thereof,  or  the  property  mortgaged  is  delivered  to  and  retained  by  the  mort- 
gagee, it  shall  not  be  valid  against  any  person  other  than  the  parties  thereto, 
except  in  the  case  of  a  mortgage,  contract  of  bottomry  or  respondentja, 
or  any  transfer,  assignment  or  hypothecation  of  a  ship  or  vessel,  and  also  except 
in  case  of  any  transfer  or  mortgage  of  goods  at  sea  or  abroad,  if  the  mortgagee 
takes  possession  of  such  goods  as  BOOII  as  may  be  after  their  arrival  in  this  State. 
When  it  is  required  that  a  mortgage  of  personal  property  shall  be  recorded  in 
tfce  records  of  two  municipalities,  such  mortgage  shall  be  considered  as  duil 


SPECIAL    LAWS    OF    MICHIGAN.  871 

recorded,  when  recorded  in  the  record  of  one  of  them  ,  provuiea,  it  is  recorded  la 
the  records  of  the  other  within  ten  days  from  the  date  of  such  first  record. 

Wills  must  be  in  writing,  and  signed  by  the  testator,  or  by  some  other  person 
in  his  presence  and  by  his  express  direction,  and  attested  and  subscribed  in  th« 
presence  of  the  testator  by  three  or  more  competent  witnesses. 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  MICHIGAN. 

EXEMPTIONS  FROM  FORCED  SALE.—  Home  worth  $1500  and  Personal 
perty.  A  homestead  consisting  of  any  quantity  of  land,  not  exceeding  40  acre* 
and  dwelling  house  thereon  and  its  appurtenances,  not  included  in  any  recorded 
town  plat  or  city,  or  village  ;  or  instead  thereof,  at  the  option  of  the  owner,  one 
lot  in  a  recorded  town  plat  or  city,  or  village,  and  the  dwelling  house  thereon 
and  its  appurtenances.  Said  property,  however,  must  not  exceed  $1,500  in 
value  ;  if  so,  it  may  be  sold  and  the  excess  applied  in  payment  of  the  judgment. 
.Personal  property  is  exempt  as  follows:  All  spinning  wheels,  weaving  loom 


be  kept  by  any  person,  all  wearing  apparel  of  every  person  or  family,  library 
and  school  books  of  every  individual  and  family  not  exceeding  §150  in  value, 
and  all  family  pictures.  To  each  householder  10  sheep  with  their  fleeces,  and 
the  yarn  or  cloth  manufactured  from  the  same,  2  cows,  5  swine,  and  provision 
and  fuel  for  six  months'  use,  all  household  goods,  furnitvsre  and  utensils  not  ex- 
ceeding in  value  $250 ;  tools,  implements,  materials,  stock,  apparatus,  team, 
rehicle,  horses,  harness  or  other  things  to  enable  any  person  to  carry  on  the 
profession  or  trade,  occupation  or  business  in  which  he  ia  wholly  or  principally 
engaged,  not  exceeding  in  value  §250  ;  and  a  sufficient  quantity  of  hav,  grain, 
feed  and  roots  for  properly  keeping  for  six  months  the  animals  hereinbefore 
specified  ;  1  sewing  machine  for  family  use  is  also  exempt.  No  portion  of  the 
property  above  specified,  however,  is  exempt  from  execution  upon  a  judgment 
for  the  purchase  money. 

MECHANICS'  LIEN. — Any  person  who  shall,  by  contract  with  the  owner,  part, 
owner  or  lessee  of  any  piece  of  land,  furnish  labor  or  materials  for  constructing 
or  repairing  any  building,  wharf  or  appurtenances  on  such  land,  has  a  lien, 
therefor  unon  said  building,  wharf,  machinery,  appurtenances,  the  entire  in- 
terest of  said  owner,  part  owner  or  lessee  in  and  to  said  land  not  exceeding  one, 
quarter-section  ;  or  if  in  the  limits  of  an  incorporated  village  or  city,  in  the  lot 
or  lots  on  which  said  building,  wharf,  machinery  or  appurtenances  are  situated,, 
to  the  extent  of  his  claim.  He  must  file  a  verified  certificate  with  the  register 
of  deeds,  containing  a  copy  of  the  contract,  if  in  writing,  or  if  not  a  statement 
of  its  terms,  with  a  description  of  the  land,  and  a  statement  of  the  amount  du» 
and  to  become  due,  with  all  credits  to  which  the  owner  may  be  entitled. 

The  owner,  part  owner  or  lessee  must  be  notified  of  the  filing  of  the  certifi- 
cate.   In  order  to  have  the  benefit  of  the  lien,  proceedings  to  foreclose  must  be 
taken  vrithin  six  months  after  the  last  installment  shall  become  due.    A  sub- 
contractor has  a  lien  to  the  extent  of  the  interest  of  the  original  contractor, 
upon  complying  with  substantially  the  sa'me  provisions  as  in  case  of  an  original- 
«ontractor.    Mechanics,  workmen,  and  other  persons,  also  have  a  lien  in  certain 
cases,  for  performing  labor  or  furnishing  materials  in  building,  altering,  repair- f 
ing,  beautifying  or  ornamenting  any  house  or  other  building,  machinery  o^e 
appurtenances  to  any  house  or  building.  , 

COLLECTION  OF  DEBTS. — Persons  may  be  arrested  "by  capias  ad  respondendum, 
in  actions  arising  on  contract,  to  recover  damages  for  breach  of  promise  to 
marry,  for  moneys  collected  by  a  public  officer,  for  any  misconduct  or  neglect  in 
office,  or  in  any  professional  employment,  and  in  other  actions  than  those  aris- 
ing upon  contract,  where  an  order  for  bail  shall  be  indorsed  on  the  writ  by  a 
judge  of  the  court,  or  by  a  circuit  court  commissioner. 

Arrests  may  also  be  made  in  other  actions  up^n  contract  than  those  above 
specified,  if  it  be  made  to  appear  fchat  the  defendant  fraudulently  contracted  the 
debt  or  incurred  the  obligation,  or  that  he  has  property  which  he  has  removed, 
or  is  about  to  remove,  out  of  the  jurisdiction  of  the  court,  with  intent  to  defraud 
his  creditors,  or  which  he  fraudulently  conceals,  or  which  he  unjustly  refuses  to 
anply  to  the  payment  of  any  judgment  which  shall  have  been  rendered  against 


172  SPECIAL   LA^S    OP   MICHIGAN. 

Attachments  may  issue  in  favor  of  any  creditor  against  any  debtor  having 
property  in  the  county  in  which  the  creditor  or  debtor  may  reside,  subject  to  the 
attachment,  in  the  circuit  court  of  said  county ;  or  in  case  the  debtor  has  ne 
property  in  the  county,  or  is  a  non-resident  of  the  State,  then  an  attachment  may 
issue  in  the  circuit  court  of  any  county  where  the  property  of  the  debtor  may  be 
found. 

The  following  are  thw  principal  causes  of  attachment :  1.  That^the  defend- 
ant has  absconded  or  is  about  to  abscond  from  this  State,  or  that  he  is  concealed' 
therein,  to  the  injury  of  his  creditors.  2.  That  the  defendant  has  assigned,  dis- 
posed of,  or  concealed,  or  is  about  to  assign,  dispose  of,  or  conceal  any  of  his 
property,  with  intent  to  defraud  his  creditors.  3.  That  the  defendant  hai  re- 
moved or  is  about  to  remove  any  of  his  property  out  of  the  State,  with  intent  to 
defraud  his  creditors.  4.  That  he  has  fraudulently  contracted  the  debt  or  in* 
curred  the  obligation  respecting  which  the  suit  is  brought.  5.  That  he  is  a  non- 
•resident  of  the  State  and  has  not  resided  therein  for  three  months  immediately 
•preceding  the  time  of  commencing  the  suit;  or,  6.  That  the  defendant  is  a 
foreign  corporation. 

No  bond  is  required  on  Commencement  of  suit,  but  the  defendant  may  re- 
cover the  possession  of  the  property  taken  by  virtue  of  the  writ  by  delivering  to 
the  officer  a  bond  conditioned  for  the  payment  of  any  judgment  or  the  return  of  , 
the  property.  Unless  this  is  done,  the  property  must  remain  in  the  hands  of  the 
officer.  Attachments  may  be  dissolved  by  a  judge  of  the  court,  or  by  a  circuit 
court  commissioner,  upon  application  of  the  defendant,  if  he  shall  be  satisfied 
that  the  plaintiff  had  not  a  good  and  legal  cause  for  suing  out  the  writ. 

Assignments  of  bonds,  notes,  and  other  choses  in  action  not  negotiable  under 
existing  laws,  are  valid,  and  the  assignee  may  sue  for  and  recover  the  same  in 
his  own  name. 

A  writ  of  garnishment  may  issue  in  a  personal  action  arising  upon  contract. 

As  to  notes  and  bills,  no  person  in  this  State  can  be  charged  as  an  acceptor 
on  a  bill  of  exchange,  unless  his  acceptance  is  in  writing,  signed  by  himself  or 
his  lawful  agent.  Bills  of  exchange,  duly  protested  for  non-acceptance  or  non- 
payment, if  drawn  or  endorsed  within  this  State,  payable  at  any  place  without 
the  State  but  in  the  United  States,  entitle  the  holder  to  recover  damages  in  ad- 
dition to  the  contents  of  such  bill,  with  interest  and  costs,  as  follows:  "When 
payable  within  either  of  the  States  of  Wisconsin,  Illinois,  Indiana,  Pennsylvania, 
Ohio  and  New  York,  three  per  cent,  on  the  contents  of  the  bill;  when  payable 
•within  either  of  the  States  of  Missouri,  Kentucky,  Maine,  New  Hampshire,  Ver- 
mont, Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island,  Connecticut,  New  Jersey,  Delaware,  Mary- 
land, Virginia  or  the  District  of  Columbia,  five  per  cent.,  and  if  payable  else- 
where within  any  of  the  United  States  or  territories  thereof,  ten  per  cent.  No 
damages  are  allowed,  if  payable  within  this  State.  If  payable  outside  of  the 
United  States,  five  per  cent,  is  allowed,  besides  the  current  rate  of  exchange  at 
time  of  demand.  All  parties  to  notes  or  bills,  whether  drawers,  makers,  guaran- 
tors of  payment,  endorsers  or  acceptors,  may  be  sued  in  one  action,  and  judg- 
ment may  be  rendered  and  execution  issued  in  the  same  manner  as  though  all 
were  joint  contractors.  Any  bill  of  exchange,  note,  or  draft  payable  on  demand, 
and  any  check,  bill  of  exchange,  or  draft  drawn  upon  any  bank  or  banking  insti- 
tution, is  deemed  to  be  due  on  the  day  mentioned  for  the  payment  of  the  same, 
without  any  days  of  grace  being  allowed.  Guarantees  of  payment  or  of  the  col- 
lection are  negotiable,  and  pass  to  the  holder  of  the  note.  Notarial  protest  is 
evidence  of  non-acceptance  or  non-payment,  at  the  time  and  in  the  manner 
stated  in  the  protest,  unless  the  defendant  shall  annex  to  his  plea  an  affidavit 
,  Denying  the  fact  of  having  received  such  notice. 

"»  Justices  <jf  the  peacs  have  jurisdiction  in  all  civil  actions  wherein  the  debt  or 
damages  do  not  exceed  $100,  and  concurrent  jurisdiction  with  the  courts  of 
record  in  all  actions  upon  contract  wherein  the  debt  or  damages  do  not  exceed 
$300,  except  actions  for  a  disturbance  of  a  right  of  way  or  other  easement ;  ac- 
tions for  libel,  slander,  or  for  malicious  prosecutions,  and  actions  against  execu- 
tors or  administrators  as  such,  except  in  cases  specially  provided  by  law.  Cir- 
cuit courts,  in  their  respective  counties,  aave  and  exercise  original  and  exclusive 
jurisdiction  of  all  civil  actions  and  remedies  of  whatever  name  and  description, 
And  of  all  prosecutions  for  crimes,  misdemeanors,  offences  and  penalties,  except 
in  cases  where  exclusive  or  concurrent  jurisdiction  is  given  to  or  possessed  by 
«ome  court  or  tribunal  in  virtue  of  some  statutory  provisions,  or  the  principles 
and  usages  of  law.  Said  court  has  such  appellate  jurisdiction  and  powers  as  are 
provided  by  law.  Service  of  summons  may  be  r^'.e  at  any  time  before  return 

A  judgment  has  no  t^C'cV  tf/ot-  the  property  of  a  judgment  debtor,  either  r*ol 


LAWS   OF   MICHIGAN".  873 

dr  personal,  until  the  isstfo  ftntf  levy  or-aK  execution.  A  certified  trftnacript  of 
the  judgment  of  a  justice  of  the  peaco  for  twenty  dollars  and  over,  exclusive  of 
costs,  on  certain  conditions,  may  be  filed  in  the  office  of  the  clerk  of  the  circuit 
court  of  the  county  in  which  the  judgment  -shall  have  been  rendered,  in  whicfc 
case  the  judgment  shall  be  of  the  same  effect  as  a  judgment  rendered  in  said  cir- 
cuit court.  Judgments  may  be  entered  in  any  court  upon  confession. 

Executions  ii»  courts  of  record  may  issue  upon  the  rendition  of  judgment  to 
the  proper  officer  of  any  county  in  the  Stater  fttid  successive  or  alias  executions 
may  issue  one  after  another  upon  the  return  of  any  execution  unsatisfied  in 
whole  or  in  part.  They  are  not  a  lien  upon  property  until  a  levy  is  made.  Exe- 
cutions in  justices'  court,  except  in  certain  specified  cases,  may  issue  at  the  ex- 
piration of  five  days  from  the  rendition  of  judgment,  unless  the  execution  be 
stayed.  The  defendant  in  the  execution  in  justices'  court  may  stay  the  same, 
except  in  certain  specified  cases,  by  filing  proper  security  for  the  payment  of  the 
money,  with  interest  and  costs  for  four  months  from  the  commencement  of  suit, 
if  the  judgment  shall  not  exceed  fifty  dollars,  and  for  six  months  if  the  judgment 
exceeds  fifty  dollars. 

Laud  sold  under  execution  may  be  redeemed  within  one  year  from  the  time 
of  sale.  Every  species  of  property,  real  or  personal,  and  the  interest  of  the  de- 
fendant in  any  property,  except  such  as  is  exempt  from  execution  by  statute,  i» 
jgubject  to  execution  and  sale. 

DEEDS,  RIGHTS  OF  MARRIED  WOMEN,  WILLS,  &c — Deeds  must  be  under 
eeal,  with  two  witnesses  ;  a  scrawl  is  regarded  as  a  seal.  The  execution  of  deeds 
must  be  acknowledged  before  any  judge  or  commissioner  of  a  court  of  record,  or 
before  any  notary  public  or  justice  of  the  peace  within  the  State.  The  deed 
must  be  recorded  in  the  county  where  the  land  lies.  Deeds  executed  in  any 
other  State  must  be  executed  according  to  the  laws  of  such  State,  and  the  execu- 
tion thereof  may  be  acknowledged  before  any  officer  authorized  by  the  laws  of 
*uch  State  to  take  acknowledgments ;  or  they  may  be  acknowledged  before  any 
commissioner  appointed  by  the  Governor  of  this  State  for  such  purpose. 

If  made  before  any  other  officer  than  a  commissioner  of  this  State,  the  deed 
must  have  attached  thereto  a  certificate  of  the  clerk  of  a  court  of  record  of  the 
county  or  district  within  which  such  acknowledgment  was  taken  under  his  seal 
of  office  ;  that  the  person  whose  name  is  subscribed  to  the  certificate  of  acknowl- 
edgment was,  at  the  date  thereof,  such  officer  as  he  is  therein  represented  to 
be,  that  he  believes  the  signature  of  such  person  subscribed  thereto  be  genuine, 
and  that  the  deed  is  executed  and  acknowledged  according  to  the  laws  of  such 
State. 

The  acknowledgment  of  a  deed  by  a  married  woman,  when  she  joins  with  her 
Smsband  in  a  deed  of  conveyance,  must  be  taken  separately  and  apart  from  her 
frusbaud,  and  she  must  acknowledge  that  she  executes  the  same  fret,!/  and  with- 
out any  fear  or  compulsion  from  any  one. 

A  husband  is  not  required  to  join  in  a  deed  by  the  wife  conveying  her  prop- 
erty. No  particular  form  of  certificate  of  acknowledgment  is  required,  but  it 
should  appear  from  such  certificate  that  the  person  making  the  same  was  legally 
authorized  to  take  such  acknowledgment ;  that  the  grantor  or  grantors  were 
personally  known  to  him,  and  that  they  appeared  before  him  and  acknowledged 
the  deed  to  be  his  or  their  free  act.  When  executed  by  a  married  woman,  it 
should  show  that  she  executed  the  same  freely  and  without  fear  or  compulsion 
from  any  one. 

Married  women  may  hold  real  and  personal  estate  to  iheir  separate  use,  and 
may  contract  in  reference  to  the  same,  and  in  the  same  manner,  and  witfi  the  like 
effect,  as  if  they  were  unmarried.  And  they  may  sue  and  be  sued  in  relation  to 
their  sole  property  in  the  same  manner  as  if  they  were  unmarried.  Dealing^ 
directly  between  husband  and  wife  are  permitted-  The  husband  has  no  interest 
in  the  property  of  the  wife  as  tenant  by  the  courtesy,  Separate  property  acquired 
.,by  females  before  or  after  marriage  is  not  liable  for  the  husband's  debt-  The 
>dfe  is  entitled  to  dower  in  all  lands  owned  by  her  husband  during  coverture. 

Wills  must  be  in  writing,  subscribed  by  the  testator  or  by  some  person  m  his 
presence  and  by  his  express  direction,  attested  and  subscribed  in,  th.§  preaeno* 
of  ute  testator  by  two  or  more  comoetent  witaesies 


874      ,,%  SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  MINNESOTI 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF   MINNESOTA. 

|V  EXEMPTIONS  FROM  FORCED  SALE.— Home  of  Eighty  Acres  In  Farm  Lands,  and 
Xot  in  Village  or  City,  with  Personal  Property.  Eighty  acres  of  land  and  dwell- 
ing house  thereon,  or  instead  thereof,  one  town  or  city  lot  and  the  dwelling 
hocuses  thereon,  regardless  of  value.  Family  Bible,  books,  pictures  and  musical 
instruments  ;  church  pew  and  cemetery  lot ;  wearing  apparel  of  debtor  and 
.family,  also  beds,  bedsteads  and  bedding ;  stoves  and  appendages,  cooking 
utensils,  and  furniture  not  enumerated  not  exceeding  $500  in  value  ;  3  cows,  1$ 
swine,  1  yoke  of  oxen,  and  a  horse  (or  a  span  of  horses  or  mules),  20  sheep ;  neces- 
sary food  for  stock  for  one  year ;  1  wagon,  cart  or  dray,  1  sleigh,  2  ploughs, 
•'1  drag,  and  other  farming  utensils  not  exceeding  $300  'in  value  ;  one  sewing 
machine  ;  seed  grain  for  one  year  ;  one  year's  provisions  for  debtor  and  family  ; 
one  year's  fuel ;  tools  or  instruments  used  for  carrying  on  trade,  and  stock 
in  trade  not  exceeding  $400  ;  library  and  implements  of  any  professional  man  ; 
80  acres  of  land  and  dwelling  house  thereon,  or  instead  thereof,  one  town  or  city 
lot,  and  the  dwelling  houses  thereon,  regardless  of  value.  Also  the  wages  of 
any  laboring  man  or  woman  or  their  minor  children,  not  exceeding  $50,  due  for 
eervices  rendered  during  the  ninety  days  preceding  the  issue  of  the  process. 

MECHANICS'  LIEN. — Mechanics  and  material  men  have  a  lien  for  labor  done  or 
material  furnished  on  land  and  improvements.  Such  lien  is  subject  to  the  right* 
of  prios:  bonafide  lien  holders.  The  claim  must  be  filed  within  one  year,  and  this* 
gives  a  lien  for  two  years.  Sub-contractors,  laborers  and  persons  furnishing 
materials  to  the  contractors,  may  acquire  a  lien  on  the  payments  due  to  the  orig- 
inal contractor  by  serving  an  attested  account  on  the  owner. 

COLLECTION  OP  DEBTS.— Arrest  in  civil  action  is  unknown  here. 

"Writs  of  attachmont  may  issue  on  the  following  grounds  :  Defendant  being  a 
non-resident  or  a  foreign  corporation,  or  has  departed  from  the  State  with  intent  to 
delay  or  defraud  his  creditors,  or  keeps  himself  concealed  with  like  intent ;  that 
the  debt  was  fraudulently  contracted ;  or  that  defendant  has  assigned, 
secreted  or  disposed  of  his  property  with  intent  to  delay  or  defraud  his 
creditors  ;  or  that  he  is  about  to  do  so.  Attachments  are  levied  on  bulky  articles 
of  personal  property  without  removal,  by  filing  a  copy  of  the  writ  with  the  town 
or  city  cl«rk,  and  on  real  estate  by  recording  the  writ  in  the  office  of  the  register 
of  deeds. 

Assignments  for  the  benefit  of  creditors  are  not  governed  by  statute  and  fol- 
low common  law  rules.  No  filing  or  record  is  necessary. 

Garnishment  may  issue  at  the  time  of  filing  the  complaint,  or  issuing 
Bummons,  or  at  any  time  thereafter.  The  indebtedness  of  the  garnishee,  or  the 
value  of  property  in  his  hands,  as  well  as  the  indebtedness  of  the  defendant, 
must  not  be  less  than  $25,  besides  costs,  to  entitle  the  plaintiff  to  judgment  in  the 
district  court,  and  not  less  than  §10  in  the  justice's  court. 

On  notes  and  bills  grace  is  allowed,  unless  the  contrary  is  expressed,  on 
all  time  paper,  and  on  that  payable  at  sight,  but  not  on  that  payable  on  demandJ 
Liability  of  indorsers  is  fixed  by  protest  and  notice,  same  as  at  common  law. 
Demand  paper  must  be  presented  within  sixty  days  from  its  date  to  charge  the 
indorser.  Acceptances  must  be  in  writing,  and  signed  by  the  acceptor  or 
his  duly  authorized  agent. 

District  Courts  and  Courts  of  Common  Pleas  have  original  jurisdiction  in 
Jill  equitable  actions  where  a  justice  of  the  peace  has  not  jurisdiction,  regardless 
of  amount ;  and  in  all  civil  actions  where  the  amount  exceeds  $100,  and  below 
that  sum,  with  certain  provisions  as  to  costs.  Justices  of  the  peace  have  juris- 
diction of  all  amounts  under  8100  in  civil  actions,  except  cases  involving  title 
to  real  estate,  false  imprisonment,  libel,  slander,  malicious  prosecution,  crim. 
von.,  seduction,  or  promise  to  marry  ;  or  for  an  action  against  an  administrator 
or -executor. 

Judgments  upon  being  docketed  in  the  office  of  the  court  of  record,  become  a 
lien  on  all  real  property  of  the  judgment  debtor  in  the  county  where  docketed, 
for  ten  years.  No  lien  on  personal  property  is  created  by  a  judgment.  Justices' 
judgments  become  liens  when  a  transcript  is  filed  in  the  district  court. 

Executions  issue  from  district  courts  when  demanded,  or  any  time  within  ten 
years  after  judgment  is  rendered.  They  are  returnable  in  district  courts  within 
Bixty  days  ;  personal  property  is  first  levied  upon,  and  is  sold  at  ten  days'  notice  ; 
real  estate  is  sold  on  a  notice  of  six  weeks,  published  in  a  newspaper  of  the 
county,  and  notices  posted  in  three  public  place.«  for  the  same  tisae,  Re 
•old  on  <*xe«utiou  may  be  redeemed  vithiu  one  year 


SPECIAL   LAWS    OF   MISSISSIPPI.  875 

DEEDS,  RIGHTS  OF  MARRIED  WOMEX,  &c.— Deeds  must  be  signed,  sealed  (a 
•crawl  answering  for  a  seal)  and  acknowledged  by  the  grantor,  attested  by  two 
•witnesses,  and  recorded  in  the  county  where  the  lands  are  situated.  Acknowl* 
edgments  in  this  State  may  be  made  before  a  judge  of  the  supreme,  district  ot 
probate  court,  or  a  clerk  of  said  courts,  notary  public,  justice  of  the  peace, 
or  court  commissioner.  Out  of  this  State,  acknowledgments  of  deeds  to  lands  in 
this  State  may  be  made  before  a  judge  of  a  United  States  court,  judges  or  justices 
of  any  State  or  territorial  court  of  record,  clerks  of  any  of  said  courts,  justices  of 
the  peace,  notaries  public,  or  commissioners  appointed  by  the  Governor  of  thi» 
State  for  that  purpose.  Justices  of  the  peace  or  other  officers  not  using  a  seal, 
must  have  their  official  character  certified  to  by  the  clerk  of  a  court  of  record. 
No  separate  acknowledgment  to  a  deed  is  required  by  a  wife,  but  she  must  join  ia 
her  husband's  acknowledgment. 

The  following  form  of  acknowledgment  is  used  indifferently  for  single  persona 
and  for  husband  and  wife  : 
STATE  OF  MINNESOTA,  ) 
COUNTY  OF  . )  ss' 

Be  it  known  that  on  this  day  of  ,  A.  D.  187  ,  personally  appeared 

before  me  ,  to  me  personally  known  to  be  the  same  person 

desc/ibed  in  ,  and  who  executed  the  foregoing  instrument  and  acknowledged 

that  executed  the  same  freely  and  voluntarily,  without  any  fear  or  com- 

pulsion from  any  one,  for  the  uses  and  purposes  therein  expressed. 

Married  women  may  hold  property,  real  or  personal,  in  their  own  name  and 
for  their  own  use,  whether  acquired  before  or  after  marriage.  She  may  make 
contracts,  and  her  property  is  liable  for  her  debts  ;  but  no  conveyance  of  her 
separate  real  estate  is  valid  unless  her  husband  join  therein. 


wb«re  the  mortgagor  resides  and  where  the  property  is  located.    They  cease  to 
l>e  notice  after  two  years  from  the  date  of  tiling. 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  MISSISSIPPI. 

EXEMPTIONS  FROM  FORCED  S  ALE.— Home  worth  9 2,000  and  Personal  Property 
On  debts  contracted  after  Sept.  1, 1870,  only  80  acres  of  land  to  the  head  of  each 
family,  being  a  housekeeper,  to  a  resident  of  any  incorporated  town,  being  the 
head  of  a  family,  and  a  housekeeper,  §2,000  worth  of  real  property,  comprising 
the  proper  homestead.  The  exempt  personality  is,  1.  The  tools  of  a  mechanic 
necessary  for  carrying  on  his  trade.  2.  The  agricultural  implements  of  a  farmer 
necessary  for  two  male  laborers.  3.  The  implements  of  a  laborer.  4.  The  books 
of  a  student  required  for  the  completion  of  his  education.  5.  The  wearing 
apparel  of  every  person.  6.  The  libraries  of  licensed  attorneys-at-law,  practicing 
physicians  and  ministers  of  the  gospel,  not  exceeding  in  value  §250.  7.  The  arms 
and  accoutrements  of  tvery  person  enrolled  in  the  militia  of  the  State.  8.  All 


50  bushels  of  corn,  10  bushels  of  wheat  or  rice,  200  Ibs.  of  meat,  1  cart  or  wagon, 
no;  to  exceed  in  value  $100,  household  and  kitchen  furniture  not  to  exceed  $100 
in  value;  and  $100  of  the  wages  of  laborers  is  exempt  from  garnishment,  in 
the  hands  of  their  employers. 

LIENS — Judgments,  when  enrolled,  are  liens  on  all  property  in  the  county  ? 
Where  rendered  ;  may  be  made  liens  in  any  county  *y  having  abstract  enrolle^' 
there.    Mortgages  and  deeds  in  trust  are  also  hens.    They  must  be  acknow 
-fcdged  and  recorded  in  the  same  manner    as  ordinary  deeds  of    conveyance 
Mechanics  have  a  lien  for  labor  done  and  materials  furnished  in  the  erection  an/ 
repair  of  buildings,  bui  suits  to  enforce  a  mechanic's  lien  must  be  commenced  ii» 
eil  months. 

COLLECTION  OF  DEBTS.— No  person  can  be  arrested  for  debt  in  this  State. 
"Write  of  attachment  may  be  issued  on  one  or  more  of  the  following  grounds : 
1.  That  the  defendant  is  a  foreign  corporation,  or  is  a  non-resident  of  this  State  ; 
or,  2.  That  he  has  removed  or  is  about  to  remove  himself  or  property  out  of  this 
State;  on  3.  That  he  so  absconds  or  conceals  himself  that  he  cannot  be  served 
with  a  summons  ;  or,  4.  That  he  has  property  or  rights  in  actions  which  he  con. 
ce&^s  and  unjustly  refuses  to  apply  to  the  payment  of.  his  debts  :  or,  5.  That  ha 


876  SPECIAL   LAWS    OP   MISSISSIPPI. 

k&s  assigned  or  disposed  of,  or  is  about  to  assign  or  dispose  of  his  property 
or  rights  in  actiom,  or  some  part  thereof,  with  intent  to  defraud  his  creditors,  of 
rive  an  unfair  preference  to  some  of  them  ;  or,  6.  That  he  has  converted  or 
is  about  to  convert  his  property  into  money,  or  evidences  of  debt,  with  intent  to 
place  it  beyond  the  reach  of  his  creditors ;  or,  7.  That  he  has  fraudulently 
contracted  the  debt,  or  incurred  the  obligation  for  which  the  suit  has  been,  or  is 
about  to  be  brought. 

Before  any  writ  of  attachment  shall  issue,  the  creditor,  his  agent  or  attorney. 
fnust  make  an  affidavit  as  to  the  amount  and  character  of  his  debt  or  claim,  and 
tne  existence  of  one  or  more  of  said  grounds  of  attachment,  and  give  bond  in 
double  the  amount  of  the  principal  of  the  claim,  conditioned  to  pay  all  damages 
v.-hicL  the  defendant  may  sustain  by  reason  of  the  wrongful  suing  out  of  the 
attachment. 

Writs  of  garnishment  may  issue  on  suggestion  that  any  party  is  indebted  to  or 
tas  property  of  the  defendant  in  his  hands. 

The  assignment  of  notes,  bills,  accounts,  and  other  legal  or  equitable  demands 
Is  valid,  and  when  the  assignment  is  in  writing,  the  assignee  may  sue  in  his  ow« 
name.  No  particular  form  of  words  is  necessary  to  constitute  :\  valid  assignment. 
The  maker  of  any  bill,  note,  etc.,  may  plead  any  payment,  off -set  or  other  equity 
in  defense  of  the  same  against  the  assignee,  had  or  possessed  by  him  against  the 
assignor  previous  to  notice  of  the  assignment. 

Justices'  courts  have  jurisdiction  up  to  $150  ;  Circuit  courts  over  that  amount. 
Chancery  courts  hare  jurisdiction  in  the  administration  of  estates,  all  probate 
matters  over  minors  and  lunatics,  in  matters  of  dower  and  divorce,  and  the  fore- 
closure of  mortgages,  and  they  have  nearly  all  the  jurisdiction  of  English  chan- 
cery courts. 

Executions  are  required  to  be  issued,  unless  otherwise  ordered  by  the  plaintiff, 
vitliin  20  days  after  the  adjournment  of  the  term  of  court  at  which  the  judgment 
is  rendered.  No  stay  law  for  staying  executions  except  in  justices'  courts,  and 
only  then  upon  giving  bond.  Partita  may,  by  consent,  however,  have  judgment 
entered  up,  with  stay  of  execution  for  any  specified  time. 

Claims  against  deceased  persons  must  be  probated  in  the  office  of  the  clerk  of 
the  chancery  court  haying  charge  of  the  estate,  within  one  year  from  the  date  of 
the  first  notice  to  creditors  to  present  their  claims,  otherwise  they  are  barred.  If 
the  evidence  of  debt  is  a  bond,  note  or  bill,  it  must  be  filed,  with  the  affidavit  of 
the  creditor  attached,  that  no  portion  of  the  money  intended  to  be  secured  by  it 
has  been  received,  and  no  security  or  satisfaction  given  for  the  same  except  the 
amount  credited,  if  any.  If  it  is  an  open  account,  the  affidavit  must  set  out  that 
the  amount  stated  is  just  and  true,  and  that  no  part  of  the  money  stated  to 
t>e  due,  nor  any  security  or  satisfaction  for  the  same  has  been  received  except 
what  is  credited,  if  any.  If  it  is  a  judgment,  a  certified  transcript  must  be  filed, 
Accompanied  with  a  similar  oath. 

The  above  affidavits  may  be  made  by  non-residents  before  a  commissioner  for 
the  State  of  Mississippi,  a  jud^e  or  clerk  of  any  court  of  record,  a  notary  public, 
or  justice  of  the  peace,  with  the  certificate  of  a  judge  or  clerk  of  some  court  of 
record  as  to  his  official  character. 

DCEDS,  EIGHTS  OF  MARRIED  WOMEN,  WILLS,  &c.— Deeds  to  lands  must  b« 
recorded  in  the  office  of  the  chancery  clerk,  in  the  county  where  the  lands  lie. 
Before  being  recorded  they  must  be  acknowledged.    The  acknowledgment,  must 
be  substantially  as  follows  : 
STATE  OF  MISSISSIPPI,  ) 
COUNTY  OF  MARION.    ) 

Personally  appeared  before  the  undersigned  (here  follows  the  name  and  titl* 
of  the  officer),  John  Leslie,  who  acknowledged  that  he  signed,  sealed  mid  deliv-| 
ered  the  foregoing  deed  of  conveyance  as  his  own  act  and  deed,  on  the  day  an<J 
year  and  for  the  purposes  therein  mentioned. 

Given  under  my  hand  this  day  of  ,    A-  D.,  187  . 

(Signature  and  title  of  officer.) 

If  a  married  woman  is  a  party  to  the  deed,  the  following  should  be  added  to  the 
foregoing  form  of  acknowledgment,  immediately  after  the  word  "  mentioned  :  " 
Also  personally  appeared  before  me,  Mary  Leslie,wif  e  of  the  said  John  Leslie,who, 
on  a  private  examination  before  me,  separate  and  apart  from  her  said  husband, 
acknowledged  that  she  signed,  sealed  and  delivered  the  foregoing  deed  of  con- 
veyance, as  h«r  own  voluntary  act  and  deed,  freely,  without  any  fear,  threats  or 
compulsion  of  her  said  husband,  on  the  day  and  year  and  for  the  purpose  thereht 
mentioned.  Given  under  my  hand,  etc.  (as  above). 

The  foregoing  acknowledgments  may  be  taken  before  any  judge  of  th« 
•upreme  court,  or  any  judge  of  the  circuit  court,  any  chancellor,  any  clerk  of  m 


SPECIAL    LAWS    OP    MISSOURI.  877 

»onrt  of  record,  or  any  justice  of  the  peace  or  member  of  the  board  of  jupenrfr 
•ore,  whether  the  land  conveyed  lie  in  or  out  of  his  county. 

If  the  party  conveying  land  in  this  State  is  a  non-resident,  his  acknowledge 
ment  may  be  made  before  any  of  the  judges  of  the  supreme  court  of  the  United 
States,  or  a  judge  of  the  district  court  of  tho  United  States,  or  justice  of  the  su- 
preme court  or  superior  court  of  any  State  or  territory  of  the  Union,  or  any  justice- 
of  the  peace  whose  official  character  shall  be  certified  to  under  the  seal  of  some 
court  of  record  in  his  county,  or  before  any  commissioner  residing  in  such  State 
or  territory  who  may  be  appointed  by  the  Governor  of  this  State  to  take  acknowl- 
edgments and  proof  of  deeds  and  other  conveyances.  Every  deed  must  be  sealed.* 
but  a  mere  scrawl  answers  for  a  seal. 

Property  acquired  by  married  women  either  before  or  after  marriage,  enures- 
with  the  income  solely  to  the  wife's  benefit.  She  may  sell  the  same,  provides" 
tier  husband  joins  in  the  deed  of  conveyance  ;  and  she  may  dispose  of  it  by  last 
will  and  testament.  She  cannot  bind  her  property  for  her  husband's  debts 
beyond  its  income. 

All  contracts  made  by  the  husband  and  wife  or  either  of  them,  for  supplies  for 
the  plantation  of  the  wife,  may  be  enforced  and  satisfaction  had  put  of  her 
separate  estate.  All  contracts  made  by  the  wife,  or  by  the  husband  with  her  con~ 
sent,  for  family  supplies  or  necessaries,  wearing  apparel  of  herself  and  children, 
or  for  their  education,  or  for  materials  used  or  work  done  for  the  benefit  of  her 
separate  estate,  or  for  household  furniture,  are  binding  on  her,  aud  satisfaction, 
may  be  had  out  of  her  separate  estate. 

A  married  woman  may  engage  in  trade  as  &femme  sole.  When  she  does,  she* 
is  bound  as  though  unmarried  for  all  contracts  made  in  the  course  of  her  trade. 
She  is  liable  for  debts  contracted  before  marriage.  The  husband  is  not  liable  for 
ante-nuptial  debts.  All  other  contracts  than  those  enumerated,  made  by  a  mar- 
ried woman,  are  absolutely  void. 

As  to  dower  the  widow  is  entitled  to  one-third  of  all  lands  of  which  her  hug- 
band  died  seized  and  possessed,  or  which  he  had  conveyed  during  his  lifetime- 
otherwise  than  in  good  faith  or  for  a  valuable  consideration,  during  her  life.  If 
there  are  no  children,  she  inherits  all  of  her  husband's  estate. 

The  husba-  id  is  entitled,  in  courtesy,  to  one-half  of  all  his  deceased  wife's 
lands  during  his  life,  dependant,  however,  upon  the  common  law  prerequisites. 

Wills  should  be  in  writing,  subscribed  by  the  testator,  and  attested  by  three, 
credible  witnesses.  If  the  will  is  wholly  written  by  the  testator,  and  subscribe* 
by  him,  it  need  not  be  attested  by  any  witnesses. 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  MISSOURI. 

EXEMPTIONS  FROM  FORCED  SALE.— Homestead  $1500  to  $3000,  and  Persona* 
Property.    Homestead,  if  in  the  country,  not  to  exceed  $1500  in  value,  and  in 
cities  of  over  40,000  inhabitants,  not  to  exceed  §3000  in  ralue.    Personal  prop- 
erty is  exempt  as  follows :  For  heads  of  families,  all  wearing  apparel,  usual 
household  furniture  not  to  exceed  $100  in  value,  provisions  in  the  house  and  the 
usual  tools  of  trade  of  a  mechanic ;  for  farmers,  working  and  other  kind  of 
animals  amounting  in  value  to  about  $300.    Persons  may  claim,  in  place  of  the 
aforesaid  animals,  any  kind  of  property,  real  or  personal.    Women,  being  aban-£* 
doned  by  their  husband?,  and  being  heads  of  families,  may  claim  the  same  eijPf 
emptions  as  the  husbands.    Persons,  other  than  heads  of  families,  are  allowecnjf. 
as  exemptions,  their  wearing  apparel  and  the  necessary  tools  of  a  mechanical 
trade.    The  last  month's  wages,  regardless  of  amount,  are  exempt  from  execu«« 
tion  and  attachment. 

MECHANICS'  LIEN.— Material  men  and  mechanics  have  lien  for  labor  and 
material  on  the  land  and  improvements  to  the  extent  of  their  claims.  The  orig- 
inal contractor  must  file  his  claim  within  six  months,  laborers  within  thirty 
days,  and  all  other  persons  claiming  a  lien  within  rour  months  after  the  debt 
accrued.  This  lien  has  precedence  over  all  other  lie.<s  or  encumbrances  placed 
on  the  property  subsequent  to  the  commencement  of  the  building  or  improve- 
ments. 

COLLECTION  OF  DEBTS.— Arrest  for  debt  is  unknown  here.  Writs  of  attach- 
ment may  be  obtained  on  the  following  grounds  :— Non-residence  ;  being  about 
to  remove  from  the  State  ;  concealment  with  view  to  avoid  service  ;  removal  of 
property  from  St-*te,  or  concealment  of  the  same,  with  a  view  to  hinder  and  de- 
lay creditors ;  wbere  debt  is  contracted  out  of  the  State,  and  debtor  abscond* 


878  SPECIAL   LAWS   OF   MISSOURI. 

from  there  and  secretly  removes  his  property  into  this  State  ;  for  debt  contracted 
fraudulently  or  from  commission  of  felony  ;  or  where  goods  were  bought  and 
payment  is  to  be  made  in  cash  and  the  same  is  not  done  ;  bond  must  be  in  double 
the  debt  claimed,  with  one  or  more  sureties,  who  must  be  resident  householders' 
in  the  county  where  suit  is  brought.  Attachments  should  be  resorted  to  in  this' 
State  with  great  caution,  and  only  where  the  proof  is  strong  and  clear.  Every 
epecies  of  property,  whether  it  be  legal  or  equitable,  is  subject  to  attachment 
and  execution  at  law.  When  attachment  is  levied  on  real  estate,  notice  is  to  be 
£led  at  the  recorder's  office,  and  this  fixes  legal  notice  of  the  encumbrance. 

Assignments,  in  trust  for  the  benefit  of  creditors,  inure  for  the  benefit  of  all 
creditors  of  the  grantor,  whether  named  in  the  deed  of  alignment  or  not;  the 
.deed  of  assignment  must  be  acknowledged  and  recorded  like  other  deeds.  One 
^partner  cannot  assign  all  the  partnership  assets  for  the  payment  of  partnership 
debts,  but  only  his  own  share  of  them.  A  creditor,  if  he  attacks  an  assignment 
as  fraudulent,  and  is  defeated,  cannot  afterwards  claim  the  benefit  of  the  as- 
signment and  be  allowed  to  prove  his  debt  before  the  assignee.  Assignments. 
made  to  secure  sureties  or  endorsers,  prior  to  any  payment  by  them,  are  valid 
here.  Notes,  bills,  accounts  and  every  species  of  contract  or  claim  is  assignable, 
and  the  assignee  can  sue  on  it  in  his  own  name. 

Garnishment  can  be  issued,  either  on  execution  or  attachment,  against  any 
person  owing  the  debtor  or  haying  his  property  in  possession.  The  garnishee  is 
entitled  to  compensation  for  his  trouble  and  expense,  including  attorney's  fees  ; 
this  is  payable  out  of  the  fund,  if  any  is  found  in  his  hands,  or  if  nothing  is  due 
from  the  "garnishee,  then  the  plaintiff  is  bound  to  pay  this  sum. 

Acceptors  of  notes  and  bills  are  chargeable  only  when  their  acceptance  is  in 
writing  on  the  bill  ;  or,  if  on  separate  piece  of  paper,  when  the  party  who  gave 
the  credit  saw  the  separate  paper  ;  or  if  a  promise  is  made  in  writing  to  accept  a 
draft  before  it  is  drawn,  and  the  draft  io  in  the  hands  of  any  person  who  gave 
credit  »n  the  strength  of  this  writing.  , 

Bills  of  exchange  and  notes  drawn  and  negotiated  in  this  State  or  on  any 
person  within  the  State,  expressing  on  their  face  for  "  value  received,"  and  duly 
protested  for  non-payment  or  non-acceptance,  entitle  the  holder  to  recover  dam- 
ages as  follows  .  If  drawn  on  a  person  residing  in  this  State,  four  per  cent.  ;  if 
outside  the  State,  ten  per  cent.  ;  if  outside  any  of  the  United  States  or  territo- 
ries, twenty  per  cent,  damages  on  the  principal  sum.  These  damages  are  not 
recoverable  if  the  bill  is  drawn  by  and  on  a  person  residing  in  this  State,  and 


, 

orders  or  bills  of  exchange,  payable  at  sight  or  on  demand,  are  deemed  due  the 
day  they  are  presented  for  payment,  and  if  unpaid,  may  be  protested.  Notarial 
protest  is  evidence  of  demand  and  r^usal  of  payment,  at  the  time  and  in  the 
manner  stated  in  the  protest. 

Sheriffs  are  liable,  for  failure  to  pay  over  money,  to  pay  five  par  cent,  dam- 
ages per  month  from  the  time  demand  is  made  of  them,  in  addition  to  legal  in- 
terest. They  are  also  liable  for  the  full  value  of  property  in  replevin  or  attach- 
ment suits,  when  they  have  taken  insufficient  bond. 

The  jurisdiction  of  justices'  courts,  in  counties  having  over  50,000  inhabitant*, 
on  bonds  and  notes  for  the  payment  of  money  up  to  $300,  on  other  contracts  up 
to  §200,  on  actions  for  torts  up  to  $100.  In  counties  having  under  50,000  inhab- 
itants, on  notes  and  bonds  for  payment  of  money  up  to  $150,  on  other  contract* 
1  lip  to  $90,  and  in  torts  up  to  $50.  In  actions  for  recovery  of  specific  personal 
property,  up  to  $200,  in  the  former,  and  up  to  §100  in  the  latter  class  of  counties. 
All  these  amounts  are  exclusive  of  interest.  Circuit  courts  have  concurrent 
jurisdiction  with  justices'  courts  as  follows,  in  counties  irrespective  of  popula- 
tion :  On  written  or  verbal  contracts,  in  sums  over  $50,  and  in  the  former  class* 
oi  counties  for  torts,  in  sums  over  $25,  and  for  recovery  of  specific  personal  prop- 
erty up  to  $200  ;  in  the  latter  class  of  counties  for  torts,  in  sums  over  $25,  and 
for  recovery  of  personal  property  in  sums  not  exceeding  $100. 

Service  of  summons  must  be  made  in  circuit  courts  15  days  before  return  day,' 
and  all  actions  are  triable,  in  counties  having  over  40,000  inhabitants,  at  the  re- 
turn term  ;  in  other  counties,  actions  on  notes  and  bonds  are  triable  at  the  re- 
turn term,  and  other  actions  at  the  next  term. 

Before  justices,  service  must  be  made  15  days  before  trial,  in  cases  where  they 
have  concurrent  jurisdiction  with  circuit  courts  ;  in  other  cases  6  days  is  suffi- 
cient ;  but  in  St.  Louis  county  15  days  is  required  in  all  cases. 

Judgments,  in  courts  of  record  are  a  lien  from  their  rendition,  and  for  three 
years  thereafter,  ou  all  real  estate  owned  by  the  defendant,  or  subsequently  ao 


SPECIAL   LAWS    OP   MISSOURI.  879 

quired  b?  V*i,  and  situated  in  the  county  where  the  judgment  is  rendered.  Th« 
judgment  oa;i  be  revived  so  that  the  lien  can  be  kept  up  for  ten  years  after  it* 
rendition.  No  execution  can  issue  on  a  judgment  in  a  court  of  record  older  thau 
ten  years,  new  suit  has  to  be  brought  on  the  same.  Judgments  in  courts  of  rec- 
ord create  no  lien  on  personal  property.  If  o  execution  can  issue  on  a  justice's 
judgment  three  years  afte./  its  rendition,  without  revivor.  Judgments  before 
justice  can  be  made  to  create  lien  on  real  estate  by  lilir.g  a  transcript  of  the 
judgment  in  the  circuit  court. 

Execution  issues  the  day  judgment  is  rendered,  and  are  a  lien  on  personal,. 
property,  when  issuing  out  of  a  justice's  court  from  the  time  they  are  delivered! 
to  the  officer ;  when  issuing  from  courts  of  record,  only  from  the  time  they  aroj 
actually  levied.  Executions  from  a  justice  cannot  be  levied  on  real  estate. 
Every  species  of  property,  real  or  personal,  books  of  account,  debts  and  judg-', 
ments,  whether  the  interest  in  real  estate  be  a  legal  or  equitable  title,  is  subject 
to  execution  and  sale  at  law.  Redemption,  after  execution  sale,  is  unknown 
here.  If  an  execution  from  a  court  of  record  is  returned  unsatisfied,  the  debtors 
can  be  summoned  and  required  to  state  under  oath  what  property  or  interests 
they  have  or  own,  which  may  be  reached  by  execution. 

DEEDS,  RIGHTS  OF  MARRIED  WOMEN,  WILLS,  &c. — Deeds  must  be  under 
-seal,  a  scrawl  is  regarded  as  a  seal.  The  acknowledgment,  if  made  in  this  State, 
may  be  made  before  a  justice  of  the  peace  of  the  county  where  the  land  lies,  be- 
fore a  court  or  judge,  the  court  having  a  seal,  or  before  a  notary  public ;  if  out  of 
this  State,  before  a  commissioner  of  this  State,  notary  public,  or  before  a  court 
or  judge  or  clerk  of  a  court  having  a  seal,  or  before  the  chief  officer  or  mayor  of 
a  town  or  city  who  has  a  seal,  or  before  a  consul  or  minister  of  the  United  States 
•who  has  a  seal.  The  seal  must  be  attached,  and  the  deed  recorded  in  th« 
*ounty  wkere  the  land  lies. 

The  following  is  the  form  of  certiHcate  where  the  grantor  is  unmarried  : 

[Form  of  Acknowledgment.] 
STATE  OF  MISSOURI,  ) 
COUNTY  OF  PIKE.      J    s 

Be  it  remembered,  that  on  this  day  of  ,  A.  D.  18  ,  before  tho 

undersigned,  a  ,  within  and  for  the  county  of  ,  and  State  of 

Missouri,  personally  came  ,  who  are  personally  known  to  me  to  be  the 

same  persons  whose  names  are  subscribed  to  the  foregoing  and  annexed  instru- 
ment of  writing  as  parties  thereto,  and  acknowledged  the  same  to  be  their  act 
and  deed  for  the  purposes  therein  mentioned. 

In  testimony  whereof,  I  have  hereunto  sat  my  hand,  and  affixed  my  official 
seal,  at  my  office  in  ,  the  day  and  year  first  above  written. 

[L.  S.]  (Signature  and  title.) 

The  following  is  the  form  where  husband  and  wife  join  in  the  deeds,  the  latter 
releasing  dower.  Husband  and  wife  always  mast  join  in  deeds,  whether  her  or 
his  real  estate  are  to  be  conveyed  : 

[Form  of  Acknowledgment.] 
STATE  OF  MISSOURI,  | 
COUNTY  OF  PIKE.       j 

Be  it  remembered,  that  on  this  day  of  ,  A.  D.  18    ,  before  the 

*  undersigned,  a  ,  within  and  for  the  county  of  ,  and  State  of 

Missouri,  personally  came  ,  who  are  personally  known  to  me  to  be  the 

same  persons  whose  names  are  subscribed  to  the  foregoing  and  annexed  instru- 
ment of  writing  as  parties  thereto,  and  acknowledged  the  same  to  be  their  act 
and  de^cl  for  the  purposes  therein  mentioned.  And  the  said  ,  being  by 

me  first  made  acquainted  with  the  contents  of  said  instrument,  upon  an  examin- 
ation separate  and  apart  from  husband  ,  acknowledged  that  ex- 
ecuted the  same,  and  relinquishes  dower  in  the  real  estate  therein  men- 
tioned, freely  and  without  fear,  compulsion  or  undue  influence  of  said 
Jmsbancl. 

In  testimony  whereof,  I  have  hereunto  set  my  hand,  and  affixed  my  official 
seal,  at  my  office  in  the  day  and  year  first  above  written. 

[SEAL.]  (Signature  and  title.) 

Married  women  can  hold  real  or  personal  property  to  their  separate  use. 
through  a  trustee.  A  note  or  endorsement  made  by  a  married  woman  will  bind 
her  separate  estate  ;  it  will  not,  however,  bind  her  general  estate,  and  will  be  a 
nullity  unless  she  has  a  separate  estate  to  be  bound  by  the  paper.  If,  however, 
her  note  is  for  purchase  money  of  property,  then  it  will  bind  even  her 


880         SPECIAL    LAWS    OF    MONTANA     AND    NEBRASKA* 

The  wife's  separate  property,  whether  acquired  before  or  previous  to 
riage,  is  not  liable  for  her  husband's  debts.  The  wife  is  endowed  of  one-third  ot 
all  the  lands  of  which  her  husband,  or  any  one  to  his  use,  was  seized  of  an  estate 
of  inheritance,  at  any  time  during  the  marriage  •  also,  of  leasehold  estate  for 
Khe  term  of  20  years  or  more. 

A  chattel  mortgage  of  perishable  articles,  which  are  left  in  the  hands  of  the 
grantor,  with  right  to  use  the  same,  is  void  ;  so  is  mortgage  of  stock  of  goods, 
the  grantor  having  right  to  sell ;  so  is  any  mortgage,  if  unregistered  and  the 
chattel  left  with  the  grantor  ;  so  is  also  a  registered  mortgage,  if  the  goods  ara 
•left  unreasonably  long  with  grantor,  after  default  is  made  in  payment. 
•  Wills  must  be  in  writing,  signed  by  the  testator,  or  by  some  person  in  hii  IP- 
presence,  and  at  his  request,  and  attested  by  two  competent  witnesses,  whc 
shall  subscribe  their  names  as  witnesses  in  the  presence  of  the  testator.  Wills 
must  be  recorded  30  days  after  probate  :  if  lands  in  different  counties  are  devised 
a,  copy  of  the  will  will  be  recorded  in  the  recorder's  office  in  each  county,  -within 
six  months  after  probate. 

SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  MONTANA. 

EXEMPTIONS  FROM  FORCED  SALE.— Home  worth  $2500,  and  Personal  Prop* 
trty.  A  homestead  not  exceeding  in  value  $2500 ;  in  a  city  or  village  not  to 
exceed  one  quarter  acre,  or  farm  land  not  exceeding  80  acres,  the  debtor  taking  his 
choice  selecting  either,  with  all  improvements  thereon  in  eluded  in  the  valuation. 
The  lien  of  a  mechanic,  laborer,  or  mortgage  lawfully  obtained  upon  the  same  is 
not  affected  by  such  exemption.  In  addition  to  the  homestead,  personal  property 
to  the  value  of  $1400,  and  more,  according  to  value  of  articles  enumerated  by 
statute,  is  allowed  to  the  householder  occupying  the  same. 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  NEBRASKA. 

EXEMPTIONS  FROM  FORCED  SALE.— Home  worth  $500,  and  Personal  Prop- 
erty- A  homestead  containing  any  quantity  of  land  not  exceeding  160  acres,  and 
the  dwelling  house  thereon,  and  its  appurtenances,  to  be  selected  by  the  owner 
thereof,  and  not  included  in  any  incorporated  city  or  village  ;  or  instead  thereof, 
at  the  option  of  the  owner,  a  quantity  of  contiguous  land,  not  exceeding  two  lot? 
in  any  incorporated  town,  city,  or  village,  and  according  to  the  recorded  plat  of 
said  incorporated  town,  city,  or  village  ;  or,  in  lieu  of  the  above,  a  lot  or  parcel 
ct  contiguous  land,  not  exceeding  20  acres,  being  within  the  limits  of  an  incor- 
porated town,  city,  or  village,  the  said  parcel  or  lot  of  land  not  being  laid  off  into 
streets,  blocks,  and  lots,  owned  and  occupied  by  any  resident  of  the  State,  behig 
the  head  of  a  family,  shall  not  be  subject  to  attachment,  levy  or  sale  upon  ex» 
i  ecution,  or  other  process  issuing  out  of  any  court  in  this  State,  so  long  as  the. 
same  shall  be  occupied  by  the  debtor  as  a  homestead.  All  heads  of  families, 
who  have  neither  lands,  town  lots,  nor  houses  entitled  to  exemption  as  a  home- 
stead, under  the  laws  of  this  State,  shall  have  exemption  from  forced  sale  on 
execution  the  sura  of  $500  personal  property. 

MECHANICS'  LIEN. — Any  person  who  shall  have  performed  any  labor,  or 
^furnished  any  material  or  machinery  for  the  erection,  reparation  or  removal  of 
'any  house  or  other  building  or  purtenances,  by  virtue  of  a  contract,  expressed  or 
implied,  with  the  owner  thereof,  or  his  agent,  shall  have  a  lien  thereon  to  secure 
the  payment  for  such  labor  performed  or  materials  furnished.  Said  lien  shall  ba 
obtained  by  filing,  in  the  office  of  the  county  clerk  for  record,  an  account,  in 
writing,  of  the  items,  and  making  oath  thereto,  within  four  months  after  furnish- 
ing such  materials,  or  work  and  labor.  The  lien  shall  operate  from  the  date  of 
the  first  item  till  two  years  from  the  date  of  the  last  item. 

COLLECTION  OF  DEBTS. — An  order  for  the  arrest  of  the  defendant  may  be  ob-. 
tained  on  affidavit  by  the  plaintiff,  his  agent,  or  attorney,  that  the  claim  is  just, 
and  that  one  or  more  of  the  following  particulars  are  true  :  that  the  defendant 
fcas  begun  to  remove  any  part  of  his  property  c/ut  of  the  jurisdiction  of  the  court 
with  Intent  to  defraud  ;  that  he  has  begun  to  convert  the  same  into  money  to 
place  't  beyond  the  reach  of  his  creditors  ;  that  he  has  property  of  rights  of  action 
which  he  fraudulently  conceals  ;  that  he  has  assigned,  removed  or  disposed  of 
hie  property  or  any  part  thereof  with  intent  to  defraud ;  that  he  has  fraudulently 
contracted  the  debt  or  in«v»red  the  obligation  on  which  the  action  ia  based.  Tlio 


SPECIAL    LAWS    OP    NEBRASKA.  881 

jufidavit  must  further  contain  a  statement  of  the  facts  claimed  to  justify  a  belief 
in  one  or  more  of  the  above  particulars.  A  bond  must  be  executed  like  that  in 
cases  of  attachment. 

The  plaintiff  in  a  civil  action  may  obtain  a  writ  of  attachment  against  all  tha 
lands,  tenements,  goods,  chattels,  stocks,  or  interest  in  stocks,  rights,  credits, 
moneys  and  effects  of  the  defendant  in  his  county,  not  exempt  by  law,  upon  the 
following  grounds,  in  addition  to  those  enumerated  in  the  last  above  section  : 
•when  the  defendant,  or  one  of  several,  is  a  non-resident  or  foreign  corporation  : 
when  he  absconds  with  intent  to  defraud  ;  when  he  has  left  the  county  to  avoid 
/service,  or  so  conceals  himself  that  summons  cannot  be  served  upon  him.  When 
the  ground  of  attachmeiitis  that  the  defendant  is  a  non-resident  or  foreign  cor- 
poration, the  claim  must  be  a  debt  or  demand  arising  on  contract,  jud  ;ment  or 
decree.  A  bond,  in  not  more  than  double  the  amount  claimed,  with  one  or  more  i 
sureties  to  be  approved  by  the  clerk,  is  required,  except  when  the  defendant  is  &  *• 
non-resident  or  foreign  corporation. 

In  cases  of  attachment,  "  when  the  plaintiff,  his  agent  or  attorney,  shall  mak«* 
oath  in  writing  that  he  has  good  reason  to,  and  does  believe,  that  any  person  or 
corporation,  to  be  named  and  within  the  county  where  the  action  is  brought,  has 
property  of  the  defendant  (describing  the  eame)  in  his  possession,"  the  said  prop- 
erty, whether  debts,  choses  inaction,  chattels  or  other  property,  may  be  garnished 
and  held  the  same  SM  property  otherwise  attached.  In  all  cases  where  an  execu- 
tion shall  be  returned  unsatisfied,  and  the  judgment  creditor,  his  agent  or  at- 
torney, shall  file  an  affidavit,  that  any  person  or  corporation  (naming  the  same) 
has  property  of,  and  are  indebted  to  the  judgment  debtor,  such  person  or  corpo- 
ration may  be  summoned  as  garnishee. 

All  bonds,  promissory  notes,  bills  of  exchange,  foreign  and  inland,  drawn  for 
any  sum  or  sums  of  money,  certain  and  made  payable  to  any  person  or  order,  or 
assigns,  shall  be  negotiable  by  endorsement ;  made  payable  to  bearer,  shall  be 
transferable  by  delivery  without  endorsement.  All  such  negotiable  paper  shall 
be  entitled  to  three  days'  grace.  January  1st,  February  22d,  July  4th,  December 


after  is  when  the  act  is  to  be  performed.  "When  any  bill  of  exchange  shall  be 
drawn  for  the  payment  of  any  such  sum  of  money,  and  such  bill  shall  be  legally 
protested  for  non-acceptance  or  non-payment,  the  drawer  or  drawers,  endorser  or 
endorsers,  shall  be  subject  to  payment  of  twelve  per  cent,  damages  thereon,  if 
drawn  on  any  person  or  persons,  or  body-corporate,  without  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
United  States,  and  six  per  cent,  damages  thereon  if  drawn  upon  persons,  or  body- 
corporate  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the  United  States,  and  without  the  jurisdic- 
tion vf  this  State. 

The  supreme  court  has  appellate  jurisdiction  only  except  in  cases  relating  to 
revenue,  mandamus:,  quo  warranto,  habeas  corpus,  and  such  cases  of  impeachment 
as  may  be  required  to  be  tried  before  it ;  and  both  the  supreme  and  district  courts 
shall  have  both  chancery  and  common  law  jurisdiction.  The  district,  court  has 
original  and  exclusive  jurisdiction  over  all  matters  and  suits  at  law  and  in 
chancery  arising  in  each  county  in  their  respective  districts,  except  when  justice* 
of  the  peace  have  jurisdiction,  and  concurrent  jurisdiction  with  said  justices  of 
the  peace,  in  cases  where  the  cause  of  action  exceeds  fifty  dollars,  and  not  exceed- 
ing one  hundred  dollars,  and  has  jurisdiction  in  all  cases  of  appeals  from  a 
justice  of  the  peace  or  judgj  of  probate.  Justices  of  the  peace  have  jurisdic- 
tion co-extensive  with  their  counties,  and  extends  to  all  cases  wherein  the  sum 
involved  does  not  exceed  §100.  When  action  is  rightly  brought  in  any  county, 
a  summons  may  issue  to  any  other  county,  and,  unless  otherwise  provided  for 
shall  be  returnable  on  second  Monday  from  its  date,  but  when  issued  to  anothex 
county,  it  may  be  made  returnable,  at  the  option  of  the  party  having  it  issued,  on 
the  third  or  fourth  Monday  after  its  date.  Personal  service  before  justices  of 
the  peace,  three  dnys  before  trial ;  constructive  service  may  also  be  made  in 
certain  cases  by  publication. 

Judgments  in  district  court,  are  liens  upon  the  lands  of  the  judgment  debtor, 
situated  in  the  same  county,  from  the  first  day  of  the  term  at  which  judgment  is 
rendered  ;  but  judgments  by  confession,  and  those  rendered  at  the  same  term  in 
which  the  action  is  commenced,  are  liens  only  from  the  day  on  which  such  judg- 
ments are  rendered.  To  create  a  judgment  lien  in  other  counties,  a  transcript, 
must  be  Sled  :>r  Levy  made. 

Judgments  in  probate  and  justices'  courts,  operate  as  a  lien  upon  the  realty  *.€ 
the  debtor  when  a  transcript  thereof  is  filed  and  docketed  in  the  office 
elerk  of  the  district  court.  ...  „ 


$82  SPECIAL   LAWS   OP   KSBBASKA. 

Lands,  tenements,  goods  and  chattels,  not  exempt  by  law,  ar«  subject 
Executions,  unless  stayed,  issue  at  any'  timo  after  judgment  on  order  therefor. 
May  issue  to  any  county  in  the  State,  and  simultaneously  to  any  other  counties  ; 
must  first  exhaust  goods  and  chattels,  and  afterwards  realty.  Are  no't  liens  on 
personalty  or  realty  in  counties  other  than  the  one  in  which  judgment  is  obtain, 
ed,  until  levy  has  been  made  or  transcript  filed.  No  redemption  of  property  sold  ' 
on  execution  or  order  of  sale  on  foreclosure  of  mortgage  ;  title  becomes  absolute 
on  confirmation  of  sale.  Judgments  become  dormant  and  cease  to  be  a  lien  on 
debtors'  property  if  execution  is  not  issued  within  five  years  from  rendition  of 
judgment,  or  if  live  years  intervene  between  the  issuing  of  two  executions. 
Judgments  cease  to  operate  as  a  lien  on  the  debtor's  estate  to  the  prejudice  of  any 
subsequent  bonajida  judgment  creditors,  unless  execution  is  issued  within  one 
year  from  date  of  t-aid  judgment  ;  but  when  the  issuing  of  an  execution  is  pre- 
vented by  stay,  appeal,  proceedings  in  error,  etc.,  such  year  does  not  begin  to 
run  until  after  the  removal  of  said  disability.  If  an  execution  be  returned 
tinsatisfied,  the  debtor  can  be  summoned,  and  be  required  to  state  under  oath 
trhafc  property  or  interests  he  has  or  owns,  which  may  be  reached  by  execution. 

Chattel  mortgages  are  valid  against  bonafide  purchasers  and  creditors,  if  the 
.instrument  shall  be  tiled  and  recorded  in  the  office  of  the  county  clerk  ;  but  cease 
to  be  valid  against  creditors,  purchasers  and  subsequent  mortgagee^ in  good  faith 
.after  the  expiration  of  one  year  from  the  filing  thereof,  unless  within  thirty  daya 
^next  preceding  the  termination  of  said  year  a  true  copy  of  the  mortgage,  together 
with  a  statement  exhibiting  the  interest  of  the  mortgagee  in  the  mortgaged  prop- 
erty, shall  again  b3  filed  and  recorded.  Sale  or  mortgage  of  chattels,  unless  ac- 
companied by  immediate,  actual  delivery  and  continued  change  of  possession, 
are  prima  facie  fraudulent  and  void  as  against  creditors  and  subsequent  bona 
fide  purchasers,  unless  the  instrument  has  been  duly  filed  and  recorded  in  the 
iofilce  of  the  county  clerk. 

DEEDS,  EIGHTS  OF  MAKRIED  WOMEN,  &c.— All  deeds  affecting  the  title  to 
real  property,  or  any  interest  therein,  in  this  State,  except  leases  for  one  year  oc 
for  a  less  time,  must  be  signed  by  tho  grantor,  of  lawful  age,  in  the  presence  of  at 
least  one  competent  witness,  wrho  shall  subscribe  his  name  as  a  witness  thereto, 
and  bo  duly  acknowledged  or  proved  and  recorded.  Acknowledgments  or  proofs 
mny  be  taken  in  the  State,  before  a  judge  or  clerk  of  ar.y  court,  justice  of  the 
peace,  or  notary  public  ;  no  officer  can  take  any  such  acknowledgment  or  proof 
out  of  his  State  jurisdiction. 

The  certificate  of  acknowledgment  must  be  indorsed  on  the  instrument,  and 
show  that  the  grantor  acknowledged  the  same  to  be  his  voluntary  act  and  deed, 
and  that  the  officer  before  whom  the  same  was  taken  knew  him  to  be  the  ident- 
ical person  whose  name  was  affixed  as  grantor,  or  had  satisfactory  evidence  of  the 
fact.  If,  after  the  instrument  is  executed  but  not  acknowledged,  the  grantor  die, 
or  if,  from  any  cause,  his  attendance  cannot  be  procured  in  order  to  make  the 
rsame,  or,  having  appeared,  ho  refuses  to  acknowledge  it,  proof  of  the  execution 
and  delivery  of  tlie  deed  may  be  made  by  any  competent  subscribing  witness 
thereto,  before  ar.y  officer  authorized  to  take  the  acknowledgment ;  suchwitneea 
must  b  3  personally  known  to  the  officer,  or  such  officer  must  have  satisfactory 

•  evidence  that  the  witness  is  the  person  who  subscribed  the  instrument  as  a  wit- 
•iie:;3.    If  all  the  subscribing  witnesses  are  dead,  or  out  of  the  State,  the  execution. 

•  of  the  deed  may  be  proved  oy  proving  the  handwriting  of  the  grantor  and  of  any 
subscribing  witness  thereto.    All  deeds,  duly  executed  and  acknowledged,  must 
t>2  recorded  i:i  the  office  of  the  clerk  of  the  county  in  which  the  land  lies  ;  in  case  ( 
the  land  is  situated  in  an  unorganized  district,  the  deed  is  to  be  recorded  in  the  i 
office  of  the  clerk  of  that  county  to  which  said  district  is  attached  for  judicial^ 
p-.irposes.    All  deeds,  mortgages  and  other  written  instruments  take  effect,  and 
are  in  force  as  to  third  parties,  from  and  after  the  time  they  are  delivered  to  the ; 

•clerk  for  record.  No  separate  examination  is  required  in  taking  a  wife's  ac-\ 
knowled-jment :  to  convey  her  right  of  dower  she  must  execute  a  deed  with  or? 
without  her  husband.  All  deeds  should  have  at  least  one  subscribing  witness J 
Private  seals  are  abolished,  not  even  scrawls  are  required. 

[Form,  of  Certificate  of  Acknowledgment  of  Husband  an4  Wife-1 
STATE  OF  ,i   ' 

COITXTY  OF  .  |  9S' 

On  this  day  of  ,  A.  D.  187      ,  before  me  (here  insect  name 

*nd  title  of  officer),  duly  appointed,  commissioned  (or  elected)  and  qualified  for, 
and  residing  in  said  county,  personally  appeared  and  , 

his  -wif e,  to  me  personally  known  (or  by  the  oaths  of  one  or  more  witnesses 
whose  names  are  hereto  subscribed,  satisfactorily  proved)  to  be  the  identical 
persons  described  in,  and  trhose  names  are  affixed  to,  the  foregoing  instrument 


SPECIAL   LAWS    OF   NEVADA. 

••  grantor*,  and  they  severally  acknowledged  the  same  to  be  their  voluntary  act 
and  deed. 

In  testimony  whereof,  I  have  hereunto  set  my  hand  and  official  seal,  at  , 

In  said  county,  the  day  and  year  last  above  written. 

[SEAL.]  (Signature  and  title.) 

The  property,  real  and  personal,  which  any  woman  in  this  State  may  own  at 
the  time  of  her  marriage,  the  rents,  issues,  profits  or  proceeds  thereof,  and  any 

Ci,  personal  or  mixed  property  which  shall  come  to  her  by  descent,  devise  01 
^uest,  or  the  gift  of  any  person  except  her  husband,  shall  remain  her  sole  and 
BO^arate  property,  and  not  be  subject  to  the  disposal  of  her  husband,  or  liable 
for  his  debts.  She  may  bargain,  sell  and  convey  her  real  and  personal  property, 
^T-'  enter  into  any  contract  in  reference  thereto,  in  the  same  manner,  to  the 
.Ame  extent,  and  with  like  effect  as  a  married  man.  She  may  sue  and  be  sued 
as  if  unmarried,  and  carry  on  trade  or  business  on  her  separate  account.  Her 
earnings  are  her  sole  property.  If  married  out  of  the  State,  she  may  here  enjoy 
all  rights  to  property  there  acquired. 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  NEVADA. 

EXEMPTIONS  FROM  FOKCED  SALE.— A  Homestead  worth  $5000,  and  Personal 
Property.  A  homestead  owned  by  a  head  of  the  family,  worth  $5000,  >nd  the 
following  personal  property  :  household  furniture  to  the  value  of  $100  ;  provis- 
ions and  fire-wood  for  one  month ;  farming  utensils  of  a  farmer  not  exceeding  in  - 
value  $200  ;  two  horses,  two  oxen  or  two  mules,  and  two  cows,  one  cart  or  wagon, 
mechanics'  tools  ;  a  miner's  dwelling,  in  value  $500,  and  his  mining  tools  ;  a 
library  of  a  dentist,  physician,  lawyer  or  surgeon  ;  one  sewing  machine  worth 
$150.  A  mortgage  or  other  security  on  the  homestead  is  void,  unless  for  purchase 
money  or  mechanics'  lien. 

MECHANICS'  LIEN.— Persons  who  perform  labor  or  furnish  materials  for  the 
erection  or  improvement  of  any  building  has  a  lien  on  the  same  for  such  work 
and  materials  for  all  amounts  over  $25.  And  so  have  all  laborers  on  all  work 
done  by  them  on  any  railroad,  toll-road,  canal,  water-ditch,  mine  or  mining-shaft, 
or  tunnel,  or  building  lot  in  a  city  or  town  ;  provided,  the  original  contractor 
shall  file  his  lien  in  sixty  days,  and  the  sub-contractor  or  laborer  in  thirty  day3 
after  the  work  is  completed,  and  s\iit  commenced  in  six  months. 


leased  on  bail, 
nev, 

from  the  State,  or  where  the  debt  was*  contracted  in  some*  fiduciary  capacity,  or 
where  the  action  is  for  libel  or  slander,  or  where  the  debtor  is  concealing  his  prop- 
erty to  defraud  his  creditors. 

Writ  of  attachment  may  issue  against  any  property,  whether  real  or  persona), 
of  the  debtor  may  be  attached  upon  the  plaintiff  entering  into  a  bond,  as  required 
by  the  statute,  not  to  be  less  than  $200  in  gold  coin,  with  sufficient  sureties,  and 
making  an  affidavit  that  the  debt  claimed  is  an  actual  bonafide  debt  due  to  plain- 
tiff from  the  defendant ;  that  the  attachment  is  not  asked  to  hinder,  delay  cr  de- 
fraud the  defendant  or  his  creditors  ;  that  the  action  brought  is  on  a  contract ' 
for  the  direct  payment  of  money,  and  which  is  not  secured  by  a  mortgage  or 
other  lien,  or  upon  a  contract  executed  by  a  party  not  in  this  State.  And  the 
i  property  so  attached  will  be  held  to  abide  the  judgment  the  plaintiff  may  recover. 

A  debtor  may  prefer  one  or  more  of  his  creditors,  by  assigning  his  property  for 
their  benefit ;  provided,  the  assignment  is  bonafide,  and  bankruptcy  does  not  in- 
tervene. 

Notes  and  bills  for  the  payment  of  money  are  negotiable  like  bills  of  exchange. 
Acceptance  must  be  in  writing,  on  the  bill  or  011  separate  paper  ;  it  shall  noi 
bind  the  acceptor,  except  in  favor  of  the  person  to  whom  such  acceptance  was 
«hown,  and  who  gave  value  for  the  same  on  the  strength  of  the  acceptance. 
Bates  of  damages  for  non-payment  or  non-acceptance  are  as  follows  :  On  bills 
drawn  on  persons  in  the  United  States,  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  $15  on  tha 
$100  ;  if  drawn  on  Europe  or  other  foreign  country,  §20  on  the  $100  ;  these  dama- 
ges are  in  lieu  of  protest  fees.  Paper  maturing  on  any  legal  holiday  must  be  pro- 
tested the  day  previous.  Legal  holidays  are  :  Sundays,  January  1st.  February 
22d,  July  4th,  Christmas  and  Thanksgiving  Days.  Sight  bills  or  drafts  are  not 
entitled  to  grace. 

The  jurisdiction  of  justices'  courts  extends  to  $300,  except  when  suits  concern 
Land  or  mining  claims.  District  courts  have  general  jurisdiction -of  all  matter*, 


884  SPECIAL   LAWS    OF   NEW    HAMPSHliud. 

either  of  » legal  or  equitable  nature,  wher>  the  amount  exceeds  $300,  and  app«llai* 
jurisdiction  in  all  cases  which  originates  before  a  justice  of  the  peace.  The 
supreme  has  appellate  jurisdiction  from  district  courts. 

Judgments  from  courts  of  record,  are  liens  on  the  debtor's  lands  in  th« 
county  where  obtained,  and  upon  his  land  in  any  other  county  where  transcript 
of  same  is  tiled  ;  and  judgments  before  justice  of  the  peace  become  liens  on  th» 
debtor's  land,  where  a  transcript  of  the  same  is  filed  with  the  clerk  of  tno  district 
court  of  the  county. 

Execution  may  be  stayed  by  the  court  in  which  the  judgment  was  obtained  a ' 
reasonable  time  ;  and,  unless  same  is  thus  stayed,  it  can  issue  at  any  tinio  withia  } 
the  limitation,  five  years,  and  may  be  levied  on  any  of  the  property  of  the  de- 
fendant not  exempt  by  law.  It  is  not  a  lien  on  personalty  until  an  actual  levyJ 
As  the  judgment  is  a  lien  on  the  debtor's  land,  it  can  be  enforced  by  the  execu-J 
lion.  < 

DEEDS,  HIGHTS  OF  MARRIED  WOMEN,  &c. — Deeds  must  be  in  writing,  a  scra\\  1 
will  answer  for  a  seal.  Witnesses  are  not  necessary  to  its  validity. 

If  proven  or  acknowledged  in  this  State,  it  must  bo  before  a  judge,  or  clerk  of 
a  court  having  a  seal,  a  notary  public,  or  a  justice  of  the  peace.  If  without  the 
State,  before  any  judge,  clerk  of  a  court  having  a  seal,  notary  public  or  justice  of 
the  peace,  or  a  commissioner  of  this  State.  It  before  a  justice  of  the  peace,  it 
must  be  accompanied  by  a  certificate  of  the  clerk  of  a  court  of  record,  certifying 
to  the  official  capacity  and  signature  of  the  justice.  If  taken  without  the  United 
States,  before  some  judge  or  clerk  of  a  court  of  a  State,  Kingdom  or  Empire  hav- 
ing a  seal,  a  notary  public,  or  by  a  minister,  commissioner  or  consul  of  the  United 
States.  If  the  grantor  does  not  acknowledge  the  execution  of  the  deed,  the  wit- 
ness may  prove  his  signature  ;  but  if  the  witnesses  are  dead,  or  cannot  be  had, 
proof  by  competent  parties,  under  oath,  of  the  signature  of  the  grantor  and  at 
least  one  witness. 

The  wife  must  join  the  husband  in  the  execution  of  a  deed,  and  this  form  can 
be  used  for  the  certificate  of  acknowledgment  by  husband  and  wife,  or  without  a 
vife,  and  can  be  changed  to  suit  the  circumstances  : 
C»TATE  OF  NEW  YORK,  \ 
COUNTY  OF  ORANGE.    J  s 

Be  it  remembered,  that  on  this  day  of  ,  A.  D.  187    ,  person. 

ally  appeared  before  me,  J.  Gordon,  a  notary  public  in  and  for  said  county  and 
State,  duly  appointed  and  qualified  to  take  acknowledgments  of  deeds,  etc.,  A.  B. 
and  C.  D.,  his  wife,  whose  names  are  subscribed  to  the  conveyed  instrument  a» 
parties  thereto,  personally  known  to  me  to  be  the  individuals  described  in  and 
who  executed  the  said  annexed  instrument  as  parties  thereto,  who  each  acknowl- 
edged to  me  that  they  each  of  them  respectively  executed  the  same,  freely,  vol- 
untarily and  for  the  uses  and  purposes  therein  mentioned.  And  the  said  C.  D., 
wife  of  the  said  A.  B.,  having  oee-i  by  me  first  made  acquainted  with  the  contents 
of  said  instrument,  acknowledged  to  me,  on  examination  apart  from  and  without 
the  hearing  of  her  said  husband^  that  she  executed  the  same  freely  and  voluntarily, 
without  fear  or  compulsion  or  undue  influence  of  her  said  husband,  and  that  she 
d«es  not  wish  to  retract  the  execution  of  the  same. 

In  witness  whereof,  I  have  hereunto  set  my  hand  and  affixed  my  official  seal, 
the  day  and  year  first  above  written. 

J.  GORDON,  Notary  Public. 

All  the  property  owned  by  the  wife  at  the  time  of  her  marriage,  or  to  which 
she  acquires  after  marriage  by  inheritance,  devise,  gift  or  bequest,  belongs  to 
and  remains  her  separate  estate  which  she  can  sell  and  convey  without  the  con- 
sent of  her  husband.  And  all  property  acquired  by  purchase  by  husband  and 
wife  during  the  coverture  belongs  to  them  in  common  ;  and  upon  the  death  of 
the  husband,  one-half  goes  to  the  wife  ;  but  during  coverture,  is  under  the  abso- 
lute control  of  the  husband.  He  can  convey  the  same  without  the  joining  of  his 
wife  in  the  execution  of  the  deed.  A  married  woman  has  no  dower  in  the  real 
estate  of  her  husband,  neither  has  he  any  courtesy  in  hers. 


,       SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  NEW  HAMPSHIRE. 

I      EXEMPTIONS  FROM  FORCED  SALE. — Home  worth  $500,  and  Personal  Property, 

(  Homestead  to    the  value  of  §500,  for  the  benefit  of  wife,  widow  or  children. 

Household  furniture  to  value  of  $100  ;  books  and  library  in  use  by  the  debtor  and 

ois  family  to  value  of  $200  ;   necessary  wearing  apparel  of  debtor  aud  family ; 


SPECIAL   LAWS    OF   NEW   HAMPSHIRE.  885 

bed,  bedsteads  and  bed-clothing ;  1  cooking  stove  and  its  furnitufe ; 
tools  of  his  occupation,  $  100  ;  provisions  and  fuel,  $50  ;  beasts  of  the  plow,  not  ex. 
ceeding  1  yoke  of  oxen  or  L  horse  ;  sewing  machine,  1  cow,  6  sheep,  1  pig  or  hog. 

MECHANICS'  LIEN.— Laborers  and  persons  furnishing  materials  have  a  lien  on 
the  building  and  the  land  on  which  it  is  put,  to  the  amount  of  $15,  and  for  the 
ipace  of  sixty  days  after  the  labor  was  performed  or  materials  furnished. 
f  •  COLLECTION  OF  DEBTS — Arrest  for  debt  can  be  made  upon  affidavit  of  the 
plaintiff,  or  his  agent,  that  defendant  owes  more  than  $13.33,  and  conceals  his, 
property  so  that  no  attaclmient  or  levy  can  be  made,  or  is  about  to  leave  the  State 
to  avoid  the  payment  of  his  debts. 

Writs  of  attachment  may  issue  for  the  following  causes  :  Non-residence ; 
being  about  to  remove  from  the  State  ;  concealment  with  view  to  avoid  service  , 
;'  removal  of  property  from  State,  or  concealment  of  the  same,  with  a  view  to  hinder 
and  delay  creditors ;  where  debt  is  contracted  out  of  the  State  and  debtor  ab- 
sconds from  there  and  secretly  removes  his  property  into  this  State  ;  for  debt  con- 
tracted fraudulently  or  from  commission  of  felony  ;  or  where  goods  were  bought 
and  payment  is  to  be  made  in  cash  and  the  same  is  not  done  ;  bond  must  be  in 
double  the  debt  claimed,  with  one  or  more  sureties,  who  must  be  resident  house- 
holders of  the  county  where  suit  is  brought.  Every  species  of  property,  whether 
it  be  legal  or  equitable,  is  t  ibject  to  attachment,  and  constitutes  a  valid  lien  on 
the  property  for  thirty  days  after  judgment,  within  which  period  the  execution 
must  be  levied  to  preserve  and  protect  the  lien. 

Assignments  in  trust,  for  the  benefit  of  creditors,  inure  for  the  benefit  of  all 
creditors  of  the  grantor,  whether  named  in  the  deed  of  assignment  or  not ;  the 
deed  of  assi-nment  must  be  acknowledged  and  recorded  like  other  deeds.  One 
partner  cannot  assign  all  the  partnership  assets  for  the  payment  of  partnership 
debts,  but  only  his  own  share  of  them.  Assignments  made  to  secure  sureties  or 
endorsers,  prior  to  any  payment  by  them,  are  vaiid  here.  Notes,  bills,  accounts, 
and  every  species  of  contract  or  claim  is  assignable,  and  the  assignee  can  sue  on 
it  in  his  own  name. 


or  or 

tion  for  his 

in  his  hands,  or  if  nothing  is  due  from  the  garnishee,  then  the  plaintiff  is  bound 

to  pay  this  sura. 

All  notes  and  bills,  payable  in  cash  to  order  or  bearer,  are  negotiable  ;  on  de- 
mand, are  dishonored  and  overdue  60  days  from  their  dute.  Grace  is  allowed  on 
all  notes,  drafts  and  bills  payable  on  time,  unless  expressly  excluded  by  tennis  of 
the  contract. 

The  jurisdiction  of  justice  and  police  courts,  extend  only  to  $13.33.  The  cir- 
cuit court  has  jurisdiction  beyond  that  sum,  and  of  all  appeals  from  the  justice 
and  police  courts.  Superior  court  of  judicature  has  oniv  appeK  ite  jurisdiction, 
and  may  issue  writs  of  error. 

Judgments  may  be  obtained  at  the  first  term,  unless  defendant  make  affidavit 
of  defense,  in  which  case  he  is  entitled  to  continuance  unless  the  plaintiff  has 
given  him  30  days  previous  notice  to  be  prepared  for  trial. 

Executions  may  issue  the  day  judgment  is  rendered,  and  are  a  lien  on  personal 
property,  when  issuing  out  of  a  justice's  court  from  the  time  they  are  delivered 
to  the  officer  ;  when  issuing  from  courts  of  record,  only  from  the  time  they  ar*> 
actually  levied.  Executions  from  a  justice  cannot  be  levied  on  real  estate. 
Every  species  of  property,  real  or  personal,  books  of  account,  dt^bts  and  judg- 
ments, whether  the  interest  in  real  estate  be  a  legal  or  equitable  title,  is  subject 
'  j  execution  and  sale  at  law.  Redemption  after  execution  sale  can  be  had  lor 
lie  year.  Stay  of  execution  is  only  had  when  plaintiff  i.5  insolvent  and  defendant 
urnishes  bona  to  pay  the  amount  of  judgment  in  review. 

)  DEEDS,  RIGHTS  OF  MARRIED  WOMEN,  WILLS,  &<  .—Deeds  must  be  under  seal 
and  attested  by  two  witnesses.  The  acknowledgme1  :t,  if  made  in  this  State,  may 
be  made  before  a  justice  of  the  peace  of  the  county  >vhere  the  land  lies,  before  t\ 
court  or  Judge,  the  court  having  a  seal,  or  before  a  notary  public ;  if  out  of  tha 
State,  before  a  commissioner  of  this  State,  notary  public,  or  before  a  court  or 
Judge  or  clerk  of  a  court  having  a  seal,  or  before  the  chief  officer  or  mayor  of 
a  town  or  city  who  has  a  seal,  or  before  a  consul  or  minister  of  the 
United  States  who  has  a  seal,  or  a  justice  of  the  peace,  his  official  character  duly 
certified  by  the  clerk.  The  seal  must  be  attached,  and  the  deed  recorded  in  the 
county  where  the  land  lies.  No  separate  acknowledgment  is  required  to  ba  made 
by  the  wife,  nor  need  she  be  examined  separate  and  apart  from  her  husband,  but 
the  must  join  iu  the  deed  to  bar  her  dower  or  homestead. 


866  SPECIAL    LAWS    OF   NEW   JERSEY. 

The  following  is  the  form  to  be  used  of  certificate  of  acknowledgment  of  bug- 
band  and  wife  : 

STATE  OF  NEW  HAMPSHIRE,  ) 
COUNTY  OF  CARROLL.  | 

Personally  appeared  the  above-named,  A.  B.  and  C.  D.,  his  wife,  and  acknowl- 
edged the  foregoing  instrument  to  be  their  voluntary  act  and  deed.  Before 
me,  this  day  of  ,  187  . 

JOHN  GARDNER,  Commissioner. 

ifo  necessity  for  the  certificate  to  state  the  wife  releases  her  dower.  The 
above  is  saifficient.  Proof  of  subscribing  witnesses  must  be  made  by  depositions, 
find  upon  due  notice  to  the  parties  interested.  And  if  the  identity  of  the  grantor 
is  denied,  it  must  be  proven  by  deposition. 

Married  women  hold  all  property  owned  by  them  before  marriage,  or  acquired 
after  in  any  way,  except  through  property  of  the  husband,  to  their  sole  and  sepa- 
rate use  as  if  sole.  All  their  acts  in  reference  to  such  property  are  valid  and 
binding  upon  them  and  their  property.  All  other  contracts  void.  The  wife  i» 
entitled  to  homestead  and  dower  in  all  the  property  of  her  husband,  unless  she 
release  the  same  by  joining  her  husband  in  its  conveyance.  In  most  respects  the 
wife  is  equal  to  the  husband  before  the  law.  The  husband  cannot  convey  real 
estate  to  the  wife. 

A  chattel  mortgage  of  perishable  articles  which  are  left  in  the  hands  of  the 
grantor,  with  right  to  use  the  same,  is  void  ;  so  is  mortgage  of  stock  of  goods,  the 
grantor  having  right  to  sell ;  so  is  any  mortgage  if  unregistered  and  the  chattels 
left  with  the  grantor,  save  as  between  the  parties  thereto,  unless  the  above  pro- 
visions are  complied  with  and  an  oath  taken  by  both  parties  made  on  the  mort- 
gage, to  the  effect  that  the  debt  accrued  therein  is  just,  honestly  due  and  owing. 

Wills  should  be  in  writing,  signed  and  sealed  by  the  testator,  or  by  some  per- 
eon  in  his  presence,  and  by  his  express  direction,  and  attested  and  subscribed  in 
his  presence  by  three  or  more  credible  witnesses. 


SPECIAL   LAWS  OF  NEW  JERSEY. 

EXEMPTIONS  FROM  FORCED  SALE.— Home  worth  $1,500  and  Personal  Prop- 
erty. Lot  and  buildings  thereon,  occupied  as  a  residence  and  owned  by  the* 
iebtor,  being  a  householder  and  having  a  family,  to  the  value  of  §1,600.  Per- 
sonal property  to  the  amount  of  $200.  owned  bjr  a  resident  head  of  a  family, 
appraised  by  three  persons  .-ippointed  by  the  sheriff  ;  and  the  widow  or  adminis- 
trator of  a  deceased  person  may  claim  the  same  exemption  of  §200  as  against 
creditors. 

MECHANICS'  LIENS.— Persons  who  perform  labor  or  furnish  materials  for  the 
erection  and  construction  of  buildings,  have  a  lien  on  the  same  for  such  labor 
and  materials,  including  the  lot  on  which  such  buildings  are  erected  ;  provided, 
the  lien  is  filed  in  one  year  after  the  labor  is  performed  or  materials  furnished, 
and  the  summons  issued  in  the  vear. 

COLLECTION  OF  DEBTS. — A  defendant  may  be  arrested  for  debt,  on  affidavit 
being  made  that  he  is  either,  1.  About  to  remove  his  property  out  of  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  the  court,  for  the  purpose  of  defrauding  his  creditors  ;  or,  2.  Fraudulently 
conceals  his  property  or  rights  of  action ;  or,  3.  He  has  assigned,  removed  or 
concealed,  or  is  about  to  assign,  remove  or  conceal  his  property,  with  intent  to 
defraud  hie  creditors ;  or,  4.  That  he  has  fraudulently  contracted  the  debt  or 
incurred  the  obligation  about  which  the  suit  is  to  be  commenced. 

Writ  of  attachment  by  the  creditor  or  his  agent  making  affidavit,  to  be  filed,  i 
with  the  clerk  of  the  court  out  of  which  the  writ  is  to  issue,  stating  that  the. 
debtor,  according  to  his  knowledge  and  belief,  is  not  a  resident  of  this  State  ; 
that  he  owes  the  plaintiff  (specifying  the  amount),  or  that  the  debtor  absconds 
from  his  creditors.  All  property  of  the  defendant  may  be  seized  under  attach- 
ment, and  his  debtors  garnisheed,  but  the  real  estate  seized  under  attachment 
cannot  be  sold  for  twelve  months  after  seizure. 

Every  assignment  for  the  benefit  of  the  creditors  of  the  assignor,  whither  of 
real,  personal,  or  mixed  property,  must  inure  to  their  mutual  benefit  without  any  ' 
preference  or  priority,  and  all  preferences  by  which  one  or  more  creditors  are  to 
be  flr^t  paid,  or  any  other  preferences,  are  fraudulent  and  void,  excepting  only 
creditors  holding  mortgages  and  judgment  creditors.  The  debtor  making  tb» 
assignment  must  attach  to  the  deed  of  assignment  an  inventory  of  all  his  estate* 
and  a  full  list  of  creditors,  these  to  be  verified  by  the  affidavit  of  tfce  debtor.. 


SPECIAL    LAWS    OF    NEW    JERSEY.  88V 

•llie  said  inventory  is  not  conclusive  upon  creditors  or  their  assignee  ;  the  lattei 
can  recover  any  other  property  belonging  to  the  assignor  and  not  embraced  in 
the  schedule. 

Notes  for  the  payment  of  money,  payable  to  the  order  of  any  person  or  corpo- 
ration, are  negotiable  and  assignable  by  endorsement,  like  inland  bills  of  ex- 
change ;  bills  of  exchange,  for  the  sum  of  eight  dollars  and  upwards,  drawn  upon 
any  person  in  this  State,  can  be  protested  for  non-acceptance  or  non-payment, 
and  be  governed  in  every  respect  by  the  law  governing  foreign  bills  of  exchange. 

All  checks,  drafts  or  bills  of  exchange  (other  than  those  drawn  upon  banK^  or 
banking  houses)  whether  drawn  on  demand  or  otherwise,  are  entitled  to  thn  : 
days'  grace.  Bills  of  exchange,  taken  for  a  pre-existing  debt,  will  extingai.- 1* 
the  deot,  if  such  person  accepting  such  bill  for  his  debt  doth  not  take  due  course 
Jjto  obtain  payment  thereof,  by  endeavoring  to  get  the  same  accepted  and  paid, 


The  following  are  ffegal  holidays,  for  purposes  of  protest ;  Christmas  day,  first 
day  of  January,  fourth  of  July,  and  any  day  specially  appointed  by  the  Gov- 
ernor for  a  day  of  fasting  or  thanksgiving,  and  paper  falling  due  on  such  legal 
holiday  shall  become  due  and  may  be  protested  on  the  day  preceding  the  Ikoli- 
day  ;  notice  of  protest  need  not  be  sent  till  following  such  holiday. 

Jurisdiction  of  justices'  courts  in  civil  actions,  on  amounts,  or  dfebt  claimed  or* 
matters  in  dispute,  which  does  not  exceed  $100,  except  in  actions  of  replevin, 
Blander,  trespass,  for  assault,  battery  or  imprisonment,  and  actions  wherein  tiio- 
title  to  lands  come  into  question.  Justices'  courts  are  courts  ©f  record.  Court 
<tf  Common  Pleas.— Concurrent  wi.h  circuit.  Appellate  from  justice  of  the 
peace.  Circuit  Courts. — Have  concurrent,  civil,  original  jurisdiction,  with  «a« 
preme  court,  and  appellate  from  tho  common  pleas  court.  Court  of  GKaaieerii  .— 
Exclusive  jurisdiction  in  all  equity  and  divorce  cases.  Supreme  Court. — Has 
original  and  appellate  jurisdiction  of  all  civil  suits  at  law.  Court  of  Errors  ttnd 
Appeals.— Has  only  appellate  jurisdiction,  and  is  the  court  of  last  resort. 

Judgments  constitutes  liens  on  all  the  lands  of  the  defendant  in  the  county 
•where  obtained,  if  obtained  in  the  circuit  or  chancery  courts ;.  but,  if  obtained 
in  the  supreme  court,  or  docketed  there  from  the  circuit  or  chancery  courts,  & 
lien  on  all  the  lands  of  the  defendant  everywhere  in  the  State.  The  liens  con- 
tinue during  the  period  of  limitation. 

Executions  may  issue  immediately  after  judgment,  and  at  any  time  within  th» 
period  of  limitations,  against  the  body  of  the  defendant,  or  against  his  property* 
any  kind  of  which  can  be  levied  upon.  There  is  no  stay  of  execution,  except  for 
a  short  period  on  judgments  obtained  before  a  justice  ©f  the  peace,  where  good 
security  is  given,  unless  an  appeal  or  writ  of  error  is  taken.  There  is  no  redemr>- 
tion  after  sale  under  execution. 

DEEDS,  RIGHTS  OFMARKIED  WOMEX,  WILLS.  &c. — All  deeds  must  be  written 
in  the  common  law  form,  under  seal ;  an  impression  on  wafer  or  wax  is  sufficient, 
attested  by  at  least  one  witness,  and  have  the  word  heirs  incorporated  to  con- 
vey a  fee.  Both  husband  and  wife  must  join  in  a  deed  conveying-  the  estate  of 
either,  the  wife  to  relinquish  her  dower  in  her  husband's  estate,  and  the  husband 
to  give  his  assent  to  the  wife's  conveyance.  If  the  deed  is  acknowledged  in  ttiis 
State,  it  must  be  done  before  the  chancellor  or  justice  of  the  supreme  court,  a 
^master  in  chancery,  a  judge  of  the  court  of  common  picas,  er  a  commissioner  of 
.deeds. 

If  out  of  the  State,  before  a  judge  of  the  supreme,  superior,  circuit  or  district 
i court  of  the  State  or  United  States  without  any  seal  of  such  court  or  judge* 
before  a  mayor  or  other  chief  magistrate  of  a  city,  mnder  the  seal  of  such  city  +1 
^before  a  masfcei  in  chancery  of  New  Jersey,  or  a  commissioner  of  deeds  for  New 
Jersey,  under  his  seal ;  before  a  judge  of  the  court  of  common  pleas,  or  any 
^officer  authorized  by  the  laws  of  the  State  where  taken,  to  take  the  acknowledg- 
.ments  of  deeds,  and  in  the  latter  cases  there  shall  be  annexed  a  certificate  undei 
the  great  seal  of  such  State  or  territory,  or  under  the  seal  of  the  county  court 
where  the  same  is  taken  that  such  officer  is  such  as  he  claims  to  be,  and  as  such, 
officer  authorized  to  take  the  acknowledgments  of  deeds  in  such  State  or  terrfc; 
tory,  and  that  his  signature  is  genuine. 

The  following  is  the  form  of  certificate^  be  used  : 
STATE  OF  NEW  YORK,     ) 
COUNTY  CT?  ORAXGE.        ) 

Be  it  remembered,  that  on  this  day  of  ,  1ST      ,  before  me,  tb« 

','  pubST? ber.  John  Currie,  a  notary  public,  personally  appeared  A.  B.  and  C'.  D-> 

bis  wile,  who,  I  aaa  satisfied,  are  the  grantors  "named  in.  and  who  executed  tl\a 


SPECIAL   LAWS   OP   NEW   TOBK. 

within  instrument  of  conveyance,  and  I  having  first  made  known  to  them  tht 
contents  thereof,  they  did  therefore  severally  acknowledge  before  me  that  they 
signed,  sealed  and  delivered  the  same  as  their  voluntary  act  and  deed,  for  the 
uses  and  purposes  therein  expressed. 

And  the  said  C.  D.,  wife  of  the  said  A.  B.,  being  by  me  privately  examined 
•eparate  and  apart  from  her  said  husband,  did  further  acknowledge  that  she 
•igned,  sealed  and  delivered  the  same  as  her  voluntary  act  and  deed,  freely, 
Without  any  fear,  threat  or  compulsion  of  or  from  her  said  husband. 

In  witness  whereof,  I  have  hereunto  set  niy  hand  and  affixed  my  official  seal 
She  day  and  year  aforesaid.  JOHN  CUKKIE,  Notary  Public.  . 

A  married  woman  can  hold,  to  her  sole  and  separate  use,  all  property,  bothS 
Teal  and  personal,  which  she  owned  at  the  time  of  her  marriage,  or  which  she 
^Acquired  during  marriage  by  gift,  grant,  descetit,  deviso  or  bequest,  and  the 
rents,  profits  and  issues  thereof  shall  not  be  subject  to  the  disposal  of  her  hus- 
f>and,  nor  liable  for  his  debts.  She  can  be  sued  with  her  husband  for  debts  con- 
tracted for  her  own  benefit,  and  which  cannot  be  enforced  against  her  in  equity. 
"Widow  is  entitled  to  dower  in  one-third  of  all  the  roal  estate  of  which  the  hus- 
t>and  died  seized,  and  to  the  mansion  house  until  dower  is  assigned  her. 

All  chattel  mortgages  to  be  valid  as  to  creditors  and  subsequent  bona  fide 
purchasers,  must  be  filed  with  the  clerk  or  register  where  the  mortgagor  resides, 
amd  if  a  non-resident,  where  the  property  is  situated,  or  the  possession  of  the 
property  mortgaged  must  be  immediately  delivered  to  the  mortgagee,  and  this 
poss 
the  fi 

clerk  or  regi 
mortgagee  in  the  property.    The  same  becom  28  void  as  to  creditors. 

All  wills  shall  be  in  writing,  and  shall  be  signed,  or  acknowledged  to  hav« 
•been  signed,  by  the  testator,  and  declared  to  be  his  or  her  last  will,  in  the  pre»- 
of  at  least  two  credible  witnesses  present  at  the  same  time,  who  shall  sub* 
their  iKumeaas  witnesses  in  the  presence  of  the  testator. 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  NEW  YORK. 

EXEMPTIONS  FROM  FORCED  SALE.— Home  werth  $1000,  and  Personal  Prop- 
erty. Homestead  to  the  value  of  f  1000  ;  but  not  as  against  an  execution  upon  a 
judgment  recovered  for  fraud.  Burial  plat  not  to  exceed  one-fourth  of  an  acre. 
Personal  property,  when  owned  by  a  householder,  is  exempt  as  follows  :  Spin- 
ning wheels,  looms  and  stoves  in  use  in  dwelling  house,  pictures  and  books  in  use 
to  the  value  of  $50  ;  a  pew  in  a  church,  10  sheep,  1  cow,  2  swines  and  their  neces- 
nary  food,  necessary  household  furniture  and  library  to  value  of  $250  ;  working 
fools,  professional  instruments,  a  team  and  necessary  food  therefor  for  ninety 
«^ays,  and  a  sewing  machine,  except  on  execution  for  purchase  money  for  sucn 

MECHANICS'  LIEN. — The  laws  on  this  subject  are  not  uniform  throughout  the 
|5tate.  Material  men  and  mechanics  have  lien  for  labor  and  materials  on  land 
Vnprovements  to  the  extent  of  their  claims.  The  claim  must  be  filed  within 
thirty  days  after  completion  of  labor  and  furnishing  of  materials ;  and  in  the 
*xranty  of  New  York,  and  some  other  counties,  within  three  months.  The  lien 
continues  for  one  year. 

COLLECTION  OF  DEBTS.— The  defendant  is  liable  to  be  arrested  and  held  tOi 
t>aii,  at  any  time  before  judgment,  in  an  action  for  injury  to  person  or  character,' 
JK  wrongfully  taking,  detaining  or  converting  personal  property  ;  in  an  action^ 
far  money  received  or  property  embezzled  or  fraudulently  misapplied  by  a  public 
<9fltaer  cr  attorney,  or  by  an  officer  or  agent  of  a  corporation  or  banking  associa- 
tion in  the  course  of  his  employment  as  such,  or  by  any  other  person  in  a 
tfdnciar y  capacity  ;  in  an  action  to  recover  the  possession  of  personal  property 
«njttstiy  detained,  where  the  property  has  been  concealed  or  disposed  of  so  that 
•it  eaanet  be  found  by  the  sheriff ;  when  the  defendant  has  been  guilty  of  a  fraud  , 
*n  contracting  the  debt  or  incurring  the  obligation  for  which  the  action  la 
Bought,  or  in  concealing  or  disposing  of  the  property  for  the  taking  of  which  the 
jSKtLers  is  brought ;  or  when  the  action  is  brought  to  recover  damages  for  fraud 
ordeceit,  and  when  the  defendant  has  removed  or  disposed  of  his  property,  or 
M  afeout  to  do  so  with  intent  to  defraud  his  creditors. 

The  plaintiff  is  required  to  give  a  bond  in  at  least  $100,  with  one  or  more 
sureties,  householders.    The  affidavit  to  obtain  arrest  may  be 


SPECIAL   LAWS   OF   NEW   YORtf.  883 

fey  any  one  with  knowledge  of  the  facts.    Arrest  may  be  made  by  non-resi- 

Writ  of  attachment  may  issue  on  account  of  non-residence  ;  departure  from 
the  State  with  intent  to  defraud  creditors,  or  to  avoid  service,  or  concealment 
With  like  intent  ;  removal  or  intended  removal  of  property  from  this  State  with  ( 
intent  to  defraud  creditors,  or  the  assignment,  disposition  or  secretion,  actual  or 
intended,  of  property  with  Intent  to  defraud  creditors.  The  plaintiff  gives  a  bone* 
in  at  least  $250,  with  one  or  more  resident  sureties,  householders.  Every  species 
of  property  is  subject  to  attachment  and  execution  at  law.  Attachment  on  real 
estate  becomes  a  lien  oil  iiling  of  notice.  Attachments  may  be  made  by  non- 
sesidents. 

'  Assignments  for  the  benefit  of  creditors  must  be  acknowledged  and  recorded, 
One  partner  cannot  assign  the  firm  assets  for  the  partnership.  A  debtor  may 
prefer  his  surety  or  endorse  on  an  existing  indebtedness,  although  not  yet 
matured-  All  claims  on  contract  are  assignable,  and  the  assignee  can  sue  in  hia 
Dwn  nams.  No  particular  form  of  assignment  necessary. 

Garnishment  can  be  had  either  on  execution  or  attachment  against  any  pewon 
Swing  the  debtor  or  having  property  in  his  possession. 

Acceptors  of  notes  and  bills  are  chargeable  only  when  their  acceptance  *s  i» 
writing  on  the  bill ;  or  if  on  separate  piece  of  paper,  when  the  party  who  gave 
the  credit  saw  the  paper  ;  or  if  a  promise  is  made  in  writing  to  accept  a  draft  b** 
fore  it  is  drawn,  and  the  draft  is  in  the  hands  of  any  person  who  gave  credit  or 
th«  strength  of  the  writing. 

Justices'  Courts  have  jurisdiction  in  actions  on  contract  and  for  damages  foi 
fraud  in  sale  of  property  up  to  $200,  and  for  recovery  of  personal  property  to 
value  of  $200.  Process  returnable  in  from  6  to  12  days. 

The  supreme  court  is  a  court  of  general  jurisdiction  in  every  county  having 
cognizance  of  all  actions.  Process  returnable  in  20  days. 

There  are  various  local  courts  in  the  cities  with  general  concurrent  jurisdic- 
tion with  the  supreme  court.  The  marine  court  of  the  city  of  New  York  ha| 
jurisdiction  inactions  on  contract  where  the  recovery  sought  is  not  more  thai 
$1000.  Process  returnable  in  six  days,  and  incase  of  non-resident,  plaintiff  o* 
defendant,  may  be  in  2  days. 

Judgments  are  liens  for  10  years  on  all  real  estate  owned  by  the  judgmen* 
creditor,  o*  subsequently  acquired  by  him,  in  the  county  where  the  judgment  irt 
docketed.  At  the  expiration  of  the  ten  years,  the  judgment  can  be  revived  bj 
action.  Judgments  of  inferior  courts  are  made  liens  on  real  estate,  by  filing  a 
transcript  in  county  clerk's  office. 

Execution  issues  the  day  judgment  is  rendered.  Personal  property  is  boun<? 
from  the  time  of  the  delivery  of  the  execution  to  the  sheriff,  except  in  the  hands  of 
bonafide  purchasers.  All  personal  property,  except  such  as  is  exempt  by  statute 
(see  Exemptions),  may  be  levied  upon  and  sold.  All  interests  in  real  estate,  except 
a  mere  equitable  interest,  is  subject  to  execution  and  sale.  And  within  one  year 
from  the  sale  thereof,  the  property  may  be  redeemed  on  payment  of  the  bid, 
with  interest,  at  ten  per  cent.  If  an  execution  is  returned  unsatisfied,  the  debtor 
can  be  examined  under  oath  to  discover  property  liable  to  execution.  And  any 
one  owing  the  debtor,  or  having  property  of  the  debtor  in  his  possession,  may  b« 
likewise  examined  for  the  same  purpose. 

DEEDS,  RIGHTS  OF  MARRIED  WOMEN,  WILLS,  &c.— Deeds  must  be  under  seal  ;• 
a  scrawl  is  not  sufficient.  There  must  be  a  subscribing  witness,  unless  the  deed 
is  acknowledged  by  the  grantor.  Within  the  State  the  acknowledgment  must 
be  made  by  judicial  officers  generally,  by  notaries  public  and  commissioners  of 
deeds.  Without  the  State  the  acknowledgment  may  be  taken  before  any  New 
York  commissioner,  or  before  any  officer  of  the  State  or  territory  where  made, 
authorized  by  the  laws  thereof  to  take  acknowledgments. 

The  officer  must  be  authenticated  by  the  certificate  of  the  county  clerk  under 
his  official  seal. 

The  following  is  the  form  of  acknowledgment,  where  the  grantor  is  unmsr» 
ried: 

STATE  OF  INDIANA,      ) 
COUNTY  OF  JACKSON.  / 

On  this  day  of  ,  in  the  year  ,  before  me  personally  came 

A.  B.,  to  me  known  to  be  the  individual  described  in  and  who  executed  the 
within  (or  annexed,  or  above)  conveyance,  and  acknowledged  that  he  execute* 
the  same  lor  the  purposes  therein  mentioned. 

PJETEB  WILSON,  Notary  PublC. 


890        LAWS   OP   NEW   MEXICO   AND    NORTH   CAROLINA. 

The  following  is  the  form  where  husband  and  wife  join  in  the  deed. 

STATE  OF  INDIANA,      ) 
COUNTY  OF  JACKSON,  \ 

On  thi«  day  of  ,  in  the  year  ,  before  me  personally  cam* 

A.  Bo  and  C.  B.,  his  wife,  to  me  known  to  be  the  individuals  described  in  and 
who  executed  the  within  (or  above,  or  annexed)  conveyance,  and  severally 
acknowledged  that  they  executed  the  same  for  the  purposes  therein  mentioned- 
And  the  said  C.  B.,  on  a  private  examination  by  me  made,  apart  from  her  hus- 
band, acknowledged  that  she  executed  the  same  freely,  and  without  any  fear  or 
Compulsion  of  her  said  husband.  PETER  WILSON,  Notary  1'ublic. 

Married  women  can  hold  real  and  personal  property  to  their  sole  and  separate 
use.  A  wife's  obligation  may  be  recovered  out  of  her  separate  property  when 
given  with  intent  to  charge  it.  Property  acquired  before  or  subsequent  to  mar- 
riage is  in  no  cases  liable  for  her  husband's  debts,  but  for  her  own  debts  only- 
A  widow  shall  be  endowed  with  one-third  of  all  the  lands  owned  by  her  husband 
during  his  lifetime. 

To  render  a  chattel  mortgage  valid  as  against  creditors  and  purchasers,  there 
must  be  actual  possession  by  the  mortgagee,  or  the  mortgage  or  copy  must  be 
filed  in  the  town  or  city  where  the  mortgagor  resides.  The  mortgage  must  be 
refiied  every  year. 

Every  will  must  be  subscribed  by  the  testator,  and  shall  be  acknowledged  by 
him  to  be  his  will  to  each  of  at  least  two  attesting  witnesses,  each  of  whom  shall 
sign  his  name  at  the  end  of  the  will,  at  the  request  of  the  testator.  The  witnesses 
to  any  will  shall  write  opposite  to  their  names  their  respective  places  of  residence  ; 
U  residing  in  a  city  the  street  and  number  of  the  house  should  also  be  given. 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  NEW  MEXICO. 

EXEMPTIONS  FROM  FORCED  SALE.— Home  worth  $1000  ;  Provisions,  $25  ; 
Furniture,  $10  ;  Tools,  £20.  Real  estate  to  the  value  of  $1,000  is  exempt  in  farm, 
If  the  heads  of  the  families  reside  on  the  same  ;  also  the  clothing,  beds  and  bed- 
clothing  required  for  the  use  of  the  family,  and  firewood  requisite  for  30  days, 
when  actually  provided  and  intended  for  use.  All  Bibles,  Testaments,  hymn 
books,  and  school  books  used  by  the  family,  and  family  and  religious  pictures  ; 
provisions  on  hand  to  the  amount  of  $25,  and  kitchen  furniture  to  the  value  of 
$10,  both  to  be  selected  by  the  debtor ;  also  tools  and  implements  belonging  to  the 
debtor  that  may  be  necessary  to  enable  him  to  carry  on  his  trade  or  business, 
whether  agricultural  or  mechanical,  to  be  selected  by  him,  and  not  to  exceed  $20 
in  value.  Real  estate  when  sold  must  be  first  appraised  by  two  freeholders  of 
the  vicinity  and  must  bring  two-thirds  of  the  appraised  value. 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  NORTH  CAROLINA. 

EXEMPTIONS  FROM  FORCED  SALE  —Home  worth  $JOOO.a«rf  Personal  Property 
Iforth  $500.  Every  homestead,  and  dwellings  and  buildings  connected  there- 
with, not  exceeding  in  value  $1000,  to  be  selected  by  the  owner  thereof ,  or  in  lieu 
thereof,  at  the  option  of  the  owner,  any  lot  in  a  city,  town,  or  village,  with  the 
dwellings  used  thereon,  owned  and  occupied  by  any  resident  of  the  State,  and 
not  exceeding  $1000  in  value.  Personal  property  to  the  extent  of  §500  in  value. 

MECHANICS'  LIEN. — All  laborers,  material  men  and  mechanics  have  liens  on 
the  houses  built,  improved  or  repaired  by  them,  and  on  the  lots  on  which  they 
are  built,  to  the  extent  of  the  interest  of  the  party  who  had  the  improvements  or 
repairs  done.  But  they  must  take  the  necessary  steps  to  enforce  this  lien,  by 
filing  same  and  bringing  suit  within  ninety  days  after  the  work  is  finished. 

COLLECTION  OF  DEBTS.— The  defendant  may  be  arrested  and  held  to  bail,  on 
the  following  grounds  :  Where,  as  an  attorney,  solicitor  or  agent  of  any  kind, 
he  has  collected  money  and  failed  to  account  for  it,  or  professional  misconduct 
or  neglect  in  office  ;  where  he  has  unjustly  detained  personal  property,  or  where 
he  conceals  or  disposes  of  his  property  with  intent  to  deprive  the  plaintiff  of  the 
benefit  of  the  same  ;  where  he  has  been  guilty  of  fraud  in  contracting  the  debt 
for  which  the  action  is  brought ;  where  he  has  removed  or  disposed  of  Ms  prop» 


SPECIAL   LAWS    OF   NORTH   CAROLINA  8?1 

J,  or  is  about  to  do  so,  with  intent  to  defraud  his  creditors ;  where  he  is  a  non* 
ieiit  of  the  State,  or  is  about  to  remove  therefrom,  or  where  the  action  is  for 
fcch  of  promise  to  marry.  The  court,  or  judge  of  the  court  in  which  the  action 
fe  brought,  must  order  the  arrest  of  the  defendant.  No  female  can  be  wrested 
In  any  action,  except  for  a  wilful  injury  to  person,  character  or  property. 

"Writs  of  attachment  may  issue  on  making  affidavit  to  one  or  more  of  the  fol- 
lowing reasons  :  1.  Where  the  defendant  or  corporation  is  a  non-resident.  2. 
"iVhere  the  defendant  has  absconded,  or  conceals  himself.  3.  Where  any  person 
or  corporation  is  about  to  remove  any  oi.  His  or  its  property  from  the  State.  4. 
Where  any  person  or -corporation  has  assigned,  disposed  of  or  concealed,  or  is 
about  to  dispose  of  or  conceal,  any  of  his  or  its  property,  with  intent  to  defraud 
his  or  its  creditors.  5.  Where  the  defendant  has-  -wrongfully  converted  property 
>fco  his  own  use. 

Garnishment  in  this  State  is  not  regulated  by  statute,  but  is  governed  by  the 
rules  of  common  law. 

Bills  and  notes  for  the  payment  of  money  are  negotiable,  like  inland  bills  o* 
•xchange,  whether  expressed  to  bo  payable  to  the  order  of  a  person  or  not.  Bills 
of  exchange  payable  at  sight  are  entitled  to  grace  ;  but  bills  and  notes  payable 
on  demand  are  not  entitled  to  grace. 

Damages  on  protested  bills  are  as  follows  :  "When  drawn  or  endorsed  in  this  State, 
and  on  a  person  outside  the  State  but  within  the  United  States,  three  per  cent.  ; 
•where  it  is  drawn  on  persons  in  any  other  place  in  North  America,  or  in  the  West  « 
India  or  Bahama  Islands,  ten  per  cent. ;  when  drawn  on  persona  in  the  Madeira, 
Canaries,  Azores  or  Cape  de  Verde  Islands,  or  in  Europe  or  South  America,  fif- 
teen per  cent. ;  and  any  other  place,  twenty  per  cent.  In  default  of  a  notary,  a 
justice  of  the  peace  or  a  clerk  of  a  court  of  record  may  protest  paper.  When  any 
check,  negotiable  or  promissory  note,  is  endorsed,  the  endorser,  unless  he  in  the 
endorsement  stipulates  to  the  contrary,  becomes  surety  on  the  paper,  and  liable 
to  the  holder  without  any  demand  on  the  maker  ;  this  rule,  however,  does  not 
apply  to  bills  of  exchange,  either  inland  or  foreign. 

Assignments  for  the  benefit  of  creditors,  are  governed  by  the  rules  of  common 
law.  The  debtor  has  the  right,  therefore,  to  prefer  one  or  more  of  his  creditors, 
provided  it  is  a  bonafide  transaction. 

The  jurisdiction  of  the  justices'  courts  extends  to  5200,  the  probate  court  has 
authority  over  probate  of  deeds  and  general  probate  business,  the  superior 
court  has  exclusive  jurisdiction  of  all  demands  over  §200,  and  the  supreme  court 
has  only  appellate  jurisdiction. 

Judgments  are  liens  on  the  land  of  the  debtor,  from  the  time  they  are  docketed 
In  the  clerk's  office  when  the  same  are  obtained  in  the  superior  court,  and  from 
the  time  a  transcript  from  the  justices  of  the  peace  is  filed  with  the  clerk  of  the 
superior  court.  Transcripts  of  judgment  thus  docketed  may  be  filed  in  any 
county  where  the  defendant  has  land ;  and  from  the  time  the  same  is  so  filed! 
with  the  clerk  of  the  court,  it  operates  as  a  lien  on  defendants  lands. 

Executions  may  be  levied  on  real  as  well  as  personal  property,  whether  the- 
realty  is  simply  an  equity  of  redemption,  or  whether  it  is  in  the  name  of  a  fraud- 
ulent vendee ;  leaseholds  of  three  years,  or  more  duration  are  treated  as  real 
property.  Executions  from  a  justice  of  the  peace  are  a  lien  on  personal  property 
from  the  time  of  the  actual  levy.  Executions  from  courts  of  record  issue  in  six 
weeks  from  the  rendition  of  the  judgment. 

DEEDS,  RIGHTS  OF  MARRIED  WOMEN.  WILLS,  &c.— Deeds  must  be  acknowl- 
edged by  the  grantor,  or  proved  by  the  subscribing  witness,  before  clerks  of  the 
superior  courts,  or  judges  of  the  supreme  court,  or  notaries  public,  within  the 
State  where  the  grantor  or  witnesses  reside  ;  beyond  the  State,  their  handwriting « 
may  be  proven  in  this  State  before  either  of  the  above  officers,  or.  where  they  X 
reside  beyond  tho  State,  the  acknowledgement  of  the  grantor  can  be  taken,  or 
proof  by  subscribing  witnesses  can  be  made,  before  a  special  commissioner  ap-  ( 
pointed  under  the  seal  of  the  probate  judge  having  jurisdiction,  authorizing  such 
commissioner  to  take  the  acknowledgment  of  tho  grantor,  or  examination  on  oath. 
of  the  witnesses  to  the  deed,  and  the  proceedings  of  such  commissioner  shall  be. 
returned  to  tho  probate  judge  issuing  the  commission,  who  may  adjudge  the  deed 
duly  acknowledged  or  proven,  and  order  it  registered.     Or,  the  deed  may  be 
acknowledged  or  proven  by  witnesses  before  any  regular  commissioner  of  this 
State  resident  in  the  State  or  territory  where  the  grantor  or  witnesses  reside. 

Where  the  grantor  and  witnesses  reside  beyond  the  limits  of  the  United  States, 
the  acknowledgment  or  proof  may  be  taken  or  made  before  the  chief  magistrate- 
of  any  city  where  they  reside,  or  any  minister,  ambassador  or  consul  of  the 
United  States,  under  the  official  seal  of  such  magistrate  or  other  officer,  and  then 
She  certificate  so  made  must  be  exhibited  to  the  probate  judge  having  jurisdio- 


892  SPECIAL   LAWS    OF    OHIO. 

tion,  who  will  adjudge  the  same  duly  acknowledged  or  proven,  and  order  th« 
earno  to  be  recorded  in  the  proper  place  in  this  State. 

The  wife  must  join  the  husband  in  the  execution  of  all  deeds  concerning  real 
estate,  to  bar  her  dower,  and  her  signature  cannot  be  proven,  but  her  separate 
acknowledgment  must  be  taken  ;  she  must  be  examined  privily  and  apart  from 
her  husband,  and  must  show  she  does  it  to  relinquish  her  dower.  Where  the 
grantor  and  subscribing  witnesses  are  dead,  the  proof  of  the  deed  may  be  made 
by  proving  the  handwriting  of  the  grantor  or  the  witnesses. 

Use  this  form  in  taking  the  acknowledgement  of  husband  and  wife  : 
STATE  OF 
COUXTY  OF 


•*' 


. 

Before  me  (here  insert  name  and  title  of  officer),  this  day,  personally  appearef1 
.  B.  and  C.  D.,  his  wife,  grantors  named  in  the  foregoing  deed  of  conveyance^ 
and  the  said  deed  being  also  produced  and  exhibited  before  me,  the  said  A.  B. 


A.  B.  and  C.  D.,  his  wife,  grantors  named  in  the  foregoing  deed  of  conveyance^ 
and  the  said  deed  being  also  produced  and  exhibited  before  me,  the  said  A.  B. 
and  C.  D.  acknowledged  the  execution  thereof  by  them  as  their  act  and  deed  for 


the  purposes  therein  expressed  ;  and  the  said  C.  I),  being  by  me  privily  examined 
separate  and  apart  from  her  said  husband;  touching  her  free  consent  in  the  ex- 
ecution of  the  said  deed  of  conveyance,  in  Ler  examination  declared  to  me  that 
«»he  executed  the  samef  reely,vo]untarily  and  without  compulsion  or  restraint  upon 
the  part  of  her  said  husband,  or  any  person  whatsoever,  and  did  still  voluntarily 
twsent  thereto  ;  and  this  she  does  in  relinquishment  of  her  dower  in  the  land 
mentioned  in  said  deed. 

In  witness  whereof,  I  have  set  my  hand  and  affixed  my  official  seal  this 
day  of  ,187    . 

(Signature  and  title.) 

There  is  no  necessity  of  a  seal  to  a  deed,  a  scrawl  is  sufficient. 

The  property  acquired  by  the  wife  either  before  or  after  marriage,  either  by 
inheritance,  devise,  gift  or  otherwise,  shall  be  and  remain  her  sole  and  separata 
property,  free  from  tie  debts  or  control  of  her  husband,  and  she  can  convey  the 
same  with  the  written  consent  of  her  husband.  She  has  dower  in  all  the  real 
estate  of  her  husband,  owned  or  acquired  during  the  coverture,  and  join  in  con- 
veyances made  by  him  to  release  the  same. 


$300. 

The  will  must  be  signed  by  the  testator,  or  by  some  other  person  in  his  presence 
and  by  his  express  direction,  and  subscribed  in  his  presence  by  two  witnesses, 
no  one  of  whom  shall  be  interested  in  the  devise.  Or,  if  found  among  his  papers 
must  be  in  his  own  handwriting,  and  his  name  subscribed  thereto,  inscribed  in 
some  part  thereof,  and  the  handwriting  generally  known  to  his  acquaintances, 
And  proved  by  three  -witnesses  to  be  every  part  in  the  testator's  owu  hand- 
jriting. 


SPECIAL  LAWS   OF   OHIO. 

EXEMPTIONS  FROM  FORCED  SALE.— Home  Worth  $1.000,  and  Personal  Pr»» 
gerty . — Every  head  of  a  family,  resident  in  Ohio,  shall  hold  exempt  from  exe- 
cution, his  homestead,  not  to  exceed  $1,000.  If  the  homestead  exceed  $1,000, 
the  property  will  be  partitioned  and  a  homestead  of  $1,000  set  off  to  the  debtor.  If 
he  have  no  homestead,  he  shall  hold  exempt  real  or  personal  property  not  to  ex- 
ceed $500,  exclusive  or  general  exemptions,  which  are  :  Beds  and  bedstead  ;  1 
stove  ;  1  cooking  stove  ;  fuel  for  60  days  ;  $100  Of  wearing  apparel ;  1  cow,  or 
instead  $35  c*f  household  furniture  :  2  nogs,  or  instead  $15  of  household  furni- 
ture; 6  sheep  or  instead  $15  of  household  furniture;  all  Bibles  and  hymn 
books  ;  family  pictures  ;  provisions  not  exceeding  $50,  and  such  other  articles  of 
household  or  kitchen  furniture  as  may  be  needed,  not  exceeding  $50  ;  a  sewing 
machine;  a  knitting  machine  :  tools  of  his  trade,  not  exceeding  $100;  his  per* 
sonal  earnings,  and  his  minor  children's,  for  not  more  than  three  months  before 
judgment  ;  all  specimens  of  natural  history,  if  not  kept  for  pecuniary  exhibi- 
tion ;  a  doctor  shall  hold  his  horse,  saddle,  instruments  and  books,  the  two  latter 
not  to  exceed  $1^0,  exempt ;  a  drayman,  his  horse  and  dray  ;  a  fanner,  his  horse, 
wagon,  and  yoke  of  oxen.  Widowers  having  unmarried  minor  children, 
widows  and  married  people  having  no  children,  may  have  the  benefit  of  this  act. 
The  wife  may  claim  exemption  when  th«  hua^nd  will  or  cannot,  but  the  two 


SPECIAL  LAWS   OP   OHIO.  893 

tnay  not  claim  exemption  at  the  same  time.  Unmarried  women  may  bold  $108 
of  wearing  apparel,  $25  oC  books,  a  sewing  and  a  knitting  machine,  exempt. 

MECHANICS'  LIEN.— Material  men  and  mechanics,  whether  they  be  contrac- 
tors, sub-contractors  or  laborers,  may  have  a  lien  upon  the  buildings  erected,  and 
the  land  on  which  the  buildings  are  erected,  if  within  four  months  of  the  com- 
pletion of  the  labor  or  furnishing  of  the  materials  they  file  an  account,  under 
path,  of  their  claim,  in  the  county  recorder's  office."  This  account  must  be 
itemized.  If  the  work  be  done  or  materials  furnished  under  a  written  contract, 
such  contract,  or  a  copy  thereof,  must  be  filed  with  the  account.  The  lien  thus 
obtained  dates  back  to  the  commencement  of  the  labor  or  the  furnishing  of 
materials,  and  extends  to  two  years  after  the  completion  of  the  labor  or  the 
furnishing  of  materials. 

COLLECTION  OF  DEBTS.— Arrest  in  civil  actions  can  only  be  made  in  cases  of 
^raud.  The  plaintiff  may  set  forth,  by  affidavit,  fraud  in  the  removal  or  conceal- 
ment of  property,  in  the  contracting  of  the  debt,  or  of  the  conversion  of  the  pro- 
perty into  money.  Escape  of  the  prisoner,  without  the  consent  of  the  creditor, 
Is  not  satisfaction  of  the  debt,  but  non-payment  of  jail  fees,  which  jailer  may  de- 
mand weekly  in  advance,  at  the  rate  of  forty  cents  a  day,  is  constructive  consent. 
This  remedy  is  rarely,  if  ever,  resorted  to. 

Writs  of  attachment  may  bo  obtained  on  one  or  inore  of  the  following 
grounds  :  1.  \Vhenthe  defendant,  or  one  of  several  defendants,  is  a  non-resident 
or  a  foreign  corporation  ;  or,  2.  lias  absconded  with  intent  to  defraud  creditors; 
or,  3.  has  left  the  county  of  his  residence  to  avoid  service  ;  or,  4.  So  conceal* 
himself  that  service  cannot  be  made ;  or,  5.  Is  about  to  remove  his  property  out 
of  the  jurisdiction  with  intent  to  defraud  his  creditors ;  or.  6.  1?  about  to  con- 
vert his  property  into  money  with  like  intent :  or,  7.  Fraudulently  or  criminally 
contracted  the  debt  or  incurred  the  obligation. 

An  attachment  on  the  first  ground  is  only  granted  on  claims  founded  on  judg- 
ment, contract  or  decree .  The  affidavit  in  attachment  may  be  made  at  or  after 
commencement  of  any  suit  by  plaintiff,  his  agent  or  attorney.  Bond  in  attach- 
ment is  in  double  the  amount  of  the  debt  (except  when  obtained  on  the  first 
ground,  when  no  bond  is  required),  executed  by  one  or  more  sureties--it  is  the. 
practice  to  havo  two  sureties — need  not  be  householders.  There  is  no  duty 
imposed  upon  the  creditor  to  publish  any  notice  of  attachment  on  real  estate  -f 
that  is  the  sheriff's  duty.  Attachment  may  be  had  before  the  debt  is  due,  when 
the  defendant  has  disposed,  or  is  about  to  dispose,  of  his  property  with  intent  to 
defraud  or  delay  his  creditors.  Same  law  as  above. 

Assignments  in  trust,  for  the  benefit  of  creditors,  inura  to  the  benefit  of  all 
creditors ;  the  deed  of  assignment,  or  a  copy  thereof,  must  be  filed  within  ten 
days  of  its  execution,  in  the  probate  court  of  the  assignor's  county  of  re- 
•idence,  by  the  assignee.  After  all  liens  and  mortgages,  the  wages  of  laborers 
and  operatives,  performed  within  six  months,  a*id  not  exceeding  one  hundred 
dollars,  are  to  be  first  paid.  Assignment  made  to  secure  sureties  or  endorsers  are 
ralid  in  any  case,  if  for  value.  Every  species  of  contract  or  claim  is  assignable; 
*fce  holder  of  it  must  sue  in  his  own  name. 

^Garnishment  can  bo  issued  on  attachment,  and  a  process  analogous  to  it  on. 
JKCution,  against  any  person  or  corporation  owing  the  debtor  any  moneys,  or 
saving  his  property  in  possession.  In  no  case  is  the  garnishee  allowed  anything 
§ut  his  contain  the  case. 

All  bills,  notes,  or  other  instruments  payable  to  order,  bearer,  or  assignor  are  ne- 
gotiable. They  must  be  put  in  suit  ia  the  name  of  the  real  party  in  interest.  No 
damages  or  attorney's  fees  can  1  e  recovered  in  an  action,  save  when  there  is  an 
express  and  written  clause  in  the  note  or  bill,  allowing  the  recovery  of  such 
damages  or  fees,  in  case  it  shall  have  to  be  sued  upon.  Notarial  protest  is  evi-  . 
dei>ce  of  demand  and  non-payment,  in  the  manner  and  at  the  time  stated  in  the 
protest.^ 

Justices  of  the  peace  have  exclusive  jurisdiction  up  to  9100,  and  concurrent 
jurisdiction  with  common  pleas  and  superior  courts  up  to  $300.  They  have  jur- 
isdiction in  actions  for  trespass  on  real  estate  where  the  damages  do 'not  exceed 
$100,  and  in  actions  for  forcible  entry  and  detention  of  real  estate.  Summons 
issued  by  justices  of  the  peace  must  be  returned  within  twelve  days  of  their 
issue,  and  must  be  served  on  the  defendant  at  least  three  days  before  trial. 

Courts  of  common  pleas  have  original  jurisdiction  in  all  civil  suits  where  the 
amount  exceeds  the  jurisdiction  of  justices,  in  suits  affecting  real  estate,  in 
divorce  and  criminal  prosecution,  and  appellate  jurisdiction  of  cases  before 
justices  of  the  peace  and  probate  judges.  The  superior  courts  of  Cincinnati, 
Cleveland  and  Dayton  have  the  same  jurisdiction  as  courts  of  common  pleas,  ex- 
cept in  divorce,  criminal  law,  and  justices'  appeals.  The  district  courts  hav« 


$94  SPECIAL   LAWS    OP    OHIO. 

Appellate  jurisdiction  of  common  pleas  courts.  The  superior  courts  in 
ral  term  review  the  superior  courts'  decisions  in  special  term.  The  supreme 
court  has  appellate  jurisdiction  of  district  court  and  general  term  of  superior 
court  decisions,  and  original  jurisdiction  in  mandamus,  quowarranto,  habeas  cor-* 
j?us  and  procedcndo. 

Service  of  summons  must  be  made  and  returned,  in  common  pleas  courts,  on  or 
before  the  second  Monday  after  their  date.  Actions  are  triable  the  term  after 
the  issues  are  made  up,  or  if  they  be  made  up  during  a  tt.rm,  at  that  term.  , 

Judgments  of  courts  of  record,  execution  having  issued  on  them  within  on*  ' 
year  of  their  rendition,  are  a  lien  upon  all  real  estate  of  the  judgment  debtor's,,' ' 
situate  in  the  county  where  the  the  judgment  is  rendered,  and  owned  by  him  at , 
that  time,  from  the  first  day  of  the  term  at  which  such  judgment  is  obtained,  and'' 
for  five  years  thereafter.  Every  issue  of  execution  extends  the  lien  for  five  years, 
and  a  judgment  lien  maybe  extended  indefinitely.  Judgments  by  confession, 
and  judgments  obtained  during  the  same  term  at  which  the  action  is  commenced, 
date  from  their  rendition  only,  if  execution  be  not  iseued  in  one  year,  the  judg- 
ment, though  still  a  lien,  dates  only  from  actual  levy  of  execution.  Judgments, 
are  no  lien  on  personal  property  and  on  real  estate  acquired  subsequent  to  the 
date  of  judgment.  Dormant  judgments  may  be  revived  by  new  actions  founded, 
on  them.  Judgments  obtained  before  justices  of  the  peace  may  be  made 
4iens,  by  filing  a  transcript  of  same  in  the  court  of  common  pleas. 

Tn  order  to  prevent  the  priority  of  a  judgment  lien  on  lands,  execution  must 
•be  issued  within  one  year  after  the  rendering  of  judgment.  Actual  levy  must  be 
made  on  personal  property  to  create  a  lien.  Executions  from  justices  of  tha 
peace  cannot  be  levied  on  real  estate. 

All  property,  legal  and  equitable,  is  subject  to  execution,  except  as  qualified 
iby  the  exemption  laws.  Proceedings  in  aid  of  execution  may  be  instituted  at 
any  time  after  judgment  and  execution  by  which  the  debtor,  and  any  one  hav- 
ing property  of  the  debtor's,  may  be  compelled  to  disclose  its  nature  and 
Amount. 

Before  the  return  of  an  execution  issued,  an  order  may  be  granted  by  the 
court  upon  proper  affidavit,  which  will  have  the  force  of  an  attachment,  and  a 
copy  served  on  any  third  party  is  analagous  to  the  proceedings  in  garnishment. 

DEEDS,  RIGHTS  OF  MARRIED  WOMEN,  WILLS,  &c.— Deeds  must  be  under 
eeal,  a  scrawl  is  a  seal,  and  must  be  signed  and  sealed  in  presence  of  two  wit- 
nesses, who  sign  also  as  attesting  the  execution  of  the  instrument,  and  acknow- 
ledged in  presence  of  any  officer  empowered  to  take  depositions.  If  the  grantors 
fce  non-residents,  their  deed,  etc.,  may  be  executed  according  to  the  laws  of  this 
State,  or  according  to  the  laws  of  the  State  where  it  is  executed  and  acknow- 
ledged. Mortgages  in  this  State  date  and  become  liens  only  from  the  time  of 
their  entry  for  record.  All  other  deeds  are  to  be  recorded  within  six  months  of 
'their  execution,  in  order  to  become  notice  as  to  subsequent  purchasers  without 
notice. 

This  is  the  form  where  the  grantor  is  unmarried  : 
STATE  OF  INDIANA,  ) 
COUNTY  OF  STARK,  j  ss 

Be  it  remembered  that  on  (the  date)  before  me,  the  subs«iber  (title  of  officer) 
personally  came  (the  name  of  grantor)  the  grantor  named  T  the  foregoing  in- 
strument, and  acknowledged  the  signing  and  sealing  thereof  to  be  ids  voluntary  act 
and  doed  for  the  uses  and  purposes  therein  mentioned.  Witness  my  hand  and  (if 
the  o:.icer  have  a  seal  of  office  he  will  here  state  :  official)  seal,  on  the  day  and 
year  first  abovj  written. 

[SEAL.]  JOHN  HARPER,   Notary  Public. 

The  wife  must  join  her  husband  in  a  deed  or  power  of  attorney,  whether  the 
fond  be  in  her  own  right,  or  she  have  but  a  dower  interest  therein. 

This  is  the  form  when  the  grantor  is  married  : 
STATE  OF  INDIANA,  ) 
COUNTY  OF  STARK.  f  * 

Be  it  remembered  that  on      .  ,  before  me,  the  subscriber  (John  Harper! 

.notary  public)  personally  came  and  his  wife,  the  grantors  mentioned 

!in  the  foregoing  instrument,  and  acknowledged  the  signing  and  sealing  thereof 
to  be  their  voluntary  act  and  deed  for  the  uses  and  purposes  therein  mentioned. 
And  the  said  ,  wife  of  the  said  ,  being  by  me  examined  separata 

(jnd  apart  from  her  said  husband,  and  the  contents  of  said  instrument  by  me  ex- 
f  Ifdned  and  made  known  to  her,  as  the  statute  directs,  declared  that  she  -!id  vol- 
seal  and  acknowledge  the  same,  and  that  she  is  still  satisfied  there- 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF   OREGON.  895 

with  as  her  act  and  deed  for  the  use  and  purposes  therein  mentioned.    Attesta- 
^tion  same  as  in  unmarried  form. 

A  married  woman  may  own  property,  real  or  personal,  in  her  own  right,  with- 
out the  intervention  of  a  trustee.  She  may  manage  it  herself,  but  cannot  dispose 
of  it  for  any  term  longer  than  three  years,  without  her  husband  joining  her. 
She  may  be  sued  or  sue  alone,  in  actions  concerning  her  seperate  property,  or 
upon  a  written  obligation,  contract  or  agreement  signed  by  her,  or  if  she  be 
engaged  in  any  business,  and  the  cause  of  action  grows  out  of  such  business, 
and  in  all  such  cases  a  personal  judgment  can  be  had  against  her,  and  her  separ- 
ate property  will  be  liable.  In  no  case  shall  she  be  required  to  prosecute  or  de- 
fend by  her  next  friend.  If  her  husband  has  abandoned  her,  she  will  be  con- 
sidered asfemme  sole-  The  widow  shall  be  endowed  with  one-third  part  of  all  the 
lands  owned  by  her  husband  during  coverture. 

Chattel  mortgages  of  every  kind  are  valid,  if  the  instrument  itself,  or  a  tru« 
copy  thereof,  be  deposited  with  the  clerk  of  township  where  the  mortgager  re- 
Bides  ;  or  if  he  be  a  non-resident,  where  the  property  is  situate  at  the  time  of  th« 
«xecution  of  the  mortgage. 

On  every  mortgage  so  filed  the  mortgagee  shall  make  the  following  state- 
ment : 

[Form.] 

STATE  OF  , ) 

COUNTY  OP  . )  ss' 

,  mortgagee,  named  in  this  mortgage,  being  duly  sworn,  makes  oath 
»ml  says  that  his  claim  against  ,  mortgager,  of  which  a  true  statement  i» 

hereto  annexed,  amounts  to  the  sum  of  ,  and  that  said  claim  is  just  and 

unpaid. 

Sworn   to   before   me  and   subscribed    in   my  presence   this  day  of 

,A.D. 

Every  mortgage  so  filed  shall  be  valid  one  year,  and  may  be  renewed  within 
thirty  days  of  the  expiration  of  the  year,  by  refiling  the  original  mortgage,  or  •<* 
copy  of  it,  with  the  statement  as  above.  Each  renewal  is  valid  one  year, 
And  the  mortgage  may  be  so  renewed  indefinitely. 

Wills  mu«t  be  in  writing  and  signed  by  the  testator,  or  by  some  person  in  his 
presence  and  by  his  express  direction,  and  attested  and  subscribed  in  th*  pres- 
ence of  the  testator  by  two  or  more  competent  witnesses.  See  form  No-  46  oa 
page  815. 


SPECIAL   LAWS  OF   OREGON. 

EXEMPTIONS  FROM  FORCED  SALE.— Personal  Property.  The  following  ar« 
exempted  :  Books,  pictures,  and  musical  instruments  to  the  value  of  §75  ;  nece*. 
*ary  wearing  apparel  owned  by  any  person  to  the  value  of  $100,  and  if  such! 
person  be  a  householder,  for  each  member  of  his  family  to  the  vahie  of  $50  ;  the 
tools,  implements,  apparatus,  team,  vehicle,  harness  or  library  necessary  to  en- 
able any  person  to  carry  on  the  trade,  occupation  or  profession  by  which  such 
person  habitually  earns  his  living,  to  the  value  of  §400  ;  also  sufficient  quantity 
of  food  to  support  such  team,  if  any,  for  sixty  days.  The  word  team  includes  only 
one  yoke  of  oxen,  or  a  pair  of  mules  or  horses,  as  the  case  may  be  The  follow- 
ing property,  if  owned  by  a  householder  and  in  actual  use,  or  kept  for  use  by  and 
jior  his  family,  or  when  being  removed  from  one  habitation  to  another  on  a- 
'change  of  residence  :  10  sheep,  with  one  year's  fleece  or  the  yarn  or  cloth  manu- 
factured therefrom ;  2  cows  and  5  swine  ;  household  goods,  furniture  and 
utensils  to  the  value  of  $300  ;  also  sufficient  food  to  support  such  animals,  if  any, 
for  threes  months,  and  provisions  actually  provided  forfamilv  use,  and  necessary 
for  the  support  of  such  household  and  family  for  six  months  ;  the  seat  or  pew 
•ccupied  by  a  householder  or  his  family  in  a  place  of  public  worship  ;  all  property 
of  the  State,  or  any  county,  incorporated  city,  town  or  village  therein,  or  of  any 
other  public  or  municipal  corporation  of  like  character.  No  article  of  property, 
•r  if  the  same  has  been  sold  or  exchanged,  then  neither  the  proceeds  of  such  sale 
or  tha  article  received  in  exchange  therefor,  shall  be  exempt  from  execution 
issued  on  a  judgment  recovered  for  its  prize. 

MECHANICS'  LIEX. — Contractors  for  material  or  labor  on  any  building  have, 
from  the  time  work  is  commenced  thereon,  a  lien  on  the  building  and  the  ground 
ya  which  it  is  situated,  prior  to  all  other  liens  on  the  same  premises  placed  there- 
in ftftec  the  wmjiu.ciioem.eiit  of  work  on.  the  building.  Suit*  must  be  brought 


SPECIAL   LAWS    OF    OREGON. 

within  six  months  after  payments  are  due  under  the  contract,  but  no  credit 
given  on  payments  can  extend  the  lien  beyond  two  years  from  the  comp^tion  of 
the  work.  The  lien  extends  in  favor  of  the  workmen  to  the  extent  of  the  con- 
tract price  ;  if  before  payments  are  due,  they  give  written  notice  of  their  inten.- 
tion  to  hold  the  owner.  And  no  payments  made  to  the  contractor  before  they 
*re  due,  under  the  contract,  can  defeat  this  lien. 

COLLECTION  OF  DEBTS. — Arrest  in  civil  actions  Is  unknown  here,  except  ia 
eases  of  fraud  or  of  absconding  debtors. 

In  actions  for  debt  or  tort,  the  goods  of  defendant  may  be  attached,  whenever 
lie  plaintiff,  or  his  agent,  shall  make  and  file  an  affidavit  that  a  cause  of  action 
exists  against  the  defendant,  and  the  grounds  thereof,  and  that  the  defendant  is  . 
either  r  foreign  corporation  or  a  non-resident  of  this  State,  or  has  departed  there- 
from with  intent  to  delay  or  defraud  his  creditors  or  to  avoid  service  of  summers 
or  keep  himself  concealed  therein  with  like  intent,  or  has  removed  or  is  about  to 
remove  his  property  from  th.3  State  with  intent  to  delay  or  defraud  his  creditors  ; 
that  he  has  assigned,  secreted  or  disposed  of,  or  is  about  to  assign,  secrete  or  dis- 
pose of  any  of  his  property  with  intent  to  delay  or  defraud  his  creditors,  or  that 
the  defendant  has  been  guilty  of  fraud  in  contracting  the  debt  or  incurring  the 
obligation  for  which  the  action  is  brought.  Tho  affidavit  may  be  in  the  alter- 
native as  to  any  of  these  causes,  and  may  be  either  positive  or  upon  information 
and  belief.  But  upon  information  and  belief,  the  nature  and  sources  of  the  ir.- 
f prmation  upon  which  the  belief  is  founded  must  be  stated.  All  property,  or 
right  or  interest  therein,  not  exempt  from  execution,  may  be  attached. 

The  assignment  of  notes,  bills,  accounts,  and  every  kind  of  contract  or  claim 
arising  out  of  contract,  is  valid,  and  action  thereon  must  be  brought  in  the  name 
of  the  real  party  in  interest ;  but  the  action  by  the  assignee,  except  incase  of 
negotiable  promissory  note  or  1111  of  exchange,  transferred  in  good  faith  for  a 
valuable  consideration  before  due,  sh:ill  be  without  prejudice  to  any  set-off  or 
other  defense  existing  at  the  time  of  or  before  notice  of  the  assignment. 

Garnishment  can  be  issued,  cither  on  execution  or  attachment,  against  any 
person  owing  the  debtor  or  having  his  property  in  possession. 

As  to  bills  and  notes,  no  person  is  chargeable  as  an  acceptor  of  a  bill  of  ex- 
change unless  his  acceptance  is  in  •writing,  signed  by  himself  or  his  lawful  agent. 
Giace  is  allowed  on  all  bills  and  notes,  unless  they  contain  an  express  stipulation 
to  the  contrary.  On  bills  of  exchange  drawn  or  endorsed  witkiu  this  State  and 
payable  without  the  limits  of  the  United  States,  duly  protested  for  non-accept- 
ance or  non-payment,  on  due  notice  and  demand  thereof,  the  party  liable  for  the 
contents  of  euch  bill  shall  pay  the  same  at  the  current  rate  of  exchange  at  tha 
time  of  the  demand,  and  damages  at  the  rate  of  ten  per  centum  upon  the  con- 
tents thereof,  together  with  interest  on  such  contents,  to  be  computed  f :  om  the 
date  of  protest ;  said  atnount  of  contents,  damages  and  interest  to  be  in  full  of 
all  damages,  charges  and  expenses.  On  bills  of  exchange  drawn  within  this 
State,  payable  without  this  State,  out  within  the  United  States,  and  protested  for 
non-acceptance  or  non-payment,  the  drawer  or  endorser  thereof,  due  notice 
being  given  of  such  non-acceptance  or  non-payment,  shall  pay  said  bill  with 
legal  interest,  according  to  its  tfeiior,  and  live  per  centum  damages,  together  with 
costs  and  charges  of  protest. 

The  jurisdiction  of  justices  of  the  peace,  in  actions  for  the  recovery  of  money 
or  damages  only,  extends  to  ££50  ;  for  the  recovery  of  specific  personal  property* 
when  the  value  thereof  and  the  damages  for  the  detention  do  not  exceed  $2f<0  ; 
for  the  recovery  of  any  penalty  or  forfeiture,  whether  given  by  statute  or  arising 
out  of  contract,  not  exceeding  $2CO. 

The  county  court  has  exclusive  jurisdiction  in  the  first  instance  of  probate 
matters,  and  has  jurisdiction,  but  not  exclusive,  of  actions  at  law,  and  all  pro- 
ceedings therein  and  connected  therewith,  when  the  claim  or  subject  of  con- 
troversy does  not  exceed  the  value  of  $oOO,  and  exclusive  jurisdiction  of  actions 
Of  forcible  entry  and  detainer,  without  reference  1o  the  value  of  the  property. 

The  circ::it  court  is  clothed  with  all  the  judicial  power,  jurisdiction  and 
authority  not  vested  exclusively  in  some  other  co«rt. 

Service  of  ths  summons  in  county  and.  circuit  courts,  if  made  withiji  the 
county  where  action  is  brought,  mu?t  be  n,ade  ten  days  before  judgment  can  be 
obtained  ;  or,  if  served  within  ary  other  county  in  the  Stale,  twenty  days.  Be- 
fore justices,  service  must  be  made  not  less  than  live,  nor  more  than  twenty  days 
before  clay  set  for  trial. 

Judgments  in  courts  of  record  are  a  lien  from  their  rendition,  and  for  ten 
years  thereafter,  on  all  real  estate  owned  by  the  defendant,  or  subsequently 
acquired  by  him,  ar.d  elt:ur.t< d  i.i  the  crurtv  where  the  Judgment  is  rendered.  No 
execution  can  issue  on  a  judgment  older  than  tea  years,  unless  ou  cau?e  shown. 


1FECLAL   LAWS    OF    OREGON.  897 

Judgments  create  no  lien  on  personal  property.  Judgments  before  justice  can 
be  made  to  create  lien  on.  real  estate  by  filing  a  transcript  of  the  judgment  in  the 
circuit  court. 

Executions  may  issue  the  day  judgment  is  rendered.  They  are  a  lien  onlv 
from  the  time  actually  levied.  Executions  from  justices'  courts  cannot  be  levied 
on  real  estate.  Every  species  of  property,  or  right  or  interest  therein,  is  subject  • 
to  execution,  except  the  exemption.  Redemption  of  real  estate  sold  under  ex« 
ccution  may  be  made  at  any  time  within  sixty  days  after  the  confirmation  of  xti» 
•ale,  but  the  redemptioner,  in  addition  to  the  price  paid  by  the  purchaser,  must 
pay  interest  thereon,  at  the  rate  of  two  per  cent,  per  month,  from  the  date  of 
sale  to  the  date  of  redemption.  w 

DEEDS,  KIGHTS  OF  MARRIED  WOMEX,  &c.— Deeds  must  be  under  seal,  but  ^ 
fcrawl  with  the  pen,  a  wafer,  or  other  adhesive  substance,  is  regarded  as  a  seal. 
They  must  have  two  witnesses ;  and,  to  be  entitled  to  record,  must  be  duly 
acknowledged. 

Acknowledgment,  if  made  in.  this  State,  may  be  made  before  any  pudge  of  the 
supreme  court,  county  court,  justice  of  the  peace  or  notary  public  ;  if  out  of  th» 
State,  before  any  judge  of  a  court  of  record,  notary  public,  justice  of  the  peace, 
or  any  other  officer  authorized  by  the  laws  of  such  State  or  territory,  or  country, 
to  take  acknowledgment  of  deeds  therein,  or  before  a,  commissioner  of  this  State. 
"Unless  the  acknowledgment  be  before  a  commissioner,  when  taken  out  of  this 
State,  there  must  be  a  certificate  of  the  clerk  or  other  proper  certifying  officer  of 
&  court  of  record,  under  tie  seal  of  his  office,  thst  the  person  whose  name  is  sub- 
scribed to  the  certificate  of  acknowledgment  was,  at  the  date  thereof,  such  officer 
as  he  is  therein  represented  to  be  ;  that  he  believes  the  signature  of  such  person 
subscribed  thereunto  to  be  genuine,  and  that  the  deed  is  executed  and  acknowl- 
edged according  to  the  laws  of  such  State,  territory  or  district. 

The  following  is  the  form  of  certificate  of  acknowledgment  when  the  grantor 
ia  unmarried : 
STATE  OF  .1 

COUXTY  OF          ,  5 

Be  it  remembered  that  on  this  day  of  ,  18    ,  before  me,  th» 

undersigned,  a  within  and  for  ,  personally  appeared  A.  B.,  to  me 

personally  known  to  be  the  identical  person  described  in  and  who  executed  the 
foregoing  deed,  and  to  me  acknowledged  that  he  executed  the  same  for  the  uses 
and  purposes  therein  expressed. 

The  following  is  the  form  where  husband  and  wife  join,  the  wife  releasing 
dower  or  conveying  her  own  lands  : 
STATE  OF  OHIO,  )  ec    "     ' 

COUNTY  OF  BUTLER,    {  *' 

Be  it  remembered  that  on  this  day  of  ,  18    ,  before  me,  the  ander- 

eigned,  a  nolrary  public  within  and  for  said  county  and  State,  personally  appeared 
A.  B.  and  his  wile,  C.  D.,  to  me  personally  known  to  be  the  identical  persons  de- 
scribed in  and  who  executed  the  foregoing  deed,  and  to  me  acknowledged  that 
they  executed  the  same  for  the  uses  and  purposes  therein  expressed,  and  the  said 
C.  D.,  wife  of  the  said  A.  B-,  on  a  separate  examination  by  me  made,  separate 
and  apart  from  and  without  the  hearing  of  her  said  husband,  tome  acknowledged 
that  she  executed  the.  same  freely  and  voluntarily  and  without  fear  or  coinpul*' 
!§ion  from  any  one. 

[SEAL.]  JOHX  MORGAK,  Notary  Public. 

In  this  State  married  women  can  hold  real  or  personal  property  in  their  owq 
names,  and  free  from  control  of  or  liability  for  the  debts  of  their  husbands,  but  In 
the  case  of  personal  property  a  schedule  must  be  filed  with  the  county  clerk. 

Chattel  mortgages,  to  be  a  lawful  lien,  must  be  filed  in  the  county  clerk's  office, 
and  are  in  force  for  one  year  only  from  the  date  when  so  filed.  They  may  be  re- 
turned  for  a  further  period  of  one  year  by  the  mortgagee,  within  thirty  day* 
next  preceding  the  expiration  of  the  year,  making  a'. id  annexing  to  the  instru- 
ment on  file  an  affidavit  setting  forth  the  interest  which  the  mortgagee  has  by 
Virtue  of  such  mortgage  in  the  property  therein  mentioned.  Within  thirty  daya 
of  the  expiration  of  the  second  year,  another  affidavit  may  be  made  in  lik« 
•usiinor  and  with  like  effect. 

67 


S98  SPECIAL    LAWS    CF 

SPECIAL   LAWS  OF  PENNSYLVANIA, 

EXEMPTIONS  FROM  FORCED  SALE.— Real  or  Personal  Property,  $300.  Red 
or  personal  property  to  the  extent  of  §300,  besides  wearing  apparel,  bibles  and 
«chool  Looks  and  sewing  machines  in  the  nse  of  the  family,  and  the  arms,  ac- 
coutrements, and  uniform  of  a  soldier.  The  exemption  may  be  waived  in  note 
or  contract. 

MECHANICS'  LIEN. — These  bind  houses  and  lands  from  the  date  of  the  com- 
mencement of  work  on  the  building  (usually  the  cellar  digging) ;  for  all  work 
done  and  materials  furnished  toward  the  erection  and  construction  of  the  build- 
ing ;  provided,  a  lien  for  the  same  be  filed  within  six  months  after  the  worl  hat 
been  done  or  the  materials  furnished.  Liens  may  also  b;)  filed  for  alterations  or 
repairs  ;  they  bind  the  property  from  the  date  of  filing. 

The  debts  of  a  deceased  person  are  a  lien  on  his  real  estate  for  5  years  after 
iib  death  ;  the  lien  may  be  continued  by  suit  brought  within  that  time.  The 
lien  of  judgments  operates  for  5  years  from  date  of  entry,  when  they  must  be 
revived  by  scire  facias.  The  lien  of  a  mortgage  for  purchase  money  is  good  from 
•date  of  mortgage  if  rendered  within  60  days  ;  other  mortgages  from  date  of 
record. 

COLLECTION  OF  DEBTS — Arrest  and  imprisonment  for  debt  is  abolished  in 
all  actions  founded  on  contract,  except  where  such  actions  arise  from  breach 
ot  ^  fiduciary  relation,  and  in  cases  of  fraud.  In  cases  where  imprisonment  still 
exists,  the  debtor  may  be  committed  to  prison  until  he  pays  the  debtor  gives 
bond  to  take  the  benefit  of  the  insolvent  laws. 

The  property  of  a  non-resident  debtor,  who  is  not  within  the  county  at  the 
time  the  writ  is  issued,  may  be  attached  in  civil  actions.  The  property  of  a  resi- 
dent debtor  may  be  attached  upon  affidavit,  that  the  defendant  is  justly  indebted 
to  him  in  a  sum  exceeding  $100,  and  setting  forth  the  nature  ot  indebtedness, 
and  that  the  defendant  is  about  to  remove  his  property  out  of  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  court  with  intent  to  defraud  his  creditors,  or  th&t  the  defendant  has  trans- 
ferred, assigned  or  removed,  or  is  about  to  transfer,  assign  or  remove  his  proper* 
ty  with  intent  to  defraud  his  creditors,  or  that  he  has  property,  rights  in  action, 
interest  in  any  public  or  corporate  stock,  or  evidences  of  debt,  which  he  fraudu- 
lently conceals  and  refuses  to  apply  to  the  payment  of  his  aeDis.  Plaintiff  must 
cive  bond  of  indemnity  in  double  the  amount  claimed,  with  sufficient  sureties,  to 
fee  approved  by  the  court  before  the  attachment  issues.  Attachments  may  be  is- 
sued in  the  nature  of  an  execution,  after  final  judgment,  which  is  a  means  of 
reaching  the  property  of  the  defendant  in  the  hands 'or  custody  of  another. 

Assignments  for  the  benefit  of  creditors,  must  be  recorded  within  30  days  after 
date,  or  they  become  void  as  to  creditors.  Preference  in  assignments  are  void, 
and  fall  into  the  general  fund,  except  as  to  wages  due  laborers,  miners  and 
•operatives,  who  are  preferred  to  the  extent  of  §100.  One  partner  may  make  gen- 
eral assignment  of  partnership  property  for  benefit  of  creditors. 

A  judgment  is  a  lien  on  all  the  real  estate  of  the  defendant  within  the  county 
in  which  it  is  obtained.  Its  lien  continues  5  years,  after  which  it  must  be  revived 
or  continued  by  scire  facias.  Does  not  bind  after-acquired  property  unless 
levied  thereon  or  revive'd.  An  execution  binds  personal  property  of  the  defend- 
ant from  the  time  it  is  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  sheriff,  but  executions  issued 
by  a  justice  of  the  peace  only  bind  from  time  of  actual  levy.  When  personal 
property  or  any  leased  premises  is  taken  in  execution,  the  landlord  is  entitled  to 
one  year's  rent  out  of  the  proceeds  of  sale. 

To  stay  execution  defendant  may  plead  his  freehold,  that  is,  allege  his  owner- 
ship of  unencumbered  real  estate,  or  put  in  special  bail,  and  thereupon  shall  be 
•entitled  to  stay  of  execution  as  follows  :  If  under  $200,  six  months  :  if  over  $200 
and  less  than  $500,  nine  months  ;  if  over  §500,  twelve  months.  This  does  not 
apply  to  actions  on  judgments,  mortgages  or  bail  for  stay  of  execution  on  former 
judgments. 

In  tax  sales,  unseated  lands  may  be  sold  after  one  year's  taxes  are  due,  but 
may  be  redeemed  by  owner  within  2  years  on  payment  of  amount  of  sale,  costs, 
Interest,  and  25  per  cent,  penalty.  Improved  lands  may  be  sold  for  non-payment 
of  2  years'  taxes,  but  must  be  redeemed  within  one  year  after  notice  of  sale.  ID 
Philadelphia,  2  years  are  allowed  to  redeem  debts,  not  of  record  on  a  lien  on  the 
estate  of  the  deceased  person  for  five  years,  and  may  be  continued  for  five  years 
longer  by  suit  commenced  Within  that  time.  In  case  the  personal  estate  of  a  de- 
cedent is  not  sufficient  for  the  payment  of  his  debts,  the  orphans'  court  will 
direct  the  sale  of  the  realty.  The  widow  and  children  of  a  deceased  person  are 
entitled  to  $300  out  of  his  real  or  personal  estate. 


SPECIAL   LAWS    OF    PENNSYL^ A*rtA.  899 

DEEDS,  BIGHTS  OF  MARRIED  WOMEN,  WILLS,  &c.— Deeds  must  ue  under  seal, 
A  scrawl  is  not  sufficient,  and  should  be  attested  by  two  witnesses.  Acknowl- 
edgment of  deeds  may  be  taken  in  the  State,  by  justices  of  the  Supreme  court  o* 
Pennsylvania,  judges  of  the  courts  of  common  pleas,  mayor,  recorder,  and  alder- 
man, of  Philadelphia,  Pittsburg,  Alleghany  and  Carbondale,  the  recorders  of 
tleeds,  the  notaries  public,  and  all  justices  of  the  peace. 

Out  of  the  State  acknowledgment  may  be  taken  by  the  mayor  or  chief  magis- 
trate of  the  city,  town,  or  place  where  the  deed  is  executed  (under  the  public 
seal)  ;  any  justice  or  judge  of  the  supreme  or  superior  court,  or  court  of  common 
pleas,  or  of  any  court  of  probate,  or  court  of  record,  or  any  State  or  territoy  in 
the  United  Stages  (certified  under  the  hand  of  the  judge  and  the  seal  of  the 
court)  •  by  any  judge  of  the  United  States  supreme  court,  or  of  any  United  States 
district  court  ;  by  an  officer  or  magistrate  of  any  State  or  territory  in  the  United 
States  who  is  authorized  by  the  laws  of  his  own  State  or  territory  to  take  ac- 
knov/ledgments  therein.  The  proof  of  such  authority  is  the  certificate  of  the 
clerk  or  protbonotary  of  any  court  of  record  in  such  State,  under  seal  of  the 
court,  that  the  officer  taking  such  acknowledgment  is  duly  qualified  to  take  the 
same  ;  by  ambassadors  and  other  public  ministers  of  the  United  States  (under 
•official  seal)  ;  consuls  and  vice-consuls  of  the  United  States  (under  consular 
Seal)  ;  by  any  notary  public  in  any  State  or  territory  in  the  United  States,  or  in 
anv  foreign  country  ;  by  commissioners  appointed  by  the  Governor  in  any  State, 
territory  or  foreign  country,  whose  commissions  last  five  years  unless  sooner  re- 
voked. And,  where  the  person  making  the  acknowledgment  is  in  the  military 
service  of  the  United  States,  before  any  person  holding  the  rank  of  major,  or  any 
higher  rank,  in  said  military  service.  Proof  of  the  execution  of  a  deed  may  be 
made  by  the  affidavit  of  a  subscribing  witness.  Powers  of  attorney  relating  to 
real  esta*je  must  be  acknowledged  the  same  as  deeds.  Acknowledgments  taken 
by  notaries  public  or  commissioners  of  deeds  need  not  be  certified. 

No  deed  or  contract  relating  to  the  real  estate  by  a  wife  is  binding  upon  her, 
tinless  acknowledged  substantially  as  below  : 

[Certificate  of  Acknowledgment  by  Husband  and  Wife.] 
STATE  OF  PENNSYLVANIA,   \ 
•COUNTY  OF  LEIIIGH.  j 

Be  it  remembered  chat,  on  the  day  of  ,  A.  D.  187    ,  before 

me  (here  insert  name  and  title  of  official),  duly  commissioned  in  and  for  said 
county,  came  and  ,  his  wife,  and  acknowledged  indenture  to  be 

"their  act  and  deed,  and  desired  the  same  to  be  recorded  as  such.  She,  the  said  , 
being  of  lawful  age,  and  by  me  examined  separate  and  apart  from  her  said  hus- 
band, and  the  contents  or  said  deed  being  first  fully  made  known  to  her,  did 
thereupon  declare  that  she  did,  voluntarily  and  of  h^r  own  free  will  and  accord, 
sign  and  seal,  and  as  her  act  and  deed  deliver  the  same,  without  any  coercion  or 
•compulsion  of  her  said  husband. 

Witness  my  hand  and  seal,  the  day  and  year  aforesaid. 

[SEAL.]  (Signature  and  title.) 

[Proof  by  Subscribing  Witness.] 
^TATE  OF  PENNSYLVANIA,  )  „ 
COUNTY  OF  LEAIGH.  j 

Be  it  remembered  that,  on  the  day  of  ,  A.  D.  1ST    ,  b»- 

fo»-e  me  (here  insert  name  and  title  of  official),  duly  commissioned  in  and  for 
said  county,  personally  appeared  ,  on«  of  the  subscribing  witnesses  to 

the  execution  of  the  above  indenture,  who  being  duly  sworn  (or  affirmed)  accord- 
ing to  law,  doth  depose  and  say  that  he  did  see  ,  the  grantor  above  named, 
•i'jpj  and  seal,  and  as  his  act  and  deed  deliver  the  above  indenture  (deed  or  con- 
veyance) for  the  use  and  purposes  therein  mentioned,  and  that  he  did  also  seo 
subscribe  his  name  thereto  as  the  other  witness  of  such  sealing  and 
d ali very,  and  that  the  name  of  this  deponent,  thereunto  set  and  subscribed  as  a 
witness,  is  of  this  deponent's  own  proper  hand-writing. 

Sworn  (or  affirmed)  to  and  subscribed  before  me  the  day  and  year  aforesaid 

Witness  my  hand  and  official  seal. 

[S2AL.]  (Signature  and  title.) 

A  married  woman  may  hold  and  enjoy  as  her  own  separate  property  all  such 
.as  she  owned  at  the  time  of  her  marriage,  and  all  such  as  may  descend  to  or  vest 
in  her  during  her  coverture,  and  such  is  not  liable  for  any  debts  or  engageme»ts 
of  her  husband.  A  married  woman  may  petition  the  court  for  leave  to  enjoy  her 
own  earning*,  which  will  be  allowed  ;  her  separate  estate  ie,  however,  liable  for. 
•necessaries  purchased  by  herself  for  the  use  of  her  family.  She  cannot  make  a 
valid  contract  except  for  tho  improvement  of  her  separate  estate  and  for  necw 


900  SPECIAL    LAWS    OF    RHODE    ISLAND. 

saries.    She  may  make  a  will  of  her  separate  estate,  subject  to  her  husband'i 
rights  as  tenant  by  the  courtesy. 

Wills  must  in  writing  :  and,  unless  the  person  making  the  same  shall  be  pre- 
vented by  the  extremity  of  his  last  sickness,  shall  be  signed  by  him  at  the  end 
thereof,  or  bv  some  person  in  his  presence  and  by  his  express  direction,  and  in 
Jill  cases  shall  be  proved  by  the  oaths  or  affirmation  of  two  or  more  competent 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  RHODE  ISLAND. 

EXEMPTIONS  FROM  FORCED  SALE. — N~o  Home  Exempted,  but  Personal  Prop- 
trrty. — Householders  are  entitled  to  hold  the  following  exempt  from  execution  : 
The  necessary  wearing  apparel  of  the  debtor  and  his  family  ;  his  necessary  work- 
ing tools,  to  value  of  $200  ;  his  household  furniture  and  family  stores,  to  the  value 
of  $ 300  ;  one  cow ;  one  hog  and  one  pig,  and  the  pork  of  the  same  ;  debts  secured 
by  bills  of  exchange  on  negotiable  promissory  notes. 

MECHANICS'  LIEN.— Mechanics  have  a  lien  for  labor,  or  labor  combined  with 
tnaterials  furnished,  which,  in  the  case  of  an  original  contractor,  must  be  prose- 
cuted within  six  months,  and  in  case  of  a  sub-contractor  or  day  laborer,  withip 
thirty  days  after  commencing  the  work ;  but  no  landlord  is  bound  for  the  im- 
provements made  by  the  tenant,  nor  a  married  woman,  under  any  circumstances, 
unless  the  contract  is  in  writing,  assented  to  by  them,  and  is  clearly  intended  to 
bind  them. 

COLLECTION  OF  DEBTS. — The  defendant  may  be  arrested  in  all  cases  of  torts, 
where  the  form  of  the  actions,  as  trover  or  trespass,  or  the  necessary  allegations 
of  the  writ,  make  a  prlmct  facie  case  of  tort ;  in  actions  of  debt,  convenant  and 
assumpsit,  which  cover  almost  all  collections.  No  arrest  of  females  can  be  had, 
on  original  writs,  but  males  maybe  arrested  on  original  writ  in  the  following 
cases:  1.  In  case  of  claims  originating  before  July  1, 1«s70.  2-  Where  the  plaintiff, 
his  agent  or  attorney,  makes  affidavit,  on  the  back  of  the  writ,  "  that  the  plaintiff 
has  a  just  claim  against  the  defendant,  upon  which  the  plaintiff  expects  to  re- 
cover, in  the  action  commenced  by  such  writ,  a  sum  sufficient  to  give  jurisdiction 
to  the  court  to  which  such  writ  is  returnable  ;  and  also,"  either  "  that  the  de- 
fendant, or  some  one  of  the  defendants,  is  about  to  leave  the  State,  without  leav- 
ing therein  personal  or  real  estate  upon  which  an  execution,  that  may  be  obtained 
in  such  action,  can  be  served  ;"  or,  "  that  the  defendant,  or  some  one  of  the  de- 
fendants, has  committed  fraud  in  contracting  the  debt  upon  which  the  action  is 
founded,  or  in  the  concealment  of  his  property,  or  in  the  disposition  of  th» 
•ame." 

To  obtain  a  writ  of  attachment,  the  plaintiff  must  make  affidavit  that  the  de- 
fendant owes  him  justly  the  claim  set  forth,  and  which  must  be  a  sum  sufficient 
to  give  the  court  jurisdiction  ;  that  defendant  resides  out  of  the  State,  or  has  left 
the  State,  and  is  not  expected  to  return  in  season  to  be  served  with  process  before 
the  next  term  of  the  court ;  or  that  he  has  committed  fraud  in  contracting  th<* 
debt  sued  on,  or  in  concealing  his  property,  or  in  disposing  of  the  same  fraudu- 
lently, and  all  the  legal  interest  of  the  defendant  in  property  can  be  attache  I, 
txcept  what  is  exempt  from  execution. 

Assignments  made  for  the  benefit  of  creditors  are  valid  whether  a  preference 
is  shown  or  not,  except  where  the  grantor  is  imprisoned  on  execution.  Assign- 
ments or  other  conveyances,  given  as  security  for  past,  present  or  future  endorse- 
ments, if  made  in  good  faith,  are  valid,  subject,  of  course,  to  the  provisions  of  the 
bankrupt  act. 

Assignees  of  contracts  or  claims,  other  than  bills  of  exchange  or  negotiable- 
JJromissory  notes,  must  sue  in  the  name  of  the  assignor,  unless  they  can  prove  a 
Special  promise  by  the  defendant  to  pay  to  them. 

The  usages  relating  to  notes  and  bills  are  governed  by  th*  common  law.  For- 
eign bills  drawn  or  endorsed  within  this  State  and  returned  protested  from  with- 
out the  United  States,  are  subject  to  10  per  cent,  damages  and  interest.  The 
holder  of  such  protested  bill  may  sue  the  drawers  an,d  endorsers  jointly-  Foreign 
kills  of  exchange  drawn  or  endoVsed  in  this  State  and  returned  to  this  State  pro- 
tested for  non-acceptance  or  non-payment,  from  any  place  without  the  limits  of 
the  United  States,  are  subject  to  payment  of  10  per  cent,  damages,  besides  protest 
fees.  Inland  bills  drawn  or  endorsed  in  this  State  are  subject  to  5  per  cent, 
damages,  besides  protest  fees.  Billb  drawn  at  sight,  payable  in  this  State,  ar* 
4ue  on  presentation,  without  grace.  Notes,  for  the  payment  of  uioiu>y,  only  arr 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OP  RHODE  ISLAND  901 

••sigrtable  and  negotiable  like  bills  of  exchange.  Legal  holidays  are  4th  of  July, 
Christmas  day  and  February  22nd  ;  also,  any  days  appointed  by  the  Governor, 
Legislature  or  President  of  the  United  States  as  days  of  thanksgiving  or  holidays. 
Paper  maturing  on  any  of  those  days  must  be  protested  the  day  preceding  those 
holidays,  severally,  at  his  election.  Foreign  bills  drawn  or  endorsed  in  this  State 
and  returned  protested  from  without  the  State  and  within  the  United  States,  are 
subject  to  five  per  cent,  damages  and  interest.  Sight  bills  are  without  grace. 
Other  bills  and  notes  have  three  days'  grace,  except  the  last  day  be  Sunday  or  a 
holiday  they  are  payable  the  last  secular  day  preceding.  Holidays  are  July  4, 
Christmas,  February  22,  and  all  duly  appointed  thanksgiving  and  fast  days. 
Corporations  are  authorized  to  issue  promissory  notea  signed  oy  their  proper 
officers. 

The  jurisdiction  of  justice  courts  extend  to  $100 ;  the  court  of  common  plea* 
has  original  jurisdiction  in  actions  for  $100  and  upwards,  and  has  exclusive  juris- 
diction on  appeals  from  justice's  courts.  The  supreme  court  has  exclusive  juris- 
diction in  equity  causes  appellate  from  the  court  of  common  pleas. 

Judgments  are  not  a  lien  on  real  estate,  and  only  binds  the  property  seized  by 
the  attachment. 

Execution  issues  after  the  rising  of  the  court,  or,  In  the  county  of  Provider)  e«^ 
five  days  after  judgment,  except  on  motion,  when  they  may  t/e  granted  imme- 
diately. They  are  to  be  levied  on  property  previously  attached,  before  the  return 
day  (the  first  day  of  the  next  term),  or  the  attachments  are  released.  But  where 
the  property  is  replevied,  and,  bv  the  final  judgment  in  replevin,  is  restored  to  the 
officer,  it  must  be  levied  on  witL.n.  20  days  after  it  is  returned  and  becomes  sub» 
lect  to  levy.  Executions  bind  nothing  except  what  they  are  levied  upon. 
They  may  be  levied  upon  anytHng  that  may  be  attached  on  original 
writ,  and  executions  of  justices'  courts  may  be  levied  ou  real  estate,  but  no  exe» 
cution  can  be  served  by  garnishment  or  trustee  process.  In  such  cases,  where 
there  has  been  no  previous  attaching**.,  the  only  available  mode  of  procedure  is 
by  a  new  suit  on  the  judgment  Executions  may  also  be  served  by  arrest  of  the 
body  of  a  defendant,  not  exempt  from  arrest,  in  actions  for  tort,  or  for  the  recov- 
ery of  debts  incurred  before  March  31, 1870,  or  where  the  defendant  was  arrested 
on  the  original  writ  or  on  a  writ  of  mcsne  process,  or  where  proof  is  made  show- 
ing, to  the  satisfaction  of  the  court  or  some  justice  thereof,  facts  which  would 
have  authorized  an  arrest  in  the  first  instance,  but  no  female  can  be  imprisoned 
on  a  debt  less  than  $50,  not  under  seal.  There  is  no  redemption  f  01  execution 
tales. 

DEEDS,  BIGHTS  OP  MARRIED  WOME^,  WILLS,  &cf— Every  deed  of  real  estate 


the  United  States,  acknowledgments  may  be  taken  by  any  judge,  justice  of  the 
peace,  mayor  or  notary  public,  or  any  commissioner  appointed  by  the  Governor 
of  the  State  and  duly  qualified.  As  it  has  never  been  determined  how  long  sucn 
an  appointment  as  commissioner,  and  as  some  presume  to  act  by  virtue  of  old  of 
uncertain  appointment,  it  is  better  to  resort  to  some  one  of  the  local  official^ 
named  above — of  course,  selecting  one  whose  official  character  could  be  easily 
proved.  Without  the  United  States,  deeds  may  be  acknowledged  before  any 
minister  or  consul  of  the  United  States,  or  any  commissioner  appointed  by  the 
Governor  and  duly  qualified. 

The  following  form  is  used  in  taking  the  acknowledgment  of  a  deed  where  it 
necessary  for  husband  and  wife  to  acknowledge  the  same,  and  can  easily  b* 
where  a  single  man  or  woman  makes  the  acknowledgment: 
STATE  OF  RHODE  ISLAKD,  ) 
CotrxiY  OF  PROVIDENCE.  )     ' 

Be  It  remembered  that,  on  this  day  of  ,  A.  D.  187    ,  beforf 

me,  Joseph  Perkins,  a  notary  public  duly  qualified,  etc.,  personally  appeared  A. 
B.  and  C.  p.,  his  wife,  and  the  said  A.  B.  acknowledged  the  foregoing  instnv 
went,  by  him  signed,  to  be  his  free  and  voluntary  act  and  deed ;  and  the  said  C. 
D.,  being  by  me  examined  privily  and  apart  from  her  said  husband,  and  having 
•aid  instrument  shown  and  explained  to  her  by  me,  declared  to  me  that  it  i»  he» 
voluntary  act,  and  that  she  does  not  wish  to  retract  the  same. 

In  witness  whereof,  I  have  set  my  hand  and  seal  at  Providence,  R.  I.,  the  day 
ftnd  year  above  written. 

JOSEPH  PERKIXS.  Notary  Public. 

The  wife  must  join  in  the  execution  of  a  deed  made  by  the  hasband,  to  r»U» 
.  dower  ;  yet  the  husband  alone  is  required  to  acknowledge  iU 


902  SPECIAL    LAWS    OF    SOUTH    CAROLINA. 

Married  women  hold  real  and  personal  estate,  not  coming  from  the  husband* 
free  from  all  interference  of  the  husband's  creditors,  and  free  from  the  husband's 
interference  by  means  of  trustees  appointed  in  the  ordinary  manner,  or  by  th» 
supreme  court  on  petition.  They  are  not  authorized  to  do  business  as  traders. 
They  may  sell  their  personal  estate  in  the  same  manner  as  their  real  estate,  and 
certain  unimportant  kinds,  such  as  clothing,  books  and  similar  personal  articled, 
except  jewels,  they  may  sell  as  if  single.  Their  other  contracts,  except  then 
warranties  in  conveyances  of  real  estate,  are  utterly  void  and  do  not  bind  their 
separate  estate. 

Wills  must  be  in  writing,  signed  by  the  testator,  or  by  some  one  in  his  pres- 
tnce,  and  by  his  express  direction,  and  attested  and  subscribed  in  the  presence  of 
the  testator,  by  two  or  three  competent  witnesses. 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  SOUTH  CAROLINA. 

< 

EXEMPTIONS  FROM  FORCED  SALE.— Home  worth  $1000,  Personal  Property 
500.  A  homestead  to  the  head  of  each  family,  his  widow  or  the  orphan  minors, 
,ot  to  exceed  $1000.  Also,  personal  property,  as  follows  :  "  Household  furni- 
ture, beds  and  bedding,  family  library,  arms,  carts,  wagons,  farming  implements, 
tools,  neat  cattle,  work  animals,  swine,  goats  and  sheep,  not  to  exceed  in  value 
in  the  aggregate  $500, — except  the  homestead  cannot  be  held  exempt  from  exe- 
cution issued  on  a  judgment  obtained  for  the  purchase  money  of  the  same,  or  for 
improvements  made  thereon,  or  taxes  due  thereon."  One-third  of  yearly  pro- 
ceeds of  persons  not  the  head  of  family  is  exempt,  except  as  against  taxes. 

MECHANICS'  LIEN. — All  persons  who  furnish  materials  or  perform  labor  in 
the  erection,  improvement  or  repairing  of  buildings,  have  a  statutory  lien  on  the 
eame,  to  the  extent  of  the  interest  of  the  party  who  had  the  buildings  erected  or 
improvements  done  ;  provided,  that  within  ninety  days  after  he  ceases  to  labor 
a  proper  account  be  filed  with  the  clerk  of  the  court  and  suit  thereon  be  begun  in 
eix  months. 

COLLECTION  OF  DEBTS.— A  debtor  may  be  arrested  upon  an  order  from  the 
court  where  the  action  is  pending,  upon  an  affidavit  that  he  has  removed  or  dis- 
posed of  his  property,  or  is  about  to  do  so  with  intent  to  defraud  his  creditors,  or 
has  been  guilty  of  a  fraud  in  contracting  the  debt  sued  for,  or  is  concealing  or 
disposing  of  the  property,  for  the  taking,  detention  or  conversion  of  which  the 
action  is  brought ;  or  where  the  action  is  brought  for  damages  for  fraud  or  de- 
ceit, or  for  money  received  and  embezzled  or  fraudulently  misapplied  by  a 
public  officer,  agent  or  officer  ol  a  corporation,  factor,  agent,  broker,  attorney- 
atrlaw,  or  one  acting  in  any  fiduciary  capacity,  or  for  misconduct  or  neglect  in 
office  or  professional  employment,  or  where  he  is  a  non-resident  of  this  State,  or  is 
about  to  remove  therefrom  ;  or  when  the  action  is  for  injury  to  person  or  char- 
acter;  or  for  injuring  or  for  wrongful  taking;  detaining  or  converting  property. 
No  female  can  be  arrested,  except  for  wilful  in  jury  to  property,  person  or  char- 
acter. 

A  writ  of  attachment  may  issue  for  the  following  causes  :  1.  When  the  de- 
fendant is  a  non-resident,  or  a  foreign  corporation.  2.  Or  where  he  has  abscond- 
ed or  concealed  himself  to  avoid  service  of  summons.  3-  Or  is  about  to  remove 
Jiis  ^i-operty  from  the  State  with  intent  to  defraud  creditors.  4.  Or  has  assigned, 
or  disposed  of,  or  secreted,  or  is  about  to  assign,  dispose  of  or  secrete  his  property, 
for  the  purpose  of  defrauding  his  creditors. 

Debtors,  in  making  assignments,  can  prefer  any,  or  any  class  of  creditors,  and 
make  any  provisions  for  the  administration  of  the  property,  only  cannot  retain 
any  advantage  or  benefit  to  himself.  The  assignee  must,  within  ten  days,  call  a 
meeting  of  creditors,  to  appoint  an  agent  of  creditors  to  act  with  him,  who  has 
joint  control  of  the  property.  If  no  agent  is  elected,  the  assignee  is  both  assignee 
and  agent.  Assignments  to  secure  sureties  or  endorsers,  prior  to  any  payment 
by  them,  are  valid.  In  fact,  assignments,  free  from  fraud,  for  any  purpose,  are, 
valid,  and  can  be  set  aside  only  in  bankruptcy,  according  to  the  rules  of  the 
bankrupt  act.  Notes,  bills,  accounts  and  all  choses  in  action  are  assignable. 
The  assignee  should  sue  in  his  own  name. 

As  to  notes  and  bills,  the  principles  of  the  common  law  apply  to  notes  and 
bills  of  exchange,  and  negotiable  papers  of  all  kinds,  as  to  endorsement,  presen- 
*»tion  and  protest.  Mo  protest  is  necessary  011  a  bill  for  less  than  $100,  and  all 
bills,  foreign  and  domestic,  payable  at  sight,  &re  entitled  to  days  of  grace. 

Endorser  or  acceptor  not  liable.,  unless  the  endorsement  or  acceptance  be  i» 


SPECIAL   LAWS     OF    SOUTH    CAROLINA.  90tfc 

uniting  on  the  note  or  draft,  or  protest  be  made  for  non-acceptance.  Drawer* 
and  endorsers  may  be  sued  jointly  and  severally.  All  bills  or  promissory  note* 
payable  to  order  or  bearer  under  Si,  are  void. 

Justices'  courts  have  jurisdiction  to  the  extent  of  $100,  and  have  concurrent 
jurisdiction  'with  the  court  of  common  pleas.  The  court  of  common  pleas  has 
exclusive  jurisdiction  in  all  cases  appealed  from  justices  of  the  peace,  and  orig- 
'  inal  and  exclusive  jurisdiction  in  all  actions  at  law  or  equity  where  the  amount 
sued  for  exceeds  §100.  If  the  debt  recovered  in  the  common  pleas  court  is  less 
than  $50,  the  plaintiff  must  pay  costs.  The  Supreme  Court  has  appellate  juris- 
diction of  all  cases  in  equity  from  court  of  common  pleas  ;  corrects  errors  of  la* 
in  cases  at  law  from  such  courts,  and  has  original  power  to  issue  writs  of  injunc- 
tion, mandamus,  quo  warranto,  habeas  corpus,  and  such  other  remedial  writs  as 
are  necessary  to  give  it  a  general  supervisory  control  over  all  the  courts  in  the 
State. 

Judgment,  as  soon  as  entered,  binds  all  real  estate  in  that  county,  and  can  be, 
entered  at  same  time  in  several  counties,  but  binds  personal  property  only  on 
levy,  constructive  or  actual. 

Execution  may  issue  at  once  after  judgment,  unless  the  court  open  a  special 
day  for  the  entry  of  judgments,  or  unless  a  notice  of  an  appeal  is  given,  and  then 
it  can  issue,  if  plaintiff  will  execute  to  the  defendant  a  bond,  with  good  sureties 
in  double  the  value  of  judgment,  to  pay  all  damages  sustained  by  the  defendant 
in  case  the  judgment  is  reversed.  Even  then  the  defendant  can  still  secure  the> 
stay  of  the  execution  until  the  appeal  is  disposed  of,  if  he  will  execute  a  counter 
bond  to  plaintiff  to  pay  him  the  debt,  costs  and  damages,  if  the  judgment  bo  sus- 
tained. There  is  no  redemption  of  property  sold  under  execution. 

DEEDS,  RIGHTS  OF  MARRIED  WOMEN,  WILLS,  &c — Deeds  of  conveyance  of 
real  estate  must  be  in  writing,  and  signed  in  the  presence  of  at  least  two  witnesses, 
and  must  be  recorded  in  the  county  where  the  land  lies  in  thirty-three  days  after 
same  is  acknowledged.  If  acknowledged  in  this  State,  it  must  be  done  before* 
%  notary  public  or  trial  justice  ;  without  the  State,  before  a  commissioner  of  this 
State  only.  Before  the  deed  can  be  properly  admitted  to  probate,  one  of  the* 
subscribing  witnesses  must  go  before  a  notary  public  or  trial  justice,  if  he  is  ia 
this  State,  or  before  a  commissioner  for  this  State  if  he  is  without  the  State,  and 
make  affidavit  that  he  saw  the  grantor  sign,  seal  and,  as  his  act  and  deed,  de- 
liver that  deed,  and  that  he,  with  the  other  subscribing  witness,  naming  him,  did 
-  witness  the  execution  thereof.  And  the  officer  before  whom  such  affidavit  ia 
made  must  add  this  certificate,  which  must  be  signed  by  the  witness  : 
STATE  OF  SOUTH  CAROLINA,  ) 
COUNTY  OF  CHARLESTON.  J  "*• 

Personally  appeared  before  me  A.  B.,  and  made  oath  that  he  saw  C.  D.  sign, 
seal  and  deliver  the  within  conveyance,  for  the  uses  and  purposes  therein  men- 
tioned, and  that  he,  with  E.  F.,  in  the  presence  of  each  other,  witnessed  the  da* 
execution  thereof.  A.  B. 

Sworn  to  before  me  this  day  of  ,  A.  D.  187   . 

(Signature  and  title  of  officer.) 

If  the  grantor  has  a  wife,  she  should  renounce  her  dower  before  a  notary  pub- 
lic «r  trial  justice,  \i  within  the  State,  or  before  a  commissioner  of  deeds  for  th* 
•tate  if  outside  of  it,  and  the  officer  will  use  this  form  : 
*    STATE  OF  SOUTH  CAROLINA,  ) 
COUNTY  OF  CHARLESTON.        )   s* 

I  (here  insert  name  and  title  of  officer),  do  hereby  certify  unto  all  whom  It 
may  concern,  that  G.  H. ,  the  wife  of  the  within-named  C.  D.,  did  this  day  appear 
fcefore  me,  and  upon  being  privately  and  separately  examined  by  me,  did  declare 
that  she  does  freely,  voluntary,  release  and  forever  relinquish  unto  the  within- 
tamed  John  Smith,  his  heirs  and  assigns,  all  her  interest  and  estate,  and  also  all 
her  right  and  claim  of  dower,  of,  in.  or  to  all  and  singular  the  premises  within  \ 
mentioned  and  released. 

(Signed  by  wife.> 

Given  under  my  hand  and  seal  this  day  of  ,  A.  D.  187    . 

[SEAL.]  (Signature  and  title  of  officer.) 

All  the  property,  both  real  and  personal,  belonging  to  a  woman  at  the  time  of  he* 
marriage,  and  all  which  she  acquires  during  coverture  by  gift,  grant,  inheritance 
.  or  devise,  shall  remain  her  sole  and  separate  property  free  from  the  debts  of  her 
husband,  and  may  be  disposed  of  by  her.  by  deed,  will  or  otherwise,  in  the  sam« 
manner  as  if  she  were  unmarried  ;  provided,  no  gift  from  husband  shall  injur* 
the  }ust  claims  of  her  creditors,  She  must,  aa  previously  stated,  relinquish  bat 
dower. 


904  SPECIAL   LAWS    OP    TENNESSEE. 

Chattel  mortgages  of  perishable  goods,  of  goods,  wares,  and  merchandise,  U 
fact,  of  any  personal  property,  are  valid,  if  recorded  within  sixty  days  in  tht 
office  of  the  registrar  of  mesne  conveyances  in  the  county  wherein  the  property 
Is  situated.  In  all  counties,  except  Charleston,  the  clerk  of  the  court  of  common 
pleas  it  exofficlo  registrar. 

Wills  must  be  in  writing,  signed  by  the  testator,  or  some  person  in  his  presence 
and  by  his  express  direction,  and  attested  and  subscribed  in  the  presence  of  the 
testator  by  three  or  more  competent  witnesses.  See  Business  Form,  No.  45,  p. 


SPECIAL   LAWS  OF  TENNESSEE. 

EXEMPTIONS  FROM  FORCED  SALE.— Home  renrth  $1000,  and  Personal  Prop- 
erty.  The  following  property  is  exempt  for  garnishment,  execution,  or  attach- 
ment :  Thirty  dollars  of  the  wages  of  mechanics  or  other  laboring  men  in  the 
hands  of  heads  of  families,  two  beds,  bedsteads  and  necessary  clothing  for  each, 
and  for  each  three  children  of  one  family,  one  additional  bed,  bedstead  and 
clothing,  the  value  of  such  bedsteads  in  no  case 'to  exceed  $25  ;  2  cowa  and  calves, 
and  if  the  family  consist  of  6  or  more  persons,  3  cows  and  calves,  etc. ;  2  horses  or 
2  mules,  or  1  horse  and  1  mule,  and  1  yoke  of  oxen  ;  1  wagon  or  cart,  etc.,  not  to 
exceed  in  value  $75 ;  25  Ibs.  corn ;  20  bushels  wheat ;  500  bundles  oats,  etc.  ; 
1,000  Ibs.  pork,  or  600  Ibs.  bacon  ;  a  homestead  carpet,  manufactured  by  the  wife 
for  family  use  ;  6  cords  wood,  or  100  bushels  coal  ;  1  sewing  machine,  if  used  for 
livelihood,  etc. ;  in  the  hands  of  mechanic,  who  is  engaged  in  the  pursuit  of  his 
trade,  one  set  of  mechanics'  tools  ;  a  homestead  in  the  possession  of  each  head 
of  the  family  and  the  improvements  thereon  to  the  value  of,  in  all,  .$1000.  Per- 
sons who  are  not  the  heads  of  families  are  not  entitled  to  the  benefit  of  exemp- 
tions. 

M^CHAXICS*  LIEX.— Material  men,  contractors  »nd  mechanics  who  furnish 
work  or  materials  to  aid  in  the  construction  or  repair  of  any  building  or  buiklings, 
•hall  have  a  lien  on  the  same  for  1  year  after  the  work  is  done,  provided  notice  in 
Writing  of  said  Men  be  first  given  to  the  owner,  or  his  agent  at  the  time  ?ai«l 
work  is  begun,  or  materials  furnished.  All  debts  incurred  for  repairing,  fitting, 
building,  navigating,  or  furnishing  steam  or  keel  boats,  shall  be  a  lien  on  such 
Vessels  provided  suit  be  commenced  within  three  months  from  the  time  the  debt 
Is  incurred. 

COLLECTION  OF  DEBTS.— Arrest  in  civil  actions  is  unknown  in  this  State. 
Writs  of  attachment  on  affidavit  being  made  to  either  of  the  following  causes.  1. 
Where  the  debtor  resides  out  of  the  State.  2.  Where  he  is  about  to  remove,  or 
has  removed  himself  or  property  from  the  State.-  3.  Where  he  has  removed,  or 
is  removing  himself  out  of  the  county  privately.  4.  Where  he  conceals  himself, 
Bo  that  the  ordinary  process  of  law  cannot  be  served  upon  him.  5.  Where  he 

perty.    6.    Where  he  has 
ispose  of  his  property.    7. 
residing  out  of  the  State,  dies," 
leaving  property  in  this  State.    (Code,  §  3455.) 

Bond,  with  good  security,  must  be  given  in  all  cases  before  an  attachment  can 
.Issue.  And  all  property,  both  real  and  personal,  legal  and  equitable,  of  the 
-  debtor,  can  be  seized. 

All  assignments  for  the  benefit  of  creditors  inure  for  the  benefit  of  only  those 
creditors  of  the  grantor  named  in  the  deed  of  assignment ;  the  acceptance  of  the 
creditor  is  presumed,  unless  proof  to  the  contrary  is  made.  Assignments  can  be 
made  to  secure  endorsers  or  sureties.  Assignments,  )ike  other  deeds,  must  be 
acknowledged  and  recorded. 

Garnishment  can  issue  on  executions  or  attachments,  and  holds  all  the  prop- 
erty-of  the  defendant  in  the  hands  of  the  garnishee  from  the  date  of  the  service 
of  garnishment  to  his  answer.  The  garnishee  is  entitled  to  the  payment  and 
privileges  of  a  witness  and  his  costs. 

Every  bill,  note,  or  bond,  whether  sealed  or  not,  whether  payable  to  order  for 
value  received  or  not,  shall  be  negotiable  as  inland  bills  of  exchange  by  the 
custom  of  merchants.  And  the  holder  of  any  such  instrument  may  maintain  a 
Joint  action  against  the  maker  and  any  one  or  more  of  the  endorsers,  or  a  joint 
ftnd  several  action  against  any  one  or  more  of  the  endorsers.  The  holder  of  a  bill 
of  exchange,  drawn  or  endorsed  in  this  State  tipon  any  person  or  corporation  of 
or  in  any  other  State,  territory  or  place,  and  which  is  protested  for  non-payment, 
may  recover  from  the  drawer  or  endorser^  besides  the  principal  and  interest* 


SPECIAL   LAWS    OF    TENNESSEE  905 

4ama£#  c»  follows  :  Three  per  cent.,  if  drawn  on  &ny  person  or  corporation  in 
the  UriiieC  States  or  territories  ;  nft«en  per  cent.,  if  in  any  other  place  in  North 
America  ;  and  twenty  per  cent,  on  any  person  in  any  other  part  of  the  world. 
Days  of  grace  are  not  allowed  on  bills  payable  at  sight.  The  certificate  of  a 
notary  public  in  or  on  his  protest  is  prima  facie  evidence  of  the  facts  stated 
therein. 

The  jurisdiction  of  justice  courts,  extends,  against  makers  of  notes  and  accept 
ors  of  drafts,  to  the  extent  of  $500.  On  accounts,  obligations,  contracts,  and 
other  evidences  of  debt,  $250.  Damages  and  replevin  suits,  $250.  The  circuit 
a. id  equity  courts  have  general  jurisdiction,  and  circuit  courts  have  jurisdiction 
appellate  from  justices  of  the  peace  on  all  casea  before  them.  The  supreme  cour* 
lias  appellate  jurisdiction  only.  i 

Executions  may  issue  from  a  justice  after  two  days,  and  from  a  court  of  record 
after  30  days  from  date  of  judgment.  An  execution  from  a  justice  is  a  lien  only 
on  personal  property  from  the  day  of  its  teste,  audit  becomes  a  lien  on  real  estate 
only  from  the  day  of  its  levy  thereon.  The  lien  on  real  estate,  under  an  execu- 
tion from  a  justice,  can  be  enforced  only  by  an  order  of  sale  from  the  circuit  court, 
which  is  made  upon  the  return  of  the  execution,  with  the  levy  thereon,  and  all 
the  papers  into  the  circuit  court.  The  legal  interest  of  the  defendant  in  all  kinds 
«f  personal  or  real  property,  also  in  stock  of  a  corporation,ca  be  levied  on  under 
•an  execution.  All  judgments  before  a  justice  of  the  peace  can  be  stayed  for 
eight  months,  upon  entering  good  and  sufficient  security  on  the  justice's  docket 
SOT  debt,  interest  and  costs,  if  same  is  done  in  two  days  after  judgment.  No  stay 
allowed  on  judgment  obtained  in  court  of  record.  Real  property  sold  under 
•execution  can  be  redeemed  in  two  years  by  the  debtor,  or  by  a  judgment  creditor 
of  the  debtor.  In  case  the  debtor  does  not  redeem  until  other  judgment  creditors 
redeem,  he  shall  pay  all  the  judgments  which  have  secured  a  lien  by  redemption. 
The  legal  tLle  only  can  be  subjected  to  an  execution  at  law.  An  equitable  in- 
terest in  lands  can  only  be  reached  by  bill  in  chancery. 

DEEDS,  RIGHTS  OF  MARRIED  WOMEN,  WILLS,  &c.— Deeds  are  valid  without 
being  under  seal.  Xot  good  as  to  strangers,  unless  duly  acknowledged  by  the 
grantor,  proved  by  two  witnesses  tinder  oath  and  recorded.  Deeds  must  be  ac- 
knowledged, if  the  grantor  is  in  the  State,  before  the  cl«rk  or  legally  appointed 
deputy  clerk  of  the  county  court,  or  beion  a  notary  public.  If  before  a  notary 
public,  the  clerk  of  the  county  court  whc'e  he  received  his  appointment  shall 
•certify  as  to  his  official  capacity. 

If  the  grantor  is  without  the  State,  but  in  the  United  States  or  territories— 1. 
Before  any  court  cf  record,  or  before  the  clerk  of  any  court  of  record  in  any  of 
the  States  o^  the  Union  ;  or,  2.  Before  a  commissioner  for  Tennessee,  appointed 
by  the  Governor,  in  any  State  or  territory  ;  or,  3.  Before  a  notary  public  of  such 
State  or  territory. 

If  the  grantor  is  beyond  the  limits  of  the  Union  and  its  territories— 1.  Before 
a  commissioner  for  Tennessee  appointed  in  the  country  where  the  acknowl- 
edgment is  made.  2.  Before  a  notary  public  of  s'ich  country.  3.  Before  a 
consul,  minister  or  ambassador  of  the  United  States  in  the  country  where  the  ac- 
knowledgment is  made. 

The  certificate  of  the  officer  before  whom  the  deed  is  acknowledged  must  b« 
ander  seal,  unless  acknowledgment  is  made  in  the  State  before  a  justice  or  judge 
of  some  court,  and  then  the  certificate  of  the  clerk  of  tLe  -cunty  court,  certifying 
to  the  signature,  etc.,  of  the  justice,  or  of  the  clerk  of  the  court  certifying  to  the 
.signature  of  the  judge,  must  be  under  seal. 

The  following  is  the  form  of  the  certificate  necessary  where  the  grantor  make* 
the  acknowledgment  in  person  and  in  this  State  : 
STATE  OF  TENNESSEE,    ) 
COUNTY  OF  HARDIN.       ( 

"  Personally  appeared  before  me,  clerk  (or  deputy  clerk)  of  the  county  court  or» 
said  county,  the  within-named  bargainer,  with  whom  I  am  personally  acquainted, 
and  who  acknowledged  that  he  executed  the  within  instrument  for  ttiQ  pur- 
poses therein  contained. 

"  Witness  my  hand,  at  office  this  day  of  ,  A.  D.  187    ." 

[SEAL.]  (Signature  atfd  title.) 

As  the  wife  has  no  dower  in  land  granted  in  iee  by  the  husband,  it  ia  not 
p«cessary  for  her  to  join  in  the  deed,  but  if  a  trust  deed  is  given,  then  the  wife 
must  relinquish  dower  by  joining  in  the  deed.  When  the  land  conveyed  is  the 
separate  estate  of  the  wife,  the  husband  must  always  join  her  in  the  deed.  In 
Any  deed  where  the  wife  has  to  acknowledge  the  same,  the  certificate  of  the  officer 
or  court  before  whom  it  is  taken  must  contain  this  additional  clause  :  "  Ami  C. 
D.,  wif*  of  the  said  A.  B.,  having  appeared  before  me,  privately  and  apart  from 


906  SPECIAL    LAWS    OF    TEXAS. 

her  husband,  the  said  A.  B.,  acknowledged  the  execution  of  the  said  deed  to  hart 
been  done  by  her  freely,  voluntarily,  and  uliderstandingly,  without  compulsion 
er  constraint  from  her  said  husband,  for  the  purposes  therein  expressed." 

It  is  not  necessary,  to  the  validity  of  a  deed,  that  it  should  be  signed  in  pres- 
ence of  witnesses,  where  Ihe  grantor  makes  the  acknowledgment  in  person.    But 
unless  grantor  does  acknowledge,  it  must  be  signed  in  presence  of  witnesses — two 
are  sufficient,  who  may  probate  the  same  before  either  of  the  above-named 
officers,  and  in  such  case  the  following  form  must  be  used  : 
STATK  OF  MAINE,      ) 
COUNTY  OF  WALDO.  ) 

Personally  appeared  before  me,  John  Campbell,  commissioner  for  Tennessee, 
..etc.,  C.  and  D.,  subscribing  witnesses  to  the  within  deed,  who  being  just  sworn^ 
deposed  and  said,  that  they  are  acquainted  with  A-  B.,  the  bargainer  (or  as  the 
case  may  be),  and  that  he  acknowledged  the  same  in  their  presence,  to  De  his  act 
and  deed  upon  the  day  it  bears  date  {or  stating  the  time  as  proved  by  the  wit- 
nesses). Witness  my  hand,  at  office,  this  day  of  ,  A.  D.  Ib7  . 

JOHN  CAMPBELL,  Commissioner  for  Tennessee. 

A  married  woman  can  hold  real  and  personal  property  to  her  sole  and  sepa- 
rate use,  without  or  through  a  trustee.  She  can,  if  over  twenty-one  years  of  age, 
and  own  the  land  in  fee,  or  equitably,  convey  same  without  her  husband  joining 
with  her  by  deed  or  will.  And  if  settled  upon  her  after  marriage  for  her  sole 
And  separate  use.  at  any  age.  A  note  or  any  other  obligation,  made  by  a  married 
woman,  will  not  bind  her  separate  estate,  unless  it  was  executed  with  the  expre.-s 
intention  to  bind  the  same  ;  or  unless  it  was  given  for  necessaries  for  herself  or 
Jier  minor  children. 

Wills  must  be  in  writing,  signed  by  the  testator,  or  some  other  person  in  his 
presence  and  by  his  express  direction,  and  subscribed  in  the  presence  of  the  tea- 
Ator  t>7  two  witnesses,  no  one  of  whom  is  interested  in  the  will. 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  TEXAS. 

EXEMPTIONS  FROM  FORCED  SALE — ffnmc  worth  $5000,  and  Personal  Prop- 
erty. To  every  citizen,  householder,  and  head  of  a  family,  not  to  exceed  200 
acres  of  land  (not  included  in  a  city,  town  or  village),  or  any  city,  town  or  vil- 
lage lot  or  lots,  not  to  exceed  $5000  in  value  at  the  time  of  their  designation  a» 
a  homestead,  and  without  reference  to  the  value  of  any  improvements  thereon. 
Also,  all  household  and  kitchen  furniture,  all  implements  of  husbandry,  all 
tools  and  apparatus  belonging  to  any  trade  or  profesiioii,  and  all  books  belong- 
ing to  private  or  public  libraries  ;  five  milch  cows  and  calves  ;  2  yoke  of  work 
oxen ;  2  horses  and  1  wagon,  1  carriage  or  buggy ;  1  gun  ;  20  hogs  ;  20  head  of 
eheep ;  all  provisions  and  forage  on  hand  for  home  consumption  :  all  saddles, 
bridles  and  harness  necessary  for  the  use  of  the  family  ;  and  to  every  citizen ,. 
not  a  head  of  a  family,  one  horse,  bridle  and  saddle,  all  wearing  apparel,  all 
tools,  apparatus  and  books  belonging  to  his  or  her  private  library. 

MECHANICS'  LIEN. — Any  person  or  firm  who  may  labor,  furnish  material, 
machinery,  fixtures  and  tools  to  erect  any  house,  improvement,  or  any  improve- 
ment whatever,  shall  have  a  lien  on  such  article,  house,  building,  fixtures  or  im- 
provement, and  also  on  the  lot  or  lots  or  land  necessarily  connected  therewith, 
to  secure  payment  for  labor  done,  material  and  fixtures  furnished  for  construc- 
tion or  repairs.  Such  person  or  firm  shall,  within  six  months  after  such  debt  i 

•' I  become  due,  file  his  contract  in  the  office  of  the  district  clerk  of  the  county  m 
'  which  the  property  is  situated,  and  have  the  same  recorded  in  a  book  kept  for 

J  that  purpose  by  the  clerk.  If  the  contract,  order  or  agreement  be  verbal,  a  du- 
plicate copy  of  the  bill  of  particulars  must  be  made  under  oath,  one  to  be  filed 
and  recorded  by  the  clerk  as  provided  for  written  contracts,  the  other  to  be 
0erved  on  the  party  owing  the  debt.  When  the  contract  or  account  is  filed  and 
recorded,  they  must  be  accompanied  by  a  description  of  the  property  against 
which  the  lien  is  claimed.  The  filing  and  recording  fixes  the  lien  from  the  day 
it  is  filed.  The  lien,  if  against  land  in  the  country  upon  which  said  improve- 
ments have  been  made,  shall  extend  to  and  include  fifty  acres  ;  if  in  a  city, 
town  or  village,  it  extends  to  and  includes  such  lot  or  lots  upon  which  said  im- 
provements are  situated.  The  lien  may  be  enforced  against  the  land  and  im- 
provements, or  the  improvements  alone.  The  purchaser  having  a  reasonable' 

.  time  to  remove  the  same.  The  sale  to  be  upon  judgment  and  order  of  sale. 
This  liea  extends  as  well  to  homesteads  as  to  other  property  ;  also,  to  all  boat*. 


SPECIAL   LAWS    OF    TEXAS.  907 

navigating  the  waters  of  this  State.    All  actions  to  enforce  li  ins  must  be  brougM 
within  two  years. 

COLLECTION  OF  DEBTS.— Arrest  for  debt  is  unknown  here.  "Writ  of  attach- 
ment may  issue  for  the  following  causes,  viz.  :  When  the  defendant  is  not  a 
resident  of  the  State,  or  is  about  to  remove  himself  or  property  out  of  the  State, 
or  has  abandoned  the  country,  or  secretes  himseli  so  that  the  ordinary  process  oi 
law  cannot  be  served  on  him,  or  is  about  to  remove  his  property  beyond  tha 
county  in  which  suit  has  been  or  is  to  be  instituted,  or  is  about  to  transfer  or: 
secrete,  or  has  transferred  or  secreted  his  property,  for  the  purpose  of  defraud- 
ing his  creditors,  so  that  the  plaintiff  will  probably  lose  his  debt.  Attachment 
bond  must  be  double  the  amount  claimed,  with  two  or  more  approved  securities. 
Affidavit  made  to  facts  claimed  as  ground  of  attachment.  Everything,  except 
choses  in  action  and  property  exempted  by  law,  belonging  to  the  defendant  m« 
execution,  may  be  levied  upon  and  sold  as  his  goods  and  chattels.  An  attach- 
ment levied  upon  real  estate  is  a  lien  thereon  from  date  of  levy. 

An  assignment  in  trust,  for  the  benefit  of  creditors  generally,  inure  for  tha 
benefit  of  all  the  creditors  of  the  grantor,  whether  named  in  the  deed  of  assign« 
ment  or  not ;  but  a  failing  debtor  may  prefer  his  creditors.  Assignments  can  be 
made  in  this  State  to  secure  sureties  nr  endorsers  prior  to  any  payment  by  them. 

Notes,  bills,  accounts  and  every  species  of  contract  or  claim  are  assignable 
here,  and  the  assignee  can  sue  in  hisov/n  name.  An  assignment  proves  itself  in 
Texas,  and  can  only  be  put  in  issue  by  a  plea  of  non  estj'actum.  A  parol  assign* 
ment  is  good  here,  but  must  be  proven. 

Garnishment  may  be  issued  upon  attachment,  judgment,  or  upon  original 
suit,  upon  filing  proper  bond  and  affidavit.  May  be  issued  either  by  district  or 
justice  court.  Defendant  niay  replevy  property  seized  in  hands  of  garnishee  by 
filing  proper  bonds.  Garnishee  is  entitled  to  his  reasonable  costs. 

As  to  notes  and  bills,  acceptors  are  chargeable,  either  upon  written  or  verbal 
acceptance.  A  holder  of  a  bill  of  exchange  drawn  by  merchants,  resident  in 
this  State,  upon  their  agents  or  factors  out  of  the  State,  having  fixed  the  liabil- 
ity upon  the  drawer  or  endorser,  are  entitled  to  recover  and  receive  ten  per 
cent,  damages,  and  all  costs  of  suit  thereon  accruing.  An  assignee  can  sue  any 
assignor  of  any  bill  or  note,  but  cannot  sue  any  two  or  more  of  them  in  the  same 
Buit,  unless  they  are  joint  a.  ignees.  When  suit  is  brought  against  a  remote  as- 
signor by  an  assignee,  he  can^t  only  set  up  any  defense  he  may  have  against 
the  plaintiff,  but  any  he  may  have  against  any  of  the  intermediate  assignors. 
Three  days  of  grace  are  allowed  here  u  nn  all  bills  of  exchange  and  promissory 
notes  assignable  by  law.  A  notarial  protest  or  copy  of  record,  certified  to  under 
the  hand  and  seal  of  the  notary  public,  is  admitted  in  all  the  courts  of  this  State 
as  evidence  of  the  facts  therein  set  forth. 

The  jurisdiction  of  justice  courts,  extends,  against  makers  of  notes  and  ac- 
ceptors of  drafts,  to  $500.  On  accounts,  obligations,  contracts  and  other  evi- 
dences of  debt,  $250.  Damages  and  replevin  suits,  $250.  The  circuit  and  equity 
courts  have  general  jurisdiction,  and  circuit  courts  have  jurisdiction  appellate 
from  justices  of  the  peace  on  all  cases  before  them.  The  supreme  court  has  ap- 
pellate jurisdiction  only. 

Judgments  and  decrees  in  »ny  court  of  record  shall  be  a  lien  on  the  debtor's 
Jaiid  from  the  time  the  same  is  rendered  in  the  county  where  the  debtor  resides ; 
if  rendered  in  any  other  county  than  where  debtor  resides,  from  the  time  when  a 
certified  copy  of  the  same  is  registered  in  the  county  where  the  land  lies.  But 
this  lien  only  exists  for  twelve  months.  Such  judgment  or  decree  does  not  gh 
a  lien  on  the  debtor's  equitable  interest  in  land,  unless  within  sixty  days  afti  < 
rendition  of  same  a  memorandum  of  the  same  is  registered  in  the  county  wher  ' 
the  land  lies.  A  lien  on  the  legal  <tle  of  tne  debtor  in  real  estate  can  also  !.„ 
fixed  under  an  execution  from  a  justice  of  the  peace,  by  filing  the  execution,! 
with  the  levy  of  the  same,  and  all  the  papers  in  the  case  before  the  justice,  with 
the  circuit  court  from  which  an  order  of  sale  issues. 

Executions  in  district  court  issue  immediately  upon  the  adjournment  of 
court,  unless  court  is  in  session  twenty  days  after  rendition  of  judgment,  or  the 
defendant  is  about  to  remove  hi^  property  out  of  the  county  when  they  can  issue 
eooner.  In  justice  court  ten  days  after  rendition  of  judgment.  Executions  are 
not  liens  on  any  property  in  this  State  until  levied.  No  stay  laws  here  except, 
in  justice  court  for  three  months'  time.  Everything  except  choses  in  action  and 
property  exempted  by  law  belonging  to  the  defendant  in  execution,  may  b« 
levied  on  and  sold  as  his  goods  and  chattels.  No  redemption  laws  here. 

DEEDS,  RIGHTS  OF  MARRIED  WOMEN,  WILLS,  &c.— Deeds,  mortgages  and 
deeds  of  trust  are  not  required  to  be  under  seal.  Proof  or  acknowledgment  of 
•very  instrument  of  writrng  for  record  may  be  taken  before  some  one  of  the  foi' 


$08  SPECIAL  LAWS   OP   UTAH. 

lowing  officers  t  When  acknowledged  or  proven  within  this  State,  before  aomt 
notary  public,  district  clerk  or  daputy  clerk,  or  judge  of  the  supreme  or  district 
court  in  this  State  ;  when  acknowledged  or  proven  without  this  State,  and  within 
the  United  States  or  their  territories,  before  some  notary  public,  commissioned 
of  deeds  for  this  State,  or  before  some  judge  or  clerk  of  a  court  of  record  having, 
a  seal  ;  when  acknowledged  or  proven  without  the  United  States,  before  some\ 
public  minister,  charge  d'affaires,  consul  or  consular  agent  of  the  United  States, 
or  notary  public  ;  in  all  cases  the  certificate  of  such  acknowledgment  or  proof 
shall  be  attested  under  the  official  seal  of  the  officer  taking  the  same,  and  the 
deed  recorded  in  the  county  where  the  land  lies. 

The  following  is  the  form  of  the  certificate  where  the  husband  and  wife  joiaf 
in  the  deed  : 


STATE  OF  TEXAS,   \ 
COUNTY  OF  TRAVIS.  )  •"• 


Before  me  personally  appeared  and  ,  his  wife,  parties  to  th« 

foregoing  attached  ,  bearing  date  the  day  of  ,  A.  D.  187  , 

both  of  whom  are  known  to  me,  who  Acknowledged  severally  that  they 

had  signed,  sealed  and  delivered  the  same  for  the  purposes  and  consideration!! 
therein  stated.  And  the  said  having  been  examined  by  me  privily  and 

rrt  from  her  husband,  and  having  had  the  same  fully  explained  to  her,  sh6| 
said  ,  acknowledged  the  same  to  be  her  act  and  deed,  and  declared  tf 

me  that  she  had  willingly  signed,  sealed  and  delivered  the  same  of  her  own  f  rei 
will  and  accord,  without  fear  or  compulsion  on  the  part  of  her  said  husband,  anC 
that  she  wished  not  to  retract  it. 

Witness  my  official  seal  and  signature  at  my  office,  this  day  of 

A.  D.  187  .  (Signature  and  title.) 

[Certificate  when  the  Grantor  is  Unmarried.] 
STATE  OF  TEXAS,      I 
COUNTY  OF  TBAVIS.  J 

Before  me,  JOHN  SMITH,  clerk  of  the  district  court  in  and  for  said  countji 
personally  appeared  ,  who  is  to  me  known,  and  acknowledged 

that  signed,  executed  and  delivered  the  foregoing  deed  for  the  purpose* 

therein  specified. 

Witness  my  official  seal  and  signature,  at  my  office,  in  the  city  of  Austin,  thif 
day  of  ,  A.  D.  187  . 

(Signature  of  officer.) 

Deeds  may  be  authenticated  for  record  by  affidavit  of  one  or  two  attesting 
Witnesses.  Two  witnesses  required  to  every  deed  unless  acknowledged. 

Married  women  can  hold  real  estate  or  personal  property  to  their  separate* 
use.  A  married  woman  can  bind  herself  on  a  note,  draft  or  endorsement,  whe* 
for  necessaries  for  herself  or  children,  or  for  the  benefit  of  her  separate  prop*  - 
erty .  All  property  acquired  by  husband  and  wife  during  marriage  is  their  cow 
man  property,  except  that  acquired  by  gift,  devise  or  descent,  which  is  his  or  he* 
separate  property.  The  husband's  consent  is  necessary  to  the  alienation  of  th| 
wife's  separate  property.  The  husband  cannot  alienate  the  homestead  without 
the  consent  of  the  wife.  The  widow  is  entitled  to  tlie  use  of  one-third  of  th« 
real  estate  for  her  life. 

A  chattel  mortgage  is  valid  here  between  the  parties  thereto,  but  void  af 
against  creditors  and  bonafide  purchasers  without  notice,  unless  recorded  in  the 
county  where  the  mortgagor  resides. 

Wills  must  be  in  writing,  signed  by  the  testator  or  by  some  other  person  in, 
his  presence  and  by  his  direction  ;  and,  moreover,  if  not  wholly  written  by  him- 
eelf ,  be  attested  by  t:vo  or  more  credible  witnesses  above  the  age  of  fourteen 
"|ears,  subscribing  their  names  in  his  presence. 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF   UTAH. 

EXEMPTIONS  FROM  FORCED  SALE.— Home  worth  §1000,  and  Personal  Property, 
T0  each  member  of  the  family  $250.  To  the  head  of  the  family  is  allowed  a  home* 
0tead  not  exceeding  in  value  $1000,  to  be  selected  by  the  debtor,  and  personal 
property  to  the  value  of  $700  or  more,  according  to  the  value  of  articles  exempt 
by  statute  ;  aside  from  the  homestead  each  member  of  the  family  is  allowed  $250. 
|No  property  shall  be  exempt  from  sale  on  a  judgment  received  for  its  price,  «• 
a  mechanic's  lien,  or  a  mortgage  thereon. 


SPECIAL   LAWS    OF    VERMONT.  909 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  VERMONT. 

EXEMPTIONS  FROM  FORCED  SALE.— .Howe  uwth  $500,  and  Personal  Property* 
Homestead  to  the  value  of  $500,  and  products,  such  suitable  apparel,  beading, 
tools,  arms  and  articles  of  furniture  as  may  be  necessary  for  upholding  life  ;  1 
sewing  machine  kept  for  use,  1  cow,  the  best  swine,  or  the  meat  of  1  swine,  18 
sheep,  and  one  year's  product  of  said  sheep  in  wool,  yam  or  cloth  ;  forage  suffi- 
r^nt  for  keeping  not  exceeding  10  sheep  and  one  cow  through  on*  winter  ;  10 
cords  of  firewood,  or  5  tons  of  ^oal ;  20  bushels  of  potatoes,  such  military  arma 
and  accoutrements  as  the  debtor  is  required  by  la\v  to  furnish  ;  all  growing  crops, 
10  bushels  of  grain,  1  barrel  of  flour,  3  swarms  of  bees  and  hives,  together  with 
tueir  produce  in  honey  ;  200  Ibs.  of  sugar,  and  all  lettered  gravestones  ;  the  bibles 
and  other  books  xised  in  a  family  ;  one  pew  or  slip  in  a  meeting-house  or  place 
of  religious  worship  ;  live  poultry  not  exceeding  in  amount  or  value  the  sum  of 
$.10  ;  the  professional  books  and  instruments  of  physicians,  and  the  professional 
books  of  clergymen  and  attorn eys-at-law,  to  the  value  of  $200,  and  also  1  yoke  of 
oxen  or  steers  as  the  debtor  may  select,  with  sufficient  forage  for  the  keeping  of 
the  same  through  the  winter  ;  or  in  lieu  thereof,  2  horses  kept  and  used  for  team 
work  not  to  exceed  in  value  $200,  with  sufficient  forage  for  keeping  same ;  also 
pistols,  side-arms  and  equipments  personally  used  by  any  soldier  of  the  United 
States  and  kept  by  him  or  his  heirs  as  mementoes. 

MECHANICS'  LIEN. — Material  men  and  mechanics  have  a  lien  for  labor  and 
material  in  building,  repairing,  fitting  or  furnishing  any  vessel  until  eight 
months  after  such  vessel  is  conipleted.  It  may  be  secured  by  attachment,  and 
has  precedence  of  all  other  claims.  They  also  have  a  lien  upon  a  building,  and 
th*  lot  on  which  it  stands,  for  erecting  or  repairing  such  building.  The  lien  con- 
tinues three  months  after  payment  comes  due,  but  does  not  attach  until  the  per- 
son claiming  it  has  filed  and  caused  to  be  recorded,  in  the  town  clerk's  office,  a 
written  memorandum,  by  him  signed,  asserting  such  claim. 

COLLECTION  OP  DEBTS. — No  female  can  be  arrested  on  any  process  in  an  ac- 
tion founded  on  contract.  No  resident  citizen  of  this  State,  or  any  of  the 
United  States,  can  be  arrested  on  any  process  issued  on  any  contract,  unless  th» 
plaintiff,  his  agent  or  attorney  file,  with  the  authority  signing  the  writ,  an  affida- 
vit, stating  that  he  has  good  reason  to  believe,  and  does  believe,  that  the  defend- 
ant is  about  to  abscond  or  remove  from  the  State,  and  has  property  secreted 
about  his  person  or  elsewhere  to  the  amount  of  $20,  or  sufficient  to  satisfy  the 
demand  in  suit ;  or  file  an  affidavit  stating  that  the  defendant  neglects  or  refuses 
to  pay  over  on  demand  money  which  he  holds  for  the  plaintiff  in  a  fiduciary  ca- 
pacity. 

In  actions  of  contract,  writs  of  attachment  may  issue  against  the  goods,  chat- 
tels or  estate  of  the  defendant ;  and  in  actions  founded  on  tort,  for  want  thereof, 
against  the  defendant's  body. 

Assignments,  for  the  benefit  of  creditors,  are  regulated  by  statute.  To  pro- 
tect the  property  in  the  hands  of  the  assignee,  it  must  be  for  the  benefits  or  all 
the  creditors.  Choses  in  action  may  be  assigned,  but  the  assignee  cannot  sue  in 
fci*  own  name,  unless  there  has  been  a  special  promise  to  pay  him,  or  the  de- 
mand is  what  is  known  as  "  negotiable  paper." 

In  actions  on  contract  a  person  having  goods,  effects  or  credits  of  the  defend- 
ant in  his  hands,  may  be  summoned  as  trustee  in  the  suit,  and  he  is  required  to 
attend  and  disclose.  Judgment  is  rendered  against  him  in  favor  of  the  plaintiff 
for  the  amount  of  his  indebtedness  or  liability  to  the  defendant,  to  the  extent  of 
the  judgment  against  the  defendant.  This  process  cannot  be  sustained  unlesa 
the  debt  due  the  plaintiff  from  the  defendant,  as  well  as  that  from  the  trustee  to 
the  defendant,  exceed  $10.  It  does  not  reach  debts  due  on  a  contingency,  or  due 
on  a  judgment  where  the  judgment  debtor  is  liable  to  an  execution  on  the  judg- 
ment. 

As  to  notes  and  bills,  &c.,  a  promissory  note  payable  on  demand  is  considered 
overdue  at  the  expiration  of  sixty  days  from  date,  and  presentment  and  demand 
•f  payment  must  be  made  within  that  time  to  charge  the  endorser.  All  negoti- 
able paper,  except  that  payable  on  demand  or  at  sight,  is  entitled  to  three  days  of 
grace.  Negotiable  paper  may  be  endorsed  for  collection  and  sued  in  the  nam» 
of  the  agent  or  attorney,  though  be  is  not  the  real  party  in  interest,  and  holds  it 
for  collection  merely. 

Judgments  are  not  a  hen.  Heal  estate  and  certain  articles  difficult  of  removal 
•re  attached  by  leaving  a  copy  of  the  original  writ  in  the  clerk's  office.  Execu* 
tion  may  issue  from  county  court  twenty-four  hours  after  the  rising  of  the  court, 
and  by  a  justice  of  the  peace  two  hours  after  judgment  is  rendered.  They  ore  r» 


9lO  SPECIAL   LAWS    OP    VIRGINIA. 

turnable  in  sixty  days,  and  must  be  issued  and  placed  in  the  hanos  of  the  offlc«t 
•within  thirty  days  after  judgment,  to  hold  personal  property  attached  on  mesne 
process,  and  within  lire  months  to  hold  real  estate  so  attached.  Real  estate  set 
off  on  execution  (there  is  no  power  to  sell  real  estate  on  execution)  may  be  re- 
deemed within  six  months,  otherwise  it  passes  to  the  creditor.  Personal  prop- 
erty taken  on  execution  is  sold  to  the  highest  bidder. 

A  justice  of  the  peace  has  jurisdiction  in  all  actions  of  a  civil  nature  where 
the  matter  in  demand  does  not  exceed  §200,  except  actions  for  slander,  false  im- 
prisonment, and  replevin  for  goods  and  chattels  where  the  value  thereof  exceeds 
$20,  and  where  the  title  to  land  is  concerned.  A  justice  also  has  jurisdiction  in 
actions  of  trespass  on  the  freehold  where  the  sum  demanded  does  not  exced  §20. 
The  county  courts  have  jurisdiction  of  cases  appealed  from  the  justices'  courts, 
and  of  all  actions  whore  the  justices  have  not  jurisdiction.  The  municipal 
courts  of  Burlington,  Rutland  and  St.  Albans  have  concurrent  jurisdiction  with 
the  county  courts,  to  the  extent  of  $500.  Suit  may  be  brought  in  the  town  where 
either  party  resides,  and  if  neither  party  resides  iii  the  State,  in  any  town  in  the 
State. 

Process,  returnable  before  supreme  or  county  court,  must  be  served  at  least 
twelve  days  before  the  session  of  court  to  which  it  is  returnable. 

Writs,  returnable  before  a  justice,  must  be  served  at  least  six  days  before,  and 
not  over  sixty  days  from,  the  return  day  ;  if  against  a  party  in  another  county, 
twelve  days  must  intervene  between  day  of  service  and  return  day ;  and  in  any 
case,  if  the  defendant  is  a  corporation,  thirty  days  must  intervene. 

DEEDS,  RIGHTS  OF  MARRIED  WOMEN, 'WILLS,  &<:.— Deeds  must  be  under 
eeal  (not  a  scrawl),  signed  in  the  presence  of  two  subscribing  witnesses,  acknowl- 
edged before  a  proper  oilicer,  and  recorded  in  the  clerk's  office  of  the  town  where 
the  land  lies.  In  this  State,  deeds  may  be  acknowledged  before  a  justice  of  the 
peace,  a  notary  public,  or  a  master  in  chancery.  Acknowledgments  out  of  this 
State,  may  be  taken  before  a  justice  of  the  peace,  notary  public,  commissioner 
from  Vermont,  or  such  officer  as  is  authorized  to  take  acknowledgment  of  deeds 
in  that  place. 

[Form  of  Certificate  of  Acknowledgment 
STATE  or  , ) 

COUNTY  OF  . J 

At  this  day  of  ,  A.  D.  187  ,  personally  appeared  (and 

his  wife),  the  signer  and  sealer  of  the  above-written  instrument,  and  ac- 
knowledged the  same  to  be  his  (or  their)  free  act  and  deed. 

Before  me.  (Signature  and  title.) 

Married  women  cannot  make  contracts.  They  may  in  some  instances  change 
their  separate  property  so  that  it  may  be  reached  in  equity.  Her  real  estate,  and 
the  rents  and  profits  thereof,  are  exempt  from  attachment  for  the  husband's  debts ; 
and  also  the  husband's  interest  in  the  same  during  coverture,  except  for  debts  for 
necessaries  for  wife  and  family,  or  for  labor  or  materials  furnished  upon  such  real 
•estate.  A  married  woman  may  dispose  of  her  property  by  will.  The  widow  is  en- 
titled to  dower,  during  her  natural  life,  of  one-third  of  the  real  estate  of  which  ber 
liusband  died  seized,  during  his  natural  life  unless  she  shall  be  barred.  Chattel 
mortgages  do  not  protect  the  mortgagee  against  bona  fide  purchasers  or  attar-V 
ing  creditors  if  the  property  is  allowed  to  remain  in  the  possession  of  the  mort- 
gagor. 

Wills  must  be  in  writing,  and  signed  by  the  testator  or  by  some  other  person 
!;IT  his  presence  and  by  his  express  direction,  and  attested  and  subscribed  by  thre« 
.'t  r  more  credible  witnesses  in  the  presence  of  the  testator,  and  of  each  otfcer. 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  VIRGINIA. 

EXEMPTIONS  FROM  FORCED  SALE.— Homestead  and  Personal  Property  to  {h« 
Value  of  ¥2000.  In  case  of  a  husband,  parent,  or  other  person  who  is  a  house- 
holder and  head  of  a  family,  the  law  exempts  from  distress  or  levy  divers 
enumerated  articles  of  household  and  personal  use,  furniture,  bedding,  etc., 
ranging  in  value  from  fifty  to  five  hundred  dollars,  according  to  the  condition 
•and  size  of  the  family 

Besides  the  foregoing,  everv  householder  or  head  of  a  family  is  entitled  to  * 
homestead  exemption  of  two  thousand  dollars,  to  be  set  apart  out  of  any  property , 
•which  he  may  select. 

MECHANICS'  LLKN.— All  artisans,  builders,  mechanics,  lumber  dealers  and 


SPECIAL   LAWS    OP   VIRGINIA.  911 

Cthe>fl  performing  labor  or  furnishing  materials  for  the  construction,  repair  ot 
improvement  of  any  building  or  other  property,  are  allowed  a  lien  upon  such  prop- 
•city-  for  the  work  done  and  materials  furnished.  It  must  be  asserted  by  suit 
\viuiin  six  months  from  the  time  the  lien  is  secured. 

COLLECTION  OF  DEBTS. — Arrest,  in  civil  actions,  is  permitted,  when  the  plain- 
tiff by  affidavit,  shows  to  the  court  in  which  the  suit  is  pending,  or  to  any  judge 
or  justice  of  the  peace,  that  he  has  cause  of  action  or  suit  against  the  defendant, 
and  /hat  thete  is  probable  cause  for  believing  that  the  defendant  is  about  to  quit 
the  ytate,  unless  forthwith  apprehended.  ,. 

The  defendant  may  be  discharged  from  arrest  by  giving  good  bail,  the  condi- : 
tion  v  >f  the  bail  bond  being,  in  substance,  that  incase  judgment  is  rendered  for' 
the  p.aintiff,  the  defendant  will,  if  thereto  required,  within  four  months  after  the 
judgment,  discover  and  surrender  whatever  estate  he  may  then  have,  for 
the  satisfaction  thereof. 

"Writs  of  attachment  may  be  issued  :  1.  Against  the  estate  of  a  non-resident 
defendant.  2.  Against  the  estate  of  any  defendant  who  is  removing  or  intend* 
to  remove  the  specific  property  sued  for,  "  or  his  own  estate  or  the  proceeds  of 
tlie  sale  01  his  property,  or  a  material  part  of  such  estate  or  proceeds,  out  of  the 
.State,  so  that  process  of  execution  on  a  judgment,"  when  obtained, will  be 
"unavailing.  3.  Against  the  estate  of  a  debtor,  whether  the  clar.n  be  payable  or 
not,  when  the  debtor  intends  to  remove  or  is  removing,  or  has  removed  his 
effects  out  of  the  State  so  that  there  will  probably  not  be  therein  sufficient  effects 
•of  th»e  debtor  to  satisfy  the  claim,  should  only  the  ordinary  process  of  law  be 
used  10  obtain  such  judgment.  4.  Against  the  estate  of  a  tenant  liable  for  rent, 
who  intends  to  remove  or  is  removing,  or  has,  within  thirty  days,  removed  his 
•effects  from  the  leased  premises,  so  that  there  will  not  be  left  on  such  premises 
proper  ty  liable  to  distress,  sufficient  to  satisfy  the  rent  to  become  payable — net 
'exceeding  one  year's  rent  in  all.  6-  Against  steamboats  and  oilier  vessels,  for 
materials,  supplies,  work,  etc.,  furnished  and  done,  and  damages  for  certain  torts 
•%nd  brtach.es  of  contract. 

The  foundation  of  the  attachment  in  each  case  is  the  affidavit  of  the  plaintiff 
or  of  his  r.gent,  setting  forth  not  only  the  particular  ground  of  the  attachment,  as 
above  given,  but  also  divers  particulars  as  to  the  amount  of  the  claim,  whether 
<iue  or  not,  etc.  If  the  plaintill  desires  that  the  property  to  be  attached  fhall  be 
ikeu  into  the  possession  of  the  officer,  the  plaintiff,  or  gome  one  for  him,  must 
give  bond,  with  good  security,  in  a  penalty  equal  to,  at  least,  double  the  amount 
*ued  for,  conditioned  to  pay  all  costs  and  damages  occasioned  by  the  suing  ca:t  of 
the  attachment.  The  sureties  must  either  reside,  or  must  have  estate  equal  tc 
the  penalty  of  the  bond,  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the  court.  No  bond  is  neces- 
sary, except  in  the  case  above  specified.  Every  species  of  property,  legal  or 
equitable,  is  liable  to  seizure  and  sale,  under  attachment. 

Assignments,  for  the  benefit  of  creditors,  with  preferences,  are  allowed  by  the 
law  of  this  State.  Bonds  and  notes,  not  negotiable,  are  assignable,  ar.d  the 
assignee  may  sue  upon  them  in  his  own  name.  Open  accounts  may  also  be 
as  igned;  but  suit  must  be  brought  upon  them  in  the  name  of  the  original 
creditor. 

Process  of  garnishment  may  issue,  either  on  execution  or  attachment,  so  stf 
to  reach  debts  due  to  the  defendant. 

Every  promissory  note  or  check  for  money  payable  in  this  State,  at  a  partic- 
ular bank,  or  at  a  particular  office  thereof,  fcr  discount  and  deposit,  or  art 
the  place  of  business  of  a  savings  institution  or  savings  bank,  or  at  the  place  of 
business  of  a  licensed  broker,  and  every  inland  bill  of  exchange  payable  in  this 
State,  is  deemed  negotiable,  and  may,  upon  being  dishonored  for  non-acceptance 
or  non-payment,  be  protested,  and  the  protest  be  in  such  case  evidence  of  dis- 
honor, in  like  manner  as  in  case  of  a  foreign  bill  of  exchange.  The  protest,  both 
in  the  case  of  a  foreign  bill  and  in  the  other  cases  above  mentioned,  is  made 
•prima  facia  evidence  of  what  is  stated  therein,  or  at  the  foot  or  on  the  back 
thereof,  in  relation  to  presentment,  dishonor  and  notice  thereof.  Damages  are 
recoverable  on  bills  of  exchange — three  per  cent,  if  the  bill  be  payable  out  of 
Virginia  and  within  the  United  States,  and  ten  per  cent,  if  pavable  without  the 
United  States. 

The  jurisdiction  of  justice  courts  extends  to  $50.  Civil  jurisdiction  of  the 
county  courts  is  confined  chiefly  to  matters  of  probate  and  guardianship  ;  with, 
.perhaps  a  few  unimportant  exceptions  they  have  no  jurisdiction  of  suits  for  th« 
collection  of  debts.  Circuit  and  corporation  courts  have  general  jurisdiction  in 
ail  civil  actions.  Process  in  these  courts  is  commonly  made  returnable  to  rulea 
—held  on  the  first  Monday  in  each  mouth— and,  two  rule  days,  at  least,  matt  intw 
^ene  between  service  and  trial. 


912  SPECIAL   -LA.W&    OF   VIRGINIA.  " 

Judgments  arc  a  lien  on  all  the  real  estate  of,  or  to,  which  the  defendant  Is  e* 
•hall  be  possessed  or  entitled  at  or  after  the  date  of  the  judgment,  or  the  com- 
mencement of  the  term  at  which  it  is  rendered.  They  create  no  lien  on  personal 
estate. 

Executions  rnay  issuw  within  a  year,  and  a  scire  facias  or  action  may  be  brought 
Within  ten  years  after  the  date  of  the  judgment.  Executions  create  a  lien  upon 


able  consideration  without  notice,  nor  against  a  person  making  payment  to  the 
judgment  debtor  without  notice.  Real  estate  cannot  be  sold  or  levied  on  under 
Execution.  An  execution  debtor  may  be  required  to  discover,  under  path,  hi« 
*rhole  estate,  real  and  personal,  and  to  convey  and  transfer,  for  the  satisfaction 
of  the  execution,  his  personalty  and  any  realty  which  he  may  have  out  of  the 

'.State. 

If  execution  be  issued  within  the  year,  other  executions  may  be  issued,  or  * 
scire  facias  or  action  may  be  brought  within  ten  years  from  the  return  day  of  an, 
execution  on  which  the^e  is  no  return  by  an  officer,  or  within  twenty  years  from 

•the  return  day  of  an  execution  on  which  there  is  such  return. 

DEEDS.  RIGHTS  OF  MARRIED  WOMEN,  WILLS,  &c.— Deeds  may  be  admitted 
to  record  as  to  any  party  thereto,  when  proved,  as  to  such  party,  by  two- 
witnesses,  or  acknowledged  by  him,  before  the  court  of  the  county  or  corporation 
in  which  it  is  to  be  recorded,  or  before  the  clerk  of  such  court,  in  his  office. 
Also,  upon  a  certificate  of  his  acknowledgment  within  the  United  States,  before 
a  justice  of  the  peace,  a  commissioner  in  chancery  of  a  court  of  record,  a  notary 
public  or  any  commissioner  ap pointed  by  the  Governor ;  or,  upon  the  certificate 
of  the  clerk  of  any  county  or  corporation  court  in  this  State,  or  of  the  clerk  of 
any  court  out  of  this  State  and  within  the  United  States,  that  the  deed  was 
acknowledged  by  such  person  or  proved  as  to  him  by  two  witnesses,  before  such 
clerk  or  before  the  court  of  which  he  is  clerk,  or  upon  certificate,  under  the  offi- 
cial seal  of  any  minister  plenipotentiary,  charge  d'affairs,  consul  general,  consul. 
Vice-consul,  or  commercial  agent,  appointed  by  the  Government  of  the  United 
States  to  any  foreign  country,  or  of  the  proper  officer  of  any  court  of  such  coun- 
try, or  of  the  mayor  or  other  chief  magistrate  of  any  city,  town  or  corporation 
therein,  that  the  said  writing  was  acknowledged  by  such  person  or  proved  as  to 
him  by  two  witnesses,  before  any  person  having  such  appointment,  or  before  suA 
court,  mayor  or  chief  magistrate. 

[Form  of  Certificate  of  Acknowledgment  in  case  of  a" party  other  than  a 
Married  Woman.] 

STATE  OF  , ) 

COUNTY  (OB  CORPORATION)  OF  .  J  **' 

I,  ,  a  justice  of  the  peace  (or  commissioner  in  chancery  of  th* 

court,  or  notary  public),  for  the  county  (or  corporation)  aforesaid, 
in  the  State  (or  territory,  or  district)  of  ,  do  certify,  that  E.  F.  (or  E.  F. 

arid  G.  H.,  etc.),  whose  name  (or  names)  is  (or  are)  signed  to  the  writing  above 
(or  hereto  annexed),  bearing  date  on  the  day  of  ,  has  (or 

have)  acknowledged  the  same  before  me,  in  my  county  (or  corporation)  aforesaid. 

Given  under  my  hand,  this  day  of  ,  A.  D.  187  . 

(Signature  and  title.) 

The  acknowledgment  of  a  married  woman  must  be  certified  by  two  justices  of 
the  peace,  or  by  some  one  of  the  other  functionaries  authorized  to  certify  th* 
acknowledgment  of  other  persons. 

The  certificate  must  be  to  the  effect  following  : 

STATE  OF  ,  1 

COUNTY  (OB  CORPORATION)  OF        .  J  ss' 

I,  ,  a  commissioner  appointed  by  the  Governor  of  the  State  of  Vir- 

ginia for  the  said  State  (or  territory,  or  district)  of  ,  or  and 

,  justices  of  the  peace,  or  I,  ,  a  commissioner  in  chancery 

of  court  (or  notary  public)  for  the  county  (or  corporarion)  of  ,  in 

the  State  (or  territory,  or  district)  of  ,  do  certify  that  E.  F.,  the  wife  of 

G.  H.,  whose  names  are  signed  to  the  writing  above  (or  hereto  annexed),  bearing 
date  on  the  day  of  ,  personally  appeared  before  me  (or  us),  in 

tiie  county  (or  corporation)  aforesaid  (or,  if  it  be  a  commissioner,  in  the  State, 


1AWS   OF   WASfi.    TER.   AND   WEST    VIRGINIA 

territory  or  district  aforesaid),  and  being  examined  by  me  (or  us),  privily  an<i' 
apart  from  her  husband,  and  having  the  writing  aforesaid  fully  explained  to  her, 
she,  the  said  E.  F.,  acknowledged  the  said  writing  to  be  her  act,  and  declared 
that  ehe  had  willingly  executed  the  same  and  does  not  wish  to  retract  it. 

Given  under  -.my  hand  (or  our  hands)  this  day  of  ,  Anno  - 

Domini.  (Signature.) 

Married  women  can  hold  real  or  personal  property  to  their  separate  us« 
through  a  trustee.  To  bind  the  separate  estate  of  a  married  woman  by  her  con- 
tract, the  intention  so  to  bind  it  should  be  expressed  on  the  fate  of  the  contract. 
The  widow  is  entitled  to  one-third  part  of  all  the  real  estate  owned  by  her  hua- 
feand  during  coverture,  unless  she  has  barred  or  relinquished  the  same. 

Chattel  mortgages  are  unknown  in  this  State,  though  their  equivalent  ii 
t  jund  in  deeds  of  trust  of  personal  property,  by  which  personal  property  of  a:iy 
^description  may  be  conveyed  for  the  benefit,  and  thus  made  available  for  the  i 
eecurity  of  creditors.  Sack  deeds  are  not  effective,  as  to  other  creditors  and  sub- 
sequent purchasers  for  value  without  notice,  except  from  the  time  of  their  admis- 
sion to  record  in  the  proper  clerk's  office. 

Wills  should  be  in  writing,  and  signed  by  the  testator,  or  by  some  one  in  his 
presence  and  by  his  express  direction,  in  such  manner  as  to  make  it  manifest 
that  the  na^ie  is  intended  as  a  signature,  and,  moreover,  unless  it  be  wholly 
written  by  the  testator,  the  signature  shall  be  made,  or  the  will  acknowledged  by 
him  in  the  presence  of  at  least  two  competent  witnesses,  present  at  the  same 
time,  and  such  witnesses  shall  subscribe  the  will  in  the  presence  of  the  ^stater, 
but  no  form  of  attestation  shall  be  necessary. 

SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  WASHINGTON   TERRI- 
TORY. 


occupied  by  such  family.  All  wearing  apparel,  private  libraries,  family  pictures- 
and  keepsakes  ;  to  eac.u  householder,  1  bed  and  bedding,  and  1  additional  bed 
and  bedding  for  every  two  additional  members  of  the  family,  and  other  house- 
hold goods  of  the  coin  value  of  §1500;  2  cows  and  their  calves,  5  swine,  2  hivea- 
of  bees,  25  domestic  fowls,  and  provisions  and  fuel  for  G  months.  To  a  farmer,  t 
span  of  horses  and  harness,  or  2  yoke  of  oxen,  and  1  wagon,  with  farming  uten- 
sils not  exceeding  $200  coin  value.  To  attorneys  and  clergymen,  their  libraries 
valued  at  not  to  exceed  $500,  with  office  furniture  and  fuel.  Small  boats  andr 
fire-arms  kept  for  use,  not  exceeding  $50  in  coin  value ;  parties  engaged  in  Jighfe- 
«ring,  2  lighters  and  1  small  boat  valued  su  $25G  ;  the  team  of  a  drayman.  . 

SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  WEST  VIRGINIA. 

EXEMPTIONS  FROM:  FORCED  SALE.— Home  worth  $1000,  and  Personal  Property, 
Homestead  to  the  value  of  $iOOO,  is  exempt,  where  the  property  of  that  value  i« 
demised  or  granted  by  Debtor,  being  a  husband  or  parent,  and  resident  in  the 
State,  as  a  homestead ;  and  where  he,  previously  to  contracting  the  debt  or  liability 
has  placed  a  declaration  of  his  intention  to  keep  the  property  as  a  homestead  on 
the  land  records  of  the  county  in  which  the  real  estate  is  situate.  Personal 
property  to  the  value  of  §300  is 'also  exempted,  provided  debtor  is  a  resident  and 
*  parent. 

MECHANICS'  LIEN.— A  mechanic  or  workman,  or  any  person  who  shall  per- 
form any  labor  upon  or  furnish  material  to  erect,  repair,  alter  or  improve  any 
building,  has  a  lien  on  the  same,  which  can  be  enforced  by  suit  in  chancery  in  six 
months  ;  provided,  he  filed  his  account  under  oath  with  the  clerk  of  the  county 
court  in.  thirty  days  after  the  work  was  done  or  material  furnished. 

COLLECTION  OF  DEBTS. — The  debtor  may  be  arrested  in  an  action  pending 
against  him,  until  he  give  security  that  he  shall  answer  such  interrogatories  as 
Bhall  be  propounded  to  him,  or  filed  within  four  months  after  judgment. and 
perform  the  requirements  of  the  judgment  or  decree.  But  before  t  lie  order  for 
arrest  will  be  made,  the  plaintiff  must  make  affidavit— 1.  That  the  claim  ift 
iust  and  that  the  defendant  is  about  to  leave  the  State,  to  reside  permanently 
In  another  State,  without  paying  the  debt  for  which  the  action  was  brought.  2. 
Or  that  he  fraudulently  contracted  the  debt  for  which  the  action  was  brought 
I.  Or  that  he  fraudulently  conceals  his  property  or  rights  of  action.  4.  Or  that 


814  SPECIAL   LAWS    OP   WEST    VIRGINIA. 

tie  has  removed  or  is  about  to  remove  his  property  beyond  the  State  vr\ih  lent 
to  defraud  his  creditors.  5.  Or  that  he  has  converted  or  is  about  to  conye/±  hi* 
property  into  money  or  securities,  or  that  he  has  assigned  or  removed  his  prop- 
erty with  like  intent.  And  the  plaintiff  will  also  be  required  to  give  bond  and , 
good  security,  to  indemnify  the  defendant  in  case  the  order  of  arrest  was  ma- 
liciously made. 

Writ  of  attachment  may  issue  upon  the  plaintiff  giving  bond,  for  the  same  , 
causes  that  an  order  of  arrest  will  be  made,  and  the  following  additional  causes :  • 
1.  That  the  defendant  is  a  non-resident,  or  a  foreign  corporation.  2.  Or  that  the 
defendant  haa  left  or  is  about  to  leave  the  State  with  intent  to  defraud  his 
creditors.  3.  Or  that  he  conceals  himself,  so  that  a  summons  cannot  be  served. 

Assignments,  for  the  benefit  of  creditors,  are  not  regulated  by  statute  ;  the 
debtor  can  prefer  one  or  more  of  his  creditors,  if  tho  transaction  be  not  tainted 
with  fraud. 

As  to  notes  and  bills,  every  note  or  check  .made  payable  at  a  particular  bank 
of  discount  and  deposit,  or  at  any  savings  bank,  and  every  inland  bill  of  exchange, 
is  negotiable,  and  may  be  protested,  and  the  protest  is  evidence  of  the  same  facts 
as  in  case  of  foreign  bills  of  exchange.  Bills  of  exchange,  drawn  or  negotiated 
i.i  this  State,  duly  protested,  entitle  the  holder,  in  addition  to  the  usual  protest 
,  to  the  following  damages :  Three  per  cent,  if  payable  o::t  of  this  State  and 

nt.  if  payable  out  of  tho  United  States. 


Paper  payable  on  Sunday,  Christmas  day,  1st  oZ  January  or  4th  of  July  must  be 
protested  on  the  day  previous  and  notice  of  dishonor  given  on  the  day  following 
euch  holiday.  Any  paper  not  negotiable  as  above  stated,  is  subject,  in  the  hands 


of  the  holder,  to  all  equities  existing  against  tr-o  assignor ;  the  equit^s,  however, 
must  have  existed  before  the  defendant  had  notice  of  the  assignment  of  the 
papers. 

The  jurisdiction  of  justice  courts  extends  in  civil  actions  to  $100,  exclusive 
of  interest.  The  circuit  courts,  is  appellate  from  inferior  courts,  and  has  original 
and  general  jurisdiction,  of  all  matters  at  law  where  the  amount  exceeds  §50. 
The  supreme  court  of  appeals  has  appellate  jurisdiction  from  inferior  courti 
where  the  amount  exceeds  $lc-0. 

Judgments  are  a  lien  on  the  real  estate  of  the  defendant  from  the  first  day  of 
the  term,  if  rendered  in  a  court  of  record  ;  but  to  make  this  lien  available  against 
a  purchaser  for  value,  ar.d  without  actual  notice,  an  abstract  of  the  judgment 
must  be  filed  in  the  recorder's  office  of  tin  county  where  the  land  lies  ninety 
days  after  the  rendition  of  the  judgment  or  before  the  deed  to  the  real  estate  is 
delivered  to  the  purchaser.  Judgments  ^f  justice's  courts  also  give  a  lien  on 
real  estate  if  an  abstract  of  the  same  is  recorded  in  the  proper  county. 

Executions  are  a  lien  on  personal  property  from  the  date  the  same  is  placed 
In  the  hands  of  the  officer,  and  may  be  levied  'on  any  property  of  the  defendant 
not  exempt  by  law.  Executions  cannoj  be  stayed,  except  when  obtained  before 
a  justice,  and  only  then  for  a  limited  ^ime,  not  more  than  four  months,  upon  de- 
fendant giving  security.  No  redemption  of  property  sold  under  execution. 

DEEDS,  RIGHTS  OP  MARRIED  WOMEX,  WILLS,  &c.— Deeds  must  be  in  writing 
and  under  seal  ;  a  scrawl  will  answer  for  a  seal  if  deed  be  mado  by  an  indi- 
vidual, but  not  if  by  a  corporation.    They  must  be  acknowledged  before  a  re 
t  corder,  prothonotary,  clerk  of  any  court,  a  justice  of  the  peace,  notary  public, 
j  commissioner  of  deeds,  or  proved  by  tw  o  witnesses  before  the  recorder  of  the  court 
yu  the  county  where  the  same  is  to  be  recorded.    If  acknowledged  out  of  the 


United  States,  before  a  minister  plenipotentiary,  chcergc'd  affaires,  consul-genera^ 
consul,  vice-consul  or  commercial  agent,  or  before  the  proper  officer  of  any  court, 
or  before  the  mayor  of  any  city  or  town,  under  the  official  seal  of  such  officer. 


The  wife  must  join  with  the  husband  in  the  deed  to  relinquish  her  dower^ 
The  following  is  the  prescribed  form  of  certificate  of  acknowledgment : 

STATE  OF  WEST  VIRGINIA,  \ 
COUNTY  OF  WOOD.  j  ss* 

I,  (giving  the  name  and  official  character  of  the  officer),  do 

certify  that  A.  B.  and  C.  D.,  his  wife,  whose  names  are  signed  to  the  writing  above, 
bearing  date  on  the  day  of  ,  A.  D.  1>7  ,  have  this  day  acknowledged 

ihe  same  before  me  ;  and  C.  D.,  the  wife  of  the  said  A.  B.,  personally  appeared 
before  me,  in  the  county  aforesaid,  and  being  examined  by  me,  privately  and 
apart  from  her  husband,  and  having  the  paid  writing  fully  explained  to  her,  she, 
the  said  €.  D.,  acknowledged  the  said  writing  to  be  l.or  act,  and  declared  thai 
fce  had  willingly  executed  the  same  and  does  not  wish  to  retract  it. 

Given  under  my  hand,  this  day  of  ,  A.  D.  187  . 

(Signature  and  titiO 


SPECIAL  LAWS   OF   WISCONSIN.  915 

A  married  woman  has  dower  in  all  the  real  estate  her  husband  is  seized  of 
daring  coverture,  and  she  must  join  her  husband  in  the  execution  of  all  deeds  to 
toe  same.  She  may  hold  her  separate  property  free  from  the  control  and  debts 
of  her  husband,  and  may  convey  the  same  as  if  she  were  unmarried  ;  provide*?, 
ber  husband  jcins  in  the  deed  with  her.  Her  separate  property  is  bound  for  hef 
debts  contracted  before  marriage,  and  her  husband  is  not  liable  for  such  debts. 
She  may  deposit  her  separate  funds  in  bank,  and  withdraw  the  same  on  her  ow:» 
check.  AVhare  the  husband  acquires  any  of  the  wife's  separate  property,  I) 
ante-nuptial  contract  or  otherwise,  he  becomes  liable  for  her  debts  contracted 
before  marriage  to  the  extent  of  the  property  so  acquired  by  htat,  but  no  lur- 
ther. 

Chattel  mortgages  are  governed  by  the  common  law  ;  and  the  mortgage  will  b* 
•roid  unless  possession  of  the  mortgage  chattels  is  delivered  to  and  continuotu-lj 
remains  with  the  mortgagee. 

Wills  should  be  drawn  and  attested  according  to  form  No.  45,  p.  815. 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  WISCONSIN. 

EXEMPTIONS  FROM  FORCED  SALE.— Farm  of  Forty  Acres,  or  House  and  Lof  H 
Villa'ie  or  City,  and  Personal  Property.  A  homestead,  consisting  of  land  not 
exceeding  40  acres,  used  for  farming  purposes ;  or  in  lieu  of  the  above,  at  the  op- 
tion of  the  debtor,  a  lot  in  any  town  or  city  not  to  exceed  one-fourth  of  an  ac:e. 
Family  Bible,  pictures,  school  books  and  private  library  ;  church  pew  ;  all  wear- 
ing apparel ;  usual  household  furniture,  not  to  exceed  $200 ;  gun  or  rifle,  not  to 
exceed  §50  in  value  ;  2  cows,  10  hogs,  yoke  of  oxen  and  horse  or  mule  ;  10  sheep 
and  wool  therefrom,  and  necessary  food  for  said  animals  and  for  the  debtor's 
family  for  one  year ;  wagon  and  other  farming  utensils  not  to  exceed  $50  ;  also,, 
all  insurance  money  arising  from  the  destruction  of  property  exempt  from  exe 
cution  ;  also,  the  earnings  tor  the  past  sixty  days  of  persons  who  have  families 
to  support. 

The  tools,  implements,  and  stock  in  trade  of  a  mechanic  or  miner,  or  other 
person,  not  exceeding  $200  in  value  ;  library  or  implements  of  any  professional 
man  not  exceeding  $200  in  value.  All  sewing  machines  kept  for  use  ;  any  swords, 
plate,  books,  or  other  article  presented  by  Congress  or  the  members  thereof. 

MECHANICS'  LIEN.— All  persons  who  perform  labor  upon  or  furnish  materials 
for  the  building,  improving  or  repairing  of  buildings,  have  a  lien  thereon  for  the 
came,  which  must  be  enforced  by  filing  a  petition  for  the  lien  in  six  months  in  the 
circuit  court  and  an  action  to  foreclose  in  one  year. 

COLLECTION  OF  DEBTS. — In  civil  actions  a  defendant  is  liable  to  arrest  in  the 
following  cases  :  1.  In  an  action  for  the  recovery  of  damages,  on  a  cause  of  ac- 
tion not  arising  out  of  contract,  where  the  defendant  is  not  a  resident  of  the  State, 
or  is  about  to  remove  therefrom,  or  where  the  action  is  for  injury  to  person  or 
character,  or  for  injuring,  or  for  wrongfully  taking  or  converting  property,  and 
in  actions  to  recover  damages  for  the  value  of  property  obtained  by  the  defend- 
ant under  false  pretences.  2.  In  an  action  for  a  fine  or  penalty,  or  for  money  or 
property  embezzled  or  fraudulently  misapplied  by  a  public  officer  or  an  attorney, 
or  by  an  agent  of  any  corporation  111  the  course  of  his  employment  as  such,  or  by 
a  factor  or  agent,  or  any  other  person  in  a  ftcluciary  capacity,  or  for  any  miscon- 
duct in  office  or  professional  employment.  3.  In  an  action  to  recover  possession 
of  personal  property  unjustly  detained,  where  the  property,  or  part  thereof,  hat 
been  concealed,  ro  \hat  it  cannot  be  taken  by  the  sheriff  ;  but  no  female  can  be 
arrested,  except  for  wilful  injury  to  person,  character  or  property.  4.  When  the- 
defendant  has  been  guilty  of  fraud  in  contracting  the  obligation  for  which  the- 
suit  is  brought. 

Writ  of  attachment  may  issue  on  the  plaintiff  giving  bond,  and  making  affidavit 
that  his  debt  is  just,  and  that  one  or  more  of  the  following  reasons  for  attach- 
ment exists  :  1.  That  the  defendant  has  absconded  or  is  about  to  abscond  from 
the  State,  or  is  concealed  therein,  to  the  injury  of  his  creditors,  2.  That  he  has 
assigned,  disposed  of,  or  concealed,  or  is  al5out  to  assign,  dispose  of,  or  con- 
ceal 1m  property, with  intent  to  defraud  his  creditors.  3.  That  he  has  removed  or 
is  about  to  remove  his  property  from  the  State  with  the  same  intent.  4.  That  he 
fraudulently  contracted  the  debt  upon  which  the  action  is  brought.  5.  That  he  ie 
a  non-resident.  6.  That  the  defendant  is  a  foreign  corporation  ;  or,  7.  That  he 
has  fraudulently  disposed  of  his  property  with  intent  to  defraud  his  creditors. 
Attachment  cannot  issue  unless  debt  exceeds  §50. 

All  assignments  for  the  benefit  of  creditors  are  void,  as  against  creditors,  un- 


^16  SPECIAL  LAWS   OF   WISCONSIN. 

iess  the  assignee  is  a  resident  of  the  Stato  and  gives  bond,  to  the  value  of  tftut 
property  assigned,  for  the  faithful  performance  of  his  trust. 

All  notes  or  certificates  of  deposit,  payable  to  any  person  or  his  order,  are  nego- 
tiable. Bills  of  exchange,  payable  at  sigLt,  are  entitled  to  grace  ;  but  when  pay- 
able on  demand  they  are  not  entitled  to  grace.  Protested  bills  of  exchange. 
Iniwn  or  negotiated  in  this  State,  entitle  the  holder  to  the  following  damages:  Ir 
orawn  on  any  person  residing  out  of  the  United  States,  or  in  some  one  of  the 
United  States  which  adjoins  ibis  State,  five  per  cent. ;  if  drawn  on  a  person  in 
-vmie  one  of  the  United  States,  but  which  is  not  adjoining  this  State,  ten  percent. 
Le^al  holidays  are  January  1st,  February  22d,  July  4th  aiul  December  25th.  Pa- 
ier  maturing  those  days,  or  on  Sunday,  must  be  protested  the  day  previous. 
\nd  when  any  of  those  days  fall  on  Sunday,  then  the  Monday  following  is  a  legal 
lo'iday,  and  paper  maturing  on  that  Monday  must  be  protested  the  Saturda; 
preceding. 

Judgments  are  a  lien  on  all  real  estate  in  the  county  where  obtained,  and  in 
the  county  where  a  transcript  is  filed  and  docketed  in  the  circuit  court  clerk's 
office,  and  the  lien  remains  on  such  real  estate  for  ten  years. 

A  transcript  from  a  judgment  before  a  justice  may  be  also  docketed  and  filed 
in  the  circuit  court  clerk's  office,  and  likewise  becomes  a  lien,  same  as  a  circuit! 
court  judgment. 

Execution  may  issue  at  any  time  within  five  years  after  rendition  of  judg- 
Tncnt  as  of  course,  and  where  an  execution  was  so  issued  within  that  period,  then 
an  alias  may  be  issued  at  any  time  within  twenty  years  from  the  date  of  th« 
judgment ;  but  when  no  original  execution  within  the  first  five  years,  then  an 
alias  will  only  be  granted  on  affidavit  that  the  judgment  is  unsatisfied.  Execu- 
tions are  of  three  kinds— against  the  property,  against  the  person  of  the  debtor, 
and  for  the  delivery  of  personal  or  real  property  detained  by  the  defendant. 
Execution  gives  a  lien  on  personal  property  only  from  the  time  of  actual  levy. 
Real  estate  sold  under  execution  can  be  redeemed  by  the  debtor  in  two  years 
from  the  date  of  sale,  or  by  his  creditors  in  two  years  and  three  months  from  that 
time. 

DEEDS,  RIGHTS  OF  MARRIED  WOMEN,  WILLS,  &c.— Deeds  must  be  in  writing, 
and  it  is  only  necessary  that  they  be  in  the  form  of  a  quit  claim,  as  no  covenant  ia 
absolutely  necessary  or  implied  ;  not  necessary  to  be  under  seal,  a  scrawl  will 
answer,  and  must  be  executed  in  the  presence  of  at  least  two  witnesses,  and  must 
be  acknowledged  in  the  State  before  any  judge  or  court  commissioner,  clerk  of  cir^ 
cult  or  county  court,  justice  of  the  peace  or  notary  public.  But  if  acknowledged 
out  of  the  State,  mav  be  acknowledged  before  any  person  authorized  to  take  tho 
acknowledgment  of  deeds  under  the  laws  of  the  State  where  taken,  or  before  a 
Commissioner  of  deeds.  But  unless  the  acknowledgment  is  taken  before  a  com- 
nissioner  of  deeds,  or  a  notary  public,  there  must  be  attached  to  the  deed  a  certifi- 
cate of  the  clerk  of  a  court  of  record,  under  seal  of  his  office,  that  the  person  who 
took  the  acknowledgment  was  at  the  date  thereof  such  officer  as  he  represent* 
himself  to  be,  that  he  believes  the  signature  of  such  officer  to  be  genuine,  and  the 
acknowledgment  is  according  to  the  Taws  of  the  State  where  taken. 

A  married  woman  must  join  in  the  execution  of  a  deed  to  her  husband's  prop- 
srty  to  bar  her  dower.  She  can  do  this  by  an  attorney  duly  appointed. 

The  form  of  certificate  of  acknowledgment  may  be  the  one  in  use  in  th» 
Slate  where  taken. 

All  the  wife's  separate  real  and  personal  property  whether  owned  by  her  at  tha 
time  of  her  marriage  or  acquired  by  her  after  in  any  way,  remains  the  sole  and  sepa- 
rate estate  of  the  wife,  free  from  the  control  and  debts  of  her  husband.  She  can 
convey  the  same  as  if  sole,  and  without  the  written  consent  of  her  husband. 
She  is  liable  for  all  debts  contracted  by  her  before  marriage,  and  after  o* 
account  of  her  separate  property,  and  can  be  sued  for  the  same.  She  can  su« 
without  joining  her  husband,  but  if  sued  he  must  also  be  sued. 

She  has  dower  in  all  the  real  estate  of  her  husband,  owned  by  him  during 
coverture,  unless  she  relinquishes  the  same. 

A  chattel  mortgage  is  not  valid  as  to  third  parties,  unless  the  property  be  de- 
livered to  the  mortgagee  and  remain  in  his  possession,  or  the  mortgage  be  filed 
with  the  clerk  of  the  town  where  the  mortgagor  resides,  or  where  the  property  ia 
situated,  if  the  mortgagor  is  a  non-resident. 

No  will  made  within  this  State,  except  such  non-cupative  wills  as  are  men- 
lioued  in  section  number  six.  of  chapter  eixty-six  of  the  Revised  Statutes,  shalJ 
be  effectual  to  pass  any  estate,  whether  real  or  personal,  nor  tc  change  or  in  any 
way  affect  the  same,  unless  it  be  in  writing,  and  signed  by  the  testator,  or  by 
aome  person  in  his  presence,  and  by  his  express  direction,  and  attested  and  sub- 
scribed in  the  presence  of  the  testator  by  two  or  more  competent  witnesses,  an4 


SPECIAL   LAWS    OF   ONTARIO,   ETC. 

M  the  witnesses  are  competent  at  the  time  of  attesting  the  execution  of  the  will, 
weir  swljeequent  incompetency,  from  whatever  cause  it  may  arise,  shall  fsbt  pre- 
reat  the  probate  and  allowance  of  the  will,  if  it  be  otherwise  satisfactorily 
proved. 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  WYOMING. 


FROM  FORCED  SALE.  ^Home  worth  $1500,  and  Personal 
grty.  £  homestead  consisting  of  a  house  and  lot  in  a  village  or  city,  or  land  liot 
Exceeding  160  acres,  the  value  not  in  either  case  exceeding  $1500,  is  allowed  to  a 
householder  occupying  the  same.  Also  the  following  property  of  a  householder, 
b^-ing  the  head  of  a  family,  is  exempt.  Wearing  apparel,  family  Bibles,  picture^ 
sciool  books,  cemetery  lots,  bedding,  furniture,  provisions,  and  such  other  arti- 
cles as  the  debtor  may  select,  not  exceeding  in  value  §500.  Tools,  team,  or  stock 
in  trade  of  a  mechanic,  miner,  or  other  person,  kept  and  used  for  the  purpose  of 
carrying  0,1  his  business  or  trade,  not  exceeding  $300,  are  exempt.  Library,  in- 
struments, «jnd  implements  of  any  professional  man,  worth  not  more  than  $300. 
The  person  claiming  exemption  must  be  a  bonafide  resident  of  the  territory. 


SPECIAL  LAWS   OF  ONTARIO,    CANADA. 

EXEMPTIONS  .FROM  FORCED  SALE.— The  bed,  bedding  and  bedsteads  in  ordi- 
nary use  by  the  debtor  and  his  family.  The  necessary  and  ordinary  wearing 
apparel.  One  sto  re  and  pipes,  1  crane  and  its  appendages,  1  pair  of  andirons,  I 
aet  of  cooking  ul  jnsils,  1  pair  tongs,  1  shovei,  1  table,  6  chairs,  6  knives,  6  forks, 
6  plates,  6  teacupj,  6  saucers,  i  sugar  basin,  1  milk  jug,  1  tea  pot,  6  spoons,  15 
hives  of  bees,  all  i  pinning  wheels  and  weaving  looms  in  domestic  use,  10  volumes 
of  books,  1  saw,  1  rtun,  6  traps,  and  such  fishing  nets  and  seines  as  are  in  common 
use.  All  necessai  y  fuel-  'neat,  iish,  Hour  and  vegetables  actually  provided  fo* 
family  use,  not  mete  tht».<  sufficient  for  the  ordinary  consumption  of  the  debtor 
and  his  family  for  3.)  days,  and  not  exceeding  in  value  the  sum  of  $40.  One  cow, 
4  sheep,  2  hogs  and  food  thereof  for  30  days.  The  tools  and  implements  or 
chattels  ordinarily  u»,6;l  in  the  debtor's  occupation  to  the  value  of  $60. 

EXEMPTIONS  FRO:M  FORCED  SALES. — On  Free  Grants  and  Homesteads  in  the 
Possession  of  Actuul  Settlers,  in  the  Algoma  and  Nippissing  Districts,  and  certain 
lands  between  the  River  Ottawa  and  the  Georgian  Bay,  are  exempt  from  seizure, 
while  in  personal  property,  beds,  bedsteads,  bedding,  and  wearing  apparel  of  the 
debtor  and  his  family,  household  furniture,  provision?,  farm  stock,  tools,  and 
implements  to  the  value  of  $60,  are  txempt  from  seizure. 

MECHANICS'  LIEN.— Mechanics,  laborers  and  material  men  have  a  lien  on 
buildings  and  on  the  land  on  which  said  buildings  are  situate,  for  work  or 
materials  furnished  for  erecting  or  repairing  same.  Lien  can  be  secured  by  filing 
a  statement  of  the  claim  in  the  registrar's  office  within  30  days  after  the  comple- 
tion c>f  the  work.  It  will  cease  to liold  good  after  the  expiration  of  90  days. 

THE  COLLECTION  OF  DEBTS.— Defendant  is  liable  to  arrest  on  affidavit  by 
the  plaintiff  that  he  is  a  concealed  debtor,  or  is  about  to  abscond  from  the  pro- 
vince with  the  design  and  inteut  to  defraud  him  outcf  his  just  debu 

V/rit  of  attachment  may  issue  for  any  debt  or  damages  arising  upon  any  con- 
tract, express  or  implied,  or  upon  any  judgment  where  affidavit  or  affirmation  ia 
made  before  the  judge  of  the  county  court,  a  justice  of  the  peace,  or  the  clerk  oJ 
a  division  court,  where  the  debtor  absconds,  or  is  about  to  abscond  from  the  pro- 
vince, leaving  property  liable  to  seizure  imder  execution  for  debt  in  any  county 
of  Ontario,  or  shall  attempt  co  remove  his,  her,  or  their  property,  either  out  of 
the  province,  or  from  one  county  to  another  therein,  or  from  Ontario  to  Quebec, 
or  shall  keep  concealed  in  any  count}"  of  Ontario  to  avoid  service  of  process. 
Such  judge,  clerk  or  justice  of  the  peace,  shall,  on  such  affidavit  being  made 
forthwith  issue  a  warrant  under  his  hand  and  seal,  directed  to  any  constable  of 
the  county,  or  directed  to  the  bailiff  of  a  Division  Court,  within  which  the  sama 
was  issued,  empowering  said  constable  or  bailiff  to  attach,  seize,  take  and  safejy 
keep  all  such  effects  and  estate  of  said  absconding  or  concealed  debtor,  wherever 
found  within  said  county,  and  shall  within  twenty-four  hours  after  said  seizure, 
<«all  to  his  aid  two  freeholders,  who  shall,  after  being  sworn,  value  and  appraise 
the  said  effects  so  seized,  when  the  said  bailiff  or  constable  shall  forthwith  return 
said  inventory  with  the  property,  to  the  clerk  of  the  Division  Court  witfax* 


§18  SPECIAL    LAWS    OF    ONTARIO. 

which  such  warrant  was  issued.  Proceedings  may  be  conducted  to  judgment 
and  execution  in  any  case  commenced  by  attachment.  Defendants,  against 
whose  effects,  &c.,  a  warrant  is  issued,  may  tender  a  bond  to  their  creditors,  with 
sureties  (in  double  the  amount  of  the  sum  claimed)  prior  to  judgment  and  obtain 
a  release  of  the  goods.  No  real  estate  is  liable  to  seizure  under  Division  Court 
writs  of  attachment. 

The  jurisdiction  of  Division  Courts  (of  which  it  is  provided  that  there  shall  at 
no  time  be  less  than  three,  nor  more  than  twelve,  in  a  county,  each  to  be  held 
once  every  two  months,  or  oftener  at  the  discretion  of  the  judge)  extends  to 
claims  of  debt,  account  or  breach  of  contract,  or  covenant,  or  money  demand, 
whither  payable  in  money  or  otherwise,  where  the  amount  or  balance  claimed,! 
does  not  exceed  $100,  and  in  all  torts  to  personal  chattels,  to  and  including  the 
sum  of  $40.  Summons  to  be  served  10  days  before  fitting  of  court.  Personal 
service  of  summons  necessary  where  claim  exceeds  $8.  No  unsettled  account 
to  a  greater  amount  than  §200  shall  be  sued  for  in  any  Division  Court,  in  which 
case  judgment  shall  be  in  full  discharge  of  all  demands.  No  debt  due  for 
liquors,  drunk  in  a  tavern  or  ale-house,  or  any  gambling  debt,  or  any  claim! 
touching  the  title  to  real  estate,  or  involving  any  right  to  custom  or  toll,  or  for 
reduction,  or  breach  of  promise  of  marriage,  is  suable  in  a  Division  Court.  Trial 
by  jury  is  accorded  in  cases  of  tort  or  trespass  where  claim  exceeds  $10,  ar.d  in 
all  other  cases  where  amount  exceeds  $20.  Debtor  removing  to  another  county 
may  be  served  with  summons  from  the  Mvision  Court  where  the  debt  was  con- 
tracted,  summons  in  this  case  to  be  mailed  to  the  Clerk  of  the  Division  Court 
where  the  debtor  may  reside  to  be  served  by  the  bailiff  of  said  Court,  who  will, 
through  the  Clerk  of  his  Division,  return  the  original  of  said  summons  duly  en- 
dorsed with  affidavit  of  service  to  the  issuing  clerk.  Writ  of  execution  may  bo 
issued  and  judgment  debtor's  goods  be  levied  on  by  the  same  means.  Execu- 
tions are  returnable  within  30  days  from  date  of  issue,  and  affect  personal  prop- 
erty  only  ;  if  returned  nulla  boita,  a  transcript  of  the  judgment,  if  for  $40  or  up- 
wards, from  the  clerk  of  the  Division  Court,  attested  by  the  seal  of  said  court, 
may  be  filed  in  the  office  of  the  clerk  of  the  County  Court  where  such  judgment 
was  obtained,  or  in  the  county  where  the  judgment  debtor's  lands  may  be 
situate,  and  when  thus  tiled  shall  become  a  Judgment  of  the  said  County  Court 
and  issue  execution  on  said  lands.  Division  Court  judgments  are  made  payable 
in  ten,  fifteen,  or  twenty  days,  more  or  les?,  at  the  discretion  of  the  judge  (but 
not  for  more  than  50  days  from  the  service  of  summons,  unless  plaintiff  con- 
sents), but  execution  may  issue  forthwith  on  sufficient  evidence,  adduced  by 
plaintiff,  to  satisfy  tha  judge  that  the  said  plaintiff  will  be  in  danger  of  losing 
the  amount  of  said  judgment  by  delay  till  the  day  of  payment  before  issuing 
execution. 

On  return  of  execution  endorsed  nulla  bona,  judgment  summons  may  issue 

citing  judgment  debtor  to  appear  in  court  for  examination  under  oath  by  the 

judge  touching  his  ways  and  means  of  payment,  what  disposition  he  may  have 

ade  of 


&c.,  on  which  the  judge  may  order  defendant  to  pay  a  stated  sum  per  month  on 
said  judgment  until  the  same  be  paid,  and  in  default  of  euch  payments,  or  if 
guilty  of  fraud  in  contracting  the  debt,  may  commit  said  defendant  to  the  com- 


mon jail  of  the  county  for  a  period  not  exceeding  forty  days.  Such  imprison- 
ment shall  not,  in  any  case,  operate  as  a  satisfaction  or  extinguishment  of  the 
debt,  but  the  party  imprisoned  may  be  released  forthwith  on  payment  of  th» 
debt  and  costs.  The  judge  in  his  discretion  may  suspend  any  judgment,  order, 
or  execution  given,  on  being  satisfied  that  any  defendant  is  unable,  from  sick- 
ness or  other  sufficient  cause,  to  pay  or  discharge  the  debt  and  damages  recpv-, 
ered  against  him,  or  any  instalment  thereof,  until  it  sliall  appear  by  the  like  ' 
proof  that  such  temporary  disability  has  ceased. 

Wherever  any  goods,  chattels,  deeds,  bonds,  pro.  notes,  books  of  account, 
valuable  securities,  or  other  personal  property,  shall  be  wrongfully  taken  or  un- 
jjnvfully  detained,  the  owner,  person,  or  corporation,  who  by  law  can  now  bring 
an  action  of  trover  or  trespass  for  personal  property,  shall  have  and  may  bring 
an  action  of  replevin  for  the  recovery  of  said  goods,  with  accrued  damages  for, 
unlawful  caption  and  detention.  Judgment  holds  good  for  10  years. 

The  jurisdiction  of  County  Court  extends,  in  cases  of  debt  contract,  to  $200  ; 
\.  iiero  the  amount  is  ascertained  by  the  signature  of  the  defendant,  to  $400  ;  in  all 
matters  of  tort  relating  to  personal  chattels,  where  the  sum  does  not  exceed  $200. 
The  Superior  Law  Courts  have  concurrent  jurisdiction  with  the  County  Court. 
Tl:e  above  amounts  may  be  sued  for  in  the  Superior  Courts,  but  all  concerned  will 
only  be  liable  to  pay  and  receive  County  Court  costs  and  fees.  County  Court 
vrit  of  summons  may  be  served  on  defendant  in  any  county  in  th«  province,  but 


SPECIAL   LAWS   OP   ONTARIO.  9 

toft  must  be  brought  in  the  county  -where  the  defendant,  or  one  or  more  of  them 
resides,  *>r  where  the  contract  was  made  payable.  The  County  Court  jurisdiction 
also  ex 'ends  to  the  relief  of  persona  entitled  to  an  account  of  the  dealings  and 
transactions  of  a  partnership  (the  joint  stock  or  capital  not  having  been  over 
9 800)  dissolved  or  expired,  seeking  such  account,  or  to  a  creditor  upon  the  estai 
of  any  dec&a^ied  person,  such  creditor  seeking  payment  of  his  debt,  not  exceeding 
$200,  out  of  the  deceased's  assets  not  exceeding  $800  ;  or  to  a  legatee  under  tho 
idll  of  any  deceased  person,  such  legate?  seeking  payment  or  delivery  of  his 
legacy,  not  exceeding  $200  in  value,  out  of  such  deceased  person's  assets,  not 
exceeding  $800  \  or  to  a  residuary  legatee,  or  one  of  the  residuary  legatees  of 
any  deceased  pewon  seeking  an  account  of  the  residue  and  payment,  or  appro- 
priation of  his  scare  therein,  the  estate  not  exceeding  $800  ;  or  to  an  executor  or  • 
administrator  of  a>:y  such  deceased  person  seeking  to  have  the  personal  estate, 
not  exceeding  $800,  -.•»£  such  deceased  person  administered  under  the  direction  of 
the  Judge  of  the  County  Court  for  the  County  within  which  such  executor  or 
administrator  resides  •  or  to  a  legal  or  equitable  mortgagee  whose  mortgage 
is  created  7;y  some  instvament  in  writinf  " 
tered  his  'judgment ;  t*r  person  entitle< 
foreclosure  or  sale,  or  otherwise  to  enforce 
does  not  f  xceed  $200  ;  or  to  any  person  entitled  to  redeem  any  legal  or  equitable 
mortgage ,  or  any  charge  o*  lien,  seeking  to  redeem  the  same,  where  the  sum 
actually  remaining  due  doe j  net  exceed  $200.  Injunctions  to  restrain  the  com- 
mitting" of  waste  or  trespass  to  property  by  unlawfully  cutting,  destroying, 
or  removing  trees  or  timber,  vo,>y  be  granted  by  the  Judge  of  any  County  Court, 
which  injunction  shall  remain  in  force  one  month,  unless  sooner  dissolved  on 
an  application  to  the  Court  ol  Chancery.  Judgment  in  a  County  Court 
is  not  a  lien  on  real  estate  owned  \>j  defendant. 

Jurisdiction  of  Superior  Court  extends  to  claims  of  over  $200  damages,  and 
over  $400  (secured  claim)  to  any  amount.  Judgments  in  the  County  Court  do  not 
hold  real  or  personal  estate  until  the  execution  is  in  sheriff's  hands. 

The  jurisdiction  of  a  justice  of  the  peace  is  limited  to  $40,  in  actions  for 
•wages  between  masters  and  servants.  Garnishment  may  issue  to  recover  money 
flue  debtor. 

DEEDS,  MORTGAGES,  CHATTEL  MORTGAGES,  &c.— Conveyances  of  real  estate 
must  be  in  writing,  sealed  by  the  grantor,  and  subscribed  by  him  or  his  attorney 
duly  authorized,  and  attested  by  two  witnesses.  Deeds  must  be  under  seal,  a 
scrawl  will  not  answer.  Deeds  and  mortgages  of  real  estate  are  proved  by  affida- 
vit of  one  of  the  witnesses  to  said  deed  or  mortgage,  said  affidavit  being  engrossed 
on  what  is  called  a  memorial,  setting  forth  a  digest  of  the  principal  details  of  the 
deed ;  this  memorial  shall  be  under  the  hand  and  seal  of  the  grantee  or  the 
grantor,  and  is  left  for  permanent  record  with  the  registrar  of  the  county  in 
which  the  property  conveyed  5s  situate.  To  illustrate  :  John  Smith,  and  Mary 
his  wife,  convey  property  to  Robert  Bell ;  each  will  sign  the  deed  in  the  order 
named,  and  John  Gordon  and  Peter  Ross  will  witness  deed.  In  this  case  the  af- 
fidavit on  the  memorial  will  read  as  follows  : 

County  of  York. )  John  Gordon,  of  Toronto,  in  the  said  countv  of  York,  gentle- 
To  wit :  {  man,  in  the  within  Memorial  named,  maketh  oath  and  eaith, 
that  he  was  present  and  did  see  the  Indenture  to  which  the  said  Memorial  relates, 
duly  executed,  signed,  sealed  and  delivered,  by  the  therein  named  John  Smith 
and  Mary  his  wife,  and  that  he  is  a  subscribing  witness  to  the  execution  of  the, 
said  Indenture,  and  that  he,  this  deponent,  also  saw  the  said  Memorial  duly 
signed  and  sealed  by  the  therein  named  Robert  Bell,  for  registry  thereof.  Whica 
said  Memorial  was  attested  by  him  this  deponent,  and  another  subscribing  wit- 
*ness,  and  that  both  said  instruments  were  executed  at  the  city  of  Toronto,  in  th» 
Said  county  of  York. 

|5worn  before  me  at  Toronto,  in  the  said  County  of  York,  this 
ninth  day  of  November,  A.  D.  1878. 


SAMUEL,  HILL, 


GORDON. 


A  Commissioner  for  taking  affidavits  in  the  Queen's  Bench, 

in  and  for  the  said  County  of  York. 
Within  the  province  the  affidavit  to  execution  ©f  deed  may  be  taken  on  said 
memorial  before  the  registrar  of  the  county  or  his  deputy,  or  before  any  judge  of 
the  Court  of  Queen's  I  ench  of  Ontario,  or  any  judge  of  a  county  court,  or  anj? 
commissioner  of  the  f  lid  Court  of  Queen's  Bench,  in  Ontario.  Out  of  the  Prov- 
ince, proof  of  deeds,  conveyances,  ©r  wills,  may  be  made  by  affidavit  (or  decla* 


920  TITTLE'S   FOR   COMPUTING   PERCENT  AGES,   ETC. 

*tton  when  said  declaration  Is  by  law  permiasable)  sworn  before  the  mayor  <H 
chief  magistrate  of  any  city,  borough,  or  town  corporate  in  Great  Britain  or  Ire. 
under  the  common  seal  of  such  citv.  borough  or  town  corporate,  or  before 

' 


file  chief  justice  or  judge  of  any  court  of  Queen's  Bench  in  Quebec,  or  of  tha 
supreme  court  of  any  British  colony,  or  before  the  mayor  of  any  city,  borough, 
•ortownoorporate  in  any  foreign  count ry,  or  any  consul  or  vice-consul  of  Her 
Majesty  resident  therein.  Deeds,  conveyances,  judgments,  &c.,  must  be  recorded 
Jnffihe  county  where  property  is  situate,  and  bind  lands  according  to  priority  of 
3-egistration.  A  wife  must  join  in  a  deed  with  the  husband,  in  selling  his  real  es- 
tate, to  relinquish  dower,  and  he  must  join  with  her  in  selling  her  separate  real- 
estate,  acquired  previous  to,  or  subsa^uent  to  marriage.  . 

3N©  chattel  mortgage  is  valid  as  against  the  rights  of  third  parties  (if  the  good* 
jemain  with  the  grantor)  unless  said  instrument  is  duly  tiled  in  the  office  of  the 
:cJpj*k  of  the  county,  in  which  the  property  so  mortgaged  is  situate,  and  it  shall 
cease  to  be  valid  as  against  creditors,  if  not  refiled  before  the  expiration  of  the 
first  year,  together  with  a  statement  exhibiting  the  interest  of  the  mortgagee  in 
'ihe  property  thereby  claimed.  Every  chattel  mortgage  is  void  as  against  credit- 
ors, unless  accompanied  with  an  affidavit  of  the  mortgagee,  sworn  before  a  com- 
onissioner  of  the  court  of  Queen's  Bench  or  common  pleas,  that  the  mortgagor  is 
•Jnatly  and  truly  indebted  to  the  mortgagee  in  the  sum  mentioned  in  said  mort- 
..  gage,  and  that  it  was  executed  in  good  faith  and  for  the  express  purpose  of  secur- 
?fng  the  payment  of  the  money  so  justly  due;  and  not  for  the  purpose  of  protect- 
ing ttie  goods  and  chattels  mentioned  therein  against  the  creditors  of  the  mort- 
gagor—and  in  case  of  an  absolute  sale,  that  the  sale  is  bonajide  and  for  good  con- 
taideration  (naming  the  sum)  and  not  for  the  purpose  of  holding  the  goods  against 
the  creditors  of  the  bargainer. 

The  husband's  property  is  not  liable  for  debts  contracted  by  his  wife  previoui 
So  her  marriage,  free  from  all  liability  for  her  husband's  debts. 

.For  form  of  wills  and  mode  of  attestation,  see  Form  No.  45,  p.  815. 


RULES  FOR  COMPUTING  PERCENTAGES,  PROFITS,  &o. 

XUfE  VER  CENT.— To  find  the  Gain  or  Loss  ivhen  the  Cost  and  Kate 
per  Cent.  Ms  given.— Rule.  Multiply  the  cost  by  the  rate  per  cent,  and 
point  off  two  places  to  the  right  as  cents.  Example.— Bought  flour  for 
fSCO.OO,  £,nd  sold  it  at  an  advance  of  12  per  cent.  How  much  did  I  gain  ? 
.500  "multiplied  by  12  per  cent,  equals  £60. 

To  FIND  THE  RATE  PER  CENT.  WHEN  THE  COST  AND  SELLING  PRICE 
/ARE  KNOWN  —  Rule.  Find  the  difference  between  the  cost  and  selling 
»rice,  the  difference  will  be  the  gain  or  loss  ;  then  annex  two  ciphers  to 
the  gain  or  loss  so  found  and  divide  by  the  cost,  the  result  will  be  the 
rate  per  cent,  Example.— Sold  a  drove  of  cattle  for  $10.000,  which  cost 
me  $8,500.  What  per  cent,  did  I  gain  ?  Ans.— 810,000— 8,500  equals 
$1,500  ;  150,000  divided  by  8,500  equals  17  11-17  per  cent. 

To  DETERMINE  THE  COST  WHEN  THE  SELLING  PRICE  AND  THE  RATE 
;PER  CENT.  OF  THE  GAIN  OR  Loss  ARE  GIVEN.— Rule.  Annex  two  ci- 
phers *to  the  selling  price  and  divide  by  $1.00  increased  by  the  rate  pet 
ioit.  of  gain  or  loss.  Example. — A  cargo  of  coffee  was  sold  for  $25,000, 
^realizing  a  gain  of  25  per  cent.  What  was  the  cost  ?  Ans.-—l  plus  Sfy 
equals  1.25.  2500.00  divided  by  $1.25  equals  20,000. 

To  FIND  THE  COST  WHEN  THE  Loss  OR  GAIN  AND  THE  RATE  PEB 
CKNT.  ARE  GIVEN.— Rule.  Annex  two  ciphers  to  the  gain  or  loss  and 
divide  by  Ike  rate  per  cent.  Example.— A  lot  of  ice  was  sold  at  a  profit 
of  $3,000,  the  percentage  of  the  profit  being  15.  What  was  the  cost? 
J.««  -3000  divided  by  15,  equals  $2,000. 

To  FIND  THE  RATE  WHEN  THE  COST  AND  GAIN  OR  Loss  ARE  GIVSN> 
—Rule.  Annex  two  ciphers  to  the  gain  or  loss  and  divide  by  the  cost 
jaa»m»7e  —A  wine  merchant  sold  a  lot  of  wine  which  cost  him  $650,  and 
gained  $130.  What  was  the  gain  per  cent.  ?  Ans.—  13000.W  divided  by 
350  equals  20  per  cent 


SPECIAL    LAWS    OF   NEW   BRUNSWICK.  921 

SPECIAL   LAWS  OF   NEW    BRUNSWICK. 

EXEMPTIONS  FROM  FORCED  SALE.— There  is  no  homestead  law  in  this  prov-l 
fence.  The  wearing  apparel,  bedding,  kitchen  utensils,  and  tools  of  his  trade  or 
•ailing,  to  the  value  of  $  100,  of  any  debtor,  are  exempt  from  levy  or  sale  under 
execution. 

MECHANICS'  LIEN.— No  house  or  other  property  in  the  province  can  be  held 
liable  for  debts  due  parties  for  furnishing  materials  for  constructing  or  repairing 
same. 

COLLECTION  OF  DEBTS.— A  person  not  having  privilege  may  be  arrested  and 
,Jield  to  bail  or  committed  to  prison  on  mesne  process,  in  any  cause  of  action  within 
the  .Jurisdiction  of  the  Supreme  or  any  County  Court,  if  an  affidavit  be  tiirst  made 
by  the  plaintiff  or  his  agent  of  the  plaintiff's  cause  of  action,  and  that  the  amount 
thereof  not  being  less  than  $20  is  justly  due  to  the  plaintiff,  and  that  such  arrest 
is  not  made  for  the  purpose  of  vexing  or  harassing  the  debtor.  "When  the  causa 
of  action  is  not  a  debt  certain  a  judge's  order  must  be  obtained. 

In  actions  in  justices'  Civil  Courts  and  Parish  Courts,  a  person  may  be  ar- 
rested on  the  plaintiff's  making  an  affidavit  of  his  cause  of  action,  and  that  after 
giving  full  credit  for  all  payments  and  off  sets  the  defendant  is  indebted  to  him  in 
a  sum  not  exceeding  $20  nor  less  than  62,  as  the  case  maybe,  JM.dthat  he  is  afraid 
of  losing  his  debt,  and  that  he,  the  defendant,  is  of  the  ago  of  twenty-one  years. 

Members  of  the  legislature,  judges,  and  witnesses  att  .iding  trial,  are  exempt 
from  arrest,  and  in  actions  brought  in  justices'  Civil  Courts.  Females  also  are 
cicempt  from  arrest.  No  person  can  be  arrested  under  an  execution  issued  on  a 
judgment  in  the  Supreme  or  County  Courts,  but  arrest  may  be  made  on  a  judg- 
ment obtained  in  justices'  Civil  Courts,  the  City  Court  of  St.  John,  the  town  of 
Portland  Civil  Court,  the  city  of  Frederictoii  Civil  Court,  and  in  Civil  Courts 
l«ld  by  Police  or  Stipendiary  Magistrates,  and  in  Parish  Courts,  to  the  amounts 
for  which  such  courts  respectively  have  jurisdiction. 

Arrest  and  imprisonment  may  be  had  and  allowed  for :  1.  Default  in  the  pay- 
iner.t  of  a  penalty  or  stun  in  the  nature  of  a  penalty  other  than  a  penalty  in  the 
nature  of  a  contract.  2.  Default  in  payment  of  any  sum  recoverable  on  summary 
conviction.  3.  Default  in  payment  of  County,  City,  Town,  Parish  or  District 
rates.  4.  Default  by  an  attorney  or  solicitor  in  payment  of  a  sum  of  money,  when 
ordered  to  pay  the  same  in  his  character  of  an  officer  of  the  Court  making  the 
order.  5.  Default  by  a  trustee  or  person  acting  in  the  fiduciary  character,  and 
ordered  to  pay  by  the  Court  of  Equity  any  sum  in  his  possession  or  under  his 
control. 

Decrees  of  thw  Court  of  Equity  may  be  enforced  by  execution  either  against 
the  goods  or  body.  A  debtor  in  custody  may  on  notice  apply,  and  on  making 
requisite  disclosure  be  discharged,  but  if  any  property  appears  011  disclosure  it 
may  be  attached. 

The  real  or  personal  property  within  the  province  of  any  defendant,  which  by 
law  is  liable  to  be  taken  in  execution,  may  in  respect  of  any  cause  of  action  upon 
a  contract  be  attached  and  held  as  security  to  satisfy  the  judgment  to  the  amount 
of  the  attachment.  A  person  at  the  time  of  entering  into  a  contract,  may  (ex- 
cept in  the  case  of  a  negotiable  instrument)  agree  a:.d  stipulate  as  part  of  such 
contract,  that  in  respect  thereof  the  property  of  the  contracting  party  shall 
not  be  subject  to  attachment.  Before  any  writ  of  attachment  can  issue  the  plain- 
tiff or  some  one  on  his  behalf  must  make  affidavit  of  his  cause  of  artion,  and  of 
,  the  amount  due,  and  (except  in  case  of  negotiable  instrument,  or  when  the  cause 
of  action  arose  prior  to  April  8th,  1874)  that  110  agreement  was  made  that  an  at- 
tachment should  not  issue,  and  also  that  the  demand  is  not  secured  by  mortgage 
or  otherwise,  and  that  the  attachment  is  not  sued  out  to  vex,  or  to  harass,  or  to 
hinder,  delay,  or  defraud  any  creditor,  and  either  :  1.  That  the  defendant  is  a 
non-resident  of  the  province,  and  the  contract  was  made  or  is  payable  in  the  prov- 
ince, or  that  the  plaintiff  is  a  resident  of  the  province,  or,  2.  That  the  defendant 
is  a  resident  of  the  province,  and  that  plaintiff  is  apprehensive  that  unless  attach- 
ment is  issued  that  he  may  lo^e  his  demand.  In.  cases  of  a  contract  other  than  a 
contract  for  the  payment  of  money,  no  attachment  shall  issue  unless  apon  an 
order  of  the  Court  or  a  judge  thereof. 

Garnishment  may  issue  to  arrest  money  due  the  debtor  from  third  parties. 
The  sheriff  having  an  execution  may  seize  and  take  any  money,  or  bank  or  Do- 
tniniou  notes,  bonds,  specialties  or  other  securities  for  money  belonging  to  thai 
person  against  whom  the  execution  is  issued. 

A  justice  of  the  peace  has  jurisdiction  in  actions  of  debt  when  the  sum  d«» 


922  SPECIAL   LAWS    OF   NEW   BRUNSWICK. 

manded  does  not  exceed  the  sum  of  $20,  and  in  actions  of  tort  to  real  or  personal 
property  whore  damages  claimed  do  not  exceed  $8,  but  they  have  not  jurisdiction 
over  civil  actions  where  the  Queen  is  a  party,  or  where  the  title  to  land  comes  in 
question. 

There  is  a  Court  in  each  parish  (except  when  there  is  a  resident  Police  or  Sti- 
pendiary Magistrate)  called  "  The  parish  of  (name  of  parisli}  Civil  Court."  v,here>. 
the  jurisdiction  goes  as  high  as  $40  in  actions  of  debt,  and  $16  in  actions  of  tort,, 
but  has  no  jurisdiction  over  civil  actions  when  the  Queen  is  a  party,  or  whevo  the; 
title  to  land  comes  in  question. 

There  is  also  "  The  City  Court  of  St.  John,"  and  "  The  Town  of  Portland  Civil 
•Court,"  having  jurisdiction  in  actions  of  debt  to  the  amount  of  §80.  a:.d  $'JO  in. 
actions  of  tort.  There  is  also  the  City  of  Fredericton  Civil  Court,  h.-ivh-.r;  juris- 
diction in  actions  of  debt  to  the  amount  of  §80,  and  in  actions  of  tort  to  the 
amount  of  $32,  but  no  jurisdiction  over  civil  actions  where  the  Queen  is  a  party, 
or  the  title  to  land  comes  in  question. 

The  names  of  the  several  Courts  are  :  Supreme  Court,  Circuit  Court.  Equity 
Court,  Divorce  and  Matrimonial  Court,  County  Courts,  Probate  Courts,  St.  John 
City  Court,  City  of  Fredericton  Civil  Court,  Small  Debt  Court  of  Fredericton, 
Town  of  Portland  Civil  Courts,  Parish  Courts,  Justices'  Civil  Courts. 

Judgments  obtained  in  the  Supreme  and  County  Courts  bind  the  lands  of  the 
debtor,  on  the  party  obtaining  it  tiling  a  memorial  .~>f  the  judgment  in  the  ofiice  of 
the  Registrar  of  Deeds  for  the  County  in  which  the  lands  lie.  Memorial  must  be 
renewed  every  five  years.  Execution  placed  in  the  sheriff's  hands  for  the  pur- 
pose of  being  executed  will  also  bind  the  lands. 

A  debtor  may  obtain  a  full  discharge  from  his  debts  by  making  an  assignment 
of  his  property  and  complying  with  the  other  stipulations  required  by  the  Do- 
minion Insolvent  Act  which  is  in  force  Jn  this  Province. 

ON  DEEDS.  RIGHTS  OF  MARRIED  WDMEX,  WILLS,  &c.— Deeds  must  be  under 
peal ;  a  scrawl  is  not  sufficient,  and  one  witness  only  is  required  by  law.  Before' 
the  registry  of  any  conveyance  the  execution  of  the  same  shall  either  be  acknowl- 
edged by  the  person  executing  the  same,  or  be  proved  by  the  oath  of  a  subscrib- 
ing witness  in  the  manner  following,  tl:r.t  is  to  say  : — li  the  execution  of  such 
conveyance  be  acknowledged  iu  the  province,  then  su^h  acknowledgment  may  be 
ta£eTi  before  a  judge  of  the  Supreme  or  any  County  Court,  or  a  member  of  the 
Executive  or  Legislative  Council,  or  before  any  Registrar  or  Deputy  Registrar  of 
Deeds,  or  any  Notary  Public  appointed,  and  resident  in  the  province,  and  certified 
under  his  hand  and  official  seal,  or  before  any  jrstice  of  the  peace  of  the  County 
in  which  the  conveyance  is  to  be  registered.  If  the  execution  of  such  convey- 
ance be  proved  in  the  province,  such  proof  may  betaken  by  and  before  any  of  the 
officials  hereinbefore  in  this  section  mentioned,  except  a  "justice  of  the  peace  : 
provided  always,  that  in  cases  where  the  subscribing  witness  or  witnesses  to  any 
such  conveyance  is  dead  or  without  the  province,  then  the  execution  thereof  maf! 
be  proved  before  the  Supreme  Court,  or  some  Circuit  or  County  Court,  by  the  or* 
dinary  legal  proof.  I  f  such  acknowledgment  or  proof  be  taken  out  of  the  province^ 
the  same  shall  be  taken  by  or  before  so:ne  one  of  the  officials  following,  that  is  to- 
say  :— Any  commissioner  for  taking  affidavits  and  administering  oaths  under 
Chapter  30;  or  before  any  commissioner  authorized  by  the  Lord  Chancellor  to  ad- 
minister oaths  in  Chancery  in  England  ;  or  before  any  Notary  Public  certified 
under  his  hand  and  official  seal  ;  or  before  the  Mayor  or  Chief  Magistrate  of  any 
city,  borough,  or  municipality  or  town  corporate,  or  the  seal  of  such  Mayor  or 
Chief  Magistrate,  or  before  any  Judge  of  the  Court  of  Queen's  Bench,  or  Com- 
mon Pleas,  or  Baron  of  the  Exchequer  in  Great  Britain  or  Ireland,  or  Master  in 
Chancery  in  England  or  Ireland,  or  any  judge  or  Lord  of  Session  in  Scotland,  the 
handwriting  of  any  such  judnre,  baron,  or  Lord  of  Session  being  authenticated 
under  the  seal  of  a  Notary  Public,  or  before  a  judge  of  any  Court  of  Supreme 
jurisdiction  in  any  colony  belonging  to  the  Crown  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland, 
or  any  Dependancy  thereof  ;  or  "before  any  British  Minister,  Ambassador,  Consul, 
Vice-Consul,  Acting  Consul,  pro-Consul,  or  Consular  Agent  of  Her  Majesty,  ex- 
ercising his  functions  in  any  foreign  place  ;  or  before  the  Governor  of  a  State, 
and  certified  under  the  hand  and  Seal  of  office  of  such  Minister,  Ambassador, 
Consul,  Vice-Consul,  Acting  Consul,  pro-Consul,  Consular  Agent  or  Governor. 
If  the  conveyance  be  by  a  corporation,  proof  of  the  Corporate. Seal  shall  in  ail 
cases  be  sufficient.  ^ 

A  conveyance,  or  power  of  attorney  for  the  same,  by  a  marked  woman,  of  all. 
her  right  and  interest  in  land  jointly  with  her  husband,  shall  be  valid  if  executed 
without  compulsion  from  him.  and  the  person  authorized  by  law  to  take  acknowl- 
edgments of  conveyances  in  other  cases  certifying  thereon  that  he  has  examined 
her  apart  from  her  husband,  and  that  she  acknowledged  that  she  executed  th* 
conveyance  freely. 


SPECIAL    LAWS    OF    NOVA    SCOTIA    AND    QUEBEC.        92$ 

.1  wife's  property  acquired  before  marriage  is  in  no  case  liable  for  her  hu» 
tend's  debts.  The  husband's  property  is  liable  for  the  wife's  ante-nuptial  datots 
jm  judgment  being  obtained  against  him. 

Mortgages  on  chattel  properly  are  valid,  and  require  to  be  registered,  but  not 
lyery  year.  Bills  of  sale  require  to  be  registered  in  the  Record  Office.  Fcg 
Wills,  consult  Form  No.  45,  page  815. 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  QUEBEC. 

EXEMPTIONS  FROM  FORCED  SALE.— Personal  property  exempt  from  forced 
Bale  being  used  and  owned  by  the  debtor  :  Bed,  bedding  and  bedstead  ;  necessary 
apparel  for  himself  and  family  ;  set  of  table  and  stove  furniture;  all  spinning 
wheels  and  weaver's  looms  in  use  in  the  family  ;  1  axe,  I  gun,  1  saw,  C  traps,  nsh 
nets  in  common  use,  and  10  volumes  of  books  ;  fuel  and  food  for  30  days,  worth 
$20  ;  1  cow,  4  sheep,  2  hogs,  with  necessary  food  for  30  days  ;  tools  and  instru- 
ments used  in  his  trade  to  the  value  of  $20  ;  15  hives  of  bees,  and  wages  and  sal- 
aries not  yet  due  ;  besides  certain  other  properties  granted  by  the  courts. 


SPECIAL  LAWS  OF  NOVA  SCOTIA. 

EXEMPTIONS  FROM  FORCED  SALE.— There  is  no  homestead  exemption  law  h» 
this  Province.  Nothing  is  exempt  from  forced  sale  except  personal  property  to 
the  amount  of  $40. 

MECHANICS'  LIEN.— No  law  exists  to  enforce  a  mechanics'  lien  in  the  Prov- 
ince. Creditor  to  secure  himself  on  property  must  get  a  bill  of  sale  on  chattels, 
&c.,  and  have  it  recorded  in  County  Registrar's  office. 

THE  COLLECTION  OF  DEBTS.— Defendant  is  liable  to  arrest  under  execution 
if  the  amount  Is  $1  ov  upwards  ;  and  on  affidavit  by  plaintiff  that  defendant  is  » 
concealed  debtor,  or  is  about  to  abscond  from  the  Province  with  the  intent  and 
design  to  defraud  him  out  of  his  just  debt,  capias  may  issue  and  arrest  ensue  for 
eums  of  $4  and  upward. 

"Writ  and  attachment  may  issue  under  the  Absconding  Debtor's  Act  against 
defendant's  property  for  sums  of  $20  and  upwards.  \.  book  account  is  outlawed 
in  6  years ;  a  bond  in  6  years  ;  a  note  in  6  years,  and  a  judgment  in  4  years .  Juris- 
diction of  a  justice  of  the  peace  is  limited  to  $20  ;  two  justices  may  render  judg- 
ment for  $80.  The  largest  judgment  obtainable  in  the  County  Court  is  $500  ;  the 
amount  of  judgment  obtainable  in  the  Superior  Court  is  unlimited.  Money  can- 
not be  seized  under  execution.  Judgments  bind  defendant's  real  and  personal 
estate  as  soon  as  obtained. 

The  husband's  property  is  liable  for  debts  contracted  by  his  wife  previous  to 
marriage,  and  as  to  hia  wife's  estate  acquired  previous  to  marriage,  the  Iw'oand 
ua*  full  control  except  over  entailed  property.  4 


024 


TABLES,    &C.,    FOR   MINERS. 


Miscellaneous  Facts  and  Processes  relating  to  Met- 
allurgy, Gold  and  Silver  Mining,  Treatment  o! 
Ores,  &c. 

fn  raining  operations  a  knowledge  of  the  following  facts,  calculations^ 
*c.,  is  of  great  utility. 

IN  MEASURES  OF  EARTH,  ROCK,  &c. 

25  cuV).  ft.  of  sand  =  1  ton.   13  cub.  ft.  of  qnartz,  unbroken  in  lode  =  1  ton. 

17  cub.  ft.  of  clay  =  1  ton.  20  cub.  ft.,  broken  from  lode  =  1  ton  cout.  meas. 

18  cubic  ft.  solid  earth  =*=  1  ton.    27  cubic  It.  of  loose  earth  ==  1  ton. 

TABLE  FOR  THE  CONVERSION  or  ENGLISH  AND  METRIC  UNITS. 


I  Meter  --=  3-2807  feet. 

1  Foot  =  0-3048  m. 

1  Liter  (vol.  of  1  kilog.  water)  = 

0-2202  gal. 
I  Gallon   (vol.   of  10  Ibs.  water)  = 

4-541  liters. 
1  Kilog.  per  sq.  meter  =  0-2048  Ibs. 

per  sq.  ft. 
1  Kilog.  per  sq.  n?"\  =  1422-28  Ibs. 

per  sq.  in. 
1  Lb.  per  sq.  in.  =  703-0958  kilogs. 

per  sq.  m. 

1  Gram  =  15-4323  grs. 
1  Grain  =  0-0648  gram. 
I  Kilogrameter  =  7'2331  ft. -Ibs. 


1  Foot-pound  =  0-1383  kgm. 

1  Atmosphere  =  14'7  Ibs.  per  sq.  in. 

=  10'333  kilogs.  per  sq.  meter  =* 

29-922  in.  or  700  mm.  of  mercury 

=  33-9  ft.  or  10£  meters  water. 
1  Kilogram  =  2 -2046  Ibs.  av 
1  Pound  av.  ==  0-4536  kHog. 
1  Deg.  Centigrade  =  5-9  deg.  F.— 32* 
1  Deg.  Fahrenheit  =  9-5  deg.  C.  -f- 

32° 
1  Calorie  (kilog.  water  raised  1°  C.) 

=  424   kiiogrameters  =»  3-9683 

heat-units. 
1  Heat-unit  (Ib.  water  raised  1°  F.| 

=  772  ft.-lbs  =  0-252  cal. 


For  additional  items  consult  pp.  126  and  576. 
CHAPMAN'S  TBSTS  FOR  THE  HARDNESS  OF  GOLD  OR  SILVER  ORES. 

HARDNESS  =  1.5  yields  with  difficulty  to  the  nail. 

HARDNESS  =  2.5  does  not  yield  to  the  nail,  does  not  scratch  a  coin,  but 
k  easily  scratched  by  it. 

HARDNESS  =  3.5  scratches  a  copper  coin  easily,  but  is  scratched  by  it  wlti 
difficulty. 

For  TABLE  bhowing  quantity  of  Gold  to  the  ton  of  Ore,  &c.,  see  page  667. 

There  are  in  minerals  eight  shades  of  white,  nine  of  grey,  six  of  black, 
five  of  blue,  twelve  of  green  and  yellow,  fifteen  of  red.  and  eight  of  brown, 
besides  clear,  dark,  light,  or  pale  in  these  shades. 

Metals  have  five  degrees  of  lustre,  splendent,  shining,  glistening,  gllmme 
Ing,  dull. 

HARDNESS  OF  MINERALS,  BEGINNING  WITH  THE  SOFTEST. 
laminated,    light 


1.  Talc  ;    common 

green  variety. 

2.  Gypsum,  a  crystallized  variety. 

3.  Calcareous    spar  ;    a    transparent 

variety. 

4.  Fluor-Spar  ;  crystalline  variety. 
6.  Apatite  ;  transparent  variety. 

6,  5.  Scapolite :  crystalline  variety. 


6.  Feldspar  ;  white  cleaveable^arfr 
ety. 

7.  Quartz  ;  transparent. 

8.  Topaz  -/transparent. 

9.  Sapphire  ;  cleaveable  varieties 

10.  Corundum. 

11.  Diamond. 


TABLES,    AC.,   FOR   MIXERS 


925 


THB  HARDNESS  OF  PRECIOUS   STONES  IS  IN  THE  FOLLOWING  ORDER,    BJB» 
GINNING  WITH  THB  HARDEST. 

J.  Diamond.  5.  Hyacinth.  9.  Agate. 

2.  Ruby.  6.  Emerald.  10.  Torquois*. 

S.  Sapphire.  7.  Garnet.  11.  OpaL 

4.  Topae.  8.  Amethyst. 

IN  THE  SCOUR  OF  WATER-COURSE  BEDS, 

!ft  per  second  will  scour  fine  clay. 
"    sand. 
"  "  "    coarse  sand. 

1  "  «  "    fine  gravel. 

2  ft.  per  second  will  scour  round  shingle  1  in.  diam. 

3  ft.        "  "    angular  stone,  size  of  an  egg. 
3ft.        "  "    conglomerate. 

VALFE  OF  GOLD  ACCORDING  TO  FINENESS.— Pure  gold,  1000  fine,  is 
worth  $20.67  per  oz.  ;  gold  500  fine,  is  worth  .$10.33  ;  600  fine,  $12.40  ;  700 
fine,  $14.49  ;  800  fine,  $16.53  ;  900  fine,  $18.60.  At  the  mint  in  San  Fran- 
cisco, the  charge  for  melting,  assaying  and  refining  is  14  cents  per  oz.  The/ 
charge  for  coining  is  ^  per  cent.  No  deposits  are  received  at  the  mint  in  less 
sums  than  $100. 

The  value  of  a  ton  of  pure  gold  is  $602,799.21.  The  value  of  a  ton  of  sil- 
ver is  $37,704.84.  The  weight  of  $1,000,000  in  gold  coin  is  3,685.8  Ibs.  avoir- 
dupois. The  weight  of  $1,000,000  in  silver  coin  is  58,929.9  ibs.  avoirdupois.' 
For  other  facts  relating  to  the  weight  of  the  precious  metals  consult  pp.  127« 
331. 

AMOUNT  OF  METALLIC  SILVER  OBTAINABLE  FROM  THE  FOLLOWING  SIM- 
PLE SUBSTANCES  : 

Chloride  of  silver,  three-quarters,  or  nearly  seventy-five  per  cent.  Sul- 
phide of  silver,  three-quarters,  or  seventy-five  per  cent  Bromide  of  sil- 
ver, one-half,  or  fifty  per  cent.,  generally  a  little  more.  Iodide  of  silver, 
three-sevenths,  or  forty-three  per  cent.  Oxide  of  silver,  nine-tenths,  of 
ninety  per  cent.,  generally  more.  Carbonate  of  silver,1  three-fourths  ot 
seventy-five  per  cent,  generally  more.  Nitrate  of  silver,  two-thirds,  or  nearly 
sixty  per  cent 

TABLE  OF  SOME  OF  THE  PROPERTIES  OF  VARIOUS  METALS. 
Names  arranged  in  the  order  of  their 


Ductility. 

Mallebility. 

Power  of  Conduct- 
ing Heat. 

Power  of  Conduct- 
ing Electri  3ity. 

Gold. 
Silver. 
Platinum. 
Iron. 
Nickel. 
Copper. 
Zinc. 
Tin. 
Lead. 

Gold. 
Silver. 
Copper. 
Tin. 
Platinum 
Lead. 
Zinc. 
Iron. 
Nickel. 

Silver. 

gsr 

Tin. 
Iron. 
Lead. 
Bismuth. 

Silver. 
Copper. 
Gold. 
Zinc. 
Iron. 
Tin. 
Lead. 
Antimony. 
Bismuth. 

TO  DETERMINE  THE    PROPORTION  OF  GOLD  IN  A   MIXTURE  OF  GOLD 

QUARTZ. — To  find  the  specific  gravity  of  a  lump  of  gold,  quartz  or  aurifer- 
ous quartz,  divide  the  weight  of  the  lump  in  air  by  the  weight  of  an  equal 
Amount  of  water.  To  find  the  weight  of  an  equal  amount  of  water,  deduct 
the  weight  of  the  lump  in  water  from  the  weight  of  the  lump  in  air.  When, 
the  lump  is  to  be  weighed  in  water,  it  should  be  suspended  by  a  horse-hair 
eo  as  to  hang  into  the  water ;  keeping,  of  course,  all  other  paits  of  th» 
•^ales  clear  of  the  water. 


$26  WHERE    TO   FIND    GOLD    BEARING    QUARTZ. 

Phillips  gives  the  following  rule  for  ascertaining  the  amount  of  gold  to  % 
tnmp  of  auriferous  quartz  : 

"  The  specific  gravity  of  the  gold— 19,000. 

"  The  specific  gravity  of  the  quartz— 2,600. 

"  These  numbers  are  given  here  merely  for  .convenience  in  explaining  tbt 
•rule  ;  they  do  not  accurately  represent  the  specific  gravities  of  all  quarts 
and  quartz  gold.  (The  quartz  gold  of  California  has  not,  on  an  average,  a 
specific  gravity  of  more  than  18,600. )  < 

"  1.    Ascertain  the  specific  gravity  of  the  lump.     Suppose  it  to  be  8,067.  ' 

"2.  Deduct  the  specific  gravity  of  the  lump  from  the  specific  gravity  o! 
Che  gold  ;  the  difference  is  the  ratia  of  the  quartz  by  volume  :  19.000 — 8,067 
— 10,933. 

"  3.  Deduct  the  specific  gravity  of  the  quartz  from  the  specific  gravity  of 
the  lump  ;  the  difference  is  the  ratio  of  the  gold  by  volume :  8,067—2,600 
«=^  5,467. 

"4.  Add  these  ratios  together,  and  proceed  by  the  rule  of  proportion. 
The  product  is  the  percentage  of  gold  by  bulk  :  10,9o3-|-5,467= 16,400.  Then 
«s  16,400  is  to  5,467,  so  is  100  to  33,35. 

"  5.  Multiply  the  percentage  of  gold  by  bulk  by  its  specific  gravity.  Th« 
iproduct  is  the  ratio  of  the  gold  in  the  lump  by  weight  :  33,35X19,00=« 
643,65. 

"6.  Multiply  the  percentage  of  quartz  by  bulk  (which  must  be  66,65 
•since  that  of  the  gold  is  33,35)  by  its  specific  gravity.  The  product  is  the 
Tatio  of  the  quartz  in  the  lump  by  weight  :  66,65X2,60=173,29. 

"7.  To  find  the  percentage,  add  these  two  ratios  together,  and  proceed 
•by  the  rule  of  proportion  :  633,65+173,29=806,94  Then,  as  806,94  is  to 
1533,65,  so  is  100  to  78,53.  Hence,  a  lump  of  auriferous  quartz,  having  a 
epecific  gravity  of  8,067,  contains  78,73  per  cent,  of  gold,  by  weight. 

Gold-bearing  quartz  is  always  found  near  granite  and  slate,  so  that  it  is 
labor  lost  to  search  for  gold  where  the  primary  granite  is  covered,  thousands 
of  feet  deep,  with  stratified  rocks,  as  in  the  coal  beds  of  Pennsylvania,  or  the 
tolue  limestone  of  south-western  Ohio.  The  probabilities  are' that  gold  will 
l>e  found  where  granite,  slate,  tind  quartz  are  found  together.  It  is  well  es- 
tablished that  all  ilative  gold  either  is  or  was  at  one  time  embedded  in 
quartz,  hence  the  common  saying,  "  quartz  is  the  mother  of  gold."  Placer 
;gold  appears  to  have  been  liberated  by  the  crumbling  of  quartz  ;  and 
•wherever  gold  is  found  in  granite,  or  other  rocks,  the  theory  is  that  it  has 
been  communicated  from  neighboring  quartz  while  all  were  in  a  condition 
•»*  fusion. 

The  poorest  quartz  that  is  worked  yields  $10  per  ton,  some  yields  $4000 
per  ton,  but  the  richest  vein,  on  an  average,  will  possibly  not  be  over  $100. 

Gold  is  usually  found  in  metallic  condition,  but  never  free  from  silver. 
The  proportion  of  silver  in  the  gold  of  the  Comstock  lode  is  from  30  to  45 
per  cent.,  in  that  of  the  Gold  Hill  lode,  N.  T.,  47  to  50  per  cent.  Gila  River 
and  Australian  gold  contains  from  3  to  5  per  cent.  Up  to  July  2,  1878,  the 
entire  product  of  the  two  mines  known  as  the  California  and  'Consolidated 
Virginia  may  be  divided  as  $45,000,000  gold,  and  $55,000,000  silver.  The 
color  of  gold  varies  according  to  the  proportion  of  silver  it  contains,  60  per 
cent,  of  silver  imparts  a  white  color  to  the  alloy. 

In  gold  mining,  the  precious  metal  not  being  found  in  ore,  is  eliminated 
from  the  containing  quartz  or  alluvium  by  very  simple  mechanical  or 
Chemical  processes  ;  in  silver  mining,  the  metal  is  found  in  many  varieties 
of  ore,  each  of  which  must  be  reduced  by  intricate  chemical  pro<*c«ses 
•Varied  by  the  character  of  the  mineral  under  treatment. 

The  business  of  mining  resembles  a  lottery  ;  in  Mexico,  the  Count  Regla 
obtained  for  many  years  $5,000,000  per  annum  from  them ;  Count  Yalenciana 
•$1,250.000,  and  the' Marquis  del  Apardado  got  $4.000,000  in  six  months  from 
n  mine.  In  the  United  States,  among  those  who  have  been  lifted  into  nota- 
ble prominence  by  successful  mining  operations  may  be  mentioned  Joha 


ENORMOUS    WEALTH   OF    PEE17.  927 

Mackey,  chief  owner  of  the  Consolidated  Virginia  mine,  whose  -wealth  is  esti- 
mated at  about  $80,000,000  ;  Hon.  William  Sharon,  of  Nevada,  supposed  to 
l>e  worth  about  $590,000,000  ;  Jarnes  G.  Fair,  supt.  of  the  Consolidated  Vir-  » 
ginia  and  California  mines,  estimated  wealth  about  $50,000,000  ;  Hon.  J.  P. ' 
,  Jones  of  Nevada,  worth  about  $70,000,000,  and  many  others.    All  are  highly  \ 
gifted  with  practical  sagacity  in  mining  matters,  and  as  a  general  rule  work-  j 
ed  their  way  upwards  through  many  reverses.    The  miner  who  would  at- 
tain success  must  qualify  himself  by  toiling  to  obtain  the  knowledge  neces- 
sary for  his  guidance  in  emergencies.    Let  him  not  dispense  with  it  after  the 
fashion  of  the  miner  who  once  brought  a  specimen  of  a  supposed  very  rich 
gold  ore  to  a  San  Francisco  assayer  for  examination.     On  being  informed 
that  it  was  nothing  but  iron  pyrites,  and  not  worth  a  cent  a  ton,  the  as- 
tounded miner  exclaimed  in  the  direst  dismay  :  "  Great  Creation  !  there  is 
an  old  woman  lip  our  way  who  owns  a  hill  of 'it,  and  I  married  her  ! '' 

The  silver  mines  of  Potosi  are  so  notably  rich  that  $47,000.000  have  been 
-coined  there  since  1845.  On  the  opposite  side  of  the  chain  are  the  celebrated 
silver  mines  of  Guautajaya,  once  famous  for  the  large  lumps  of  silver  form- 
erly found  there,  one  of  which  weighed  800  Ibs. 

A  Peruvian  legend  of  questionable  veracity  narrates  the  finding  of  a  large 
lump  or  nugget  of  native  gold  weighing  400  Ibs.  at  the  mine  of  San  Juan  de 
Oro,  on  the  headwaters  of  the  Amazon  river,  during  the  reign  of  Charles 
the  Fifth, 

From  time  immemorial  the  mines  of  Peru  have  been  fabulously  rich  ir> 
silver  products.  This  was  the  inciting  cause  of  the  barbarous  enormities 
-and  rapacity  of  the  Spaniards  at  the  time  of  their  conquest  of  the  country,  in 
murdering  the  inhabitants  and  plundering  the  tombs  of  the  Inca  kings,  the 
royal  repositories,  and  ancient  temples.  From  one  temple,  that  of  Cusco,  the 
robbers  obtained  $11,000,000. 

By  a  parity  of  what  we  must  regard  as  retributive  justice,  much  of  the 
Tast  wealth  obtained  by  these  enormities  from  the  helpless  natives  in 
Spanish  South  America  and  the  West  Indies,  was  in  turn  pillaged  from  the  . 
-freebooters  by  armed  vessels  under  the  English  flag.  These  mutual  pluu- 
-derings  extended  over  a  long  succession  of  years,  and  during  the  reign  of 
various  monarchs. 

In  Peru,  the  immense  silver-bearing  deposhVof  the  Cerro  de  Pasco  mines 
have  been  worked  since  1G30.  They  are  situated  on  the  eastern  side  of  the 
western  Cordillera  of  the  Andes,  at  an  elevation  of  14,000  ft.  above  tide  level, 
-and  in  consequence  have  hitherto  been  difficult  of  access,  but  under  the  new 
•conditions  created  by  the  construction  of  the  Trans- Andean  railway  (one  of 
the  wonders  of  South  America),  an  output  of  20,000  tons  of  ore  per  day  is  spok- 
en of  as  a  possible  amount.  At  present  there  are  80  stamps  at  work,  each  with 
an  estimated  capacity  of  crushing  5  tons  of  ore  per  clay,  but  200  or  300  head 
are  looked  forward  to  as  a  small  number  at  an  early  day.  The  ore  will 
average  about  $30  per  ton,  and  the  anticipated  annual  production  of  the 
mines  is  $100,000,000.  From  $250,000,000  to  $500,000,000  of  free  milling  ores 
wfll  be  left  above  drainage  level  by  the  new  tunnel  lately  constructed  j 
these  ores  it  is  proposed  to  excavate  by  means  of  steam  shovels,  and  loaf 
tdirectly  into  railway  trucks,  which  deliver  them  at  the  top  of  the  mill.  The 
'water  power  is  supplied  from  a  stream  issuing  from  a  lake  near  the  mines, 
and  is  utilized  by  six  double  turbine  water  wheels,  manufactured  by  James 
Leffel  &  Co. ,  Springfield,  Ohio.  Four  of  these  turbines  are  of  30  ins.  diam., 
each  developing  200  horse-power,  and  two  of  23  ins.  diam.,  developing  100 
horse-power  each.  The  mineral  railway,  undoubtedly  the  highest  in  the 
world,  is  7  miles  long,  and  cost  $1,200,000,  the  object  of  the  road  being 
-to  transport  ores  from  the  mines  to  water-power  for  milling  purposes.  The 
rolling  stock,  bridges,  rails.  &c.,  of  the  road,  were  transported  from  the 
•coast,  nearly  200  miles  distant,  on  the  backs  of  mules,  over  almost  impassi- 
ble roads.  Nothing  weighing  over  300  Ibs.  could  be  carried  \  even  tbt. 
Cylinders  of  the  locomotives  were  brought  in  sections. 


928  VAST    WEALTH    OP   INDIA. 

The  silver  mlue  of  Potosi  is  sugar-loaf  in  form,  9  miles  round,  16.000  ft. 
above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  2700  above  the  plain.  The  upper  part  ha§ 
5000  adits  for  mines.  South  America,  per  'Humboldt,  yields  per  annum 
$43,500,000  •worth  of  silver  ;  at  the  present  time  the  yield  is  much  greater. 
One  mine  is  a  third  of  a  mile  deep,  and  8  miles  in  length,  employing  3000 
miserables.  lu  Peru  over  40  districts  are  famous  for  their  vast  mineral 
wealth  in  gold  and  silver. 

In  Russia,  the  immense  mines  of  Siberia  are  government  property,  and  are 
worked  by  miserable  unfortunates  who  have  been  banished  by  a  cruel  des-, 
potism  for  crimes  which  are  in  many  cases  merely  imaginary  ;  the  wretched 
exiles,  when  once  consigned  to  their  gloomy  depths,  are  never  permitted  to 
emerge  into  the  light  of  day,  but  death,  more  merciful  than  the  tyrant,, 
goon  ends  the  strife,  for  few  survive  the  ordeal  more  than  9  years.  • 

The  "  wealth  of  the  Indies ''  is  no  poet's  dream  ;  there  the  mines  are  indi- 
genous, and  the  accumulation  of  the  precious  metals  has  been  such  that  it  is- 
usually  estimated  that  Nadir  Shah,  in  1740,  carried  away  not  less  than  1GOO 
or  $2,000,000,000.  In  Jahomqueirs  auto-biography,  he  relates  that  a  golden 
platform  around  his  throne  weighed  40  tons.  His"  throne  and  crown  were 
worth  $20,000,000.  On  his  marriage  he  presented  his  queen  with  as  many 
lacs  of  rupees  as  amounted  to  $49,000,000,  and  with  a  necklace  of  40  beads- 
which  cost  him  $10,000  per  bead.  He  spent  besides  $10,000,000  on  the  tomb 
of  his  father  Akbar,  one  of  the  wonders  of  India.  The  province  of  Berar, 
on  one  occasion,  furnished  above  $20,000,000  in  gold . 

The  ceiling  of  the  pavilion  of  the  Peacock  Hall  Li  Delhi  was  orginally  cov- 
ered with  silver  filigree  work,  but  in  3799  the  Mahrattas,  after  the  capture 
of  the  city,  took  the  silver  down  and  melted  it,  the  value  of  the  same  being- 
estimated  at  $1,000,000.  Here  was  the  famous  peacock  throne,  so  called 
from  its  having  the  figures  of  two  peacocks  standing  behind  it, 'their  tails 
being  expanded,  and  the  whole  so  inlaid  with  sapphires,  rubies,  emeralds,  and 
ether  precious  stones  of  appropriate  colors,  as  to  represent  life.  The  throne 
itself  is  6  ft.  long  by  4  ft.  broad  ;  it  stood  on  six  massive  feet,  which,  with  the 
body,  were  of  solid  gold,  inlaid  with  rubies,  emeralds  and  diamonds.  It  was 
surrounded  with  a  canopy  of  gold  supported  by  12  pillars,  emblazoned  with, 
costly  gems,  and  a  fringe  of  pearls  around  the  borders  of  the  canopy.  Be- 
tween the  peacocks  stood  the  figure  of  a  parrot,  life  size,  carved  from  a  sin- 
gle emerald.  On  either  side  of  the  throne  stood  a  chatta,  or  umbrella  (ene 
of  the  Oriental  emblems  of  royalty)  made  of  crimson  velvet,  embroidered 
and  fringed  with  pearls.  The  handles  were  8  ft.  long,  of  solid  gold,  and 
studded  with  diamonds.  The  cost  of  this  superb  work  of  art  was  estimated 
at  $25,000,000. 

The  Melbourne  Herald  thus  describes  the  "  Welcome  nugget,"  weighing  184 
Ibs.  Troy,  and  worth  $42,000,  found  at  Ballarat,  Australia,  on  the  9th  June, 
1858,  at  a  depth  of  190  ft.  below  the  surface  of  the  earth:  "A  large,  mis- 
shapen, irregular  lump  of  gold,  water-worn  and  rounded  upon  each  of  the 
numerous  edges  presented  by  a  surface  completely  and  more  or  less  honey- 
combed. Its  total  length  is  about  20  inches,  its  greatest  breadth  about  12 
inches,  and  *' .;  greatest  depth  about  8  inches.''  Other  nuggets  varying  in. 
weight  from  10  to  45  ozs.  had  previously  been  taken  from  the  same  claim. 

Anotaer  nugget  weighing  145  Ibs.  was  found  atKorong,  Australia,  during' 
the  summer  of  1857,  in  the  form  of  a  solid  mass  of  virgin  gold,  2  ft.  4  ins. 
long.,  10  ins  broad,  and  from  1  to  2  ins.  thick,  estimated  value  $35,000. 

Victoria,  in  Australia,  is  world  renowned  from  the  discovery  of  its  im- 
mense gold  fields  in  1851,  which  in  1852  produced  the  enormous  amount  of 
$70,000,000. 

A  nugget  weighing  161  IDS.  avoirdupois  (including  about  20  Ibs.  of  quartz), 
of  an  estimated  value  of  $29,000,  was  found  in  Calaveras  Co.,  California,  in. 
November,  1854. 

Perhaps  not  less  than  from  1800  to  2000  nuggets,  weighing  1  lb.  or  mord 
•ach,  have  been  found  from  tirns  to  time  in  California.  Of  these  probably 


MINING  IN   COLORADO  929* 

tees  than  140  weigh  over  20  Ibs.  each.    Nuggets  weighing  from  1  to  7  030. 
have  been  found  in  immense  numbers. 

Colorado  presents  a  confluence  of  wonders  in  the  form  of  mineral  deposit^ 
which  it  would  require  a  volume  to  describe. 

In  the  Silver  Cliffs,  near  Rosita,  in  what  is  known  as  the  Hardscrabble 
district,  the  newly  discovered  mine,  worked  by  Powell,  Edwarus  and  Haf-. 
ford  (named  the  u  Racine  Boy  " ),  yields  a  return  of  875  ozs.  of  silver  to  the 
Ion.  The  low  grade  pans  out  100  ozs.  and  upward.  The  mine  is  at  present 
(Nov.  1878)  not  over  10  ft.  deep  and  almost  25  ft.  wide,  but  yields,  with  a 
very  small  force  of  men,  between  $2000  and  $3000  per  day.  So  far  the 
mine  has  yielded  nothing  but  horn  silver,  a  chloride  carried  in  decomposed 
porphyry  full  of  seams  ;  the  ore  is  found  in  deposits  without  any  crevice 
veins  or  distinct  wall*.  Volcanic  upheavals  seem  to  have  b'l^st  the  primary 
granite,  and  to  have  forced  through  chimneyed  passage?  masses  of  eruption 
be.xring  molten  precious  metals.  The  silver  lir.s  been  cooled  amid  a  mix- 
ture of  porphyry,  manganite,  feldspar,  gypsum,  and  other  mineral  substances 
more  or  less  decomposed  and  unstratified.  Four  miles  south-east  of  the 
Silver  Cliffs  is  the  great  "Maine  mine,"  which  made  a  very  poor  man  a  mil- 
lionnaire  in  one  year. 

In  Leadville,  a  notable  mining  region,  high  up  in  the  Colorado  mountains, 
the  mineral  is  found  in  layers,  one  above  another,  with  a  regular  and  con- 
tinuous dip  into  the  ground.  Some  of  the  mines  have  disclosed  the  existence 
of  two  or  three  deposits  underlying  the  first  mineral  vein  struck  by  a  shaft, 
and  many  singular  variations  from  the  usual  form  of  mineral  deposits  have 
been  observed  here,  presenting  a  notable  contrast  to  the  prevailing  type  in 
California  and  the  other  parts  of  Colorado.  The  mineral  carries  100  ozs.  of 
silver  per  ton  and  upwards,  in  high  grade  ores,  and  from  25  to  60  ozs.  in 
low  grade  ores,  while  the  percentage  of  Iciid  varies  from  30  to  70.  The  ores 
Ir3  in  a  sand  or  soft  rock  and  are  easily  dug  out  with  pick  and  drill,  the 
quality  improving  with  the  increase  of  depth. 

On  September  3,  1878,  a  miner,  while  prospecting  about  half  a  mile  In 
the  gulch  on  Bald  Mountain,  discovered  a  mine  of  marvellous  richness.  The 
ore  is  of  similar  character,  but  of  a  much  higher  grade,  than  the  ore  above 
noted,  much  of  it  running  as  high  as  3000  ozs.  per  ton.  A  mining  expert  es- 
timated the  value  of  the  mine  at  $1,000,000  ;  the  owner  asserted  that  hft 
refused  $250,000  for  it,  yet  six  weefcs  previously  he  had  not  money  enough 
to  buy  a  pair  of  boots  ! 

Mention  is  made  of  a  prospector  who,  while  recently  exploring  on  the 
west  side  of  Bodie  Bluff,  laid  bare  with  few  strokes  of  his  pick  an  8  inch 
vein  of  white  quartz,  almost  filled  with  solid  gold,  and  that  the  samples  as- 
sayed $40,000  per  ton  in  gold  and  $1500  in  silver  ! 

*  Recent  examinations  of  the  Arizonia  mining  region  by  Prof.  Cox  of  Ind., 
has  demonstrated  that  the  mining  property  of  South  Arizonia,  once  devel- 
oped, would  supply  the  world  with  precious  metals.  Three  shafts  in  the 
Tough  Nut  Mine,  in  the  Tombstone  district,  averaging  10  ft.  deep,  show  a 
solid  body  of  ore,  which,  at  the  low  average  of  $700  to  the  ton,  will  yield 
&£,400,00b.  He  was  present  when  assays  were  made  of  ore  from  this  mine 
going  from  $1,000  to  $27,000  per  ton.  The  conditions  as  regards  timber  and 
water  are  vastly  superior  to  similar  surroundings  in  the  mining  regions  of 
Colorado  and  Nevada. 

For  several  years,  mining  under  the  most  unfavorable  conditions  has 
fteen  progressing  on  Silver  Islet,  a  storm-beaten  ledge,  situate  about  |  mile 
from  the  main  land,  and  exposed  to  the  full  sweep  of  2CO  miles  of  Lake 
Superior  tempests.  The  locality  is  on  the  Canadian  shore,  17  miles  north 
of  Cape  Royale,  and  7  miles  east  of  Thunder  Cape.  The  ore,  when  first  dis- 
covered, appeared  as  streaks  of  shining  white,  from  3  to  10  ft.  under  water, 
and  proved  to  be  worth  from  $1400  to  $7000  per  ton,  the  general  average 
beiu2$1500,  of  the  kind  known  as  "packing  ore,"  being  sufficiently- ri& 


930 


MLffEBAL    WEALTH    OF    NORTH    AMEEICA. 


to  be  shipped  in  barrels  and  smelted  with  out  further  treatment.    The  work* 
ings,  which  penetrate  1000  it.  under  water,  are  protected  by  means  of  9 
system  of  breakwaters,  cribs,  coffer  dams,  &c.,  ballasted  wifch  rocks  and  clay,  ^ 
erected  at  immense  cost  and  with  much  difficulty.     On  many  occasion*  I 
lurious  storms  have  utterly  wrecked  the  works,  sweeping  away  cribs,  rocks,  \ 
buildings,  &c.,  leaving  nothing  but  ruin  and  desolation  behind,  causing  in-, 7 
credible  expense  to  reclaim  and  maintain  the  mine.   The  richest  deposit  was 
found  March  20,  1878.    For  the  week  ending  September  28,  1878,  the  yield 
was  $43,000  ;  Oct.  5,  $73,000  ;  Oct.  12,  $69,000;  Oct.  ".;>,  $103,000;  Oct.  28, 
$80.090.    The  richness  of  ore  increases  with  the  depth :  50  head  of  stamps 
crush  60  tons  daily. 

The  Homestake  Mine,  Black  Hills,  has  an  80  stamp  mill,  crushing  175 
tons  of  ore  per  day,  yielding  $900  p^er  ton;  another  80  stamp  mill  is  to  be 
finished  by  spring.  The  cost  of  mining  and  milling  varies  from  $2.50  to 
$3.50  per  ton  ;  daily  profit  $1000.  It  is  estimated  that  10  years'  supply  of 
ore  is  in  sight,  p-ad  that  500  stamps  could  be  supplied. 

The  mines  on  the  Comstock  lode  yielded,  during  the  23  years  following 
their  discovery,  $500,000,000  in  gold  and  silver  bullion,  and  have  wasted 
$250,000,000  more. 

In  North  America,  the  mineral  wealth  of  the  United  States,  Mexico,  and 
the  British  possessions,  is  absolutely  incalculable.  Notwithstanding  the 
•enormous  yield  of  the  mines  during  late  years,  the  discovery  of  new  fields  of  . 
astonishing  richness  is  at  the  present  time  (1878)  a  matter  of  almost  daily 
occurrence.  It  is  asserted,  on  good  authority,  that  during  30  years  prior  to 
Jan.,  1878,  there  have  been  created  in  the  countries  west  of  the  Missouri 
Hiver,  and  mostly  on  United  States  territory,  bullion  values  to  the  amount 
of  $1,943,000,000.  Of  this  sura  about  $1,586^000,000  has  been  composed  of  \ 
gold,  very  little  silver  having  been  produced  prior  to  1861,  when  the  Corn- 
stock  deposits,  discovered  3  years  before,  began  first  to  turn  out  this  meta) 
in  notable  quantity.  Of  the  $36,OCO,COO  turned  out  by  the  Comstock  lode  in 
1877,  43  per  cent,  has  been  gold.  Of  the  base  bullion  made  in  Eureka  dis- 
trict last  year  (1877),  valued  at  $12,000,000,  over  16  per  cent,  was  gold.  The 
bullion  from  Nevada  is  nearly  40  per  cent.  gold.  Since  the  beginning  of 
1861,  the  production  of  gold  for  the  entire  Pacific  coast  has  been  $876.000,- 
000;  of  silver,  $372,000.000.  During  1877,  the  bullion  values  consisted  of 
about  $51,000,000  gold,  and  $49,000,000  silver. 

The  following  tabulated  statement  is  interesting,  as  showing  the  gradu- 
ally increasing  product  of  the  mines  on  the  Pacific  coast  during  the  4  years 
noted  in  the  table : 


1873. 

California $18.025,722 

Nevada... ,.   35.1*54,507 

Oregon 1,376,389 

Washington 209, 395 

Idaho 2,343,654 

Montana 3,892,810 

Utah 4,906,337 

Arizona 47,778 

Colorado 4,083,268 

Mexico 868,798 

British  Columbia 1,250,035 

Total $72,258.693      $74,401,055       $80,889,037       $91,800,000 

The  product  of  1876  will  be  swelled  to  $93,000,000  by  adding  the  sum  of 
$1,200,000  to  represent  the  yield  of  Wyoming,  Dakota  and  New  Mexico.  • 

As  illustrative  of  the  fluctuating  value  of  mining  property,  it  may  be 
dentioned  that  during  the  early  part  of  September,  1878,  the  stock  of  tkt 


1874. 

1875. 

1876. 

$20,300,531 

$17,753,151 

$19,000,000 

35,452,233 

40,478,369 

49,300.000 

609,070 

1,165,046 

1,200,000 

155,535 

81,932 

100,000 

1,880,004 

1,554.902 

1,700,000 

3,439.498 

3,573,609 

2,800,000 

5,911,278 

5,687,494 

5,600,000 

26:066 

109,093 

1.400,000 

4,191,405 

6,299,817 

7^00,000 

798,878 

2,408.671 

2,200,000 

1,636.557 

1,776,953 

1,500,000 

TEMPERATURE    OP   MINES,    AC.  931 

Sierra  Nevada  and  Union  Consolidated  Mines,  which  had  been  selling  at  $| 
per  share,  took'  a  sudden  leap  to  $190,  being  equivalent  to  the  fabulous 
amount  of  $30, 000,000  additional  capital,  each  miue  having  108,000  shares 
No  ore  had  previously  been  found  below  the  1.800  foot  level,  but  an  incalcu- 
lable quantity  of  rich  ore  had  been  found  by  still  deeper  penetration.  Some 
specimens  are  reported  to  have  assayed  thousands  of  dollars  to  a  ton,  and. 
one  notable  specimen  not  less  than  $10,000. 

The  Gwiu  Mine  in  CalnverasCo.,Cal,  is  1400  ft.  deep,  runs  80  stamps, 
and  yields  $60,000  to  $70,000  per  month,  of  which  amount  one-half  is  clear 
profit. 

Of  the  quartz  mines  in  Soulumne  Co.,  one,  the  Confidence,  from  a  gross 
product  of  $011,853,  paid  to  the  owners  $195,000  in  dividends,  besides  pay- 
ing in  full  for  equipment. 

The  yield  of  the  Gilpin  Co.  (Colorado)  mines,  for  the  year  1876,  Tra* 
$2,105.037,  and  the  product  of  the  Boston  and  Colorado  Smelting  Works  at 
Black 'Hawk,  Col.,  derived  from  Gilpin  Co.  ores,  was  $2,061,244,  coin  value. 

As  evidence  of  the  absorbing  interest  pervading  the  public  mind  regard- 
ing the  vast  mining  industries  of  the  country,  it  may  be  noted  that  during 
the  last  two  weeks  of  1878  no  less  than  20  mining  companies  were  incorpo- 
rated in  Sun  Fpncisco,  with  an  aggregate  capital  of  over  $200,000,000. 

On  the  Pacific  coast  the  prod  active"  capacity  of  the  mines  is  greatly  cur- 
tailed by  dry  seasons  and  a  short  water  supply,  as  a  full  allowance  of  this 
<5lqmeiit  is  indispensable  in  hydraulic  mining,  and  for  the  operation  of  tho 
ore-crushing  mills  wherever  steam  power  is  not  available. 

Among  the  serious  obstacles  in  mining  at  profound  depths  may  be  men- 
tioned the  influx  of  water  and  the  high  temperature  of  the  mine.  In  cases 
•where  the  workings  are  kept  above  the  adit  level  the  water  will  pass  away 
through  this  channel  by  its  own  gravity,  and  no  pumps  will  be  reqnired; 
but  when  the  excavations  penetrate  deeper  than  this  the  water  must  be  ele- 
vated by  pumps  or  other  machinery  up  to  that  point.  In  causing  the  water 
to  make  its  exit  through  the  adit  level  an  enormous  saving  is  effected,  for 
otherwise  the  water  would  have  to  be  pumped  to  the  summit  of  the  shaft, 
frequently  at  a  vast  expense.  It  sometimes  happens  that  a  single  adit  is 
made  to  drain  a  chain  of  mines,  as  in  the  west  of  Cornwall  the  "great 
adit.''  as  it  is  called,  which  extends,  including  its  brandies  to  various  mines, 
over  30  miles,  and  conveys  away  a  torrent  of  water  resembling  a  small  river. 
In  addition  to  draining  off  the  water,  the  adit  subserves  the  important  use 
of  ventilating  the  mine  by  causing  a  circulation  of  air,  and  the  passage  may 
be  still  further  utilized  as  a  tram-way  for  the  conveyance  of  ore  and  rubbish 
from  the  interior  excavations,  the  outflow  of  the  water  being  effected 
through  a  channel  beneath  the  tram-way.  The  water  is  raised  by  the  pump- 
ing machinery  from  the  "Sump,"  or  bottom  of  the  engine  shaft,  which  is 
generally  sunk  below  the  deepest  level  of  the  mine,  so  as  to  form  a  pit  into 
which  the  water  may  flow  before  being  pumped  up 

In  reference  to  the  temperature  of  mines,  the  solar  heat,  as  a  general 
s.-ule,  exerts  no  influence  at  a  greater  depth  than  from  50  to  100  ft.  At  Paris, 
as  determined  by  Poisson,  a  thermometer  placed  at  a  depth  of  76  ft.  remains 
Stationary  all  the  year  round.  By  penetrating  into  the  earth  beneath  the 
point  affected  by  the  solar  heat,  we  find  a  regular  and  rapid  increase  of 
temperature.  In" Cornwall,  with  a  surface  temperature  of  50°,  thetempera- 
ture  of  the  rock  in  the  Dalcoath  mine,  at  a  depth  of  13S1  ft.,  is  75.6°  ;  the 
temperature  of  springs  at  a  depth  of  1440  ft.  is  82°  :  in  the  United  Cop- 
per Mines,  Cornwall,  the  temperature  of  the  rock  at  1201  ft.  is  88°  ;  in  the 
Guanaxato  Silver  Mine,  Mexico,  with  a  surface  temperature  of  68.8°,  the 
temperature  of  springs  at  a  depth  of  1713  ft.  was  98/2°.  The  last  noted  in- 
stance indicates  1°  of  heat  for  every  45.8  ft.  :  observations  recorded  in  Eng- 
land give  44  ft.  for  a  change  of  1  degree  ;  in  Saxony  it  is  considerably  great- 
er, being  nearly  65  ft.. to  a  degree  :  and  a  few  observations  in  the  United 


932  COMPOSITION   OF    VARIOUS   BOCKS. 

States  indicate  54  ft.  to  a  degree.    According  to  Kupffer,  the  average  for  the 
various  countries  where  observations  have  been  made,  is  30.81  ft.  to  a  de- 
gree, but  this  rate  of  increase  is  manifestly  too  rapid;  for  assuming  it  to  ba- 
/true,  a  heat  sufficient  to  boil  water  would  be  found  at  a  depth  of  5%2  ft,  or 
>  slightly  more  lihan  a  mile,  at  48  miles  a  temperature  of  7000°,  sufficient  to 
melt  all  known  rocks,  and  at  the  centre  of  the  earth  it  would  amount  to 
577,000°. 

The  deepest  artesian  well  in  the  world  is  at  Pesth,  Hungary,  being  3250 
ft  deep,  or  about  twice  the  depth  of  that  in  Paris.  It  sends  up  a  jet  of  boil- 
ing water  42  ft.  high. 

Of  the  rocks  encountered  by  miners,  it  may  be  noted  that  the  crystelline 
rocks  are  the  granitic  series  of  quartz,  feldspar,  mica,  gneiss,  syenite,  por« 
phyry,  green-stone,  basalt,  and  compact  lavas,  all  in  varieties. 

Quartz  is  the  base  of  all  the  silicious  compounds  in  nature,  and  is  dis- 
tinguished by  the  hardness  of  the  bodies,  as  crystals,  gritty  sand,  &c.  It 
cannot  be  cut  with  a  knife,  and  strikes  fire  with,  steel.  It  is  96  or  'J7  parts 
silica  in  100,  and  2  or  3  of  clay  and  lime. 

Syenite  is  a  middle  rock 'between  granite  and  porphyry,  composed  otjf 
feldspar  and  hornblende,  or  quartz  and  mica. 

Feldspar  is  composed  of  lamina  or  plates.  Its  constituents  are  silica,  r.nd 
alumina,  with  some  potash.  Abounds  in  granite,  syenite,  gneiss,  r.iul  por- 
phyry. \Vhen  large  crystals  of  feldspar  appear  in  granites  they  are  called 
porphyritic.  Feldspar,  next  to  quartz,  ;s  the  most  abundant  stone,  being  a 
constituent  of  granite  and  other  rocks  ;  it  scratches  glass,  gives  out  r-pr.rlvs 
\vithsteel,  is  of  a  vitrified  nature,  and  when  crumbled  forms  the  b::pis  of 
clay.  Feldspar  is  white,  red,  or  gray,  and  consists  of  G4  hi  100  parts  of 
silex,  19  of  clay,  2  of  lime,  13  of  potash,  and  1  of  oxide  of  iron. 

Mica,  the  other  equal  part  of  granite,  is  47  silica,  22  clay,  14.5  potash.  1ft 
oxide  of  iron,  and  1.75  oxide  of  manganese.  Mica  is  occasionally  found  in 
large  plates,  is  tough,  flexible,  elastic,  semi-transparent,  and  sometimes  u?ed 
as  a  substitute  for  glass.  When  decomposed  by  the  atmosphere  or  worn, 
down,  it  mixes  with  the  clay  of  the  feldspar  or  the  sand  of  the  quartz. 

Porphyry  is  stone,  with  a  compact  base,  intermixed  with  crystals.  Th> 
base  is  trap,  and  the  crystals  feldspar  or  quartz. 

Serpentine  is  so  called  from  its  variegated  colors,  usually  green ;  composed: 
of  32  silica,  37?f  magnesia,  half  alumina,  10^  lime,  with  iron  and  carbonic 
acid  15. 

Curved  (rneiss  proves  that  it  -was  once  fluid ;  it  is  in  slaty  layers  or  plates, 
formed  of  feldspar,  quartz  and  rnica,  separated  by  thin  layers  of  mica,  it 
•ontains  in  its  veins  all  the  metals,  and  follows  the  sinuosities  of  the  granite. 

Hornblende  ii  42  silica,  £0  oxide  of  iron,  12  clay,  and  11  lime. 

Aiigite  is  54  silica.  22  lime,  12  magnesia,  and  10  oxide  of  iron. 

The  Schistose  strata  are  inclined  from  52  to  70  degrees  in  mountain?. 

Magnesian  Limestone  contains  about  20  magnesia,  30  lime,  48  carbonic 
acid,  clay  and  oxide  of  iron.  It  renders  dilute  nitric  acid  milky,  and  effer- 
vesces little  in  acids. 

Mica  slate  is  mingled  with  quartz  in  masses  ;  clay  slate  has  quartz  iEg 
v  layers.  I 

'.      Carbonate  of  lime,  forming  one-eighth  of  the  crust  of  the  globe,  contains' 
l>6  parts  in  100  of  oxygen. 
'      Portland  stone  is  coarse  grit,  cemented  with  earthy  spar. 

Emery  is  a  mineral  containing  86  alumina,  3  silica,  and  4  iron. 

Corundum  is  a  stone,  which  in  crystals  is  a  six-sided  prism,  called  ada- 
i  mantine  spar. 

The  hardness  of  rocks  is  a  surprise  to  ma»y,  but  all  wonder  will  ceasfli 
'  when  we  consider  the  effects  of  heat,  combined  with  the  pressure  of  super- 
incumbent rocks  during  millions  of  veal's,  in  forming  rocks  of  primary 
graywacke  from  sand,  and  primary  slates  from  clay.     In  exploring  or  pros- 
pecting for  mineral  veins,  i*-  is  well  to  remember  that  gold  is  not  confined 


HOW    TO   FIND    MINERAL    DEPOSITS.  938 

to  one  class  of  rocks.  In  Mariposa,  Gal.,  some  gold-bearing  quartz  veins 
are  in  granite,  but  the  largest  and  richest  are  in  slate  ;  the  noted  Oneida, 
Keystone,  Eureka  and  Springhill  veins  are  also  in  slate,  together  with  the 
most  valuable  veins  in  Ainador.  The  vein  of  the  Eureka  had  a  thickness  of 
6  ft.  at  its  "  outcrop  "  on  the  surface  of  the  ground;  and  down  to  a  depth  of 
1300  ft.,  to  which  it  has  been  worked,  the  thickness  and  value  has  con- 
stantly increased  with  the  sinking.  In  the  Calaveras  district,  rich  gold-bear- 
ing quartz  veins  are  found  both  in  limestone  and  granite;  in  Tuolumne  the 
richest  veins  occur  in  granite ;  in  the  Alta  district  the  "  wall-rock '' 
tine,  with  white  talc  in  the  richest  deposits. 


Fig.  1. 

Ground  plan  of  the  intersection  of  lodes  in  the  Himmelfahrt  mine. 
The  engraving,  sketched  by  Weisseubach,  shows  the  appearance  presented 
by  the  intersection  of  two  veins  in  the  Himmelfahrt  mine,  near  Freiburg, 
Germany. 

.       Metallic  ores  exist  in  four  ways  :    1.  In  irregular  masses.     2.  In  fissures 
/or  veii>s  crossing  the  strata  and   filled  with  the  ore,  combined  with  some 
matrix.     3.  In  regular  interstratified  layers  or  beds,  and  4.  Intermixed  in 
small  fragments  among  the  rocks. 

A  knowledge  of  geology  and  geometry  is  of  the  utmost  value  to  the 
practical  miner  to  aid  him  in  ascertaining  the  location  of  mineral  deposits, 
and  to  operate  to  the  best  advantage  in  obtaining  possession  of  them.  The 
instruments  used  are  :  1.  The  magnetic  compass;  it  is  used  to  determine 
the  direction  of  a  metallic  deposit  in  places  where  the  influence-of  iron  is 
absent.  2.  The  graduated  semi-circle  or  clinometer,  which  is  used  to 
measure  the  dip  or  angle  of  the  lode.  3.  The  chain  or  cord,  to  measure 
distances  between  two  points.  4.  A  plane  table  or  plate  whenever  the 
proximity  of  iron  nullifies  the  action  of  the  compass. 

In  exploring  for  mineral  veins,  abundant  experience  has  shown  the  pri- 
mary importance  of  the  following  suggestions  :  1.  That  they  are  more 
vxumerous  in  mountainous  and  hilly  districts  than  in  the  level  territory.  2* 


034  THE    VARIOUS    MINERAL    VEINS    DESCRIBED. 

That  the  richest  lodes  occur  about  the  junction  of  the  crystalline  &nd  strati* 
fied  rocks,  and  are  more  abundant  in  the  former  than  in  the  latter.  3. 
That  their  situation  is  frequently  determined  by  the  color  of  the  land,  which 
is  often  influenced  by  the  decomposition  of  part  of  the  mineral  components, 
and  scattered  fragments  of  the  vein  intermingled  with  the  soil.  4.  In  cases 
where  the  location  of  the  bearing  is  partially  ascertained,  the  lode  may  fre- 
quently be  found  by  sinking  a  shaft  through  strata  into  the  underlying  rock, 
and  thence  driving  a  drift  or  tunnel  at  right  angles  to  the  bearing  of  the- 
lode.  5.  The  best  proof  of  the  existence  of  a  lode  is  the  discovery  of  its- 
outcrops  ;  this  sets  every  doubt  at  rest.  For  further  information,  see  Pros* 
pectin  (/for  Quartz,  page"  452. 

Gold-bearing  quartz  veins,  in  California,  generally  run  from  north, 
north-west  to  south  south-east,  vsith  a  steep  dip  to  the  eastward.  The  dif* 
fusion  of  gold  through  the  quarts  is  very  unequal,  and  the  lodes  vary  from 
a  line  to  50  ft.  Two  ounces  of  gold  to  1  Ib.  of  rock  is  a  rarity  greatly  ad-  ' 
mired  by  quartz  miners,  for  that  proportion  .is  held  to  be  exceedingly  rich 
in  the  precious  metal. 

Mineral  veins  are  usually  graded  into  species,  of  which  the  prevailing 
forms  are  :  1.  The  Rake  vein,  which  extends  downwards  to  unknown 
depths,  is  frequently  many  miles  in  length,  and  is  the  prevailing  type  of 
the  mineral  veins  most  highly  valued  by  miners.  Beginning  at  the^"  out- 
crop "  it  perforates  the  strata  downwards  almost  to  their  plane  of  stratifica- 
tion. It  also  intersects  or  penetrates  the  granite  rocks.  The  inclination  or 
"  dip  "  of  these  veins  varies  from  a  few  degrees  to  a  vertical  direction.  2. 
The  Interlaced  vein,  which  is  composed  of  many  small  veins  grouped  to- 
gether like  irregular  net  work,  is  frequently  surrounded  by  granite  rocks, 
and  more  usually  bear  the  ores  of  tin  than  any  others.  3.  The  Pipe  vein, 
which  appears  like  an  irregular  shaft  filled  with  ore,  is  usually  found  be- 
tween the  strata.  This  class  of  veins  present  a  great  varietj'  of  sizes,  and 
the  angle  of  inclination  is  generally  less  than  the  dip  of  the  rake  vein.  4. 
The  Dilated  or  Flat  vein,  which  in  its  extension  is  subject  to  varying  con- 
tractions and  expansions,  is  found  in  flattened  masses  in  horizontal  posi- 
tions like  seams  of  coal,  but  differs  from  a  coal  bed  by  great  variation  in 
thickness  within  the  distance  of  a  few  feet  wherever  'breaks  or  interrup- 
tions occur.  The  best  mineral  deposits  are  often  found  at  these  faults.  5. 
The  Accumulated  vein,  usually  found  filling  large  vacancies  in  the  earth,  is 
a  great  irregular  mass  of  ore,  apparently  isolated  from  all  other  mineral 
deposits,  veins  of  this  class  occur  interposed  between  the,  stratified  rocks 
and  also  in  the  granite. 

As  to  the  nature  and  origin  of  the  spaces  occupied  by  metallic  veins, 
they  are  :  1.  The  cracks  and  fissures  made  in  rocks.  2,  Openings  be- 
tween their  layers,  especially  in  Schistose  or  slaty  kinds.  These  crevices  or 
fissures  are  produced  in  great  numbers  where  a  region  of  rock  is  under- 
going uplift  or  where  a  folding  of  the  strata  is  in  progress,  owing  to  earth- 
quakes or  other  movement?  of  the  earth's  depths.  The  mineral  contents  of 
these  crevices  may  have  been  charged  :  1.  When  the  fissures  or  crevices 
were  filled  from  either  side  or  below,  and  did  not  descend  to  regions  of 
liquid  rock,  being  not  connected  with  igneous  ejections.  These  include  ali 
banded  mineral  veins,  and  nearly  all  those  filled  with  quartz  or  granite, 
The  intense  heat,  acting  on  the  moisture  present,  would  inevitably  decom- 
pose the  rocks  ;  then  their  mineral  matter  sooner  or  later  would  be  swept 
into  the  crevices,  and.  in  combination  with  emanations  from  the  deeper 
parts,  form  metallic  lodes.  Also,  2.  Where  the  rents  or  fissures  descended 
to  regions  of  liquid  rock  and  were  filled  from  below.  In  this  case  the  min- 
eral contents  of  the  vein  have  been  brought  up  in  some  state  of  combina- 
tion as  solutions  or  vapors.  The  veins  of  silver  ores  in  Nevada  and  many 
'ethers  thus  originated  in  connection  with  subterranean  disturbances. 

Werner's  theory  is  that  open  fissures  in  the  earth's  crust  were  filled 
frith  crystalline  and  metallic  matter  by  aqueous  infiltrations  from  above, 


THEORIES    OF   XOTED   WRITERS, 

and  that  the  substances  of  mineral  veins  have  been  precipitated  from  a- 
chaotic  menstruum  into  fissures  in  the  earth  while  it  was  in  some  nascent 
condition. 

Dr.  Hutton  contends  that  the  contents  of  mineral  veins,  like  those  of 
dikes,  were  formerly  molten,  and  while  in  this  condition  were  injected  from 
below  by  mechanical  force. 

Dr.  Buckland  and  M.  Neckar  propound  the  theory  that  the  contents  of 
some  metallic  lodes  were  deposited  in  crevices  and  fissures  in  the  earth's 
crust  by  the  condensation  of  mineral  exhalations  from  immense  subter- , 
ranean  fountains  of  intensely  heated  matter. 

Sir  R.  Phillips  contends  that  metals  are  generated  by  long  continued 
galvanic  action  between  mixed  rocks,  and  are  the  Aura  of 'rocks,  combined 
with  oxygen,  nitrogen  and  hydrogen,  whose  actions  and  reactions  are  elec- 
tricity.    The  results  are  a  matrix,  a  compound  of  some  of  the  peculiar  aura 
with  oxygen  and  hydrogen  ;  exhalations  from  the  lower  parts  of  the  vein  i 
are  also  to  be  considered.     Ores  and  crystallizations  are  therefore  direct' 
products  of  the  oxygen  and  hydrogen  rendered  active  in  electricity,  and  of. 
the  exudations  and  aura  of  the  rocks  and  strata.    Proximity  is  not  essential 
to  electrical  influences  ;  the  walls  of  fissures  may  be  affected  by  excite- 
ments from  a  distance. 

It  is  asserted  that  a  hole  drilled  into  auriferous  quarts  in  the  Urals,  andi 
intended  to  be  used  for  blasting,  but  never  so  used,  was  examined  40  years- 
after  it  was  made,  and  found  to  be  full  of  fine  crystals  of  gold. 

From  the  present  known  existence  of  electro-currents  in  many  Cornish, 
veins,  and  the  analogy  between  voltaic  combinations  and  the  arrangement 
of  matter  in  mineral  veins,  Mr.  Fox  and  M.  Becquerel  reason  that  the  for- 
mation of  many  metallic  lodes  are  due  to  electro-chemical  agencies. 

When  wide  fissures  or  fractures  of  strata  are  filled  with  stones  or  earth, 
they  are  called  faults  or  dikes,  but  when  charged  with  mineral  contents; 
they  are  called  veins.  The  tests  of  a  probable  mine  are  metallic  ores  oc 
sand  at  the  outcrop,  mineral  waters,  trees  or  grass  discolored,,  and  the  pro- 
ducts of  boring. 

The  best  systems  of  minerals  are  those  of  Berzilius,  and' the  chemical 
arrangement  of  Mohs  ;  Kaumanu  unites  them.  As  a  writer  on  the  min- 
eral kingdom,  mines,  furnaces,  the  treatment  of  ores,  &c.,  Emanuel  Swe- 
denborg  occupies  a  high  rank. 

Cf  late  years  among  works  of  notable  utility  to  miners  may  be  men- 
tioned, Phillips'  Elements  of  Metallurgy ;  Dana's  Manual  of  Mineralogy ;. 
Randall's  Quartz  Operator's  Hand-Book ;  Silversmith's  Practical  Hand- 
Book  for  Miners ;  KusteVs  Processes  of  Silver  aud  Gold  Extraction.  Most 
of  the  engravings  of  furnaces  and  some  of  the  amalgamating  pans  de- 
scribed in'this  book  are  taken  from  the  last  noted  work,  which  may  be  re- 
garded as  absolutely  indispensable  to  every  progressive  miner.  Due  ac- 
knowledgments are  also  rendered  to  other  standard  authors,  successful 
miners  and  experienced  mill-men,  for  much  of  the  valuable  information 
presented  in  these  pages. 

The  superficial  appearance  of  the  outcrop  of  veins  often  indicate  the- 
metals  they  contain.  The  presence  of  fluorspar  indicates  metallic  associa- 
tions wherever  found.  A  brown  powder  at  the  surface  indicates  iron,  and 
often  tin  ;  a  pale  yellow  powder,  lead,  and  green,  copper.  Gold  and  silver 
are  found  in  primary  and  transition  rocks,  porphyry,  quartz,  syenite,  and 
the  lowest  sandstone,  occasionally  in  coals,  and  abundantly  in  the  sands 
of  rivers.  Platina,  palladium,  rhodium,  osmium,  and'  indium  are  found 
almost  wholly  in  the  sands  of  rivers.  Mercury  is  found  in. slate,  limestone, 
and  coal  strata.  Copper  in  primary  and  transition  rocks,  syenite  (sometimes 
sandstone),  coal  strata,  and  alluvial  ground.  Iron  is  found  in  every  kind  of 
rock,  tin  in  granite,  gneiss,  mica-slate,  and  slate,  lead  and  zinc  in  primary 
and  transition  rocks  i  except  trap  and  serpentine),  porphyry,  syenite,  thl 


936 


MINING  NOMENCLATURE. 


lowest  sandstone,  and  occasionally  in  coal  strata.    Gold  is  yellow, 

red,  iron,  grey,  lead,  blue,  cobalt  and  manganese,  grey  ;  all  the  others  are 

white. 

Fig.  2  represents  the  transverse  section  of  a  mineral  vein,  in  which,  in 
mining  nomenclature,  A  A  represents  the  "  country,"  or  rock  composing  the 
sides  of  the  vein,  C  C  is  the  vein,  D,  hanging-wall,  C,  foot-wall,  D  D,  selvar/e,G, 
vuyh,  F,  korse.  Waste  rock  or  rubbish  is  termed  deads  or  atile ;  workings  in 
a  mine  by  persons  of  whom  no  record  remains  are  termed  old  men ;  an 
opening  left  for  letting  down  ore  is  called  a  pass;  the  place  at  which  a  iode 
divides  in  two  is  named  point  of  horse  ;  the  lowest  workings  in  a  mine  or 
level  are  called  bottoms ;  the  appearance  of  a  mineral  lode  at  the  surface  is 
called  an  outcrop ;  the  amount  of  slope  of  a  mineral  vein  measured  from  a 
horizontal  line  is  termed  a  dip  ;  a  horizontal  or  nearly  horizontal  working  in 
A  mine  is  called  a  drift,  gallery,  level,  or  gunny ;  the  substance  in  which  ort 


Fig.  2.—  TRANSVERSE  SECTION  OF  A 


Js  found  embedded  is  termed  the  matrix  ;  a  cavern  or  fissure  in  which  watci 
falls  and  disappears  is  called  a  sivallow  ;  the  ascending  air-current  from  a 
mine  is  termed  an  upcast,  the  downward  current  is  called  a  downcast,  &c., 
&c.  Most  of  these  terms,  together  with  a  vocabulary  of  similar  technicali- 
ties, derive  their  origin  from  the  Cornish  miners. 

Metals  are  always  found  as  alloys,  sulphurets,  oxides,  or  salts.  Geld, 
platinum,  and  columMum,  are  found 'only  as  alloys.  Silver,  mercury,  cop- 
per, iron,  antimony,  arsenic,  and  cobalt/ in  the  fo'ur  states.  Lead  and  zinc 
in  the  three  last.  Tungsten,  uranium,  litanium,  chromium,  and  tantaliunt, 
only  as  oxides.  In  density,  the  order  of  metals  is  platiua,  gold,  silver,  mer- 
curv,  lead,  copper,  tin,  iron,  zinc. 

Few  metals  are  found  pure  or  native,  but  in  ores,  gangues  or  compounds, 
combined  with  oxygen  or  acids  ;  often  tvfo  or  more  resulting  metals,  with 
sulphur,  arsenic,  &c.,  in  veins  of  rocks,  the  foreign  bodies  being  called 
mineralizers,  as  sulphur  is  to  lead,  forming  sulphuret  of  lead,  called  galena. 

The  age  of  metals  is  estimated  by  that  of  the  containing  rocks  ;  the  age 
«f  the  latter  it  is  not  possible  to  determine  even  approximately.  In  treating 


GEOLOGICAL   EPOCHS,    AC.  937 

of  geological  epochs,  Dana  remarks  :  "  If  time,  from  the  commencement  of 
the  Silurian  formations  (those  resting  on  the  granite)  included  48  millions  of 
years,  which  some  geologists  wouldpronouuce  much  too  low  an  estimate,  the 
Paleozoic  part,  according  to  the  above  ratio,  would  comprise  30  millions, , 
the  Mesozic,  9  millions,  and  Cenzoic,  3  millions.  It  should  be  noted,  how* 
ever,  that  as  rocks  are  formed  of  earth,  and  as  metals  are  found  mainly  in 
veins  and  crevices  of  rocks,  that  they  must  be  of  more  recent  Origin  than 
the  latter. 

The  above  noted  estimate  of  geological  time  will  doubtless  astonish  many 
who  have  been  led,  by  a  mistaken  apprehension  of  the  true  meaning  of\ 
Genesis,  to  suppose  that  only  about  6000  years  have  elapsed  since  the  crea-» 
tion.  For  further  evidence  on  this  subject,  see  Geological  Facts;  Age,\ 
Origin,  and  Ultimate  Duration  of  the  Earth,  on  page  728.  The  adamantine 
iacts  of  geology  render  very  slight  homage  to  the  cherished  errors  of  the 
•world,  and  have  struck  fearful  blows  at  the  old  explanations  of  Genesis, 
but  time  is  a  powerful  remodeller.  Already  nearly  300  centuries  attest  the 
eternal  verity  of  the  grand  truths  for  the  propagation  of  which  Bruno  suf- 
fered death  and  Galileo  endured  imprisonment,  for  their  alleged  inconsist- 
ency with  the  Jewish  cosmogony,  which,  in  describing  an  apparent  truth, 
speaks  01  "  the  rising  of  the  sun  and  the  going  down  of  the  game  "  accord- 
ing to  appearances  as  presented  to  the  senses. 

The  world  has  witnessed  with  astonishment  the  disgraceful  treatment  ac- 
corded to  Sir  James  Y.  Simpson,  by  infamous  bigots,  who  insisted  that  his 
humane  use  of  anaesthetics  to  mitigate  the  pains  of  women  in  labor  was 
neither  more  nor  less  than  a  direct  contravention  of  the  primeval  curse, 
which  affirmed  that  "  in  sorrow  she  should  bring  forth  children."  It  is  safe 
to  say  that  the  bigots  did  not  belong  to  the  female  sex.  At  this  day  such  ab- 
surdity would  not  bo  tolerated  .1  single  hour. 

The  popular  outcry  which  at  one  time  denounced  the  use  of  the  lightning 
conductor  as  a  flagrant  defiance  of  heaven  is  also  silenced  forever.  Railroads 
in d  telegraphs  have  been  similarly  denounced.  These  insanities  are  now 
cambered  with  the  things  of  the  past. 

It  is  notoriously  true  that  in  Scotland  the  fanning  mill  was  fiercely  as 
sailed  as  an  ungodly  machine,  and  the  inventor  was  subjected  to  persecution 
by  arrogant  lunatics  who  asserted  that  nothing  could  be  either  good  or.  useful 
which  contravened  the  passage  which  reads : — "  The  wind  bloweth  where  it 
listeth."  Now  millions  use  fanning  mills  during  their  lifetime  without  ever 
thinking  of  such  an  objection. 

The  science  of  geology  is  as  yet  in  its  infancj*,  but  its  teachings  have  met 
with  very  general  acceptance  among  hitelligeut  observers.  It  is  sophistry 
to  affirm  that  what  is  new,  must,  for  that  reason,  necessarily  be  false,  for  of 
the  disclosures  unfolded  by  the  stony  facts  of  geology  we  are  compelled  to 
affirm  that  they  must  be  true,  though  at  variance  with  the  beliefs  of  a  thou- 
sand generations. 

A  high  authority  has  classified  the  placers  of  California  as  follows  : — 

1.  A  coarse,  boulder-like  drift,  the  result  of  abrasion  and  powerful  cur* 
tents  in  a  great  body  of  water. 

2.  A  river  drift  or  coarse  alluvium,  ancient  and  modern. 

3.  Alluvial  deposits  on  flats  and  broad  surfaces,  not  confined  to  rive< 
'channels. 

4.  Lacustrine  deposits  made  at  the  bottoms  of  former  lakes  and  ponds. 
They  are  found  in  extensive,  basin-shaped  depressions  in  the  surface  of 
metamorphic  rocks.    These  depressions  have  evidently  been  filled  with  deep 
quiet  water,  from  which  thick  strata  of  clay,  fine  sand,  and  volcanic  ashes 
have  been  deposited  upon  the  auriferous  layer  at  the  bottom. 

In  the  gullies  and  ravines  the  auriferous  dirt  is  generally  a  very  stiff 
clay,  abounding  in  coarse  gravel  and  stones,  and  is  usually  as  wide  as  the 
stream  of  water  during  the  wet  season.  In  a  ravine  where  the  extreme 
width  of  the  stream  does  not  exceed  5  ft.,  as  a  general  rule  the  pay-dirt  wiJJ 


FLUME    FINING,    &C. 


Dot  be  more  than  a  foot  deep,  with  a  bed  of  barren  dirt  on  top.  Where  thtx 
channel  of  a  stream  in  a  small  ravine  has  slightly  changed,  the  pay-dirt  maj 
be  buried  under  6  or  8  ft.  of  alluvial  soil.  The  gold  will  not  ioJge  ou  the 
smooth  or  steep  bed  rock  of  a  gully  ;  the  richests  spots  will  be  found  where 
the  bed  is  level,  and  where  the  strata  of  the  rock  are  almost  vertical  snd  pre- 
sent many  jagged  points  to  detain  the  gold,  the  largest  pieces  being  usually 
found  near  the  bed  rock  in  the  deepest  part  of  the  stream. 

In  alluvial  workings,  near  rivers  and  streams,  the  various  companies  who 
work  neighboring  claims  often  club  together  and  construct  a  large  flume, 
into  which  the  stream  is  conducted  by  means  ol  a  strong  barricade  or  wing 
-dam  of  rocks,  timber,  mud,  &c.,  which  causes  a  diversion  of  the  current, 
leaving  the  bed  of  the  river  nearly  dry,  thus  affording  access  for  working  it 
to  good  advantage.  The  stream  affords  plenty  of  water  for  mining  pur* 


Fig.  3— FLUME  MINING. 

poses,  together  with  ample  power  for  operating  under  shot  wheels  for  work* 
ing  pumps  to  rid  the  claims  of  the  surplus  water  which  accumulates  m  tha- 
workings.  See  Fig.  3,  representing  flume  mining. 

For  ^Placer  Mininrj,  Board  Sluice  Process,  see  page  453;  for  Hydraulic 


pectinQ  for  Qu , -f „  , 

Prwpecting  m  Flats;  Prospecting  with  a  Knije,  &c.,  see  pag 

In  order  to  thoroughly  dispel  the  common  illusion  that  a  mine  is  merely 
a  vast  excavation  in  the  earth,  exposed  to  the  open  air,  rain,  storms,  &c.t 
like  a  quarry,  it  may  be  well  to  enlighten  the  reader  by  presenting  a  few- 
facts  relatin^  to  some  of  the  silver  mines  on  the  Comstoclc  lode  in  Nevada. 
At  the  main  shaft  and  hoisting  works  of  the  Consolidated  Virginia  Mining' 
Company,  we  find  a  great  mass  of  buildings,  resembling  a  vast  manufac- 
tory, containing  engine  and  boiler  houses,  machine  shop,  blacksmith  phorv 
carpenter  shop,  and  numerous  offices  connected  with  the  works.  -AroundP 


DESCRIPTION   OP   A    GREAT   MINE.  939 

the  buildings  are  enormous  piles  of  timber  and  lumber,  resembling  the  sur. 
,  roundings  of  an  immense  saw-mill  with  its  accumulated  stork.  This  timber 
\  is  used  for  supports,  &c.,  in  the  mine,  and  it  is  safe  to  say  that  more  timber 
'"has  been  absorbed  by  these  mines  than  there  is  in  all  the  houses  in  San 

Trancisco. 

The  main  shaft  appears  as  an  opening  in  the  floor,  about  5  ft.  in  width, 

and  20  ft.  in  length,  with  a  depth  of  2000ft.,  and  is  securely  cribbed  by 

-  means  of  substantial  timbers.     This  opening  is  divided  into  four  compart- 
ments by  means  of  partitions  running  from  the  top  to  the  bottom  of  the 
shaft  ;  three  of  these  four  compartments  are  used  for  hoisting  purposes, 
and  in  these  the  hoisting  cages  pass  up  and  down  to  and  from  the  various 
levels,  after  the  manner  of  an  elevator  through  the  various  stories  of  a  high 

-  building.      The  fourth  compartment  is  occupied  by  the  tanks  and  pump 
column  ;  an  iron  pipe  from  12  to  16  ins.  diam.,  through  which  the  water  ia 
forced  from  the  lower  levels  of  the  mine  to  the  surface  by  mesins  of  the 
massive  pumping  machinery.    The  cages  in  the  different  divisions  worlc 

f  independent  of  each  other  ;  one  may  be  going  down  while  the  other  is 
going  up,  or  one  may  be  at  rest  while  the  others  are  in  motion. 

The  motive  power  for  hoisting  is  supplied  by  powerful  engines  at  the 
opposite  end  of  the  building,  about  50  or  CO  ft.  distant  from  the  shaft,  and 
the  hoisting  is  effected  by  means  of  a  flat  cable,  some  5  or  6  ins.  wide,  £ 
'  ins.  thick,  and  braided  o'f  the  best  quality  of  steel  wire.  This  cable  ia 
wound  and  unwound  on  an  enormous  reel  situated  near  the  engine,  and  the* 
great  iron  wheels  and  pulleys  which  sustain  the  cables  are  supported  on 
what  is  termed  the  gallows  frame,  a  huge  structure  composed  of  massive* 
upright  and  cross  timbers  constructed  directly  over  the  mouth  of  the  shaft. 
The  positions  of  the  cages  in  the  shafts  are  indicated  to  the  engineer  by 
means  of  a  hand  moving  over  a  dial  in  the  engine  room,  and  the  signals  for 
elevating  and  lowering  the  cages  are  struck  on  bells  near  the  engineer  by 
parties  in  the  cages  or  levels  below. 

The  entire  machinery  of  the  works  is  driven  by  a  compound  condensing 
engine  of  600  horse-power  ;  the  engine  has  two  cylinders,  the  first  21  x  48 
ins.,  and  the  second  48  x  48  ins.  in  size.  The  main  shaft  of  engine  is  14  ins. 
diam.,  and  weighs  15,000  Ibs.  On  this  shaft  is  a  fly  wheel  (which  is  also  a 
band  wheel,  carrying  a  belt  by  which  the  batteries  are  driven)  18  ft.  in 
diam. ,  and  weighing  16£  tons.  On  the  extreme  end  of  the  main  driving 
shaft  is  coupled  a  shaft  11  ins.  diam. ,  extending  into  the  amalgamating 
room,  and  driving  the  pans,  agitators,  &c.  Engine  weighs  about'50  tons  ; 
there  are  8  boilers,  each  54  ins.  diam.  and  16  ft.  in  length.  The  smoke 
stacks  are  4  in  number,  42  ins.  diam.  and  90  ft.  high. 

In  the  new  stamp  mill  of  this  company  (100  ft.  long  and  58  ft  wide) 
there  are  60  stamps,  each  weighing  800  Ibs.,  the  whole  requiring  one  car 
load  (1800  Ibs. )  of  ore  to  be  sent  out  from  the  shaft  every  5  minutes  during 
the  day  and  night.  The  stamps  are  driven  by  a  belt  from  the  main  baud 
and  fly  wheel  ;  the  belt  is  24  ins.  in  width,  and  160  ft.  in  length  ;  speed 
3600  ft  per  minute.  This  runs  the  counter-shaft  in  front  of  the  batteries, 
and  from  the  pullies  on  this  counter-shaft  there  are  belts  14  ins.  wide  and  60 
ft.  long,  which  run  each  battery  of  10  stamps.  The  batteries  are  fed  by  the, 
Tulloch  self-feeders,  one  feeder  being  required  for  every  5  stamps,  and  two 
men  only  are  required  to  oversee  the  whole,  without  any  handling  cf  the 
ore.  There  are  32  amalgamating  pans,  each  pan  holding  about  2000  Ibs.  of 
pulp  from  the  batteries,  and  there  are  8  settlers  to  each  pair  of  pans.  The 
monthly  loss  of  quicksilver  alone  in  the  mills  of  the  company  is  estimated 
at  from"$60.000  to  $80,000.  The  owners  have  to-day  11  mills,  ranging  from 
15  to  80  stamps,  making  altogether  a  battery  force  of  375  stamps,  the 
largest  stamp  capable  of  pulverizing  5  tons  of  ore  every  24  hours.  The 
whole  human  force  employed  in  these  mills  numbers  622  men,  when  thft 
mills  are  running  to  their  full  capacity. 

From  500  to  700  men  are  employed  and  divided  into  three  shifts,  each 


040 


HEIGHT    OF    MINES. 


shift  working  8  hours.  One  shift  goes  on  at  7  a.m.,  one  at  3  p.m.,  an< 
another  at  11  p.m.  Order  is  respected  in  every  thing  ;  there  are  superintend- 
cnts,  foremen,  engineers,  miners,  timbermen,  -watchmen,  pumpmen,  pick* 
boys,  &c.  Each  employee  in  the  mine  has  his  duties  assigned  him,  which 
must  be  performed,  and  each  is  confined  to  his  own  level,  and  there  only. 


Fig.  4.— DIAGRAM  ILLUSTRATING  HEIGHT  or  MINES. 
To  describe  the  mine,  we  will  in  imagination  compare  it  to  a  house  of 
enormous  altitude  and  vast  dimensions  on  the  earth  ;  this  house  would 
require  to  be  2000  ft.  high,  with  20  stories  or  floors,  each  100  ft.  apart.  It 
is  safe  to  say  that  such  a  building  was  never  constructed,  and  never  will  be 
In  this  world.  To  an  observer  in  Wall  street,  or  on  Broadway,  New  York, 


MINERS    FAINTING    FROM    HEAT. 


941 


ef! 


Trinity  Church  presents  an  imposing  spectacle,  but  our  imaginary  buildin 
representing  the  Consolidated  Virginia  mine,  would  be  nearly  7  times  highe_. 
In  the  mines  on  the  Comstock  lode  there  are  10)  miles  of  drifts,  gallerieg, 
cross-cuts,  shafts,  winzes,  &c.,  and  as  one  mine  to  meets  with  another,  there 
are  what  might  be  called  streets,  3  miles  long.  T^e  main  workings  are  all 
lighted  with  lamps  and  candles  which  are  always  kept  burning.  Quite  a 
number  of  engines  are  in  operation  in  the  lower  levels  hoisting  timber  to  the 
miners,  elevating  ore  at  the  winzes,  operating  Burleigh  drills,  and  driving  fans 
or  blowers  (like'those  used  in  a  foundry)  to  supply  fresh  air  to  the  workmen 
who  are  panting  with  the  heat  in  distant  parts  of  the  mine.  These  engines 
are  run  by  compressed  air,  furnished  by  powerful  compressors  at  the  surV1 
face,  as  owing  to  the  high  temperature  at  these  profound  depths  steam 


Fig.  5.— MINERS  FAINTINQ  FROM  HEAT  IN  THE  LOWER   LEVEUS  OF  THB 

COMSTOCK.  » 

engines  could  not  be  tolerated  a  single  hour.  When  at  work  the  miners  are 
naked  to  the  waist,  and  some  from  the  middle  of  the  thighs  to  their  feet.f 
The  only  garments  worn  are  a  pair  of  thin  pantaloons  or  overalls,  stout 
shoes,  and  a  light  hat  or  small  felt  cap  to  protect  the  head  from  the  falling' 
gand.  Notwithstanding  all  this  many  faint  outright  from  the  effects  of  the 
heat. 

One  month's  supplies  for  this  mine  may  be  estimated  as  follows,  viz.  : 
SQO.OOO  ft.  of  timber,  550  cords  of  wood,  350  boxes  of  candles,  2  tons  of 
giant-powder,  100  gals,  of  coal-oil,  200  do.  of  lard  oil,  800  Ibs.  of  tallow, 
20,000  ft.  of  fuse,  37  tons  of  ice,  TOOO  bush,  charcoal,  1\  tons  of  steel,  5  tons  of 
round  and  square  iron,  4  tons  of  hard  coal,  50  kegs  of  nails,  &c.  Monthly 
wages,  $90,000.  Miners  receive  £4  per  day,  engineers,  carpenters,  machin- 
ist'*, blacksmiths,  &c.,  from  £5  to  S7  per  day. 

The  Savage  and  Hale  and  Norcross  mines  on  the  Comstock  lode  havf 


942  THE    SUTRO    TUNNEL. 

shafts  6  x  20  ft.,  and  2500  ft.  deep.  The  Savage  Company  intend  to  sink 
their  present  shaft  to  a  depth  of  4000  ft.  Their  great  hoisting  cable  of  steel 
•wire  is  4000  ft.  long,  weighs  25,190  Ibs.,  and  is  wound  and  unwound  on  a 
cone-shaped  reel  15  ft.  long,  with  a  diam.  of  22  ft.  at  the  large  end  and  13 
ft.  at  the  small  one.  The  reel  is  suspended  on  a  cast-iron  shaft  1G  iias.  in 
diam.,  the  ends  of  which  revolve  in  ponderous  bearings  sustained  by  foun- 
dations of  cut  stone  resting  on  the  solid  rock.  The  engines  for  driving  the 
,!iuge  reel  are  two  in  number,  of  200  horse-power  each,  and  are  capable  of 
hoisting  from  480  to  500  tons  of  ore  every  24  hours.  The  hoisting  car  used  on 
the  lower  incline  is  made  wholly  of  iron  and  steel,  runs  on  an  iron  track,  uud 
holds  about  5  tons  of  rock.  The  incline  begins  Jit  the  foot  of  the  vertical 
shaft,  1300  ft.  below  the  surface,  and  runs  to  the  lower  levels  of  the  mine. 
The  hoisting  cages  on  the  mines  of  the  Comstock  are  all  supplied  with  safety 
appliances,  which  operate  instantaneously  in  arresting  the  descent  of  the 
cage  in  the  event  of  the  cable  breaking. 


Fig.  6.— STTTRO 

As  showing  the  vast  sums  of  money  disbursed  by  capitalists  when  full 
.confidence  exists  of  obtaining  remunerative  returns  from  mining  operations, 
'it  may  be  interesting  to  note  the  following  items  regarding  the  outfit  of  a 
mine  which  has  not  as  yet  produced  a  cent's  worth  of  ore.  The  works  will 
be,  when  finished,  a  boiler  house  102  ft.  long,  50  ft.  wide,  containing  10 
boilers,  5i  ins.  diam.,  16ft.  long  ;  one  main  libi?ting  room,  151  ft.  long,  40 
ft.  wide,  48  ft.  high  ;  a  carpenter  shop,  50  ft.  wide  by  100  ft.  long,  for  fram-* 
ing  the  timbers  for  the  shaft,  a  machine  shop,  50  x  100  ft.,  and  a  black' 
smith's-  shop,  40  x  GO  fh 

At  the  shaft  is  a  double  cylinder,  high  pressure,  direct-acting  engine,  both 
cylinders  being  connected  with  one  shaft  "carrying  two  reels  for  winding  the 
ropes.  It  is  of  1200  horse-power,  and  capable  of  hoisting  10  tons  of  ore 
from  a  depth  of  nearly,  if  not  quite,  one  mile.  The  crank  shaft  weighs 
nearly  40  tons,  and  is  one  piece  of  wrought  iron.  The  intended  piston  speed 


THE    SUTBO    TUNNEL. 


&  460  ft.  per  minute,  which  will  take  a  "  cage  "  through  the  shaft  at  rail- 
way speed.  The  cables  used  iu  the  shaft  are  made  of  annealed  steel  wire,  7 
inches  wide  and  £  ins.  thick,  and  are  wound  on  the  reels  like  a  ribbon  on  a 
spool.  The  reels  are  15  ft.  diarn.,  will  hold  4000  ft.  of  cable,  and  each 
is  fitted  with  powerful  brakes  and  safety  appliances  to  regulate  the  move- 
ments 01  the  cages.  The  engine  foundations  are  solid  masonry,  5G  ft.  long, 
33  ft.  wide,  and  22  ft.  deep,  to  which  the  engines  are  bolted  with  803-in.and 
S.Wu.  bolts,  reaching  the  bottom  of  the  stone  work.  The  piston  rods  and 
^,11  the  valve  rods  are  of  steel,  and  the  valves  of  iiard  brass.  '< 

The  pumping  engine  is  a  horizontal  compound  condensing  engine,  direct^ 
acting.  The  cylinders  are  of  the  following  dimensions  :  The  initial  cylinder- 
is  33  ins.  diam.  and  12  ft.  stroke.  The  expansion  cylinder  is  6(i  ins.  diam. 
iind  12  ft.  stroke  ;  engine  shaft  20  ins.  in  diam.,  about  IS  ft.  long,  and  has  a 
fly-wheel  on  each  end  30  ft.  in  diam.,  and  each  wheel  weighs  £0  tons.  The 
engine  and  line  of  pumps  for  1200  ft.  weigh  749  tons.  The  cost  price  of 
engine  and  pumps  before  erection  was  $COO,OCO.  It  is  to  drive  two  lines  of 
14  inch  pumps  of  10  ft.  stroke.  Its  web  of  cams,  rods,  cut-off  gear,  air- 
cushions,  drop-weights,  &c.,  display  the  highest  skill  in  workmanship. 


Fig.  7.— LONGITUDINAL  SECTION  o?  THE  COMSTOCK  LODE,  SHOWING   THE 

DIFFERENT  MINING  CLAIMS  LOCATED  THEREON,  THE  ORE  BODIES  EX- 
TRACTED, A.VD  THE  INTERSECTION  OF  THE  SCJTRO  TUNNEL  WITH  THE 
LODE  AT  B.,  ETC. 

The  Sutro  tunnel,  a  work  without  .a  compeer  in  mining  enterprises  on 

this  continent,  was  begun  October  19,  1869  ;  the  object  being  to  penetrate 

the  mines  on  the  Comstock  lode  at  a  point  nearly  2000  ft.  below  the  surface 

9  f  the  earth,  and  thus  form  an  outlet  for  the  drainage  and  rapid  transit  for 

*  the  miners  and  their  supplies,  together  with  quick  transportation  for  the  ore 

sand  inincr.il  matter  taken  from  the  mines.    It  enters  the  mountains  in  the 

valley  of  the  Carson  river,  at  the  town  of  Sutro,  3^  miles  below  Dayton,  1^' 

miles  from  the  river,  150  ft.  above  the  river  bed,  and  strikes  the  1G40  ft 

level  of  the  Savage  mine  at  a  point  20,018  ft.  from  the  mouth  of  the  tunnel. 


soon  be  in  operation  through  the  whole  length  of  the  tunnel,  with  an  outfit 
of  rolling  stock  capable  of  transporting  1000  miners  from  the  village  of 
Sutro  to  the  mines  in  15  minutes.  During  the  past  years,  nearly  £000  miners 
have  been  employed  in  these  mines,  and  hours  have  been  consumed  at  each 
shift  in  sending  down  the  men  hi  cages,  a  dozen  or  so  at  a  time. 

The  mines  on  the  Comstock  lode,  and  all  other  mines  in  the  district,  are 
compelled  for  all  time,  to  pay  the  Tunnel  Company  $2  per  ton  for  every 
ton  of  ore  extracted  and  sent'to  the  mills  for  reduction.  The  rates  estab- 
lished for  transportation  is  25  cents  per  ton  per  mile  over  tae  4  mile*  of 


944 


THE    STJTRO    TUNNEL. 


main  tunnel,  and  25  cents  each  way  for  persons.  Ice,  now  sold  to  the  mining, 
companies  at  $20  pe*  ton,  can  be  supplied  in  unlimited  quantities  by  the 
Tunnel  Company  from  its  ponds  on  the  Carson  river,  at  less  than  $1  per, 
ton.  Cord  wood,  now  sold  in  Virginia  city  at  $12  per  cord,  can  be  passed*, 
through  the  tunnel,  elevated  nearly  2000  ft,  through  the  main  shaft,  and 
laid  down  for  $8  per  cord. 


Fig-  8.— GEOLOGICAL  CROSS  SECTION  OF  THE  COUNTRY  FROM  THE 

OF  THE  SUTRO  TUNNEL  TO  AND  BEYOND  THE  COMSTOCK  LODE  ;  ALSO 
THE  FOUR  SHAFTS  ON  THE  TUNNEL,  LINE. 

The  notable  sanitary  uses  subserved  by  the  tunnel  has  already  dissipated 
fiie  poisonous  gases  in  the  lower  drifts  of  the  Savage  mines,  and  lowered  the 
temperature  of  the  2000  ft.  level  from  120°  to  90°  Fahr.  A  covered  steam- 
tight  drain  is  to  be  constructed  the  entire  length  of  the  tunnel  (under  the 
railroad  track)  to  form  an  outlet  for  the  drainage  of  the  mine.  Much  of 
the  water  in  the  workings  stands  at  a,  temperature  of  160°  Fnhr.,  and  if 
this  was  passed  through  the  tunnel  in  an  open  channel,  no  living  thing 
could  exist,  owing  to  the  hot,  confined  vapor.  It  is  further  intended  to 
utilize  this  water  as  a  source  of  power  for  moving  the  long  trains  of  cars 
used  in  transporting  the  miners,  together  with  their  necessary  stores,  tim- 
ber, ore,  &c.  The  discharge  of  this  water  lias  heretofore  been  effected  at 
an  annual  cost  of  $3,000,000.  The  drainage  must  pass  through  10  pumps 
and  tanks,  through  2000ft.  of  iron  pipe,  from  12  to  16  ins.  diam.,  before 
reaching  the  surface.  The  great  iron  pump  rod,  2000  ft.  in  length,  and  hung 
at  several  points  with  immense  balance  bobs  to  prevent  it  from  being  torn 
asunder  by  its  own  weight,  is  kept  continually  swaying  up  and  down  at  its 
round  of  duty.  Henceforward  tin?  drainage,  will  only  require  to  bt  ilevated 
to  the  tunnel  level  in  crder  to  find  an  outlet.  The  Tunnel  Company  have  so 
,  far  expended  on  the  tunnel,  with  the  immense  shafts,  buildings,  machine 
*shops,  engines,  &c.,  connected  therewith,  the  vast  sum  of  $3,200,000,  and 
/the  projected  branches  and  extensions  towards  the  various  mines  will  gtill 
>  Absorb  a  large  additional  sum.  In  carrying  out  this  wonderful  enterprise 
the  obstacles  presented  by  nature  were  of  the  most  formidable  discription 
*nd  well  nigh  insurmountable,  but  they  were  finally  overcome  by  the  un- 
tiring energy  and  indomitable  perseverance  of  Mr.  Sutro,  who  brought  to 
the  execution  of  this  herculean  task,  an  iron  will,  and  a  rare  combination  of 
executive  abilities. 

Many  rich  deposits  of  marvellous  extent  have  been  found  on  the  Comstock 
lode,  but  on  the  1500  foot  level  has  been  discovered  what  appears  to  be  the 
central  mass,  a  body  of  ore  unparalleled  in  extent  and  value  by  any  thing 
hitherto  known.  This  has  enjoyed  world-wide  fame  under  the  name  of  the 
"  Big  Bonanza"  (a  Mexican  terirf  denoting  a  large  and  rich  body  of  ore — pros- 
perity. Borrasca  is  the  very  opposite  of  bonanza,  and  signifies  bjuren-rotk 
—bad  luck— adversity),  and  measures  900  ft.  in  length,  550  in  depth,  and 
from  30  to  200  ft  thick. 


DYNAMICS    OF    VOLCANIC   FORCE.  945 

The  immense  chasm,  rent,  or  fissure  in  the  rocks,  which  is  filled  by  the 
"  vein-matter,"  or  gangue  (pronounced  yany)  forming  the  Comstock  lode, 
extends  from  the  east  country  rock  (prophylite)  to  the  west  country  rock 
(syenite),  a  distance  of  from  1000  to  1200  it.  The  gaugue  is  composed  of 
quartz,  porphyry  and  clay,  which  incloses  the  ore.  This  chasm,  known  to  be 
about  4  miles  long  and  about  1200  ft.  wide,  was  undoubtedly  formed  during 
ages  inconceivably  remote,  by  means  of  volcanic  action,  and  immense  frag- 
ments of  rock  appear  to  have  broken  away  from  the  edges  of  the  chasm, 
fallen  into  the  crevice,  and  thus  prevented  its  closing.  In  mining  nomen- 
clature these  are  termed  "horses  ;  "  they  still  remain  in  the  vein,  and  the 
ore,  quartz,  &c.,  has  filled  up  all  the  space  around  them.  Some  of  tlio 
"  horses  "  are  of  great  extent,  being  from  50  to  100  ft.  in  length,  with  pro- 
portionate thickness,  while  others  are  at  least  1000ft,  in  length,  and  fror.i' 
300  to  400  ft.  thick.  The  fragments  from  the  west  side  of  the  crevice  are 
syenite,  those  from  the  east  side  are  prophylite,  usually  termed  porphyry  by 
the  miners. 

The  charging  of  this  enormous  crevice  with  what  now  forms  the  mineral 
contents  of  the  Comstock  lode,  is  manifestly  the  work  of  subterranean  forces 
combined  with  hot  mineral  water,  steam,  gases,  &c.,  from  boiling  springs 
beneath,  which  have  filled  up  the  vein  with  its  rich  sulphurets  and  other 
ores  of  silver.  Traces  of  hot  springs  are  everywhere  visible  on  the  neigh- 
boring hills  to  the  eastward  of  the  vein,  and  the  noted  steamboat  springs, 
only  a  few  miles  distant,  are  even-now  in  full  blast,  engaged  in  the  formation 
of  a  metallic,  lode  by  the  emission  of  hot  mineral  water,  steam,  and  enormous 
volumes  of  heated  gas,  through  a  crevice  over  a  mile  in  length.  Who  will 
not  say  that  here  wo  find  one  of  the  instrumentalities  of  creative  power  in 
the  very  act,  as  it  were,  of  replenishing  the  earth  with  the  gifts  of  a  benef- 
icent Providence  ? 

The  action  of  boiling  springs  is  due,  1.  To  the  access  of  subterranean 
waters  to  heated  roclcs,  producing  steam,  which  seeks  exit  by  upward  vents  : 
2.  To  cooler  superficial  waters  descending  channels  to  where  the  steam 
prevents  further  descent,  and  gradually  accumulating  until  the  channel  is 
filled  to  the  top  :  3.  To  the  heating  of  these  upper  Avaters  by  the  steam 
from  below,  to  near  the  boiling  point,  when  the  lower  portion  of  these  upper 
waters  becomes  converted  into  steam,  and  the  eruption,  or  jet  of  water 
results. 

The  dynamics  of  volcanic  force  is  an  interesting  study.  The  roar  of 
Niagara  is  a  gentle  zephyr  compared  with  the  bellowing  of  a  volcano.  The 
power  required  to  rupture  a  battery  of  steam  boilers  is  as  nothing  compared 
with  the  inconceivable  energy  necessary  for  the  upheaval  of  mountains,  the 
rending  of  rocks,  the  raising  of  islands  from  the  ocean's  bed,  and  forcing 
out  the  melted  lava  from  beneath  the  gneiss  and  granite.  Very  frequently 
large  fragments  of  these  rocks  are  broken  off  and  thrown  out  with  the  lava: 
Cotonaxi,  nearly  20,000  ft.  high,  has  projected  a  stone  109  cubic  yds.  in  vol- 
ume to  the  distance  of  9  miles,  and  has  thrown  matter  6000  ft.  above  its 
summit.  This  of  itself  would  require  a  force  of  nearly  1500  atmospheres,  or 
22,500  Ibs.  to  the  square  inch  !  In  1GGO,  the  amount  of  lava  ejected  by 
Mount  Etna  was  20  times  greater  than  the  whole  mass  of  the  mountain,  and 
in  1GG9,  when  77,000  persons  were  destroyed,  the  lava  covered  84  square 
miles.  In  the  eruption  from  Skaptar  Jokul,  in  Iceland,  during  1783,  two 
streams  of  lava  flowed  in  opposite  directions,  one  of  them  50  miles  long  and 
12  broad,  and  the  other  40  miles  long  and  7  broad  ;  botli  having  an  average 
thickness  of  100  ft.,  which  was  sometimes  increased  to  500  or  COO  ft. ;  twenty 
villages  and  (XXX)  inhabitants  were  destroyed.  The  seat  of  volcanic  power 
must  be  deeply  seated  beneath,  the  eafth's  crust,  where  the  heat  is  extremely 
intense  ;  lava  ejected  over  100  years  ago  from  Jorullo.'  in  Mexico,  1600  ft. 
high,  is  not  yet  cool.  The  lava  thrown  out  of  Etna  in  1.S10,  was  in  motion  II 
months  later  rt  the  rate  of  a  yard  a  dav,  and  Inva.  from  a  previous  eruption 
ol  the  same  mountain  was  in 'motion  after  the  lapse  of  10  years. 


THE    MINERAL   WEALTH    OF    THE    "WORLD". 

Not  only  do  very  many  mountains  and  mineral  lodes  owe  their  origl*  *• 
•volcanic  action,  but  numerous  islands  as  well.  The  Sandwich  islands,  of 
"which  Hawaii,  the  largest,  contains  4000  square  miles  of  surface  and  rises 
18,000  ft.  above  the  ocean  ;  Teneriffe,  13,000  ft.  high  ;  the  Madeira,  Iceland, 
Sicily,  Bourbon,  St.  Helena,  Java,  Sumatra,  Tristan  d'Acunha,  Faroe  and 
Azore  islands,  with  much  of  Celebes,  Japan,  &c.,  are  mainly  composed  of 
lava  and  rocks,  as  sandstone  and  limestone,  upheaved  by  volcanic  action. 
Such  are  some  of  the  effects  of  that  tremendous  power  which  in  the  hands 
of  Omnipotence  has  played  so  important  a  part  in  the  formation  of  the  habit- 
able globe. 

During  the  most  ancient  times,  and  in  the  divinely  framed  language  of  in- 
spiration, silver  is  used  as  the  primary  symbol  to  denote  truth.  Truth  is  as 
an  ocean,  vast  and  inexhaustible.  Of  a  verity  the  symbol  is  in  this  instance 
true  to  its  original,  for  such  a  thing  as  an  exhausted' silver  mine  has  never 
been  known  within  the  memory  of  man.  Pliny  speaks  of  silver-mines  being 
worked  during  his  time  to  the  depth  of  a  mile  and  a  half.  The  old  Spanish 
mines,  opened  long  before  the  time  of  Hannibal,  are  still  worked  with  enor- 
mous profits  ;  the  Hungarian  mines,  worked  by  the  Romans  long  prior  to 
the  Christian  era,  are  still  productive;  the  South  American  silver  mines  have 
yielded  great  profits  during  300  years.  The  silver  mines  in  the  Hartz  moun- 
tains, and  at  Freiberg,  Germany,  discovered  during  the  llth  century,  and 
worked  constantly  ever  since,  yield  a  steady  increase.  The  Mexican  silver 
mines  have  yielded,  since  the  Spanish  Conquest  up  to  1860,  $2,039,100,000, 
and  are  even  now  enormously  rich.  In  Sweden  and  Norway,  silver  mines 
worked  before  the  discovery  of  America  are  still  yielding  profitable  returns. 
The  Cerro  de  Pasco  mines,  Peru,  discovered  in  1630,  from  which  5,000,000  Ibs. 
of  silver  have  been  taken  in  45  years,  are  still  productive.  The  entire  silver 
yield  of  Spain  is  at  present  about  100.000  Ibs.  troy  per  annum.  In  Bolivia, 
S.  A. ,  the  annual  production  of  silver  is  at  present  about  450,000  Ibs.  ;  here 
are  situated  the  famous  mines  of  Potosi,  formerly  belonging  to  Peru,  which 
are  said  to  have  yielded  $1,200,000,000.  Of  the  silver  lode  mining  dis- 
tricts of  Mexico  and  South  America,  the  Sierra  Madre  mines  have  yielded 
§800,000,000  ;  Yeta  Madre,  $235,934,636  ;  Rio  Grande,  $650,000,000  ;  "Rovas, 
$85,421,015  ;  Valencia,  $31,813,486  ;  Santa  Anna,  $21,347,210  ;  Biscanra. 
$16,341,000.  The  Russian  mines  in  the  Urals,  according  to  Marshall,  yielded 
in  10  late  years,  65,330  Ibs.  of  gold,  412,246  Ibs.  of  silver,  and  6067  of  pla- 
tiua,  from  the  serpentine  rocks. 

According  to  approximate  estimates  by  the  best  .American  and  German 
authorities,  the  total  product  of-  all  the  gold  and  silver  mines  in  the  world, 
from  the  year  1500  to  1874,  is  as  follows :  Pounds  of  gold,  17,000.000,  valued 
at  $6,450^000,000.  Pounds  of  silver,  364,000,000,  valued  at  $8,175,000,000 
Total  pounds  of  gold  and  silver,  381, 600,  CCO,  000,  valued  at  $14,625,000,000. 
In  1810  the  annual  supply  of  bullion  to  Europe  was  estimsted  at  $40,000,000, 
-of  which  one-third  was  used  for  manufactures  ;  at  the  present  day  the  an- 
nual supply  is  much  greater.  The  wealth  of  France  is  about  $  40,300,000,000. 

Among  civilized  nations  the  greater  part  of  this  enormous  mineral  wealth 
Is  absorbed  by  the  coinage.  The  British  mint  has  8  melting  furnaces,  2. 
cranes,  and  2  pouring  machines.  The  furnaces  are  used  three  times  per  day, 
and  as  each  pot  is  about  420  Ibs.  they  melt  10.080  Ibs.  in  a  clay  of  10  hours. 
The  gold  pots  are  about  100  Ibs.  and  melt  it  in  an  hour.  The  gold  bars  are 
Drolled  cold  to  the  thickness  of  the  coin,  and  the  silver  bars  hot.  The  8 
presses  in  the  mint  strike  00  blows  per  minute,  and  produce  3600  coins  per 
"hour  for  10  hours,  or  at  least  30,000  per  day,  making  240,000  for  the  8  presses. 
<Good  steel  dies  make  300.000  to  400.000  impressions  before  wearing  out. 

A  Ib.  troy  of  gold  yields  46^%  sovereigns,  a  Ib.  troy  of  silver  yields  66s 

fthe  alloy  is  extra),  aiid  there  are  107.520  halfpence  in  a  ton  of  copper,  worth 

£224.    Griffin  estimates  the  wealth  of  the  United  Kingdom  at  $39,2tX),000,000. 

•*  The  ores  of  silver,  tin,  copper,  lead.  &c.,  are  generally  found  in  what  are 

tailed  "  lodes,"  which  resemble  deep  fissures  in  the  earth,  filled  up  with  ore 


DETAILS    OP   MINING. 


94  'I 


, Of  gold'  but  [i  is  found  to  pervade simlirr 

n  '    Tliese  lodes  are  known  to  Penetrate  the  earth  to  pro- 

found depths,  and  most  frequently  assume  the  form  of  a  wedge,  with  the  tliir  • 


end  uppermost,  widening  as  it  descends  downwards  to  an  unknown  is 
tance.  In  some  cases  these  lodes  enter  the  earth  with  a  slight  incline  -MI'.] 
they  are  known  to  extend  to  a  distance  of  several  miles  in  a  horizontal 


-     Fig.  10. 

tion,  with  a  width  ranging  from  less  than  1  inch  to  many  feet.    Fig.  9  repr 
duced  from  Weale's  admirable  series,  represents  two  lodes,  the  first,  a,  6,  t 


948 


EXPLOITATION    IN    MINES. 


the  right,  enters  the  earth  at  an  angle  ;  c,  rf,  represents  a  lode  underlying  to 
the  left  ;  /,  represents  a  cross-cut  ;  ggg,  a  shaft,  at  first  perpendicular,  after- 
wards upon  the  lode. 

Fig.  10  represents  a  longitudinal  section  of  a  mine  in  -which  the  shaded 
part  represents  the  excavations  penetrated  by  two  perpendicul  shafts,  a  ft, 
the  adit  level,  c  d,  c  d,  c  d,  other  levels,  usually  10  fathoms  or  CO  ft.  below 
oach  other  ;  e  e,  winzes,  or  smal  shafts  connecting  two  levels,  and  used  for 
ihe  purposes  of  ventilation  and  exploration. 

A  shaft  may  be  vertical  or  inclined.  It  is  styled  a  tunnel  when  it  forms 
-*ith  the  horizon  an  angle  less  than  45  degrees. 


UNDERHAND  STOPING. 


Fig.  11. 


OVERHAND  STOPING. 


Tig.  11  represents  the  process  of  sloping  or  exploitation  in  veins  of  thft 
Hake  species,  by  which  the  ore  is  extracted  from  the  workings.  Stoping 
niay  be  classified  under  two  heads:  1st.  Overhand  stoping  ;  as  shown  on  the 
right  side  of  the  figure,  by  which  the  ore  is  extracted  by  working  from  below 
upwards.  Overhand  stoping  is  the  method  in  general  use  in  this  country  ; 
l>y  this  method  of  working  in  ascending  steps,  the  ore,  as  detached,  falls  by 
its  owu  gravity.  2nd.  Underhand  stoping  ;  as  shown  on  the  left  of  the  cut, 
fcy  which  the  mineral  is  taken  from  the  vein  by  working  in  descending  steps 
from  above  downwards. 

In  the  cut,  B  A  is  the  hoisting  shaft,  C  D  and  E  F  are  air  shafts,  S  is  the 
sump  or  well  at  the  bottom  of  the  shaft,  and  D  F  a  tunnel,  level,  or  gallery 
in  the  mine.  Imagine  the  ore  in  the  vein  to  be  laid  oat  in  rectangular  masses 
as  exhibited  in  the  cut  ;  these  steps  or  benches,  generally  15  or  20  ft.  long, 
S  or  8  ft.  high,  and  as  wide  as  the  vein,  form  in  consecutive  succession  the 
ground  from  whence  the  ore  is  extracted  by  stoping  or  working  in  steps.  The 
miners,  in  overhand  stoping,  use  temporary  stages  from  which  they  attack 
the  vein  by  means  of  drills,  picks,  &c.  ;  the  ore  and  rubbish  are*  blasted 
down  and  piled  behind  the  miners  on  a  strong  scaffolding  of  timbers,  from 
whence  the  ore  is  discharged  through  suitable  apertures  called  mills  or  passes 
(located  at  proper  distances  apart)  to  the  level  below,  to  be  conveyed  by  cars, 
&c.,  to  the  mouth  of  the  level,  or  to  the  hoisting  shaft,  for  elevation  to  the 
p-.irface.  The  worthless  rubbish  is  sorted  out  and  used  for  filling  material 
i  to  occupy  the  vacancies  and  to  support  the  mine.  When  this  material  is  de- 
ficient it^must  be  supplied  from  the  surface,  especially  when  the  ore  deposits 
nre  of  great  extent  and  the  vacancies  large.  The  filling  should  be  tamped  solid. 
?nthe  vicinity  of  fhe  working  shaft  and  other  suitable  places,  pillars  of  vein 


HOISTING    MACHINERY. 


94? 


•tone  may  be  allowed  to  remain  with  good  results.  In  Mexico,  very  exten- 
sive mines  are  wholly  sustained  by  pillars  of  ore,  the  number,  size,  distance 
apart,  &c.,  of  which  are  clearly  defined  by  law. 

The  first  process  in  opening  a  mine*  is  to  find  the  lode,  then  a  hole  is 
usually  driven  straight  down  into  the  earth  so  as  to  strike  the  lode,  as  rep- 
resented in  Fig.  9.  This  is  termed  "  sinking  the  shaft,"  which  is  then 
carried  down  upon  it  as  shown  in  the  cut,  although  it  frequently  happens 
that  the  shaft  is  carried  down  on  the  lode  from  the  surface.  As  the  shaft 
descends  the  adit  level  is  driven  ;  this  is  merely  a  tunnel  dug  from  tl  e 
nearest  valley  or  water-course  right  into  the  mountain  or  hill  in  which  tl.e 
lode  is  located,  so  that  all  the  water  above  the  level  will  flow  away  of  itself 
In  going  deeper  other  levels  are  driven  to  the  right  and  left,  extending  to 
great  distances  from  the  shaft,  but  always  following  the  direction  of  ti.e 
lode,  and  these  levels  are  interpenetrated  at  suitable  distances  by  smaller 
shafts,  called  winzes,  which  are  of  great  use  in  promoting  proper  ventilation 
in  the  mine.  As  the  workings  are  extended  other  shafts  are  dug  from  tl.e 
surface  as  necessity  may  require,  but  they  should  be  at  least  300  ft.  apart  ; 
and  where  a  mine  has  more  than  one  lode,  a  gallery  or  level,  called  a  "  cross- 
cut," is  driven  to  it  as  shown  at/,  in  Fig.  9.  The  size  of  shafts  vary  accord- 
ing to  the  duty  required.  To  accommodate  pumping  and  winding  machinery 
for  elevating  the  ;t  kibbles,"  or  buckets  of  ore,  by  steam  power,  it  should  be 
from  6  to  8  ft.  in  width  and  from  14  to  20  ft.  in  length.  Square  shafts  are 


usually  lined  in  whole  or  in  part  with  timber,  and  circular  shafts  are  gen- 
erally built  up  with  stone.    For  a  depth  of  from  50  to  100  ft.  the  elevation 


Fig.  12.— WINDLASS- 

of  the  ore  may  be  effected  by  means  of  a  windlass,  as  shown  in  Fig.  12  ;  in 
sinking  a  "  winze  "  from  level  to  level,  but  not  penetrating  to  the  surface, 
the  same  means  are  used,  but  in  deeper  excavations  it  is  usual  to  raise  the 
ore  by  what  is  styled  a  "  whim,"  worked  by  horse-power,  as  shown  in  Fig. 
113,  in  whicn  the  cable  which  elevates  the  ore  is  wound  around  a  vertical  drum. 


Fig.  13 — HORSE  WHIM. 

The  next  illustration,  Fig.  14,  represents  an  ingenious  miner's  hoisting 
|K>wex  constructed  by  Reynolds,  Rix  &  Co. ,  of  San  Francisco,  who  claim  thnt 


050 


HOISTING    MACHINERY. 


it  will  do  the  work  of  a  steam  engine  at  one-tenth  the  expense,  as  one  how* 
can  easily  hoist  by  it  1000  Ibs.  at  a  depth  of  500  ft. 


Fig.  14.— MINER'S  HOISTING  POWER. 

For  deep  mines  the  horse  whim  is  generally  superseded  by  reversible 
•Binding  engines,  Fig.  15,  in  which  the  chain  or  wire-rope  passes  around  a 
Horizontal  drum,  which  is  driven  with  great  rapidity  by  steam-power,  but 
tVds  costly  machinery  is  seldom  applied  to  mines  unless  it  is  settled  beyond 
t»  doubt  that  they  will  become  of  permanent  value. 


Fig.  15.— THE  GRIFFITH  &  WEDGE  WINDING  ENGINE. 


Water-power,  if  available,  can  also  be  used  to  good  advantage  for  lower* 
<ag  into  the  mine  timbers,  tools,  supplies,  &c.,  and  for  elevating  ore,  pump« 
rng,  &c. 


951 


Fig.  16  represents  a  "kibble,"  or  large  iron  bucket  used  in  raising  the 
ore  ;  it  will  hold  a  ton,  mor.e  or  less.  Fig.  17,  at  a,  represents  ti  contrivance 
running  on  wheels  (on  rails  or  guides  of  wood  or  metal)  called  a  "  skip," 
kb,  represents  the  guide,  cc,  timbers  of  the  shaft,  dd,  rock  through  which 


Pig.  16.— A  KIBBLE.  Fig.  17.— A  SKIP. 

the  shaft  is  sunk.  The  skip  has  the  lower  end  of  one  side  hinged  like  a 
door,  and  will  hold  2  tons  or  more  if  required.  Formerly  these  contrivances 
were  elevated  by  means  of  hemp  ropes  or  iron  chains,  which  in  many  cases 
caused  dreadful  accidents  through  frequent  breakages.  Of  late  years-  wire 
ropes  have  displaced  the  ropes  and  chains  of  former  times,  the  tensDe 
strength  of  wire  rope  being  much  greater,  and  its  tendency  to  rupture  being 
much  less  than  that  of  ropes  or  iron  chains,  which  are  liable  to  part  quite 
suddenly  without  the  slightest  warning,  often  causing  fearful  loss  of  life. 
fVire  ropes  never  break  without  giving  previous  warning. 


Fig.  18.  Fig.  19. 

Fig.  18  represents  the  manner  of  timbering  tunnels  when  the  rock  is  ofc 
m  soft,  crumbling  nature,  with  a  liability  to  cave  inward,  the  cross  pieces  oil 


3)52  TIMBERING   OF   MINES. 

the  tunnel  bed  being  placed  against  the  vertical  posts  to  enable  thejn  to 
•withstand  the  inward  pressure.  Fig.  19  represents  the  method  of  timber- 
ing where  the  tunnel  is  composed  of  solid  rock  on  the  one  side  and  lo«se 
Material  oil  the  other. 


Fig.  20.  Fig.  21.  Fig.  22. 

Tigs.  20,  21  and  22  represent  the  underground  timbers  of  a  mine  ;  the 
first  two  show  the  position  of  timbers  to  sustain  a  vertical  pressure  from 
above,  the  third  figure  represents  an  inclined  timber  to  sustain  both  vertical 
and  side  pressure. 

In  the  lofty  excavations  on  the  Comstock  lode  such  supports  as  the  above 
tioted  would  be  utterly  inadequate,  hence  the  plan  of  timbering  in  square 
sets  was  contrived  and  adopted.  This  consists  of  square  14-inch  timbers 
framed  and  put  together  in  the  form  of  cribs,  as  shown  in  Fig.  23,  four  by 
five  or  six  feet  in  size  ;  these  cribs  are  piled  one  upon  another  to  any  desired 
height,  and  firmly  framed  together  so  as  to  fill  up  and  support  the  roof  and 
sides  of  any  sized  cavity  or  excavation,  while  the  interior  vacancies  may  be 
packed  solid  with  waste  rock.  They  also  serve  to  sustain  the  stulls  or  tim- 
bers (frequently  in  very  lofty  positions)  which  are  occupied  by  the  miners 
\vhile  at  work  extracting  the  ore. 

A  tunnel  is  to  be  regarded  as  a  shaft  when  it  forms  with  the  horizon  an 
rngle  exceeding  forty  five  degrees  (45°).  A  common  size  for  tunnels  is  3 
it/wide  at  the  top,  3|  to  4  ft.  wide  at  the  bottom,  and  6  ft  high,  but  the  size 
is  quite  often  determined  by  the  size  of  the  vein  in  which  it  is  driven,  the 
size  of  the  one  being  generally  made  to  conform  to  that  of  the  other.  As  a 
rule,  shafts  and  tunnels  should  be  wrought  in  the  lode. 

The  item  of  timbering  the  various  shafts,  tunnels,  excavations,  &c.,  of 
mines  is  one  of  immense  cost,  but  it  is  of  paramount  importance  that  the 
work  be  efficiently  performed  by  competent  workmen,  otherwise  loss  ol 
life  and  serious  damage  to  the  "works  will  certainly  result.  The  timber 
should  be  left  as  round  as  possible,  be  stripped  of  its  bark,  and  to  ensure 
safety  against  rot,  be  kept  well  saturated  with  water  by  means  of  little 
spouts  or  pipes  in  connection  with  the  cisterns. 

In  some  mines  the  pillars  of  rock,  ore,  &c.,  left  standing  at  suitable  dis- 
tances for  the  protection  of  the  mine,  preclude  the  necessity  for  props  of 
timber.  In  addition  to  the  above,  ^ie  refuse  rubbish  which  accumulates  ia 
the  mine  after  the  extraction  of  the  ore,  is  piled  up  against  the  supports  to 
jfill  up  the  excavations  so  as  to  sustain  the  immense  masses  overhead. 

In  mining  operations,  penetration  is  effected  by  means  of  rock  drills, 
manual  tools,  gunpowder,  fire,  nitro-glycerine,  &c. ;  the  hand  tools  for  drill- 
ing and  blasting  are,  a  sledge,  borer,  claying-bar,  scraper,  needle  or  nail, 
and  a  tamping-bar.  The  bor.er  is  of  iron^,  tipped  with  steel,  shaped  like  a 
stout  chisel,  and  well  tempered.  The  hole  being  drilled,  a  cartridge  is  in- 
ierted  iu  it,  or  a  quantity  of  gunpowder  is  rammed  in  and  fired.  To  ix* 


HOW    PENETRATION   IS    EFFECTED 


953 


crease  the  force  of  the  powder,  the  upper  part  of  the  aperture  above  the 
powder  is  (after  the  luse  is  properly  inserted)  filled  with  sand  or  clay, 
which  is  rammed  down  hard  by  means  of  a  tamping  bar,  formed  of  hard 
wood,  or  of  iron  with  a  copper  tip,  which  is  struck  with  a  heavy  hammer, , 
In  many  instances  lamentable  accidents  have  occurred  by  the  use  of  iron  or 
steel  tamping  bars  causing  premature  explosions  by  striking  fire  against  the 
sides  of  the  hole  ;  hence  the  necessity  for  the  use  of  wooden,  or  copper- 
tipped  tamping  bars,  which  never,  under  any  circumstances,  strike  fire  by 
concussion  against  the  rocks.  The  hole  being  tamped,  the  projecting  end  of 
the  safety-fuse  is  ignited,  and  while  the  combustible  matter  which  fills  the 
interior  of  the  fuse  is  slowly  burning  towards  the  end  inserted  in  the 
powder,  the  men  withdraw  to  a  sheltered  place  to  avoid  danger  from  the  fly- 
ing rocks  projected  by  the  explosion.  As  nearly  as  can  be  computed  the 
amount  of  powder  employed  in  blasting  should  be  -just  enough  to  split  tbo 
xock  ;  in  some  cases  this  is  effected  by  the  action  of  fire  without  blasting. 


Fig.  23.— TIMBERING  OF  MINES  ON  THE  COMSTOCK  LODE. 

In  using  nitre-glycerine  for  blasting  in  mines,  the  advantages  are,  that 
it  requires  a  smaller  hole  than  gunpowder  ;  it  dispenses  with  tamping,  ag 
water  only  is  used  (to  fill  the  holes),  in  which  it  is  easily  ignited  ;  it  is  much 
cheaper  than  gunpowder,  and  has,  taken  volume  for  volume,  twelve  timea 
greater  explosive  force.  See  page  666  Lastly,  it  can,  with  proper  pre- 
cautions, be  easily  manufactured  on  or  near  the  spot  where  it  is  required 
lor  use,  the  main  condition*  being,  that  syrup  of  glycerine  shall  be  slowly 


954  QUARTZ    MACHINERY. 

dropped  in  a  compound  formed  of  equal  quantities  of  nitric  and  sulphuric 
acids  contained  in  a  strong  vessel  surrounded  by  ice,  with  a  thorough  agita- 
tion of  the  mixture  after  each  addition  of  the  syrup.  The  uitro-glyceriue, 
of  an  oily  composition,  is  removed  from  the  surface  and  repeatedly  washed 
with  clean  water.  It  is  liable  to  explosion  during  the  process  of  manufac- 
ture, if  not  kept  cold. 

The  disadvantages  of  nitroglycerine  are,  that  it  is  poisonous,  and  exhales 
poisonous  vapors  after  being  exploded,  thus  rendering  its  use  impossible  in 
confined  workings  under  ground  ;  it  explodes  at  a  temperature  of  300° 
?ahr.  ;  when  pure  it  explodes  by  coucussiom  alone,  and  when  impure  it  is 
liable  to  spontaneous  explosion. 

In  quartz  mining  the  grand  primary  step  in  beginning  should  be  to  deter- 
mine, beyond  doubt,  the  value  of  the  vein  or  mine.  In  "prospecting"  a 
vein  of  the  Rake  species,  a  shaft  should  be  sunk  on  it  to  a  depth  of  nt  least 
100  ft.  and  a  tunnel  driven, to  correspond.  If  the  ore  on  being  worked  yields 
favorable  results,  the  inference  is  that  it  is  safe  to  invest  money  on  a  large- 
scale  in  the  erection  of  suitable  machinery  for  extensive  mining  operations. 

QUARTZ  MACHINERY. 

Among  the  appliances  for  this  purpose  may  be  mentioned  ore-breakers, 
stamp  batteries,  grinders,  amalgamators,  concentrators,  separators,  cruci- 
bles, retorts,  &c.  The  ore-breaker  is  used  for  crushing  mineral  substances 
into  fragments  small  enough  to  be  passed  into  the  stamp  batteries. 

The  following  cuts  represent  the  Blake  Ore  Breaker,  a  machine  widely 
known  as  having  earned  for  itself  the  highest  character  for  efficiency  where- 
ever  it  IIP  3  been  brought  into  use. 


Fig.  24.— BREAKER  AT  WORK.        Fig.  25.— SECTIONAL  VIEW  OF  BREAKER, 

Its  principal  features  are  a  heavy  frame,  in  which  are  set  two  upright 
jaws,  one  of  which  is  usually  fixed,  while  the  other  has  a  slight  vibratory 
movement  imparted  by  a  rotating  shaft.  These  jaws  are  wide  enough  apart 
at  the  top  to  receive  the  ore  to  be  broken,  but  converge  towards  each  other 
below,  so  that  at  the  bottom  the  opening  is  only  wide  enough  to  permit  the 
fragments  to  pass  when  broken  to  the  required  size.  The  working  parts 
are  made  enormously  strong  and  massive  to  withstand  the  strain  and  wear- 
to  which  they  are  subjected  in  crushing  rocks  and  minerals,  some  of  which 
will  yield  only  to  a  pressure  of  13|  tons  (27,000  Ibs.)  to  the  square  inch. 
One  of  these  machines,  weighing  lf,600  Ibs.,  and  requiring  fi  horse-power, 
with  a  feed  opening  of  15  x  9  ins.  area,  will  reduce  100  to  150  tons  of  rock 
per  day  to  a  size  suitable  for  the  batteries.  These  machines  are  made  of 
various  sizes  ;  some  of  them  will  take  in  a  s-tone  weighing  half  a  ton  and 
reduce  it  to  fragments  in  5  seconds.  The  crank  should  make  about  180 
revolutions  per  minute.  For  macadamizing  purposes,  a  15  x  9  machine  will 
produce  100  cubic  j-ds.  of  road  metal  per  day,  the  fragments  being -l£  ins. 
in  diarn.  and  less.  The  distance  between  the  jaws  at  the  bottom,  which 

-I 


THE   STAMP   BATTEKY. 

fimits  the  size  of  the  fragments,  may  be  regulated  at  pleasure,  and  the 
wearing  parts,  when  worn  out,  may  be  replaced  by  new  plates  at  slight  cost. 
There  are  other  ore  breakers  in  the  market,  as  Alden's,  Bullock's,  &«,, 
Which  give  very  good  results,  and  are  in  every  respect  reliable  macJWuee. 

THE  STAMP  BATTERY. 

Fig.  26  presents  a  view  of  the  method  of  wet-crushing  by  stamp  batteries^ 
with  a  row  of  Hepburn  and  Peterson's  amalgamating  pans  in  front.  In  the 
rear  is  the  engine  which  supplies  the  motive  power  to  operate  the  stamps, 
which  are  raised  by  cams  secured  to  the  horizontal  shafting  shown  in  front 
of  the  vertical  stamp  stems.  The  liquefied  mass  of  ore  passes  from  the  bat- 
teries through  the  perforated  sheet-iron,  or  wire  screens,  into  the  sluice 
boxes  displayed  in  front  of  the  batteries.  The  battery  comprises  the  frame- 
(usually  formed  of  strong  timbers),  stamps,  mortars,  stamp-stems,  cams, 
*am-shaft,  tappets,  shoes,  dies,  guides,  and  screens. 

In  operating  on  a  large  scale,  mortars  are  usually  arranged  to  accomo 
date  three,  four,  five,  or  six  stamps  each,  but  mill  men  of  long  experience* 
prefer  the  five-stamp  mortar,  and  round  instead  of  square  stamps.  Tha 
cam-shaft  is  a  round  bar  of  iron,  usually  about  4^  ins.  diam.,  turned,  finish- 
ed, and  with  the  cams  secured  on  it  by  means  of  keys,  is  frequently  used  to 
operate  from  5  to  60  or  more  stamps  standing  in  line.  The  lift  of  the 
stamps  is  effected  by  the  cams  operating  on  tappets  which  project  from  the 
stamp  stems.  The  latter  are  of  wrought  iron,  turned,  finished,  and  fitted 
into  the  stamp  head,  which  is  formed  of  the  toughest  cast-iron,  and  armed 
with  a  "shoe"  formed  of  the  best  cast-steel  or  white  iron,  on  the  lower 
part,  next  the  mortar  die.  The  shoes  may  be  removed  and  replaced  by- 
new  ones  when  they  are  worn  out.  The  mortar  dies  should  be  formed  of 
the  same  material  as  the  shoes,  and  well  secured  on  solid  timber  foundation* 
with  one  die  under  each  stamp.  The  stamp  guides  are  usually  formed  of 
the  hardest  wood  procurable,  and  are  fastened  by  iron  bolts  to  the  cross  tie* 
of  the  battery  timber  frame. 

The  screen  in  general  use  for  working  ores  by  the  wet  process,  is  formed 
of  the  best  Russia  sheet-iron,  perforated  by  punches  ranging  in  size  from 
the  number  nine  to  the  number  one  sewing  needle.  In  working  ores  by  tho 
dry  process,  the  screen  is  generally  made  of  wire,  ranging  in  fineness  from. 
900  to  10,000  meshes  to  the  inch. 

The  capacity  of  a  stamp  weighing  650  Ibs.,  with  90  12-in.  drops  in  a  min- 
ute, is  equivalent  to  the  reduction  of  2|  tons  of  hard,  tough  ore  in  24  hours, 
and  the  power  used  is  nearly  £  horse-power  per  ton  of  ore.  To  obtain  the 
best  results  in  feeding  the  rock  into  the  battery,  the  rule  among  practical 
mill  men  is  to  grade  the  supply  of  rock  so  that  the  blows  of  iron  to  iron  will 
be  heard  every  10th  or  15th  stroke  of  the  stamp,  and  the  weight  of  water  to 
rock  required  for  the  reduction  of  gold  or  silver  ore  is  as  4£  to  1. 

In  constructing  a  stamp-mi^,  the  primary  object  should  be  to  secure  a 
site  of  at  least  21  or  22  ft.  el'vation,  in  order  to  so  arrange  the  different 
floors  that  the  material  under  manipulation  shall  pass  by  its  own  gravity  t 
from  one  stage  of  the  process  to  another,  and  the  location  should,  if  possible,, 
be  in  close  proximity  to  the  mine  from  which  the  mineral  products  are  ob- 
tained. The  foundations  under  all  the  machines  must  possess  absolute 
stability  :  if  the  bed-rock,  owing  to  its  depth,  is  not  available  for  founda- 
tion purposes,  brick  or  stone  work,  or  timber  mud-sills  must  be  substituted. 
1'or  stamp  butteries,  vertical  timbers,  strongly  bound  together,  resting  on 
the  bed-rock,  or  otherwise  properly  secured,  will  be  found  in  every  respect 
to  form  the  best  possible  foundation  for  the  mortars.  The  vertical  position! 
gives  easier  access  for  making  repairs,  the  removal  of  defective  timbers, 
&c.,  together  with  less  cow'ission  from  the  blows  of  the  stamps  than  whco 
the  foundation  timbers  occupy  a  horizontal  position. 


ARRANGEMENT   OP   GOLD   AND   SILVER  MILLS.          95f 

The  entire  appliances  of  the  mill,  consisting  of  the  batteries,  rock- 
Itfeaker,  grinders,  amalgamators,  concentrators,  &c.,  are  operated  by  mean* 
of  shafting,  which  transmits  the  power  to  the  various  machines  by  means  of 
pulleys,  belts,  or  gearing,  the  prime  mover  being  either  water  or  steam 
power. 

In  the  arrangement  of  a  SILVER  MILL,,  the  rock  breaker,  or  ore  crusher 
is  the  first  in  order,  and  the  stamp  batteries  follow  at  a  distance  of  12  or 
more  feet,  tb>  *eed  floor  of  the  latter  being  10  ft. ,  more  or  less,  below  the 
floor  of  the  ore  crusher.  The  rock  fed  into  the  batteries  being  triturated 
sufficiently  fine  to  pass  tlncugh  N<.  4  or  No.  5  perforated  Russia  iron 
screens,  the  fluid  mass  passes  from  the  stamps  into  the  settling  tanks,  which, 
are  generally  placed  so  that  their  tops  are  level  with  the  upper  side  01  the 
battery  frame  sills. 

The  tanks  should  be  arranged  in  successive  series  in  order  to  accord 
ample  space  for  the  water  to  deposit  the  suspended  ore  before  passing  off. 
A  good  size  for  tanks  is  5  x  7  it.,  with  a  depth  of  3  ft,  which  will  afford 
capacity  for  between  4  and  5  tons  of  crushed  ore. 

Next  in  order,  near  the  tanks,  follow  the  grinders  and  amalgamators, 
with  their  upper  rims  level  with  the  tops  of  the  tanks.  After  passing  the 
tanks  the  ore  is  worked  in  charges,  and  reduced  in  these  machines  to  a 
slimy  mass,  and  one  of  these  contrivances,  w7ith  muller  4  ft.  diam.,  requir- 
ing about  5  ft.  fall  and  7  ft.  run,  the  muller  making  75  revolutions  per  min- 
ute, will  reduce  5  tons  of  ore  in  24  hours  with  5  horse-power. 

The  separator  follows  in  close  proximity  to  the  grinder  and  amalgama- 
tor, its  sides  being  frequently  under  the  platform  of  the  latter,  and  some- 
times removed  from  under  it  and  slightly  elevated  above  it.  Wheeler  and 
Randall's  Conoidal  Separator,  7  ft.  diam.,  with  a  capacity  for  working  10 
tons  of  ore  per  day  with  1  horse-power,  requires  of  itself  "4  to  5  ft.  fall  and 
9  ft.  run,  including  platform. 

The  concentrator  is  the  next  in  order,  receiving  the  ore  as  it  passes  from 
the  separator,  the  denser  and  richer  portions  flowing  off  at  the  sulphuret 
pipe  into  the  tank,  and  the  less  valuable  part  passing  away  at  the  discharge 
end.  The  Tabular  Concentrator  requires  about  3  ft.  fall  and  10  ft.  run,  and 
is  capable  of  working  from  5  to  10  tons  of  ore  per  day  with  one-half  of  a 
horse-power. 

The  appliances  of  a  GOLD  MILL  include  the  rock  breaker,  stamps, 
grinder  and  amalgamator,  separator,  &c.,  as  noted  above  in  the  descrip- 
tion of  a  silver  mill,  with  the  sole  exception  that  they  are  subject  to  greater 
ftodificatiou  of  arrangement,  which  is  determined  in  every  case  by  the 
JlBracter  of  the  gold  and  the  rock  to  be  operated  upon. 

The  various  machines,  as  arranged  in  the  silver  mill  just  described,  may 
to  rendered  available  for  operations  on  gold  where  the  latter  is  fine  and 
equally  diffused  through  the  rock,  only  a  larger  number  of  concentrators 
and  amalgamators  should  be  used,  the  latter  ju#t  after  the  stamp  batteries, 
and  as  amalgamators  only. 

Amalgamators,  grinders  and  separators  should  not  be  employed  where 
the  #old  is  quite  coarse  and  clean  in  the  rock. 

What  is  known  as  the  "  continuous  process  "  is  the  one  best  adapted  fof 
•working  rock  where  the  gold  is  coarse  and  coated. 

Where  the  gold  in  the  rock  is  largely  combined  with  sulphurets,  the 
best  method  is  to  use  the  concentrators  and  amalgamators  im  mediately 
after  the  batteries,  the  approved  way  being  to  reduce  the  concentrated  por- 
tions of  the  rock  in  the  grinders  and  amalgamators,  work  in  separators,  and 
lastly,  treat  by  means  of  another  series  of  concentrators. 

The  best  authorities  prefer  amalgamating  in  the  batteries,  but  this  must 
be  done  with  the  utmost  care,  for  if  too  little  quicksilver  be  added  the 
amalgam  will  become  dry  and  gi»*nular,  and  flow  away  with  the  current  of 
crushed  ore  ;  if  too  much  be  added  the  resultant  amalgam  will  liquify  and 
fee  carried  off  by  the  stream.  The  practical  rule  is,  to  feed  the  quicksilT«i 


958 


N  ARASTEA. 


into  the  batteries  in  small  quantities,  and  feed  frequently,  sprinkling  d 
expressing  it  through  buckskin  or  other  porous  material,  so  that  the  amal- 
gam, after  emerging  from  the  screens,  may  be  indented  by  a  slight  pres- 
sure between  the  fingers  ;  if  the  consistency  is  such  that  it  will  retain  the 
finger  marks  it  is  just  right.  The  quantity  of  quicksilver  required  varies 
•with  the  amount  of  gold  in  the  ore  ;  1  oz.  of  quicksilver  to  1  oz.  of  gold  is  a 
common  a'llov/ance  ;  when  the  gold  is  very  fine,  1J  to  H,  and  even  2  ozs.  to 
1  of  gold  nuty  be  added. 

In  amalgamating  in  the  battery,  the  sides  of  the  enclosure  containing  the 
stamps  i*  fitted  the  entire  length  of  the  battery  with  amalgamated  copper1 
plates  from  3  to  5  ins.  wide,  arranged  with  a  pitch  of  35°  or  40°  toward  tha 
dies.  One  of  the  plates  is  placed  at  the-  feed  side  and  the  other  at  the  dis- 
charge side  of  the  stamps,  and  the  amalgamation  is  effected  by  rubbing 
quicksilver  on  the  plates,  as  described  on  page  454.  With  ore  containing 
heavy  gold,  from  60  to  70  per  cent,  may  be  saved  in  the  battery  by  the 
amalgam  plates,  but  with  light  gold,  from  300  to  400  fine,  not  so  much,  as 
it  is  liable  to  become  entangled  with  the  light  scum  of  foreign  matters  and ' 
pass  away  with  the  current. 


Fig.  27.— MEXICAN  AKASTRA. 

AMALGAMATION  OF  GOLD  IN  THE  ARASTRA.— The  arastra  is  composed 
of  a  circular  granite-paved  bottom,  from  6  to  20  ft.  in  diam.,  surrounded  by 
a  wooden  enclosure  over  2  it.  high,  with  a  vertical  wooden  shaft  in  the  cen« 
tre,  provided  with  two  or  more  projecting  arms  to  which  mullers  (composed 
of  large  blocks  of  granite)  are  attached  by  means  of  chains,  as  shown  iul 
Fig.  27.  This  primitive,  but  effective  machine  is  operated  by  mules  when 
water-power  is  not  available  ;  the  mullers  making  from  6  to  10  revolutions 
per  minute,  with  a  capacity  of  grinding  from  H  to  2  tons  of  rock  (the  frag- 
ments being  broken  as  small  as  a  hen's  egg,  or  less)  in  24  hours.  Of  th« 
arastra.  Mr.  Kustel,  a  high  authority,  writes  as  follows  : 

"  When  in  motion,  the  arastra  is'charged  with  209  Ibs.  of  ore,  with  some 
water.  One-quarter  of  an  hour  afterward  the  balance  ol  the  whole 
charge,  from  4(X)  to  500  Ibs,,  is  introduced,  As  soon  as  the  Dre  it  turned 


TREATMENT  OF  GOLD  ORES.  959 

Into  mud  1  or  2  ozs.  of  quicksilver  are  pressed  through  a  dry  cloth  over  the 
thick  pulp.  A  sample  is  taken  from  time  to  time  with  the  horn  spoon, 
•washed,  and  examined.  When  free  gold  is  perceived,  after  the  amalgama- 
tion has  gone  on  for  some  time,  some  more  quicksilver  may  be  added.  The 
first  charges  require  a  little  more  quicksilver.  After  4  or  5  hours  the  pulp 
is  diluted  with  water  and  discharged.  The  next  charge  is  treated  in  the 
same  way,  and  so  on  till  100  or  150  tons  are  worked  through.  The  quick- 
silver must  be  used  always  in  proportion  with  the  gold — 1  or  1^  ozs.  to  1  oz. 
of  gold.  The  amalgam  imbeds  in  the  crevices  of  the  bottom,  and  must  be 
always  dry.  The  use  of  too  much  quicksilver  makes  the  amalgam  thin, 
causes  an  imperfect  amalgamation,  and  a  loss  in  quicksilver,  which  is  often 
found  beneath  the  bottom  rock."  When  the  reducing  and  amalgamating 
process  is  finished  the  slime  is  washed  off,  and  the  amalgam  cleaned  up, 
squeezed,  and  retorted. 

AMALGAMATION  OF  GOLD  BY  THE  PAN  PROCESS. — In  this  process  the 
ore,  as  it  comes  from  the  stamps,  is  still  further  reduced  by  being  thor- 
oughly ground  (with  sufficient  water  to  form  a  thin  paste)  in  iron  pans,  in 
combination  with  quicksilver.  Some  maintain  that  the  process  is  acceler- 
ated by  means  of  heat,  applied  by  passing  steam  into  chambers  underneath 
the  pulp,  or  into  the  charge  in  the  pan,  but  extended  experiments  do  not 
confirm  this  view.  The  quicksilver  is  generally  added  as  the  pans  com- 
mence running,  and,  to  avoid  excessive  trituratiou  of  the  quicksilver,  the 
-addition  is  often  made  with  the  muller  slightly  elevated,  after  the  grinding 
of  the  ores.  After  the  process  is  finished  the  charge  is  withdrawn  and 
washed,  leaving  the  amalgam  in  the  separators.  With  the  Wheeler  & 
Handall  grinders  and  amalgamators  (4  It.  muller),  the  proportions  of  the 
Charge  is,  ore  2000  Ibs.,  quicksilver,  30  to  70  Ibs.,  revolutions  of  muller,  60 
to  05,  time  of  reducing,  generally  about  3  hours. 

The  pan  process,  if  well  conducted,  will  secure  as  much  as  95  per  cent, 
of  the  gold  detected  by  a  fire  assay,  but  it  is  not  well  adapted  for  treating 
raw  ofes  containing  the  compounds  of  sulphur,  iron,  bismuth,  tellurium, 
antimony,  arsenic,  lead,  or  zinc,  until  such  ores  have  been  roasted  or 
smelted,* and  the  pernicious  substances  thoroughly  expelled. 

TREATMENT  OF  GOLD  ORES  BY  THE  CHLORINATION  PROCESS.— In  this 
process  the  effective  agent  is  chlorine  gas,  evolved  by  heating  sulphuric 
acid,  per-oxide  of  manganese,  and  salt  in  a  leaden  generator.  The  aurif- 
erous ore,  after  being  well  pulverized,  roasted,  cooled,  and  wet  with  water, 
is  placed  in  wooden  tubs  about  7  ft.  diam.  and  25  or  30  ins.  deep,  provided 
with  false  bottoms.  The  chlorine  gas  is  conveyed  from  the  generator  under 
the  false  bottom  by  lead  pipes,  and  permeates  the  whole  mass  in  a  few 
hours,  transforming  the  gold  into  a  terchloride  of  gold.  When  the  greenish 
•tinge  of  the  gas  becomes  visible  on  the  surface  of  the  mass,  the  tub  is  cov- 
ered close  by  a  wooden  cover  for  the  space  of  10  or  15  hours,  after  which  it 
is  removed  and  clean  water  is  poured  on  the  ore,  which  leaches  through  it 
and  carries  off  the  dissolved  gold  through  a  discharge  pipe  below  into  glass 
vessels.  The  addition  of  sulphate  of  iron,  in  solution,  is  used  to  precipitate 
the  gold,  which  falls  in  the  form  of  a  black-brown  powder,  and  may  be  col- 
lected, melted,  and  run  into  bars.  Ores  containing  lime  and  talc  should  be 
roasted  with  salt  before  being  treated  by  this  process,  and  in  every  case  the 
gas  should  be  purified  from  muriatic  acid  by  being  forced  through  clean 
water  before  being  used.  Any  silver  in  the  metallic  state  present  in  the 
ore  treated  by  this  process,  is  transformed  into  chloride  of  silver,  which  is 
.soluble  only  in  a  hot  solution  of  salt,  but  the  chloride  of  "gold  is  soluble  in 
\vater,  as  described  above. 

RETORTING  OF  GOLD  AMALGAM. — The  retorts  in  common  use  are  cone- 
shaped  cast-iron  vessels  with  circular  bottoms.  The  cone  is  attached  to  the 
upptr  part  by  a  clamp  and  wedge  (the  joint  between  being  luted  with  clay) 
aud  is  provided  with  an  exhaust  pipe  in  syphon  shape,  the  shorter  arm  of 


$60  METALLURGY    OF    SILVEE. 

which  is  screwed  into  the  cover,  while  the  longer  one  passes  through  a  ve*t 
gel  filled  with  cold  water  (or  a  wrapping  of  wet  cloths  may  be  used  instead} 
during  the  time  of  operation.  The  interior  of  the  retort  should  be  dusted 
with  whiting,  meal,  or  any  other  suitable  substance,  to  prevent  the  amalgam 
from  adhering,  and  then  filled  not  over  two-thirds  full,  this  precaution  being 
necessary  to  prevent  the  apparatus  from  rupture  by  the  choking  of  the  ex- 
haust pipe,  or  from  any  other  cause.  Apply  the  heat  first  of  all  to  the  upper 
part  of  the  retort  and  the  short  arm  of  the' pipe,  then  to  the  lower  part,  in- 
creasing the  heat  gradually  to  all  parts,  but  never  going  much  higher  than 
n  bright  cherry  red. 

The  quicksilver,  volatilized  by  the  heat,  passes  over  and  down  the  long 
irm  of  the  pipe,  through  the  condenser,  and  into  the  receiver,  which  is 
usually  a  vessel  filled  with  water. 

CRUCIBLES.— Crucibles  are  used  for  melting  metals,  compounding  alloys, 
reducing  ores,  assaying,  &c.  For  full  directions  for  making  crucibles,  con- 
sult pp.  491  and  502" 

INGOT  MOULDS. — These  are  formed  of  cast-iron  with  a  trough-shaped 
cavity,  slightly  wider  and  longer  at  the  upper  part  than  at  the  lower,  so  as  to 
permit  the  easy  dislodgement  of  the  ingot.  This  is  further  promoted  by  oil- 
ing the  interior  of  the  mould  previous  to  use. 

In  estimating  the  capacity  of  an  ingot  mould,  it  is  usual  to  rate  each  cubic- 
inch  for  gold  at  $125,  and  for  silver  at  $4.25. 

FMJX. — In  metallurgy  or  chemistry  a  flux  is  a  substance  or  mixture 
used  to  promote  the  fusion  of  metals  or  minerals.  Black  flux  is  used  by  in- 
troducing slowly  in  small  portions,  into  a  crucible  heated  to  a  very  dull  red 
heat,  a  compound  of  either  equal  parts  of  cream  of  tartar  and  nitre,  or  two 
parts  of  cream  of  tarter  and  one  of  nitre.  White  flux  is  compounded  of  one 
part  of  cream  of  tartar  and  two  parts  of  nitre. 


METALLURGY  OF  SILVER. 

The  methods  in  common  use  for  the  extraction  of  silver  from  the  ore  may 
be  classified  as  follows:  1.  Amalgamation  of  unroasted  ores  in  iron  pans. 

2.  Amalgamation  of  roasted  ores  in  barrels,  iron  pans,  steam  tubs,  &c. 

3.  Patio  process  of  amalgamation  in  heaps.     4.   Smelting  with  lead  ores,  or 
<ead,  and  final  separation  of  the  silver  by  cupellation. 

AMALGAMATION  OF  UNROASTED  ORES  IN  IRON  PANS. — This  method, 
known  among  miners  as  the  "  wet  process,"  is  in  quite  extensive  use  for 
grinding  the  unroasted  ore  (after  passing  tiirough  the  stamps  and  settling 
tanks)  with  water  into  an  impalpable  slime.  The  limited  capacity  of  the 
first  pans  proved  a  barrier  to  extensive  operations  by  the  wet  process,  the 
small  quantity  of  ore  operated  on,  and  the  long  time  required  to  work  the 
charge,  being  serious  drawbacks  to  rapid  progress.  Figures  28  and  29  pre- 
sent a  view  of  the  common  iron  pan,  in  which  a  is  a  wooden  cross  in  which 
wooden  blocks,  &,  with  iron  shoes,  c,  are  fastened  by  the  bolts,  d ,"  each  shoe 
has  a  pin,  e,  fitting  into  the  wooden  block,  in  order  to  prevent  its  moving  ; 
on  the  shaft,  </,  is'the  yoke,  /;  the  two  ends  of  the  yoke  fit  in  the  holes,  A, 
of  the  cross,  a,  but  not  too  tightly,  so  that  the  muller  can  descend  as  the 
shoes  wear  away.  Steam  is  passed  into  the  slimy  charge  of  ore  through  the 
pipe,  1;  k  k  are  discharge  pipes  ;  m  is  a  false  bottom  of  iron,  formed  m  one 
piece,  and  2  inches  thick.  In  these  pans  the  muller  revolves  with  a  grinding 
action,  like  a  millstone,  reducing  the  previously  pulverized  ore  to  the  finest 
slime,  and  intermixing  the  quicksilver  with  the  mass. 

The  Wheeler  &  Randall  Excelsior  Grinding  and  Amalgamating  Pan,  rep- 
resented by  Fig.  28,  takes  high  rank  as  an  efficient  machine.  It  is  of  cast- 
iron,  has  the  conoidal  form,  the  centre  rising  as  high  as  the  rim,  and  moulded 


METALLURGY    OF    SILVBB. 


961 


•o  that  its  vertical  section  forms  the  tractory  curve,  or  curve  of  equal  wear, 
securing  perfect  uniformity  in  the  wearing  of  the  shoes  on  the   muller 


and  the  dfes.     The  muller  is  propelled  by  a  centre  shaft,  the  upper  part  of 
sw  to  which  the  muller  is  attached,  and  is  propelled  by  gear 


which  is  a  screw  to  which  the 


Fig.  28.— COMMON  AMALGAMATING  PAN. 


Fig.  29. 

frhjBete  on  the  under  side  of  the  pan.  The  muller  Is  attached  by  a  large  nu* 
and  secured  to  its  place  by  a  key  which  enters  a  slot  cut  upon  one  side  of  the 
screw.  The  bottom  is  provided  with  a  steam  chamber  or  false  bottom  ;  the 
distance  between  the  muller  and  the  dies  is  regulated  by  a  screw  on  thf  out- 
gide  of  the  pan,  which,  by  means  of  a  bent  lever  at  the  bottom,  raises  the 
vertical  shaft,  lifting  the  muller  from  the  surface  when  required. 

In  charging,  the  muller  is  raised  a  little,  so  as  to  revolve  freely,  -water  is 
admitted  through  the  hose  or  pipe,  the  ore.  as  it  comes  from  the  stamps  aad 


METALLURGY    OF    SILVER. 


settling  tanks  (ores  containing  much  antimony  should  be  roasted)  is  shovelled 
in,  and  steam  is  introduced  through  the  steam  chamber  in  the  bottom,  or 
directly  into  the  pulp,  the  latter  method  giving  the  higher  temperature. 
Keep  the  heat  at  or  near  200°  Fahr.,  turn  oft'  the  steam  if  the  pulp  becomes 
too  thin,  and  allow  it  to  thicken  by  the  evaporation  of  the  water  while  the 
temperature  is  maintained  by  means  of  the  steam  chamber.  Do  not  pass 
le  exhaust  steam,  charged  with  oil  from  the  engine,  direct  into  the  pulp,  as 


Fig.  30.—  WHEELER  A>JD  RA>T>ALL'S  AMALGAMATING  PAX. 


ft  prevents  amalgamation  ;  use  live  steam  from  the  boiler  for  this  purpose- 
but  the  former  may  be  used  in  the  steam  chamber  if  desired.  The  pulp,  it 
too  thick,  causes  a  waste  of  power,  if  too  thin  it  will  not  amalgamate  well. 

After  commencing  to  grind,  the  muller  should  be  gradually  lowered  ;  in 
2  hours  the  ore  should  be  reduced  to  a  fine  pulp  ;  at  this  period  quicksilver 
is  supplied  by  pressing  it  through  canvas,  so  as  to  scatter  it  through  the  pulp 


METALLURGY   OF    SILVER. 


963 


in  a  finely  divided  state  ;  the  muller  is  then  slightly  raised  from  the  bottom, 
to  avoid  grinding  the  quicksilver,  which  would  flour  it,  and  the  action  is 
continued  for  2  hours  longer. 

Th'j  proportions  used  to  charge  one  of  these  pans  with  4  ft.  muller,  are  : 
ore  t*»4he  charge,  2000  Ibs.,  quicksilver,  30  to  70  Ibs.,  varying  with  the  quality 


Fig.  31.—  AGITATOR- 


Fig  32.— WHEELER'S  AGITATOR. 

of  the  ore  ;  revolutions  of  rauller  per  minute,  60  to  65.  Many  chemical  com- 
pounds have  been  used  in  treating  raw  ores  containing  sulphide  of  silver,  m 
order  to  promote  the  decomposition  of  the  ores,  but  their  use  was  more  prev- 
alent of  late  years  than  at  the  present  time.  A  number  of  practical  receipts 
for  making  them  will  be  found  below. 


964  METALLURGY    OF    SILVER. 

The  grinding  and  amalgamating  being  completed,  the  pulp  is  diluted 
with  water  and  discharged  into  the  separator,  when  it  is  thoroughly  washed 
in  plenty  of  clean  water.  Daring  the  first  twenty  minutes  but  little  water 
should  be  added  to  the  slime  in  the  separator  ;  after  that  time  it  may  be 
'  filled  nearly  to  the  brim  by  a  small  stream  of  pure  water  kept  running  for 
30  minutes  or  more  if  necessary  ;  then  one  after  another,  beginning  with 
the  highest,  draw  the  plugs  from  the  holes  and  allow  the  pulp  to  run  off 
slowly,  clean  water  being  allowed  to  flow  into  the  machine  at  the  same  time. 
In  the  conoidal  separator  (capacity,  10  tons  of  ore  in  24  hours)  the  amalgam 
is  deposited  with  the  quicksilver  in  the  bowl  and  spiral  graove  at  the  cir- 
cumference. The  bulk  of  the  quicksilver  is  withdrawn  through  a  hole  in 
the  bottom  of  the  bowl,  and  is  treated  by  being  washed,  squeezed,  and  re- 
torted. In  silver  amalgam  containing  lead,  squeezed  at  a  temperature  of 
H4°— ISO0  Fnhr.,  the  lead  passes  off  with  the  mercury,  but  if  squeezed  at  a 
lower  temperature,  it  Avill  remain  in  the  bag.  The  pulp  is  conveyed  from 
the  separator  into  agitators,  or  other  inventions  used  for  the  purpose  of  col- 
lecting the  stray  amalgam  or  quicksilver  which  may  be  discharged  along 
with  the  coarser  sand  from  the  separator. 

The  agitator  is  usually  a  tub,  2  or  3  ft.  in  diam.  and  about  12  ius.  high, 
fitted  with  an  upright,  oh  which  are  arranged  4  projecting  arms  carrying 
^tirrers.  See  fig.  31. 

Wheeler's  agitator,  represented  by  fig.  32,  is  about  8  ft.  in  diam.;  the 
sides  are  formed  of  wooden  staves  from  25  to  30  ins.  high,  and  the  bottom  i» 
composed  of  cast-iron,  dipping  towards  the  centre,  ending  in  the  cavity  h,  for 
the  accumulation  of  the  quicksilver  ;  this  is  always  kept  full,  and  when  the 
pans  are  discharged  the  surplus  quicksilver  passes  away  by  the  syphoi> 
shown  in  cut.  The  tailings  pass  away  continually  through  a  pipe  fths  of  ar> 
in.  in  diam.  and  4  in.  from  the  bottom,  shown  at  /.',  and  the  lower  pipe,  ?,. 
1  in.  in  diam.,  is  the  discharge  pipe  when  the  agitator  requires  to  be  cleaned; 
another  discharge  hole  is  represented  at  o. 

CHEMICALS  USED  IN  VARIOUS  MILLS  IN  TREATING  SILVER  ORES  BY 
THE  PAX  PROCESS. — The  following  practical  receipts  are  transcribed  from 
Guido  Kustel's  valuable  work,  entitled,  "Processes  of  Gold  and  Silver  Ex- 
traction." The  allowance  in  each  case  is  for  1  ton  of  ore.  «.  Chloride  of 
copper,  13  Ibs.  ;  common  salt,  60  Ibs.  6.  Chloride  of  iron,  13  Ibs.  c.  Sul- 
phate of  iron,  1  Ib. ;  sulphate  of  copper,  8  Ibs. ;  common  salt,  60  Ibs.  d. 
Sulphuric  acid,  3  Ibs.;  sulphate  of  copper,  2  Ibs. ;  salt,  15  Ibs.  c.  Sulphuric- 
acid,  2  Ibs.;  alum,  2  Ibs. ;  sulphate  of  copper,  1^  Ibs.  /.  Sulphate  of  cop- 
per, 18  ozs. ;  sulphate  of  iron,  16  ozs. ;  sal  ammoniac,  8  ozs. ;  common  salt, 
21b».  g.  Alum,  1^  Ibs.;  sulphate  of  copper,  l^lbs. ;  salt.  40  Ibs.  h.  Muri- 
atic acid,  30  ozs. ;  peroxide  of  manganese,  8  ozs. ;  blue  vitriol,  10  ozs. ;  green 
vitriol,  10  ozs.  i.  Common  salt,  15  Ibs. ;  nitric  acid,  1  to  2  Ibs. :  sulphate  of 
iron,  1  to  2  Ibs  k.  Common  salt,  25  Ibs. ;  blue  vitriol,  2  Ibs. ;  catechu.  2  Ibs. 

NOTE.— a,  b.  c,  are  calculated  for  ore  containing  250  to  500  ozs.  of  silver  iu  sul- 

Ehurets.    All  chemicals,  except  salt,  are  xised  in  solution.    The  salt  is  charged 
alf  au  hour  before  tlxe  chemicals  are  put  in.    These  chemicals  are  not  well 
adapted  for  treating  ores  containing  sulphur,  arsenic,  or  antimony  ;  tkey  should 
l>3  roasted. 

/\     DESCRIPTION  OF   THE  MACHINE. — A,  Driving  shaft ;  B,  Cylinder  ;  CC, 
1  >vers  to  stuffing  boxes  ;  D,  Lever  for  pressing  upper  shoes  upon  the  cylin- 
ders ;  E  E,  Upper  shoes  or  dies.;  F,  Inside  of  cylinder  ;  G,  Concave  bottom' 
*of  casing  ;  1 1,  Outside  of  casing. 

INSTRUCTONS  FOR  USING  DEATH'S  AMALGAMATOR  AND  SEPARATOR. — 
Two  of  the  amalgamators  being  in  operation  with  one  separator,  each  amal- 
gamator is  to  be  charged  with  800  or  1000  Ibs.  of  ore  as  it  is  collected  from 
the  batteries  ;  at  the  same  time  add  sufficient  water  to  keep  it  at  a  thick, 
pulpy  consistency  ;  you  then  add  fom  10  to  50  Ibs.  of  quicksilver,  accordiug- 
to  the  character  and^richness  of  the  ore.  The  machines  are  kept  in  opera- 
tion until  the  reduction  and  amalgamation  are  complete,  which  time  wilf 
vary  from  2  to  4  hours,  according  to  the  character  of  the  ore  being  reduce^ 


BOASTING    OP    SILYEW  OKE8. 


965 


After  the  ore  is  sufficiently  reduced  and  amalgamated,  the  pulp  is  dis- 
charged into  the  separator,  and  the  machine  is  immediately  re-charged 
without  stopping. 

After  the  pulp  is  received  by  the  separator,  it  is  to  be  thinned  with  watef 
to  a  consistency  that  will  allow  the  quicksilver  and  amalgam  to  precipitate 
and  still  retain  sufficient  body  to  keep  the  coarser  particles  of  the  pulp  sus- 
pended in  the  water  with  the  slum. 


ROASTING  OF  SILVER  ORES.— Argentiferous  ores  are  moro  productive 
when  roasted  than  when  worked  raw*.  The  volatile  components  of  the  ores 
must  be  expelled  by  heat,  and  this  is  effected  in  two  ways,  viz. :  in  heaps 
or  in  furnace*.  By  the  former  method  the  ore,  generally  as  it  come?  from 
the  mine,  is  piled  m  alternate  layers  with  fuel,  the  bottom  layer  being  of 
wood  piled  in  angular  form  in  order  to  permit  free  circulation' of  air.  For 
the  upper  layers  coal  or  wood  may  bp  used,  the  proportion  of  ore  to  fuel 
varying  from  1  to  6,  to  1  to  18  ;  fine  ores,  or  ores  abounding  in  sulphur  re- 
quiring less  fuel  than  coarse  ores,  or  ores  poor  in  sulphur.  Antimonial  or 
or  arsenical  ores,  with  little  or  no  sulphurets,  should  contain  an  addition  of 


EOASTIKG    OF    SILVER    ORES. 

2  or  3  per  cent,  of  calcined  green  vitriol  before  being  roasted.  The  fire  m 
igmited  through  vertical  openings  extending  downwards  through  the 
heap  to  the  ground  layer ;  these  apertures  are  closed  when  the  fire  is 
thoroughly  kindled,  and  the  smouldering  process  is  continued  for  weeks 
and  months,  the  sulphur  in  the  ore  supplying  fuel  to  the  fire,  while  the 
intensity  of  the  heat  may  be  controlled  to  any  extent  by  closing  or  opening 
the  draft  holes  or  chimneys.  It  sometimes  occurs  that  ores  similarly  inter- 
stratified  with  fuel  are  roasted  in  inclosures  resembling  kilns,  provided  with 
side  openings.  The  roasting  process  transforms  the  silver  into  a  chloride, 
easily  decomposed  by  the  quicksilver,  and  therefore  rapidly  amalgamated. 

The  leading  reactions  which  take  place  in  roasting  silver  ores  with  salt, 
are  mainly  as  follows  :  In  submitting  iron  pyrites  and  other  sulphureta  to  a 
red  heat  in  contact  with  air,  they  become,  in  a  great  measure,  transmuted 
Into  sulphates,  part  of  the  sulphur  becomes  sulphuric  acid,  which  combines 
with  the  metallic  oxide-?,  while  another  portion  disappears  as  sulphurous 
cid.  As  this  part  of  the  process  requires  a  low  degree  of  heat,  no  decom- 
position of  the  salt  will  take  place,  but  on  the  formation  of  the  sulphates 
ud  the  disappearance  of  all  odor  of  sulphurous  acid,  the  temperature 
must  be  increased  and  the  decomposition  of  the  salt  will  begin.  This  takes 
place  in  two  ways : — 

First. — In  roasting,  the  sulphates  of  iron  and  other  sulphates  give  off  vap- 
ors of  sulphuric  acid,  which,  in  union  with  salt  forms  sulphate  of  soda,  while 
the  chlorine  escapes  in  a  gaseous  form  and  combines  with  any  native  metals  in 
the  mass  tinder  treatment,  decomposing  the  sulphurets  in  such  a  manner 
that  one  part  of  the  chlorine  gas  combines  with  the  sulphur  as  chloride  of 
sulphur,  which  exhales,  while  the  other  part  forms  a  coloride  with  the  liber- 
ated metal. 

Sscond. — By  the  other  method  of  decomposition  the  salt  and  sulphate 
mutually  decompose  each  other.  Tlio  sulphnte  of  cilvcr,  being  compounded 
of  sulphuric  acid,  oxygen,  and  silver,  being  heated  in  contact  with  common 
gait  (which  is  composed  of  chlorine  and  sodium),  the  silver  combines  with 
the  chlorine,  the  result  being  chloride  of  silver,  while  the  oxygen  and  sodium 
forming  soda,  is,  with  the  sulphuric  acid,  converted  into  sulphate  of  soda. 
When  the  vapor  of  water  is  present,  during  these  various  reactions,  muriatic 
acid  is  formed  in  addition.  The  quantity  of  sulphurcts  and  earthy  mat- 
ters present  in  ores  should  be  determined  by  inspection  previous  to'roast- 
ing  them.  A  surplus  of  lime  i:i  the  ore,  will,  by  combining  with  sulphuric 
acid,  form  sulphate  of  lime,  which  will  remain  unchanged  throughout  the 
process.  To  effect  decomposition  in  such  ores,  sulphates  or  quartzose  ores 
must  be  added  in  quantity  sufficient  to  change  nil  the  l;:ue  into  sulphate. 
Talcose  ores  must  bo  treated  in  a  similar  way,  the  primary  use  of  the  sul- 
phurets in  the  ore  being  to  decompose  the  quantity  of  salt  required  for  chlo- 
rination. 

Guido  Kiistel,  in  his  admirable  work  on  the  "Processes  of  Silver  and 
Grid  Extraction,"  writes  ;  "In  Freiberg  (Germany)  it  was  the  rule  to  sub- 
'ject  only  that  ore  to  roasting  which  contained  enough  gulphnrets  to  give 
25  to  30  per  cent,  of  matt  (sulphide  of  iron)  when  assayed  for  that  purpose. 
If  less  matt  was  obtained,  the  ore  had  to  be  mixed  with  other  ore,  or  so 
much  iron  pyrites  was  added  that  the  required  quantity  of  Milphurets  was 
obtained.  The  second  class  ore  of  the  Ophir  and  Mexican  claims  in  the 
Comstock  lode,  consisting  of  pure  decomposed  quartz,  contains  silver  sul- 
phurets, with  a  small  proportion  of  iron  pyrites,  yielding  from  G  to  8  per 
cent,  of  matt.  The  roasting  with  salt,  however,  gives  a  satisfactory  result, 
which  must  be  attributed  chiefly  to  the  pure  qnartzose  condition  of  ^the  ore. 

"If  the  ore  contains  an  abundance  of  sulphurets,  the  roasting  must  be 
performed  without  salt0  for  about  two  hours,  till  the  greatest  p?trt  of  the 
sulphur  is  driven  off,  otherwise  it  would  bake,  and  cause  an  .imperfeci 
roasting. 


TREATMENT    OF    SILVER    ORES.  967 

"The  quantity  of  jmlphurets  has  a  great  influence  on  the  result  of  roast- 
ing. Ore  like  that  of  the  Ophir  or  Mexican  mines,  containing  silverglance, 
polybasite,  brittle  silver  ore,  native  silver  and  gold,  some  iron,  and  but  little 
copper  pyrites,  will  give  a  good  result  by  roasting,  even  when  less  attention 
is  paid  to  the  time  and  diligent  stirring,  than,  for  instance,  with  the  so- 
called  '  base-metal  ore,'  which  abounds  in  copper  pyrites,  zinc-blend,  sul- 
phuret  of  lead,  etc.  The  presence  of  base  metals  causes  a  higher  loss  in 
silver.  The  chloride  of  silver  is  not  volatile,  except  at  a  high  temperature. 
Bat  it  has  been  observed  that,  in  the  presence  of  base-metal  chlorides,  the 
chloride  of  silver  volatilises  also.  The  increased  heat  increases  the  volatil- 
ization, but  decomposes  the  base-metal  chlorides.  By  keeping  a  low  heat, 
the  loss  of  silver  is  less  if  the  zinc-blend  is  not  argentiferous,  the  Ir.tter 
requiring  a  higher  heat  to  effect  decomposition.  But  in  roasting  at  a  low 
heat,  the  base-metal  chlorides  remain  in  the  ore,  and  cause  more  loss  of 
quicksilver  in  the  subsequent  amalgamation,  and  require  more  metallic  iron 
in  the  barrels  ;  besides,  the  bullion  contains  a  great  deal  of  base  metals. 
In  treating  such  ore  in  the  roasting-furnace,  the  application  of  steam  is 
advantageous,  creating  hydrochloric  acid  by  the  decomposition  of  chlorides, 
at  the  same  time  becoming  a  decomposing  agent  for  the  sulphurets.  The 
hydrogen  of  the  steam  decomposes  also  the  chloride  of  silver,  which,  upon 
being  reduced  to  a  metallic  condition,  by  its  affinity  for  chlorine,  in  turn 
decomposes  the  hydrochloric  acid.  The  silver  may  thus  change  repeatedly 
from  metallic  condition  to  the  chloride,  while  the  base-metal  chlorides  are  re- 
duced to  oxides,  and  in  that  state  do  not  interfere  with  the  amalgamation." 

ROASTING,  CALCINING,  AND  CHLORIDIZING  SILVER  ORES  IN  FURNACES. 
— Of  the  many  furnaces,  and  for  this  purpose,  the  reverbatory  kind  is  by  far 
the  best.  The  interior  surfaces  should  be  constructed  of  the  best  fire  brick, 
placed  edgeways,  the  exterior  walls  may  be  of  stone  or  common  brick,  and 
the  whole  structure  should  be  throughly  braced  with  iron  rods  and  well- 
seasoned  previous  to  being  used.  The  reverberatory  furnace  is  constructed 
either  with  one,  or  two  hearths,  as  may  be  desired  ;  the  calcining  and 
chloridiziug  being  effected  on  the  lower  hearth,  while  the  roasting  and 
sulphatization  is  done  on  the  upper  one.  On  the  upper  hearth  the  pulver- 
ized ore  is  placed  to  a  depth  of  from  2  to  4  ins.,  the  heat  is  maintained  at  a 
low  temperature,  not  over  a  brown  or  dull  red,  with  frequent  stirring  of 
the  ore,  and  the  supply  of  air  should  be  abundant.  To  promote  oxidation 
and  control  the  temperature,  a  jet  of  steam  should  be  used.  When  the  ores 
contain  arsenic,  powdered  charcoal  in  small  quantities  may  be  used  to  good 
advantage,  and  if  the  ores  are  poor  in  sulphur,  from  2  to  3  per  cent,  of  the 
sulphate  of  iron  may  be  added.  The  roasting  and  sulphatizing  will  be  com- 
pleted  in  from  4  to  5  hours,  when  the  ore  is  permitted  to  drop  through  an 
aperture  in  the  upper  hearth  on  to  the  lower  one,  where  for  some  time  it  is 
kept  at  a  temperature  but  slightly  higher  than  that  previously  noted,  but  is 
afterwards  raised  and  maintained  at  a  cherry  red,  and  should  never  exceed 
a  bright  red,  the  ore  being  stirred  meanwhile,  during  the  calcining  and 
chloridizing  processes.  When  the  calcination  is  effected,  which  will  be  in 
from  4  to  5  hours,  a  melted  and  well  pulverized  mixture  of  common  salt, 
and  7  parts  of  cold  calcined  ore,  are  added  to  the  hot  ore  on  the  hearth 
jcalculated  at  15  parts),  and  the  whole  mass  is  completely  intermixed  by 
vigorous  stirring.  This  latter,  called  the  chlorination  process,  will  usually 
occupy  about  35  or  £0  minutes. 

AMALGAMATION  IN  DR.  VEITCH'S  STEAM  TUBS.— The  primary  difference 
between  this  process  and  the  last  noted  consists  in  the  employment  of  tubs 
instead  of  barrels  and  the  use  of  steam  directly  in  the  pulp.  Tlie  tubs  are 
about  4  ft.  deep  and  4  ft.  diam.  The  bottom  is  made  of  cast-iron  with  three 
circular  apertures  for  the  reception  of  cast-iron  perforated  plates  ;  belo^r 
are  the  steam-chambers.  The  holes  are  about  2  ins.  apart,  and  very  small. 
In  the  centre  of  the  tub  is  a  vertical  shaft,  suspended  in  a  box  outside  of  th* 


008 


AMALGAMATION"  BY   PATIO   PROCESS. 


tub.  There  are  three  arms  attached  to  it,  each  having  three  arms  of  copMC 
cr  iron  plates  hanging  perpendicularly  in  concentric  lines.  The  moYaoli 
cover  has  an  orifice  in  connection  with  a  flue  by  which  the  steam  and  aoma 
quicksilver  are  conveyed  into  cooling  tanks. 

In  operating,  the  steam  is  projected  through  the  perforated  plates  into 
the  pu>N.  and  impels  the  quicksilver  in  spray,  or  globules  of  every  size,  in  a 
stream  through  the  entire  mass,  causing  an  intimate  blending  between  tha 
ore  and  the  mercury.  The  nine  iron  plates  (or  if  there  is  much  copper  in 
;the  ore,  copper  plates  should  be  used)  pass  through  the  ore  edgeways,  with 

£  circular  motion,  and  agitate  the  pulp,  the  decomposition  of  the  chlorides 
leantiine  progressing  very  rapidly  by  means  of  the  heat  and  impact  against 
the  plates,  which  present  a  surface  of  nearly  3600  sq.  ins.  of  surface  to  600 
or  800  Ibs.  of  ore.  If  the  ore  has  been  properly  roasted  amalgamation  will 
"be  effected  in  5  hours.  Argentiferous  ores,  intended  to  be  treated  either  by 
this,  or  the  barrel  amalgamation  process,  should  be  free  from  metallic  gold, 
or  it  must  be  extracted  previous  to  roasting  the  ore,  for  subsequent  to  roasi- 
Ing,  the  gold  is  not,  like  silver,  in  a  soluble  state,  but  in  a  metallic  condition, 
usually  coated  with  an  oxide  (especially  if  in  contact  with  sulphuret  of 
lead),  which  renders  the  amalgamation  oi  tne  gold  extremely  difficult. 


Fig.  34.— AMALGAMATION  BY  PATIO  PROCESS. 

AMALGAMATION  BY  THE  MEXICAN  OB  PATIO  PROCESS. — The  Spanish 
word  Patio  denotes  a  yard.  The  ores  best  adapted  to  this  treatment  are, 
ruby  silver,  brittle  silver  ore,  polybasite,  stromeyrite,  iodyrite,  silverglance, 
and' chloride  of  silver.  Silver  ores  containing  gold  are  unfit  for  treatment 
unless  that  metal  has  been  previously  extracted  by  some  other  process. 
Argentiferous  zinc-blend,  pyrites,  and  a  few  other  combinations  cannot  be 
treated  unless  perfectly  roasted.  Silver  ore  combined  with  antimony  and 
copper  should  be  slightly  roasted  previous  to  treatment.  Argentiferous 
lead  ores  and  gold  ores  are  utterly  unsuitable  for  treatment. 

The  amalgamating  yard  is  levelled  off,  paved  with  granite  blocks  or 
bricks,  encompassed  by  high  walls,  and  is  generally  left  exposed  to  the 
atmosphere.  Over  this  pavement,  the  silver  ore  (previously  dissolved  to  an 
impalpable  slime,  by  means  of  arastras,  stamps,  or  other  machinery J  is 
deposited  and  spread  to  a  depth  of  from  7  to  12  ins.,  and  surrounded  by' low, 
close  curbs.  Next,  salt,  in  quantity  to  conform  with  its  quality  and  tho 
richness  of  the  ore,  is  added  to  the  mass  and  thoroughly  intermixed  by  beir.£ 
turned  with  shovels  and  trodden  by  horses,  mules,  or  oxen.  See  ng.  34. 
The  chemical  action  of  the  salt  produces  chloride  of  silver  and  desulphur- 
izes the  sulphides.  The  mass  is  then  allowed  to  rest  one  whole  day. 

Magistral,  i.  e.,  copper  pyrites,  roasted  and  pulverized,  are  added  to  the 
mass  one  hour  after  the  treading,  turning,  &c.,  begins,  the  quantity  varying 
•with  its  quality,  the  temperature  of  the  season,  and  the  richness  of  the  ore, 
the  primary  effect  of  the  magistral  being  to  revive  the  silver  by  depriving  11 
<tf  chlorine. 


SMELTING    OF    SILVER    ORES.  969 

The  nest  addition  is  quicksilver,  which  is  usually  added  in  three  charge* 
ft*  the  ore  by  being  sprinkled  through  cloth,  buckskin,  canvas,  &c.  ;  aiter 
the  first  charge  the  mass  is  thoroughly  'mixed,  and  formed  into  heaps  of 
About  one  ton  each,  smoothed  off,  and  let  stand  24  hours.  Then  during  the 


it  13  determined  whether  or  not  the  first  charge  has  been  properly  blended  L 
y-ith  the  mass.  The  third  charge  ig  added  after  the  due  incorporation  of  I 
fae  second,  in  order  to  absorb  any  i.tray  particles  of  silver,  and  to  render  the !; 
amalgam  more  suitable  for  separation. 

Lime  is  added  to  cool,  and  magistral  to  heat,  as  the  temperature  of  the 
ore  may  require.  With  too  much  heat  the  quicksilver  becomes  pulverulent 
and  of  a  dark  shade,  with  scattered  brown  spots  upon  its  surface  ;  with  too 
little  it  retains  its  natural  appearance  and  fluidity.  With  the  pioper  tem- 
perature the  amalgam  will  present  a  grayish  white  tint  and  yield  easily  to 
gentle  pressure.  An  excess  of  quicksilver,  magistral,  or  lime,  is  inimical  to 
the  process  ;  an  overplus  of  salt  will  cause  a  loss  of  quicksilver  but  no 
further  injury. 

For  ore  valued  at  $50  per  ton,  a  proper  proportion  of  the  above  noted 
ingredients  would  be,  to  each  ton  :  salt,  of  prime  quality,  80  Ibs.  ;  magistral 
(containing  10  per  cent,  of  the  sulphate  of  copper),  in  summer,  20  Ibs.,  in 
winter,  10  Ibs.  ;  quicksilver,  first  charge,  14  Ibs.,  second  charge,  5  Ibs.,  third 
charge,  7  Ibs.  ;  lime,  more  or  less,  15  Ibs.,  as  may  be  required.  The  time  of 
treatment  varies  from  12  to  GO  days,  according  to  the  state  of  the  weather,  etc. 

The  separation  is  effected  by  washing  the  mass  with  plenty  of  water  in  a 
capacious,  deep,  circular  vessel,  essentially  the  same  in  principle  as  the 
common  separator  or  settler,  whereby  the  lighter  portions  are  caused  to  flow 
slowly  away,  leaving  the  amalgam  to  be  gathered  last  of  all  by  itself,  to  be 
removed  and  retorted  at  the  refining  works. 

SMELTING  OF  ORES. — This  is  effected  by  various  contrivances,  such  as 
"  Cupola  "  and  "  Reverberatory  "  Furnaces,  "  Backwoods  hearths,'*  "  Scotch 
and  American  hearths,"  &c.,  the  object  being  to  reduce  the  ores  to  the  metal- 
lic state  by  means  of  fire,  assisted  by  fluxes  of  limestone  or  lime,  carbonate 
of  soda,  iron,  and  fluor  spar.  Lead  ore,  granulated  lead  and  litharge  are  used 
as  fluxes  for  gold  and  silver.  The  size,  form,  capacity,  &c.,  of  the  furnace 
may  be  made  to  conform  to  the  requirements  in  each  case  :  the  Castilian 
furnace  is  of  an  annular  shape,  while  the  McKenzie  Cupola  is  more  of  an 
elliptical  form.  The  fuel  and  ore  are  intermixed  in  proper  proportions  in 
the  cupola,  being  introduced  through  the  charging  door,  several  feet  above 
the  bottom  of  the  cupola.  The  furnace  is  vertical  in  position,  about  15  ft. 
in  height,  with  an  interior  area  through  its  largest  horizontal  section  of  . 
about  12  sq.  ft.,  varying  more  or  less  according  to  size.  See  page  684  for  de-  f 
tails  of  furnaces,  modes  of  operating,  blast,  &c. 

The  fire,  urged  by  the  blast,  consumes  the  fuel,  and  imparts  its  heat  to 
ihe  ore,  which  is  arranged  in  alternate  layers  with  the  fuel.  The  fluxes, 
which  have  an  affinity  for  some  part  of  the  mineral  under  treatment,  either 
induce  its  dissipation  or  form  with  it  a  fusible  compound  or  glag,  which' 
being  lighter  than  the  metal,  is  frequently  separated  from  it,  either  by  being 
drawn  off  from  the  surface,  or  permitted  to  rest  until  the  metal  is  with- 
drawn from  below.  The  kind  of  flux  to  be  used  depends  largely  upon  the 
rariety  at  hand  and  the  character  of  the  ores  and  gangues  to  be  treated.  If 
the  gang  tie  of  the  ore  is  composed  of  different  earths,  with  the  oxides  of 
base  metals,  litharge,  quartz  and  carbonate  of  soda  may  be  used  as  fluxes. 
If  quartz  forms  the  gangue  of  the  ore,  lime,  the  oxides  of  the  base  metals, 
and  carbonate  of  soda  may  be  used,  while  such  fluxes  as  metallic  iron  aim 
litharge,  lime,  and  carbonate  of  soda  are  well  adapted  for  the  treatment  of 
ores  containing  much  sulphide. 


970  TREATMENT    OP    SILVER,    ETC. 

'A  primary  condition  in  almost  every  form  of  smelting  silver  ores  is  thf 
use  of  lead  in  one  or  more  of  its.  various  forms  5  if  lead  is  not  combined 
•with  the  ore  under  treatment  it  must  be  added  thereto.  In  smelting  silver 
ores  the  notable  vises  subserved  by  lead  and  its  compounds,  are  these,  viz.  : 
On  the  fusion  of  lead  with  the  sulphate,  oxide,  or  sulphide  of  silver,  the 
latter  is  reduced  to  the  metallic  state,  and  forms  an  alloy  with  excess  of 
lead  ;  in  fusing  sulphate  of  lead  with  sulphate  of  silver  argentiferous  lead  is 
formed  ;  a  bLast  of  uir  directed  upon  a  fused  compound  of  silver  and  lead 
has  an  oxidizing  effect  on  the  lead,  but  effects  no  change  on  the  silver  ;  lead 
has  a  greater  affinity  for  silver  than  for  any  of  the  inferior  metals  ;  under' 
treatment  in  the  furnace,  the  sulphide  or  sub-sulphate  of  lead  and  the  sul- 
phate of  lead  react  upon  each  other,  and  absorb  the  silver,  if  any  be  present. 
Further  ;  three  parts  of  sulphate  of  lead  and  one  part  sulphide  of  lead 
react  on  each  other  and  produce  litharge.  Again  ;  sulphide  of  lead  and 
copper,  antimony,  zinc,  or  metallic  iron  in  a  fused  state,  react  upon  each 
other  and  produce,  on  the  one  basis,  sulphide  of  iron,  and  on  the  other,  metal- 
lic lead,  &c.  Similar  results  will  take  place  if  the  sulphide  of  lead  at  the 
same  time  contain  the  sulphide  of  silver,  and  the  lead  and  silver  combine 
together  in  an  alloy,  while  the  iron  or  other  metals  noted  is  formed  into  a 
sulphide. 

In  smelting  ores  containing  gold  and  silver  it  is  not  necessary  to  change 
or  vary  the  process  by  reason  of  the  presence  of  the  former  metai. 

TREATMENT  OF  SILVER  ORES  BY  SILESIAN  PROCESS  IN  A  CUPOLA 
FURNACE. — The  raw  argentiferous  galena  and  the  necessary  iron-flux  are 
first  broken  into  small  pieces  and  thoroughly  mixed,  when  they  are  passed 
into  the  cupola  so  that  they  will  occupy  the  rear  of  the  chamber,  while  the 
fuel  is  placed  in  the  front  part.  The  blast  is  applied  so  that  a  gradual  fu- 
sion results  and  the  cupola  hearth  becomes  overspread  with  molten  lead  and 
floating  slags,  owing  to  the  reactions  of  the  sulphur  and  iron  combined  with 
oxygen.  At  proper  intervals,  the  lead,  all  ready  for  cupellation,  is  with- 
drawn through  an  orifice  in  the  bottom  of  the  furnace  and  the  floating  slags- 
through  a  higher  aperture  ;  the  more  valuable  portion  of  the  slags,  or 
matt,  being  composed  of  the  sulphide  of  iron  and  lead  with  silver  in  min- 
ute quantity,  are  put  through  an  additional  treatment  of  roasting  and 
fusion.  The  proper  proportions  of  a  charge  are  :  argentiferous  galena,  well 
broken,  100  parts  ;  broken  slag  fro  in  iron  forge,  14  parts  ;  cast-iron,  12  parts; 
eoal,  126  parts. 

IN  THE  RAMMELSBERG  PROCESS  of  Cupola  treatment  the  ores  of  argen- 
tiferous galena  loaded  with  a  large  surplus  of  impurities  and  foreign  matter, 
are  first  treated  either  in  HEAPS  in  the  open  air  or  in  REVERBERATOR* 
FURNACES.  In  Heaps,  ores  rich  in  sulphides  of  zinc,  copper,  and  iron  are 
thoroughly  intermixed  with  galena,  and  graded  according  to  the  dimensions 
of  the  blocks,  the  largest  below  and  the  smallest  at  top,  in  a  fabric  erected 
to  a  height  of  several  feet  upon  a  thick  substratum  of  wood.  The  whole  i? 
,covered  with  a  layer  of  granulated  roasted  ore,  to  exclude  an  excess  of  air, 
The  wood  being  kindled,  ignites  the  sulphides  throughout  the  ore,  which  in  a 
iieap  containing  about  150  tons,  will  keep  smouldering  away  for  from  4  to  6 
j  tionths.  This  constitutes  the  first  roasting,  which  is  to  be  followed  by  a 
series  of  roastiugs,  to  continue  until  the  volatile  components  of  the  ore  are 
'©spelled. 

In  the  Reverberatory  Furnace  the  ore  is  first  roasted  in  the  usual  manner 
to  the  proper  degree  of  oxidation.  The  furnace  door  is  then  closed,  tiro- 
heat  raised,  and  the  charge  fused.  The  silicates  of  lead,  lime,  &c.,  are 
generated,  and  with  the  sulphate,  oxide,  and  sulphide  of  lead  are  spread 
upon  the  floor  of  the  furnace,  cooled  off,  and  broken  into  lumps  about  the> 
size  of  oranges,  the  dimensions  best  adapted  for  treatment  in  a  cupola 
furnace. 

In  charging  the  cupola  the  right  proportions  are  :  roasted  ore,  140  parts  j 


BAKREL   AMALGAMATION",   *TC<  971 

blffkly  silicioug  slags,  40  parts  ;  litharge,  1  to  2  parts.  The  ore,  intermixed 
with  the  slags,  and  pieces  of  old  cupels,  should  be  reduced  to  the  size  of 
ordinary  potatoes,  and  well  mixed.  Apply  a  vigorous  blast,  fuse  and  treat 
the  slags,  matt,  and  lead  as  noted  under  the  preceding  process. 

CUPOLA  TREATMENT  OF  SILVER  ORES. — Mexican  Process.  The  ore, 
uncontaminated  with  lead,  and  largely  composed  of  sulphide  of  iron  and 
quartz,  sulphide  of  silver,  &c.,  is  well  nixed  with  half  its  weight  of  charcoal 
and  roasted  in  kiln-like  enclosures  exposed  to  the  atmosphere.  Sometimes 
dry  wood  is  substituted  for  charcoal,  and  the  roasting  is  accomplished  in 
circular  structures  ivith  an  interior  diam.  of  4^  ft.  ;  height  the  same,  built  of 
adobe,  or  sun-dried  brick,  with  a  capacity  (including  fuel)  of  1  ton  of  oral 
each.  The  roasted  ore  (from  these  kilns),  with  the  proper  fluxes,  being 
thoroughly  mixed,  the  cupola  is  charged  in  the  following  ratio  ;  charcoal, 
50  to  75  parts  ;  roasted  ore,  as  above  described,  75  parts  ;  litharge,  100 
parts  ;  matt  of  former  operations,  25  parts  ;  lead  slags,  16  parts  ;  cupel 
bottoms,  16  parts  ;  native  carbonate  of  soda,  1G  parts.  The  blast  being  ap- 
plied, fusion  takes  place,  and  the  metal  drawn  off  at  stated  periods  is  cast 
into  ingots  ready  for  cupellation,  while  the  jnatt  secured  is  finally  returned 
to  the  furnace  to  aid  in  the  fusion  of  future  charges  of  ore. 

AMALGAMATION  BY  THE  FOSTER-FJKMIN  PROCESS. — In  this  process  the 
quicksilver  is  atomized  by  steam,  compressed  air,  water,  or  other  equivalent 
medium,  and  forced,  after  the  manner  of  the  well-known  Band  blast,  through 
*  stream  of  falling  ore  which  may  be  either  wet  or  dry.  While  in  the  act 
of  entering  the  amalgamator  the  "ore  is  impinged  upon  by  a  stream  of  mer- 
cury which  escapes  from  a  small  receptacle  at  the  rear  of  the  hopper  (con- 
taining the  ore)  through  an  inner  pipe.  The  flow  of  ore  and  mercury  is 
broken  up  and  carried  forward  by  steam  or  air  pressure.  The  ore  which 
flows  into  the  amalgamator  is  discharged  into  the  washer,  where  it  is  heated 
by  steam  and  worked  for  a  short  time  until  it  is  mulclred  sufficiently  to 
flow  evenly.  Water  is  then  injected  into  the  chamber  at  the  bottom  of  the 
washer,  when  the  bulk  of  the  mercury  is  withdrawn  and  the  waste  flows 
into  the  first  settler  of  the  series,  and  the  water  passes  on  until  it  finally 
escapes  from,  the  lower  gettler.  The  mercury  is  deposited  in  the  central 
conical  space  in  the  vessels,  from  which  it  is  removed  occasionally  through 
the  discharge  cocks.  One  of  the  settlers  is  provided  with  amalgamated 
copper  plates,  which  are  vibrated  by  the  action  of  the  water,  thus  effecting 
the  arrest  of  the  fine  particles  of  gold  or  mercury  carried  in  the  water  as  it 
passes  between  them,  while  any  gold  leaf  which' may  float  oil  the  surface  ii 
retained  by  partition. 

The  inventors  claim  that  with  their  apparatus  they  have  obtained  the 
entire  quantity  of  metal  contained  in  the  ore  and  have  recovered  from  £ 8  to 
100  per  cent,  of  the  mercury  used,  the  whole  operation  from  the  commence- 
ment to  the  production  of  tho  amalgam  being  completed  within  one  hour,  at 
a  very  low  cost,  thug  rendering  the  working  of  poor  ores  profitable.  Duriii^ 
a  recent  public  trial  of  this  apparatus,  silver  ore  was  passed  through  a  singl  '• 
amalgamator  at  the  rate  of  SOOO  Ibs.  per  hour  ;  99  per  cent,  of  silver  and  9T  *» 
per  cent  of  the  mercury  were  recovered  within  an  hour.  During  anotht* 
similar  trial  ore  was  passed  through  at  the  rate  of  3, GOO  Ibs.  per  hour,  £7.<l  8 
per  cent,  of  mercury  and  silver  together  were  recovered  in  45  minutes,  and 
within  half  an  hour  (1|  hour  from  the  start)  97  per  cent,  of  the  silver  wns 
crnciblcd  ;  subsequently  an  additional  quantity  of  amalgam  was  collected 
and  treated,  bringing  up  the  result  to  fully  99  per  cent,  of  silver  and  99^  per 
cent,  of  mercury  recovered. 

BARREL  AMALGAMATION  OP  SILVER  ORE.— The  following  account  of  the 
treatment  of  silver  ores  by  barrel  amalgamation,  at  Halsbruecke,  near  Frei- 
berg, is  from  Phillip's  Metallurgy,  and  closely  resembles  similar  methods 
now  used  in  Nevada  : — The  usual  components  of  the  ores  there  treated  ara 
gulphur,  antimony,  arsenic,  silver,  copper,  lead,  iron,  and  zinc,  which  aro 
jaore  or  less  mixed  vrita  varjous  earthy  minerals,  besides  sometimes  con- 


9T2  BARREL   AMALGAMATION. 

taining  small  quantities  of  bismuth,  gold,  nickel,  and  cobalt.  In  the 
tion  of  these  ores,  they  are  so  assorted  as  not  to  contain  above  7  per  cent,  of 
lead,  or  1  per  cent,  of  copper,  as  from  combining  with  the  mercury  added 
these  metals  give  the  amalgam  a  pasty  consistency,  and  thereby  render  the 
treatment  extremely  difficult  and  expensive.  The  mixture  of  the  different 
ores  obtained  from  the  mines  is  so  arranged  that  the  charges  of  the  furnaces 
shall  contain  75  to  80  ounces  of  silver  to  the  ton  of  mineral;  it  is  also  essential 
that  they  should  contain  a  certain  proportion  of  sulphur.  This  usually  ex- 
ists in  the  form  of  iron  pyrites,  which,  on  being  roasted,  gives  rise  to  the  for- 
mation of  the  sulphate  and  oxide  of  iron  necessary  to  the  success  of  the  sub- 
sequent operations.  If,  as  is  sometimes  the  case,  the  amount  of  pyrites 
naturally  occuring  in  tlie  ores  is  not  sufficient  for  these  purposes,  addition 
is  made  either  of  this  mineral,  or,  in  some  instances,  of  ready-formed  sul* 
phate  of  iron. 

The  ore,  when  thus  prepared,  is  laid  on  a  large  floor,  40  feet  in  length  and 
about  12  in  width,  and  on  the  top  of  it  is  thrown  about  10  per  cent,  of  com- 
mon salt,  which  is  let  drop  from  an  upper  room  through  a  spout  placed  in  the 
floor  for  that  purpose.  The  heap,  when  it  has  been  thus  made  up  of  alter- 
nate strata  of  ore  and  common  salt,  is  well  mixed  by  being  carefully  turned* 
over,  and  is  subsequently  divided  into  small  parcels  called  roast-posts,  each 
weighing  from  3£  to  4J  cwts.  The  salt  annually  employed  for  this  purpose 
at  the  Halsbruecke  works  amounts  to  300  tons,  and  is  supplied  by  the  Prus- 
sian salt-mines. 

The  mixture  of  ore  and  salt  is  now  roasted  in  reverberatory  furnaces  pro- 
Tided  with  fume-flues  for  the  reception  of  any  pulverulent  matters  which 
may  be  mechanically  taken  over  by  the  draught.  The  prepared  charge  is 
spread  on  the  bottom  of  the  hearth,  where  it  is  at  first  very  gently  heated, 
for  the  purpose  of  expelling  the  moisture,  which  to  a  greater  or  less  extent 
it  variably  contains.  During  the  process  of  drying,  which  usually  occupies 
two  hours,  the  charge  is  kept  constantly  stirred  by  a  log  iron  rake,  and 
when  this  operation  is  considered  sufficiently  advanced,  the  heat  is  so  far  in- 
creased as  to  cause  the  ignition  of  the  sulphur,  and  to  render  the  ore  red-hot. 
The  furnace  is  kept  at  this  temperature  for  about  four  hours,  during 
•which  time  the  metals  become  oxidized,  and  sulphurous  acid  gas  is  rapidly 
^iven  off,  whilst  the  ore  is  by  constant  stirring  prevented  from  becoming 
agglutinated  in  masses.  The  temperature  is  now  still  further  raised,  and 
sulphurous  acid  is  again  given  off,  together  with  vapors  of  chloride  01  iron 
and  hydrochloric  acid.  The  hydrochloric  acid  generated  at  this  stage  of 
the  operation  is  due  to  decomposition  of  the  chloride  of  iron,  by  the  action 
of  oxygen  and  watery  vapor.  This  last  firing,  which  occupies  about  three- 
quarters  of  an  hour,  is  continued  with  constant  stirring  until  a  sample  taken 
irom  the  furnace  ceases  to  evolve  any  odor  of  sulphurous  acid,  and  has  for 
its  object  the  decomposition  of  the  sea-salt  by  the  metallic  sulphates  pro- 
duced. During  this  process  the  ore  increases  considerably  in  volume,  and 
assumes  a  deep  brown  color.  When  the  roasting  is  terminated  the  charge 
is  raked  from  the  furnace  to  the  floor  of  the  establishment,  from  whence, 
after  having  been  allowed  to  cool,  it  is  removed  for  the  purpose  of  being: 
passed  through  a  set  of  fine  sieves,  by  which  the  finer  powder  is  separated 
irom  the  agglutinated  lumps.  These  are  broken  down  to  a  proper  size,  and 
after  being  mixed  with  a  fresh  quantity  of  sea-salt  are  again  roasted  in  the 
nsual  way.  The  finer  particles  are,  on  the  contrary,  taken  to  a  pair  of  heavy 
mill-stones,  where  they  are  reduced  to  the  state  of  an  impalpable  powder, 
At  the  Halsbruecke  works  there  are  14  roasting-f  urnaces,  and  as  many  pair 
of  granite  m»[-stones,  which,  together,  are  capable  of  preparing  and  grinding 
about  70  tons  of  ore  per  week.  The  ore,  after  passing  through  the  mill, 
which  makes  from  one  100  to  120  revolutions  per  minute,  is  sifted  through 
a  dressing  apparatus,  which  renders  it  as  impalpable  as  the  finest  flour. 

The  amalgamation  of  this  prepared  ore  is  performed  in  20  wooden  casks, 
arranged  in  four  rows,  and  each  turning  on  cast-iron  axles,  secured  to  tht 


BARBEL   AMALGAMATION.  97$ 

snds  by  means  of  bolts.  These  barrels,  which  are  2  ft.  10  ins.  in  length, 
and  2  ft.  8  ins.  in  internal  diameter,  are  made  of  oak  staves  3£  ins.  in  thick- 
ness, and  are  further  strengthened  by  iron  hoops  and  binders.  On  one  oi 
the  ends  of  each  tun  is  placed  a  toothed  wheel,  which  works  into  another 
toothed  wheel,  mounted  on  an  axle,  which  receives  its  motion  directly  from 
*,  abater-wheel.  Above  each  of  the  tuns  so  arranged  is  placed  a  wooaen 
case,  into  which  is  thrown  the  prepared  mineral,  and  which  is  furnishsd 
with  a  leathern  hose,  for  the  purpose  of  introducing  the  powdered  ore  into 
the  different  barrels.  With  this  view,  each  cask  is  furnish ed  with  a  circular, 
opening,  and  an  iron  or  wooden  pin,  which  is  employed  for  running  off,  <j* 
the  termination  of  the  process,  the  argentiferous  amalgam. 


Fig.  35.— BARREL  AMALGAMATION. 

The  basins,  situated  immediately  above  each  tun,  are  of  such  a  size  aa 
to  exactly  contain  the  amount  of  water  necessary  for  one  charge.  Below 
the  tuns,  and  a  little  above  the  surface  of  the  ground,  are  placed  triangular 
troughs,  destined  to  receive  the  various  elaborated  products  at  the  termina- 
tion of  the  operation.  At  the  commencement  of  the  operation,  3  cwts.  of 
water  are  run  into  each  barrel  from  the  reservoir,  after  which  10  cwts.  of 
the  finely-ground  and  sifted  ore  are  introduced  through  the  hose.  To  this 
are  added  from  78  to  100  Ibs.  of  wrought-iron,  cut  into  fragments  of  about 
an  inch  square,  and  three-eighths  of  an  inch  in  thickness,  and  which,  in 
proportion  as  they  become  dissolved  by  the  action  of  the  substances  by 
which  they  are  associated,  are  replaced  by  fresh  pieces.  The  casks  sire  uovr 
lightly  closed  by  screw-stoppers,  and  as  soon  as  they  have  all  been  charged, 
ithe  apparatus  is  thrown  into  gear  by  the  means  of  a  screw,  and  the  sliding 
block,  which  cause  the  tuns  to  rotate  with  a  rapidity  of  from  18  to  20  turns- 
per  minute.  At  the  expiration  of  two  hours  the  machinery  is  again  stopped, 
and  the  tuns  are  opened  for  the  purpose  of  examining  the  state  of  th* 
fcietalliferous  paste  which  they  contain.  If  the  charge  is  too  firm,  a  little 
added  ;  but  if,  on  the  contrary,  it  is  found  to  be  too  liquid,  a  small 


974  BARBEL   AMALGAMATION. 

quantity  of  powdered  ore  is  thrown  in.  When  this  has  been  attended  to.  9 
cwts.  of  mercury  are  poured  into  each  cask,  and  the  tuns,  after  being  se- 
curely closed,  are  again  thrown  into  gear,  and  kept  constantly  revolving  for 
1(5  or  18  hours,  at  the  rate  of  from  20  to  25  turns  per  minute.  During  this 
time  they  are,  however,  twice  examined,  for  the  purpose  of  seeing  whether 
the  paste  which  they  contain  be  of  the  proper  consistence  ;  for  if  it  be  too 
thick,  the  particles  of  mercury  are  not  sufficiently  brought  into  contact  with 
the  silver  contained  in  the  ore,  and  if  too  much  water  has  been  added,  they 
remain  at  the  bottom  of  the  cask,  and  are  not  sufficiently  mixed  with  tht 
dUerent  constituents  of  the  charge.  In  the  first  case  it  is  necessary  to  add 
a  small  quantity  of  water,  and,  in  the  .second,  a  little  powdered  ore.  After 
iho  introduction  of  the  mercury,  the  temperature  of  the  casks  becomes  con- 
siderably raised  by  the  chemical  changes  constantly  going  on  within,  go  that, 
even  in  winter,  it  sometimes  stands  as  high  as  104°  Fuhr. 

At  the  expiration  of  20  hours  the  amalgamation  of  the  silver  is  ordinarily 
complete,  and  the  tuns  are  now  entirely  filled  with  water,  and  again  nif'de 
to  turn  2  hours,  with  a  velocity  of  only  8  revolutions  per  minute.  The  amal- 
.  gam  13  by  tins  means  separated  from  the  slimy  matters  with  which  it  was 
mixed,  and  collects  in  one  mass  at  the  bottom  of  the  tuns.  When  this  ag- 
gregation of  the  amaljam  has  been  accomplished,  the  different  casks  are 
successively  thrown  out  of  gear,  and  are  stopped  with  their  apertures  im- 
mediately over  the  spouts.  A  small  peg  in  the  bung  is  now  removed,  and 
the  liquid  amalgam  Hows  out  and  is  received  in  the  triangular  spout  ;  the 
workman  closely  watches  this  period  of  the  operation,  and  the  moment  any 
of  the  earthy  matters  begin  to  flow  from  the  orifice,  it  is  again  tightly  closed. 
The  mercury  is  now  run  off  through  the  iron  tube,  into  the  gutter,  by  which 
it  is  conducted  into  a  receiver  prepared  for  that  purpose. 


Fig.  36.— BARREL  AMALGAMATION. 

The  casks  are  now  turned  with  their  apertures  upward,  and  as  soon  as 
{lie  bungs  have  been  removed,  they  are  again  brought  back  to  their  former 
position,  And  the  muddy  residuum"  is  discharged  into  a  spout  from  which  it 
flows  into  large  reservoirs  situated  at  a  lower  level.  This  residuary  ore  is 
found  to  be  stripped  of  its  silver  to  within  about  5^  ozs.  to  the  ton,  and  is 
therefore  often  subjected  to  nnotVer  amalgamation.  The  emptying  and  dis- 
charging of  the  casks  occupies  about  two  hours,  and  the  whole  process'  is 
therefore  finished!  in  less  than  24  hours.  In  14  days  1(50  tons  of  mineral  are 
treated  in  this  establishment,  every  5  tons  of  which  require  an  expenditure 
of  15  Ibs.  of  metallic  iron,  and  2  Ibs.  12f  ozs.  of  mercury:  so  that  every 
pound  of  metallic  silver  produced  is  obtained  at  an  expense  of  0.95  of  an 
ounce  of  mercury. 

During  the  first  2  hours  that  the  casks  are  set  in  action,  and  before  the  in- 
troduction of  the  mercury  the  sesquichloride  of  iron  contained  in  the  ore  if 


BAKREL    AMALGAMATION,    ETC.  975 

«lecomposed  by  the  metallic  iron  present,  and  converted  into  protochloride. 
If,  instead  of  operating  in  the  way  described,  the  mercury  were  immediately 
Introduced  into  the  casks,  it  would,  by  reacting  on  the.  prochloride  of  iron, 
become  partially  converted  into  calomel,  which,  not  becoming  again  reduced 
during  the  subsequent  stages  of  the  operation,  would  be  productive  of  a 
considerable  loss  of  this  valuable  metal.  This  inconvenience  is,  however, 
completely  avoided  by  the  action  of  the  metallic  iron,  as  the  protochloride 
thus  formed  is  entirely  without  action  on  metallic  mercury.  The  chloride 
of  silver  contained  in  the  roasted  ore  is  held  in  solution  witli  the  chloride 
of  sodium,  and,  becoming  reduced  to  the  metallic  state  by  the  constant 
agitation  with  the  metallic  iron,  combines  with  the  mercury  to  form  a  liquid 
amalgam.  The  chlorides  of  lead  and  copper  are  decomposed  «t  the  same 
time  as  the  chlorides  of  silver,  and  enter  into  the  composition  of  the  amal- 
gam produced. 

When  the  residual  earthy  matters  are  drawn  off  from  the  casks,  th« 
pieces  of  metallic  iron  are  retained  by  means  of  a  grating,  whilst  the  slimes, 
after  being  run  into  proper  receivers,  are  conducted  into  pug-tubs,  where 
they  are  constantly  kept  stirred  with  a  large  quantity  of  water. 

These  tubs  are  furnished  with  openings"  at  various"  distances  from  the  bot- 
tom, by  which  the  muddy  water  is  successively  drawn  off,  whilst  a  certain 
quantity  of  amalgam  is  found  collected  at  the  bottom  of  the  vessel.  This  is 
collected  at  the  close  of  the  operation,  and  added  to  that  obtained  by  tapping 
directly  from  the  amalgamation  tubs,  as  before  described. 

The  mercury  and  amalgam  obtained  from  the  casks  is  afterward  filtered 
through  close  canvas  bags  by  which  the  liquid  quicksilver  is  separated  from 
the  pasty  amalgam,  which  is  retained  by  the  closeness  of  the  web,  whilst  the 
mercury  passes  through  into  reservoirs  prepared  for  that  purpose.  The  pasty 
amalgam  which  is  retained  in  the  bags  consists  of  a  mixture  of  six  parts  of 
mercurj"  and  one  part  of  an  alloy  composed  of  about  80  per  cent,  of  silver, 
and  20  of  a  mixture  of  copper,  lead,  bismuth,  antimony,  gold,  nickel,  zinc, 
and  some  other  metals.  This  mixture  is  subsequently  heated  in  a  distilla- 
tory furnace,  and  is  thus  freed  from  the  adhering  mercury,  whilst  the  non- 
volatile constituents  of  the  alloy  are  obtained  in  the  solid  form. 

Mr.  Kpstel  remarks  :  "  The  amalgamation  in  barrels  is  not  adapted  to 
ore  containing  gold.  Unroasted  ore  has  been  tried  with  chemicals  unsuo 
cessfully.  The  construction  of  the  barrels  does  not  differ  much  in  the  differ- 
ent works  of  Nevada  Territory.  They  have  a  cylindrical  shape,  the  diameter 
find  depth  being  nearly  equal.  The  staves  are  3  or  4  inches  thick.  There 
are  two  sizes  in  use.  The  smallest,  capable  of  receiving  from  1000  to  1£OQ 
pounds  of  ore,  are  32  inches  each  way  ;  the  larger,  receiving  a  ton  of  ore, 
measure  from  44  to  4S  inches  in  the  clear. 

AVER'S  PROCESS  OP  TREATING  SILVER  ORES. — By  this  process  the  ore, 
as  received  from  the  mine,  is  subjected  to  the  action  of  intense  heat  in  a  fur. 
nace,  and  afterwards  thrown,  while  still  hot,  into  alkali  water  or  brine,  which 
has  the  effect  of  crumbling  it  into  small  pieces  ;  the  fragments  are  subjected 
to  p/lditioual  reducing  processes,  and  afterwards  amalgamated. 

Fig.  37  represents  Kent.' s  method  of  arranging  barrels  for  amalgamating. 
The  amalgamation  is  effected  by  the  rotary  motion  of  the  barrels,  aftei 
which  the  mass  is  discharged  through  large  spouts  into  the  agitator  below, 
where  the  amalgam  accumulates  at  the  bottom.  The  following  is  Mr.  Keiit'a 
account  of  his  improved  process  of  treating  gold  and  silver  ores. 

"  By  this  '  improved  mode  of  preparing  ores,'  the  ore  is  not  only  desul- 

Ehurized  in  the  best  and  cheapest  manner,  but  the  base  metals  are  converted 
ito  soluble  chlorides,  which  are  not  readily  decomposed  by  heat,  and  may 
b3  subsequently  removed  by  washing  the  prepared  ore.  or  by  the  water  used 
in  t'.ie  process  of  amalgamation,  and  the  gold  is  thus  left  free  and  bright,  and 
in  tlio  best  possible  condition  for  combining  with  the  mercury  used  in  that 
process. 

"  To  effect  this  object,,  the  crushed  ores  or  tailing!  are  simply  mixed  witfc 


176 


KENT'S  AMALGAMATING  PBOCESS. 


*  solution  of  common  salt,  and  made  into  cakes,  lumps,  or  bricks. 
are  then  calcined  in  a  common  kiln,  such  as  is  used  for  burning  lime  of 
bricks.  In  this  process,  the  sulphur  in  the  ore  is  oxidized  by  the  oxygen  of 
the  atmosphere,  and  the  sulphuric  acid  thus  produced  immediately  combine^ 
•with  the  soda  in  the  salt,  forming  sulphate  of  soda,  and  liberating  the  muri- 
atic acid,  which  in  its  turn  attacks  the  base  metals,  forming  chlorides  of 
copper,  zinc,  antimony,  etc.,  together  with  chloride  of  silver,  and  tearing 
metallic  gold.  All  the  acid  used  in  the  process  is  prepared  in  the  process  it- 
self, and  the  chemical  changes  are  produced  in  the  nascent  state,  which  is 
the  most  favorable  condition  for  effecting  them,  and  the  sulphur  being  thua 
combined  with  the  soda,  a  smaller  proportion  escapes  into  the  atmosphere 
than  when  ores  are  simply  roasted  alone. 


Fig.  37.— KENT'S  AMALGAMATING  BARBELS. 

"  By  the  application  of  the  salt  in  solution,  one  bushel  will  make  «uffl« 
',  eicnt  for  a  ton  of  ore  ;  and  by  making  the  ore  into  bricks,  which  may  be  done 
witn  one  machine,  at  the  rate  of  25  tons  per  day,  the  use  of  expensive  rever- 
"beratory  furnaces,  as  used  at  Freiberg,  is  avoided,  and  25  tons  of  gold  or 
silver  ore,  in  a  common  lime-kiln,  or  1200  tons  in  a  brick-kiln  composed  of 
the  caked  ore  in  the  form  of  bricks,  may  be  calcined  at  one  operation,  in  the 
cheapest  and  best  manner,  without  any  furnace  at  all,  by  the  passage  of  a 
current  of  hot  air  through  the  interstices  of  the  brick  so  formed. 

"  After  the  chemical  decomposition  of  the  ore  is  thus  effected,  it  becomes 
so  soft  that  it  may  be  ground  with  common  burr-mills,  at  the  rate  of  4<J 
bushels  per  hour,  for  amalgamation  in  barrels,  or  it  may  be  ground  and 
amalgamated  at  tho  same  time,  by  the  use  of  the  Washoe  pans.  When  two 
different  kinds  of  ore  are  mixed  together,  in  suitable  proportions,  before 
caking,  which  is  sometimes  of  very  great  advantage,  and  the  calcination  and 
amalgamation  are  done  in  the  best  manner,  about  five  times  as  much  gold 
or  silver  as  from  crude  or«,  or  from  seventy-five  per  cent,  to  the  full  assay 
Value,  may  be  obtained." 

EXTRACTION  OF  SILVER  BY  HOT  PROCESS  LN  COPPER  KETTLES.  -Thisi 


FIXTURES   OF   ORES,   ETC.  97T 

process  i*  mainly  used  in  South  America,  on  ores  rich  in  native  silver,  or  i» 
the  chloride,  iodide,  or  bromide  of  silver,  which  are  first  finely  pulverized 
and  concentrated  by  washing,  and  then  placed  in  kettles  fitted  with  copper 
bottoms  where  they  are  boiled  with  a  considerable  volume  of  water.  From 
10  to  15  per  cent,  of  salt  is  then  introduced  into  the  boiling  mass  and  thor- 
oaglily  stirred.  Next,  quicksilver,  of  less  weight  than  that  of  the  silver 
present,  is  added  to  the  pulp,  with  continued  stirring,  adding  more  quick- 1< 
silver  whenever  a  test  discloses  the  slightest  dryness  in  the  amalgam. 
Lastly,  the  amalgam  and  gangues  are  separated  by' washing  ;  the  amalgam 
is  squeezed,  retorted  and  refined,  while  the  gaugues,  if  desired,  may  be  sub- 
,  mitted  to  the  Patio  process. 

In  theParke  Process,  lead  containing  silver  is  fused  in  massive  cast-iron, 
pots,  and  melted  zinc  is  added  and  well  intermixed.  The  fire  is  then  with- 
drawn from  under  the  pot,  and  the  mixture  is  allowed  to  rest  for  a  brief 
period,  while  the  silver  and  zinc,  separating  from  the  lead,  rise  to  the  sur- 
face of  the  molten  metal,  and  are  skimmed  off  as  long  as  the  allov  con- 
tinues to  rise.  Next,  the  scum  alloy  combined  with  some  lead  is  heatecPta 
a  liquation  retort  ;  the  silver  and  lead  fuse,  and  are  then  in  large  proportion 
conducted  into  prepared  moulds.  The  alloy  thus  obtained  is  afterwards 
cupelled,  and  the  alloy  of  zinc  and  silver  remaining  in  the  retort  is  sub- 
mitted to  distillation  in  order  to  effect  a  partial  separation,  while  the  silver 
thus  obtained  is  deprived  of  its  impurities  by  cupellation.  The  proportions 
used  in  charging  the  pot  are :  argentiferous  lead,  6  to  7  tons  ;  quantity  of 
silver  to  the  ton  of  lead,  10  to  15  czs.  ;  estimated  quantity  of  zinc  to  each"  oz. 
of  silver,  1.5  to  2  Ibs.  The  alloy  should  be  stirred  from  10  to  15  hours  after 
the  addition  of  the  zinc,  and  the  proportion  of  silver  (to  the  ton  of  alloy } 
when  ready  for  cupellation  should  be  1000  ozs. 

The  Liquation  Process  is  based  on  the  principle  that  an  alloy  of  lead  and' 
copper,  melted  together,  separate  if  slowly  cooled,  but  cohere  in  intimate 
union  if  quickly  cooled.  A  compound  of  copper  and  lead,  if  slowty  heatoft 
to  near  the  melting  point,  will  also  separate,  and  the  silver,  »f  any  be  pres- 
ent, will  go  with  the  lead.  In  practice,  an  alloy  of  copper  and  silver,  or 
copper  matt  (as  it  comes  from  the  smelting  furnace)  containing  silver,  i» 
melted  witn  about  four  times  its  weight  of  lead  in  a  cupola,  and  cast  in  • 
annular  plates,  which  are  rapidly  cooled  These  circular  plates  are  termed 
liquation  cakes,  and  are  arranged  in  a  liquation  furnace,  en  their  edges, 
with  alternate  layers  of  charcoal.  The  latter  being  lighted,  the  heat 
is  raised  to  a  degree  slightly  less  than  the  melting  point  of  copper,  when  the 
silver  and  lead  fusing,  are  conducted  to  a  receiver,  while  the  copper,  in  a 
honey-combed  condition,  remains  in  the  original  form.  If  the  separation 
proves  defective  the  cakes  may  be  submitted  to  the  further  treatment  of  a 
higher  degree  of  heat  in  the  sweating  furnace.  The  separation  of  tl.  e  silver 
from  the  lead  is  finally  effected  by  cupellation. 

The  following  mixtures  of  ores  and  fluxes  are  noted  in  Mr.  KustePs  excel- 
lent work,  as  possessing  reliable  proportions  for  smelting  purposes. 

No.  1.  MIXTURE  FOR  ORES  WITHOUT  ROASTING,  AND  BEFORE  LITHABGB 
is  OBTAINED  FROM  THE  MANIPULATION. — Silver  ore,  100  Ibs. ;  Granulated 
lead  (or  200  Ibs.  lead  ore),  85  Ibs. ;  Soda  ash,  25  Ibs.  ;  Iron,  25  Ibs.  ;  Lime 
(and  25  Ibs.  slag,  when  obtained),  3  Ibs. 

No.  2.    MIXTURE  FOR  ROASTING  ORE. — Silver  ore,  100  Ibs.  ;  Granulated 
1  lead  85  Ibs.  ;  Soda  ash,  20  Ibs.  ;  Iron,  8  Ibs.  ;  Lime,  3  Ibs. 

No.  3.  MIXTURE  OF  SILVER  ORE  AFTER  PRODUCTS  OF  SMELTING  ABB 
AT  HAND.— Silver  ore,  100  Ibs.  ;  Granulated  lead,  25  Ibs.  :  Litharge,  75  Ibs.  -, 
Hearth,  10  Ibs.  ;  Soda  ash,  15  Ibs.  ;  Charcoal,  5  Ibs.  ;  Iron,  8  Ibs.  ;  Lime,  9 
Ibs  :  Slag,  25  Ibs. 

When  the  melting  is  executed  with  an  addition  of  lead  ore,  Nos.  2  and 
3  do  riot  require  granulated  lead,  but  it  is  always  very  useful  to  add  suffi- 
cient litharge.  The  quantity  of  flux  required  depends  much  on  the  quality 
of  the  ore.  If  the  slag  is  too  thin  it  is  not  necessary  to  use  so  rr,ueh  sod*. 


978  TREATMENT    OP    SILVER    ORES,    ETC. 

ash.  The  mixture  is  introduced  with  a  shovel  when  the  furnace  is  at  9 
white  heat,  aud  spread  about  5  or  6  ins.  deep,  to  about  half  the  length  of  the 
flux,  between  the  door  aud  the  crucible.  The  door  is  closed,  and  the  firing 
continued  so  that  the  flame  readies  the  end  of  the  flux.  The  ore  will  soon 
begin  to  melt  and  run  into  the  crucible,  when  a  new  charge  must  be  intro- 
duced as  soon  as  the  melting  ore  makes  room  for  it.  Stir  the  charge 
thoroughly  with  a  long  iron  bar,  and  continue  the  process  until  the  crut-iblo 
is  filled.  'Use  the  furnace  illustrated  on  page  983. 

TREATMENT  OF  SILVER  ORES  BY  SoLViiox.—Aiic/iistm's  Process.  The 
principle  on  which  this  process  is  based  is  the  solubility  of  chloride  of  silver 
in  a  hot  concentrated  solution  of  common  salt.  The  ores,  which  should  be 
free  from  zinc,  antimony  and  arsenic,  are  first  submitted  to  dry  crushing  by 
stamps,  and  further  pulverized  by  grinding  in  suitable  mills,  after  which 
they  are  roasted  in  a  reverberatory  furnace  at  a  low  temperature,  with  a 
free  admission  of  air.  A  thorough,  uniform  roasting,  at  a  dull  red  heat, 

¥ro motes  the  formation  of  various  sulphates  of  the  different  metals  present. 
'aid  object  being  attained  the  heat  is  increased  to  a  cherry  red,  by  which 
the  aforesaid  sulphates  (with  the  sole  exception  of  the  sulphate  of  silver)  are 
decomposed.  The  sulphate  of  silver  is  next  converted  into  chloride  of  silver 
by  adding  common  salt,  previously  melted,  ground,  and  intermixed  with 
cold  ore,  to  the  hot  ore  in  the  furnace,  with  which  it  is  thoroughly  incor- 
porated by  vigorous  stirring 

The  apparatus  for  the  hurried  portion  of  the  process  consists  of  the  fol- 
lowing, arranged  in  the  order  of  mention,  viz.  :  1  spacious  heating  reser- 
voir, a  set  of  dissolving  tubs,  2  large  settling  cisterns,  4  precipitating  tubs  to 
each  dissolving  tub,  and  2  roomy  receptacles,  all  arranged  on  descending 
steps.  The  aforesaid  tubs  are  nearly  circular  in  form,  and  are  arranged 
with  filters  composed  of  straw  and  broken  sticks,  covered  with  cloth.  Each 
tub  is  divided  into  two  unequal  divisions  by  means  of  a  vertical  partition 
placed  on  the  filter. 

The  chloridized  ore  being  placed  into  the  largest  divisions  of  the  dissolv- 
ing tubs,  a  hot  salt  solution,  sufficient  in  quantity  to  completely  saturate  the 
ore,  is  conducted  into  the  tubs  from  the  heating  reservoir  aforesaid,  and 
allowed  to  remain  one  hour.  The  outlet  cocks  of  the  heating  reservoir  aud 
tabs  aro  now  opened,  and  the  hot  salt  solution  is  permitted  to  filter  through 
the  ore  in  the  tubs,  and  pass  off  through  the  smaller  compartments  through 
apertures  at  first  above  the  level  of  the  ore,  and  afterwards  through 
orifices  near  the  base  of  the  tubs,  into  the  large  settling  cisterns  above 
noted.  The  current  is  shut  off  vrhcn  it  is  ascertained  by  a  piece  of  clear 
copper  that  no  trace  of  silver  exists  in  the  filtrate. 

The  next  step  is  to  place  copper  (copper  cement)  in  each  of  the  upper  two 
precipitating  tubs  in  the  different  classes  of  four,  and  wrought  scrap  iron  in 
each  of  the  corresponding  lower  two,  and  conduct  the  chloride  solution 
slowly  from  the  settling  cisterns  by  filtering  it  through  the  various  precipi- 
tating tubs  into  the  large  receptacles  beloAV.  The  chemical  effect  is  to  pre- 
eipitata  the  silver  by  means  of  the  copper  in  the  upper  tubs,  and  the  copper 
in' solution,  if  it  be  present  in  the  ore  at  first,  is  precipitated  by  the  iron  in 
the  lower  tubs.  The  silver  is  removed  every  three  days  from  the  precipitat- 
ing tubs  aud  refined,  while  the  filtrate  in  the  large  receptacles  is  pumped 
into  tho  heating  reservoir  for  future  operations. 

The  ore,  previous  to  roasting,  should  contain  at  least  20  per  cent,  of 
sulphur,  and  tho  proportions  of  the  charge  to  the  furnace,  should  be,  of  ore 
for  roasting  and  calcining,  500  Ibs. ;  melted  salt,  pulverized,  35  Ibs.  ;  roasted 
ore,  cold,  and  mixed  with  the  salt,  220  Ibs.  ;  time  of  roasting  on  upper  hearth 
of  furnace,  4  to  4i  hours;  calcining  on  lower  hearth.  4  to  4^  hours  ;  time 
occupied  in  chloridizing,  from  15  to  20  minutes  ;  heat  of  salt  solution,  131° 
Fahr.  The  depth  of  copper  in  the  precipitating  tubs  should  be  about  (5  ins.,  . 
of  iron  in  do.  (provided  the  ore  contains  copper  in  quantity  worth  saving),  6 
ins.  The  time  for  dissolving  and  precipitating  will  occupy  20  to  24  hours  »- 
golutiou  of  salt  run  through  each  tub  to  1000  Ibs.  of  ore,  200  to  250  cubic  feet 


TREATMENT    OF    STIVER    ORES,    ETC.  979 

TREATMENT  OF  SILVER  ORES  BY  SULPHURIC  Aciv.—Freibery  Proeess. 
The  argentiferous  copper  matt,  as  it  comes  from  the  furnace,  is  thoroughly 
pulverized,  roasted  and  cbloridlzed  as  in  the  last  described  process,  ia  tubs, 
and  submitted  to  the  action  of  hot  sulphuric  acid.  By  this  means  The  cop- 
per and  iron  (if  any  is  present)  are  dissolved,  while  the  silver  remains 
intact.  Tho  copper  solution  is  conducted  into  vats,  and  crystallized  into 
sulphate  of  copper,  while  the-  intact  remainder,  containing  the  silver 
is  smelted  with  lead  and  cupelled. 

TREATMENT  OF  SILVER  ORES  BY  SOLUTION. — Ziervogel's  Process. 
The  ore,  of  the  class  described  under  Augustin's  process,  is  effectually  pul- 
verized, roasted  and  calcined  to  decompose  the  sulphates  of  iron  and  other 
inferior  metals,  the  sulphate  of  silver  only  remaining  unaffected.  The  te,-t 
of  complete-calcination  being  a  slight  blue  color  given  out  by  a  small  quantity 
of  the  roasted  ore  when  thrown  into  water.  The  process  is  predicated  on  the 
solubility  of  sulphate  of  silver  in  hot  water,  the  sulphatized  ore  being 
treated  in  every  way  as  the  chloridized  ore  in  Augustill  s  process,  with  the 
sole  exception *th at  pure  water,  at  a  temp,  of  149?  Fahr.,  is  used  instead  of 
the  hot  salt  solution. 

TREATMENT  o^  SILVER  ORES  BY  THE  RAMMELSBERG  PROCESS. — Argen- 
tiferous granulated  copper  ore  is  placed  in  tubs  exposed  to  the  atmosphere, 
-an!  submitted  to  the  action  of  hot  sulphuric  acid,  which  is  slowly  flowed 
over  it  in  a  small  stream,  converting  it  into  sulphate  of  copper.  The  solu- 
tion of  dissolved  copper  is  conducted  through  an  arrangement  of  troughs, 
in  which  it  is  deposited  in  the  shape  of  rough  crystals,  whils  the  liquid  por- 
tion is  returned  and  reheated,  to  be  again  poured  over  the  ore  in  the  tubs. 
The  next  r-tep  is  to  wash  the  rough  crystallized  salt  deposited  in  the  troughs, 
conduct  it  into  vats,  and  allow  it  to  recrystallize.  The  silver  present  in  the 
ore  will  be  found  in  the  dissolving  tubs,  and  is  finally  smelted  with  lead  and 
cupelled  for  its  silver. 

PATTINSON'S  PROCESS. — 1st.  This  process  is  founded  on  these  facts :  If  n 
melted  alloy  of  silver  and  lead  is  stirred  while  cooling  slowly,  crystals 
of  lead  form  and  sink,  which  may  be  removed  by  a  drainer.  A  large  por- 
tion of  the  lead  may  thus  be  separated  from  tlio  silver.  2nd.  Cast-fron 
pans,  capable  of  holding  about  5  tons  each,  provided  with  fire-places,  ;ire 
arranged  in  a  series,  as  A,  B,  C,  U,  E,  F,  G,  in  a  straight  iine.  3rd.  The 
metal  of  ores  containing  silver  and  lead  PS  it  comes  from  ordinary  smelting 
works,  is  melted,  for  instance,  in  pan  D,  and  then  allowed  to  cool  very 
<?!owly.  Tho  metal,  while  cooling,  is  stirred,  especially  near  the  edges  of 
the  pan  with  an  iron  bar.  As  soon  as  crystals  form  and  sink-  to  the  bot- 
tom they  arc  taken  out  with  an  iron  drainer,  raised  to  a  temperature  some- 
what higher  than  that  of  the  metal  bath.  From  one-half  to  two-thirds  of 
the  charge  is  thus  removed  to  pan  E,  and  the  balance  taken  to  pan  C. 
Other  charges  of  D  are  similarly  treated,  and  disposed  of  in  like  manner, 
except  that  the  crystals  of  E  go  to  F,  and  the  balance  to  D,  and  the  crystals 
of  C  go  to  D,  and  tho  balance  to  B.  Thus,  alter  successive  meltings  and 
draining,  the  alloys,  rich  in  silver,  pass  to  A,  while  the  lead,  almost  entire!;, 
deprived  of  silver,  goes  to  G.  Tho  alloys  obtained  in  pan  A  are  then  sub- 
i  octet!  t>  cupellation.  4th.  The  lead  of  an  alloy  treated  by  this  process 
often  contains  less  than  £l  in  silver  to  the  ton.  Tho  silver  of  the  enriched 
s.l:oy  :  hould  not  exceed  £(>CD  to  tho  ton.— Quartz  Operator's  Hand-Book: 

To  P"I::FY  MERCURY. — Quicksilver,  to  be  in  prime  condition  foramalgnn.- 
aiting  purposes,  should  be  free  from  inrrarites  and  foreign  substances,  as  zinc. 
bismuth,  load,  fee.,  which  impair  its  power  for  combining  with  the  precious 
metals.  To  effect  this  the  impure  quicksilver  should  be  distilled  in  a  common 
covered  retort,  or  if  this  is  not  available  a  retort  may  be  readily  improvised 
br  using  a  common  quicksilver  flask  and  an  iron  pipe  bent  in  the  shape  of  a 
syphonfthe  short  leg  of  the  pipe  being  inserted  in  the  flask  in  the  orifice  rt 
the  top  while  the  long  leg,  a  yard  or  more  in  length,  extends  downwards 
below  the  bend,  and  must^while  in  operation,  be  kept  cold  by  means  oi  wet 


380 


CUPELLATIOff  FURNACE. 


cloths  and  cold  water.  Fill  the  retort  two-thirds  full  with  the  iro 
silver,  apply  the  heat  first  of  all  to  the  short  leg  of  the  syphon  and  the  upper 
part  of  the  retort,  then  to  all  parts  of  the  flask  alike,  keeping  the  discharge 
end  of  the  syphon  in  cold  water,  within  the  receiver.  Keep  the  heat  regular 
and  do  not  hurry  the  distillation. 

Lastly,  treat  the  distilled  quicksilver,  in  thin  sheets,  by  frequent  agitation, 
with  2  parts  of  pure  water  and  1  part  nitric  acid,  maintaining  meanwhile  a 
temperature  of  120W  Fahr.  for  several  hours.  The  operations  may  bo  re- , 
peated  until  the  impurities  are  removed,  when  the  quicksilver  may  be  poured 
off  for  use.  i 

To  RESTORE  QUICKSILVER  WHEN  "FLOURED,"  OR  "SICKENED." — When! 
quicksilver  becomes  inoperative  through  being  "  floured,"  or  "sickened," 
or  in  a  state  of  minute  division,  or  in  the  scum  form,  the  trouble  may  be  rec- 
tified by  the  addition  of  1  part  of  sodium  to  2000  or  2500  parts  of  quicksilver 
by  weight.  With  a  very  slight  degree  of  heat  sodium  and  quicksilver  com- 
bine with  a  powerful  affinity  for  each  other,  forming  sodium  amalgam, 
which  possesses  an  energetic  chemical  attraction  for  the  precious  metals  anti 
Borne  other  substances.  Its  use  is  of  unquestionable  value  in  extracting  gold 
or  silver  from  sweepings,  in  the  treatment  of  gold-bearing  quartz  in  batteries, 
barrels,  pans,  arastras,  &c.,  or  in  amalgamating  silver  ores  in  which  the  sil-» 
wer  has  been  reduced  to  a  metallic  condition. 


Fig.  38.  CUPEIXATION  FURNACE  Fig.  39. 

CUPELLATION  OF  iJoLD  AND  SILVER.— This  process  is  based  on  the  re- 
fractory nature  of  these  precious  metals  and  their  affinity  for  lead  in  a  stat* 
of  fusion,  conjoined  with  the  well  known  tendency  of  the  latter  metal  to  ox- 
idise while  being  subjected  to  the  action  of  heat.  The  alloy,  composed  of 
lead,  gold,  and  silver,  or  lead  and  gold  or  silver,  is  fused  in  a  furnace  eon^ 
structed  with  apertures  for  the  admission  of  a  blast  of  air,  and  the  exit  of 
the  litharge,  vapors,  <f:ov  dissipated  by  the  heat.  Figs.  38  and  39  represent* 
A  furnace  of  this  kind,  The -iron  pan  is  A  ft.  in  diam.  with  a  throat,  /,  It 


BEFHTING   OF   GOLD   AND    SILTKR. 

long  and  12  wide  for  the  escape  of  the  litharge,  which  falls  upon  the 
cast-iron  plate,  g.  The  pan  is  filled  with  wood-ashes,  marl,  bone-ashes,  or  a 
combination  of  pulverized  limestone  and  clay,  well  beaten  together.  The 
bars  of  lead  are  passed  in  at  i,  where  a  fire-tile  is  placed  inclining  slightly 
inward,  and  the  blast,  introduced  at  I,  is  directed  on  the  surface  of  the  fm.ea 
jalloy  on  the  hearth.  This  connects  the  melted  lead  into  an  oxide  of  lead  or 
litharge,  which  is  partially  absorbed  by  the  porous  substance  of  the  cupel 
and  partially  dissipated  by  the  heat.  If  copper,  or  other  inferior  metals  be 
present  in  the  alloy,  they  will  also  be  oxidized.  The  base  metals  being  thus 
dissipated,  absorbed,  and  oxidized,  the  gold  (and  silver,  if  any  is  present) 
will  renvwn  ft  brilliant  mass  on  the  hearth  of  the  furnace  in  a  nearly  pure 
condition.  If  any  lead  remain  it  can  be  removed  by  the  humid  method  of 


REFINING  OF  GOLD  AND  SILVER.—  If  ,  after  cupellation  as  above  described, 
the  metSal  obtained  be  an  alloy  of  gold  and  silver,  it  is  submitted  to,  1st. 
Quartaiion  :  This  consists  in  the  alloying  of  one  part  of  gold  with  three  parts 
of  silver.  2d.  Granulation:  This  is  performed  by  passing  the  prepared 
melted  alloy  through  the  fine  meshes  of  an  iron  sieve  into  water,  or  upon  a 
bundle  of  wicker  or  small  branches  lying  in  the  water.  Parting  :  This  is  ef- 
fected by  submitting  the  granulated  metal  to  the  action  of  boiling  nitric  ac.'d 
or  conceatrated  sulphuric  acid,  for  this  purpose  u?e  a  glass  vessel  and  HV) 
parts  nitric  acid  of  specific  gr.  1.32  to  100  parts  of  silver.  This  dissolve?  the 
silver  and  any  base  metals  that  may  be  present  out  of  the  alloy,  leaving  t!  a 
gold  pure.  Reduction  :  In  this  process  the  gold  is  removed  from  the  dissol  v- 
iug  vessel  and  further  treated  by  boiling  in  nitric  acid,  then  washed,  drifu, 
jiiid  melted  in  a  crucible  with  a  flux  of  nitre  and  cast  into  ingots.  The  silver 
in  the  parting  solution  may  be  precipitated  by  means  of  copper  plr.  jes  or  1  »y 
a  solution  of  salt.  In  the  former  case  the  precipitate  is  purified  by  washitii, 
in  wnier,  then  pressed,  melted  with  saltpetre  and  pulverized  borax,  and  c;:st 
into  ingots  ;  in  the  latter  case  the  chloride  of  silver  is  melted  with  a  flux  of 
carbonate  of  soda  or  other  suitable  flux,  then  run  into  bars. 

FLUXES  FOB  REDUCING  PHOTOGRAPHIC  WASTES.—!.  Black  Flux—  Cream 
of  tartar  8  ozs.,  saltpetre  4  ozs.  Place  the  mixture  upon  an  iron  pan  and  ignite 
it  with  a  red-hot  coal.  When  the  combustion  is  completed,  the  black  mass  shor.ld 
be  powdered  and  sifted  while  still  hot,  and  placed  in  a  closely-stoppered  botilo 
to  prevent  the  absorption  of  moisture  from  the  atmosphere.  Is  both  a  fusing 
and  reducing  agent.  2.  Fluxes  for  Chloride  of  Silcc-r  —  Common  rosin,  finely 
pulverized  and  intimately  mixed  with  the  chloride,  is  an  excellent  flux.  Pul- 
verizsu  castile  soap,  molasses,  or  sugar,  ave  also  reliable  fluxes  for  chloride  c-f 
•ilver.  3.  Flux  for  Reducing  the  Ashes  of  Papir  Clippings  and  -FWfera—  Carbonate 
«*t'  potash  8  ozs.,  carbonate  of  soda  2  ozs.  Mix  the  ashea  (previously  powdered 
aiid  sifted  through  a  fine  flour  sieve,  to  cleanse  them  from  impurities  and  foreign 
matters)  thoroughly  with  their  own  weight  of  the  flux:  fill  a  Hessian  cruel'  -1  9 
about  three-quarters  full  of  the  compound  ;  scatter  a  thin  layer  of  Bait  over  the 
mass,  and  place  on  the  fire.  4.  Flux  for  Dei-eloper  Draining  s  —  When  these  have 
been  prepared  by  adding  a  solution  of  salt  (after  the  uiack  powder  has  been 
tb.oi3ugb.ly  dried),  it  may  be  mixed  with  its  weight  of  the  following  flux,  placed 
in  tbe  crucible,  and  submitted  to  the  fire:  carbonate  of  potash  70  ozs.,  saltpetre 
2  ozs.  An  excellent  flux.  5.  Flux  for  Collodion,  Film  Ashes—  Carbonate  of  potash 
16  ozfV,  carbonate  of  soda  2  ozs.  Use  4  ozs.  of  flux  to  every  5  ozs.  of  ashes,  a;  <1 
proceed  as  with  the  last.  (5.  Flux  for  Roasted  Sulphide  qf  Silver  —  Carbonate  o1: 
potash  ll/2  ozs.,  carbonate  of  soda  5  ozs.  Use  14  ozs.  sulphide  to  16  ozs.  of  flr.x. 
and  treat  as  before  described.  7.  Flux  for  Toning  Bath  Precipitate  —  Gold  pvo-- 
-cipitats  (dry)  8  ozs.,  saltpetre  6  to7  ozs.  Fill  the  crucible  not  over  half  full,  brine 
to  a  bright  red  heat,  and  the  gold  obtained  will  be  nearly  pure.  8.  FluxfSr 
Chloride  of  Silver  —  Carbonate  of  potash  8  ozs.,  powdered  rosin  1  oz.  Mix  the 
chloridd  (Well  dried)  with  half  its  weigty  of  the  flux,  tamp  the  crucible  nearly 
three-quarters  full.  With  a  thin  layer  of  salt  on  top.  and  submit  to  the  fire.  i). 
Flux  for  Old  Collodion  Films—  Saltpetre  8  ozs.,  carbonate  of  potash  4  ozs.  Vsa 
faaif  as  much  flux  as  ashes.  To  obtain  tlw  best  results  from  these  fluA«*s.  they 
«aet  b*  kept  in  well-  stoppered  bottles. 


982 


DESCRIPTIONS    OP   FURNACES, 


DESCRIPTIONS    OF    FURNACES     USED     IN 
ROASTING  ORES. 

Figs.  40  and  41  represents  the  ground  plan  of  a  furnace  used  for  roasting 
cilver-ores  in  which  a  is  tlie  hearth-bottom,  composed  of  the  hardest  bricks, 
placed  compactly  edgewise.  The  ore  to  be  rousted  is  introduced  at  the  aper- 
nture,  c,  Fig.  41,  and  after  being  treated  is  discharged  through  the  orifice,  &, 
Fig.  40,  in  the  hearth  of  the  furnace.  The  space  between  the  arch  a'ad  bot- 
t  >m  near  the  bridge,  #,  is  21  ins.,  converging  to  8  ins.  near  the  flue,  c.  Thes 
Hue  is  conducted,  either  directly  or  through  dust-chambers,  into  a  chimney, 
t'.ie  capa<***"''  *>f  which  for  a  single  furnace  should  be  from  16  to  18  ins.  sou 
r.nd  from  25  to  30  ft.  high,  and  the  bridge,  g,  should  be  formed  of  material 
sufficiently  refractory  to  withstand  the  action  of  the  fire  and  the  friction  of 
the  hoes  used  in  turning  the  mass  of  ore. 


Fig.  40. 


Fig.  41.— FURNACE  FOR  Ho  A  STING  ORBS. 

Figs.  42,  43  and  44  is  a  plan  of  a  furnace  suitable  for  the  smelting  of  si!* 
rer  ores,  for  refining  silver,  or  melting  retorted  amalgam  ;  the  cast-iron 
pan,  a  a,  15  ins.  deep  and  37  ins.  diam.,  is  lined  with  fire-proof  material  to 
form  the  hearth,  and  is  supported  by  fire-bricks  to  permit  access  of  air  under 
;md  around  the  bottom  and  siSes  in  order  to  temper  the  heat.  The  fire- 
proof material  is  formed  of  old  fire-brick  pulverized  and  mixed!  with  one- 
third  its  bulk  of  good  clay,  or  of  3  pts.  pulverized  white  quartz  (pure)  with  1 
l»t.  clay  ;  is  beaten  with  rammers  so  as  to  project  6  ins.  above  the  verge  of 
the  pan,  and  is,  finally  moulded  iiito  proper  shape  with  a  curved  tool.  Tho 


DESCRIPTION   OP   FURNACES. 


983 


flue-plate,  d,  is  first  lined  with  a  floor  of  fire-brick,  and  finally  coated 
with  a  mortar  of  the  fire-proof  material  carefully  smoothed  down.  The  or© 
is  passed  in  at  A",  whence  it  descends  to  the  hearth,  //;  the  slag  is  discharged 
at  the  orifice,  o,  .111  d  the  metal  and  matt  at  the  tap-hole  passing  through  the 
hearth,  represented  at  6,  Fig.  43.  The  ore,  carried  by  the  draft  into  the  dust 
chamber,  p,  is  removed  at  intervals  through  the  aperture,  6.  The  fire-place. 
H,  is  adapted  for  coal :  the  capacity  of  the  chimney  should  be  from  18  to  2ft 
tias.  square  inside,  40  to  50  it.  high,  and  lined  with 'fire-brick. 


Fig.  45  represents  .1  reverberatory  roasting  furnace  in  which  the  Ftlrrhi£  t»  i 
performed  by  the  iron  stirrers,  n,  and  mechanically  by  the  rotation  of  thfr 
hearth,  The  irou  hearth-stouefc  a  a,  is  12  it.  in  diaiu,  witli  tides,  t,  30  ins. 


DESCRIPTION   6?  FURNACE!. 


high,  composed  of  fire-tiles  ;  the  bottom,  4  ins.  thick,  is  formed  of  fire* 
bricks  ;  the  ore  is  introduced  through  the  funnel,^,  arid  discharged  through 
the  opening,  d,  39  ins.  long  and  4  wide,  with  a  hinged  iron  door,  into  the  fun- 
nel, c,  which  carries  it  outside  the  furnace.  The  cog-wheels  by  which  the  hearth 
to  jcotatedj  and  the  balls  and  rollers  on  which  it  rests,  are  shown  at  g  and  A. 


Fig.  45,— FtJBNACE  FOB  ROASTING  QBE. 


Jig,  M,         *UR*ACE  FOB  9PEBATISQ  CRUCIBLE,         Pig,  47. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  FURNACES.  985 

Tig.  46  represents  a  furnace  adapted  for  operations  with  a  crucib*- .  Th« 
crucible  is  supported  on  a  piece  of  fire-brick  oil  the  grate,  composed  *f  MOV 
*ble  iron  rods  ;  a,  is  a  sliding  door  at  the  top  ;  the  furnace  is  15  in*. 
«nd  is  lined  with  fire-^rick. 


Fig.  48.— FURNACE  FOB  DISTILLING  MERCURY. 

Figs.  47  and  48  shows  the  plan  of  a  furnace  used  for  the  distillation  or  re- 
torting of  the  quicksilver  from  the  various  gold  and  silver  amalgams  obtained 
in  the  treatment  of  ores.  Fig.  47  represents  a  front  view  ;  the  cover,  a,  Fig. 
48,  of  the  retort  being  removed.  The  retort  has  two  wings,  6  6,  Fig.  47,  by 
which  it  is  supported  on  brick  work  so  as  to  leave  three  ins.  clear  on  each 
side  ;  it  is  formed  of  cast-iron,  4  ft.  long,  11  ins.  wide,  and  9  ins.  high.  The 
fire  has  a  full  sweep  over  the  whole  surface  of  the  retort  both  above  and 


ing  around  the  pipe.  The  funnel  is  wrapped  around  with  cloth,  p,  which 
reaches  into  the  water.  The  water  in  the  vcssd,  a,  should  be  kept  at  a  level 
about  half  an  inch  below  the  funnel. 

Figs  49,  50,  and  51,  represent  furnaces  employed  by  the  Colorado  Gold, 
'and  Silver  Separating  Co.  in  treating  ores  by  the  Hagan  process. 

DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  FURNACES. — A,  Furnaces  ;  B,  Blast-holes  ;  C,  Deliv- 
ery-openings ;  D,  Perforated  steam  pipes  ;  E,  Superheated  chamber  ;  G,  Flue, 
6x8  ;  J,  Dampers  ;  L,  Bridgewall  of  Furnaces  ;  M,  Flue,  18x18  ;  N,  opening, 
2ix24;  O,  Ash-pits  ;  P,  Stone  walls  to  save  brick  ;  Q,  Brick  walls  ;  R,  Wood 
furnaces;  S,  Coal  furnaces  ;  T,  Pipes  for  for  superheated  steam  over  furnaces, 
M,  Grate-bars  ',  V,  Steam  pipes  for  controlling  the  action  in  the  reducing 
chamber. 

WORKING  DIRECTIONS. — fill  the  furnace  with  ore  broken  6  to  8  inches 
square,  put  fire  under,  and  work  very  moderately  for  M  hours  ;  then  make 
the  fire  strong,  and  let  the  ore  remain  in  48  hours  longer.  At  the  expiration 
of  that  time,  commence  to  draAV  out,  taking  out  2  tons  per  hour,  at  the  saina 
time  putting  in  a  like  quantity  ;  thus  keeping  the  furnace  always  full,  and 
bringing  the  ore  gradually  from  a  temperature  of  about  300°  at  the  top  to  a 
temperature  of  about  900*  as  it  falls  to  tba  bottom  of  the  furnace, 


DESCRIPTION    OF    FURNACES. 


Let  In  steam  at  the  bottom  of  the  furnace,  for  10  minutes,  each  time  be- 
fore taking  out  ore,  which  cools  it.  Alter  taking  the  ore  out  of  the  furnace, 
it  should  be  run  through  some  grinding  process  to  bring  it  down  to  find  sand. 
It  should  then  be  run  through  the  second  process,  which  should  have  a 
•strong  wood  fire  and  good  supply  of  hydrogen  gas,  us  the  time  running 
through  would  be  very  short  ;  alter  which  it  should  be  put  iu  some  amal- 
gamating process,  such  as  Beath's,  which  grinds  to  fine  powder  as  it  amak 
famates,  and  clears  off  the  oxide.s  at  the  same  time, 


Fig.  50. 


Fig.  51. 


"  The  following  is  an  explanation  of  the  rationale  of  the  Hagan  proccsg 
for  disintegrating  and  desulphurizing  gold  and  silver  ores.  Superheated 
steam  is  introduced  into  the  fire  in  such  a  manner  that,  iu  a  gaseous  form, 
the  steam  impinges  upon  the  ignited  coals  or  wood  without  admixture  of 
atmospheric  air,  and  thus  effects  the  decomposition  of  water  into  oxygen 
and  hydrogen  gases.  Tha  oxygen  unites  immediately  with  the  carbon  of 
the  burning  coals  or  wood,  while  the  liberated  hydrogen  passes  from  the 
fire  and  burns  in  the  presence  of  the  oxygen  of  the  air.  The  hydrogen  flame 
and  the  resulting  gases  being  brought  into  contact  with  the  heated  gold  and 
silver  ores,  the  sulphur,  arsenic,  antimony,  etc.,  are  dissolved,  and  are  car- 
ried off  with  the  products  of  combustion.  The  powerful  effect  of  the  flame 
of  hydrogen,  in  dissolving  pyritous  sulphur,  arsenic,  antimony,  etc.,  and  in 
attacking  oxygen,  is  well  known,  but  the  expense  of  producing  it  has  hither- 
to prevented  its  application  to  the  disintegration  and  desulphurizaticn  of 
gold  and  silver  ores.  Not  until  the  invention  of  Dr.  Hagan's  cheap  r.iid 
simple  method  of  decomposing  water  and  thus  furnishing  hydrogen  gas  and 
flame  abundantly,  has  it  been  at  all  possible  to  apply  it  to  this  purpose  ;  but 
now  so  economically  can  this  powerful  agent  be  produced  that  the  cost  of 
treating  ores  by  it  is  only  one  dollar  per  ton. 

"The  treatment  of  gold  and  silver  ores  by  the  Hagan  process  requires  a  fur- 
nace of  very  simple  and  inexpensive  construction,  which  may  be  built  of  ma- 
terials at  hand  in  every  miner's  locality,  costing  not  over  $2000,  for  working 


DESCRIPTION    OF    FURNACES.  987 

60  tons  per  day.  The  ores  are  fed  in  at  the  top  of  the  furnace  as  they  come 
from  the  mine,  and  are  drawn  out  at  the  bottom  as  soon  as  they  become  dis- 
integrated and  desulphurized,  and  thus  the  operation  is  kept  up,  day  and 
night,  uninterrupedly,  the  ore  requiring  48  hours  to  pass  through. 

"  The  ores  thus  treated  become  soft  and  friable,  and  their  character  will 
be  destroyed,  so  that  they  will  crumble  into  powder  under  slight  pressure.  / 
The  sulphurets  of  iron,  copper,  and  other  base  mineral  compounds,  will  be' 
converted  into  oxides.  The  finest  particles  of  metallic  gold  will  be  liberated 
from  their  inclosing  matrix,  and  the  silver  ore  will  be  put  in  a  chemical  con- 
dition suitable  for  perfect  amalgamation,  so  that  both  the  silver  and  gold  may 
be  easily  separated  without  the  great  waste  and  losses  attending  the  old  meth- 
ods of  working  the  ores. 

"  When  properly  manipulated,  the  ores  ca»  be  made  to  render  all  the 
precious  metals  they  contain,  or,  say,  within  five  per  cent,  of  the  assay— 
whereas  by  the  ordinary  method,  the  miners  of  Colorado  have  only  obt?iiied 
$25  per  tou  from  ores  actually  containing  from  $100  to  $500  or  more  pei 
ton," 


Fig.  52.— FURNACE  FOB  EXTRACTING  QUICKSILVER. 

Fig.  52  represents  furnace  used  for  the  extraction  of  quicksilver  from  frl$ 
cinnabar  at  the  New  Almaden  mines.  It  is  constructed  of  bricks  with  a  ca- 
pacity for  holding  from  G0,000  to  110,000  Ibs.  of  ore,  according  to  its  grade. 
The  fuel  used  is  wood,  fed  into  a  lateral  furnace  which  supplies  heat  to  the  - 
.chambers  containing  the  ore,  but  separated  from  them  by  a  wall  pierced* 
'with  numerous  apertures  formed  by  the  omission  of  bricks  at  proper  inter- 
vals. The  heat  is  conducted  among  the  ore  and  through  all  the  chambers 
exhibited  in  the  diagram,  until  the  mercury  is  thoroughly  condensed,  while 
the  draft  is  conducted  through  inclined  stacks  to  the  top  of  a  distant  emi- 
nence where  the  deadly  emanations  of  the  furnace  are  discharged.  The  fur- 
naces rest  upon  doubBfe  arches  of  brick- work  and  the  whole  is  arranged  with 
effective  appliances  for  securing  the  condensed  quicksilver.  The  ore  is  hand- 
broken  to  remove  the  barren  rock  ;  no  flux  is  employed,  the  lime  associated 
with  the  ore  being  all-sufficient  for  the  decomposition  of  the  sulphurets. 

The  metal  begins  to  run  in  from  4  to  6  hours  after  the  heat  is  applied,  and 
the  process  is  complete  in  about  60  hours.    The  mercury  is  conducted  by 


988  KONNIER'S  DESULPHURIZING  PROCESS. 

iron  pipes  through  various  condensing  chambers,  and  finally  discharged,  m 
a  pure  condition,  into  large  kettles. 

Fig.  52  represents  Bruckner's  furnace  for  roasting  ores.  The  contrivance 
is  formed  of  an  iron  cylinder  suspended  by  chains,  which  by  means  of  a  ro- 
tary motion  mixes  and  stirs  the  ore  while  under  treatment.  These  furnaces 
are  made  of  two  sizes,  one  6  ft.  long  to  contain  800  Ibs.,  and  the  other  9  ft 
long  to  hold  1400  Ibs.,  the  first  noted  requires  three-fourths  of  a  horse-power  - 
to  drive  it  and  the  other  one  horse-power.  They  are  eminently  suitable  for 
localities  difficult  of  access  as  they  can  be  transported  on  the  backs  of  muk« 


Fig.  53.—  BRUCKXER'S  FCRXACE. 

DESULPHURIZING  PBOCESS.— This  process  is  adaptable  to 
cupriferous  or  nickeliferous  ores,  as  also  where  gold  and  silver  occur  with 
the  sulphides  of  copper  and  iron,  one  of  the  primary  features  being  the 
utilization  of  the  eliminated  sulphur  for  the  manufacture  of  oil  of  vitriol  by 
the  conversion  of  the  sulphurous  fumes  into  sulphuric  acid.  The  extraction 
of  the  silver,  copper,  nickel,  or  cobalt,  as  either  of  these  metals  may  be  pres- 
ent in  the  ore  under  treatment,  is  effected  by  means  of  sulphate  of  soda, 
the  gold  remaining  in  the  residue  and  desulphurized  oxide  of  iron  in  a  state 
permissive  of  easy  amalgamation.  The  ore,  mixed  with  sulphate  of  soda, 
is  first  pulverized  by  means  of  ore-crushers  so  as  to  pass  through  a  siere 
with  20  holes  to  the  inch,  and  afterwards  calcined  in  a  muffle-furnace  80  ft. 
in  length  and  6  ft,  wide,  the  hearth  of  the  muffle  (upon  which  the  ore  is 
placed)  being  built  of  tile  4|  ins.  thick  ;  the  heated  gases  traverse  the  entire 
length  of  the  furnace  from  the  fire-chamber  to  the  end  of  the  structure  un- 
derneath, without  communicating  with  the  muffle.  Access  to  the  ore  is 
gained  by  side-doors  along  one  side  of  the  furnace,  through  which  it  is 
turned  and  stirred  once  every  hour,  being  gradually  worked  onwards  from 
the  rear  end  of  the  furnace  towards  the  front,  where  it  is  recharged  through 
a  hopper  into  the  muffle  towards  the  front,  where  it  is  charged. 

The  ore  is  thus  gradually  heated,  and,  by  the  presence  of  the  sulphate  of 
»oda,  most  of  the  sulphur  is  eliminated  and  a  large  amount  of  sulphates  of 
the  oxides  of  iron  and  copper  (silver,  nickel  and  cobalt)  produced.  When 
the  charge  reaches  the  front  of  the  muffle,  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the 
fire  box,  and  where  the  temperature  is  most  elevated,  the  sulphate  of  the 
oxide  of  iron  is  decomposed,  producing  oxide  of  iron,  some  hi  sulphate  of 
soda,  and  completely  converting  the  copper  (silver,  nickel  and  cobalt)  into 


DESULPHURIZING    PROCESS. 


soluble  sulphates.  This  stage  of  the  operation  requires  care  in  the  manage- 
ment of  the  temperature,  since,  by  too  low  a  degree  of  heat  the  iron  may 
not  all  be  converted  into  insoluble  oxide,  or,  by  too  great  an  elevation  of 
temperature,  some  of  the  other  metals  may  be  rendered  insoluble  by  a  de- 
privation of  their  sulphuric  acid.  If  it  be  the  object  of  the  operation  to 
manufacture  oil  of  vitriol  as  •well  as  to  extract  the  metals,  the  register, 
placed  at  the  end  and  above  the  fire-box,  must  be  regulated  so  as  to  admit 
the  quantity  of  atmospheric  air  requisite  to  the  oxidation  of  the  sulphur  in 
*ts  passage  through  the  length  of  the  muffle — the  exit  pipe  for  the  sulphur- 
ous add  gas  leading  from  the  rear  end  of  the  muffle,  close  to  the  charging  fun- 
nel, into  the  oil  of  vitriol  chamber.  The  ore  thus  calcined  is  lixiviated  ^ 


Fig.  54.— FUBXACES   USED  IN  MONNIEB'S  PROCESS. 


990  LIXIVIATING    TUBS,    ETC. 

water  to  extract  the  sulphates  of  copper,  silver  and  soda  (cobalt  and  nickelX 
and  the  insoluble  residue  consists  of  oxide  of  iron  and  earthy  matters,  and 

The  method 
works  for 
placed  in  a 

series  of  tanks  [A.  A.  A.]  having  false  bottoms,  serving  as  filters.  The  warm 
water,  introduced  at  the  top,  percolates  through  the  mass,  dissolving  the 
sulphates,  and,  passing  through  the  filter,  is  raised  through  a  leaden  pipe 
'.placed  vertically  through  the  ore  and  communicating  with  the  space 
under  the  false  bottom  or  filter)  into  another  similar  tank  charged  with 
the  calcined  ore,  and  thus  through  the  series,  becoming  more  and  more  satu- 
rated with  the  soluble  salts.  If  the  residue  [collected  in  agitator,  c.]  affcet 


Fig.  56.— LIXIVIATING  TUBS,  MONGER'S  PROCESS. 

lixlviation  contain*  only  oxide  of  iron  and  gangue,  it  is  thrown  away  ;  but 
should  the  ore  treated  have  been  auriferous,  the  insoluble  residues  contain 
the  whole  of  the  gold,  perfectly  free  from  sulphur,  which  may  easily  be  ex- 
tracted by  first  re-grinding  the  mass  in  a  Behr  mill,  and  then  passing  it 
through  a  series  ofthree  Tyrolean  amalgamators.  The  preliminary  grind- 
ing requires  but  small  power  us  the  calcined  ore  is  very  friable .  With  three 
amalgamators  the  operation  is  perfect,  as  has  been  demonstrated  on  a  large 
scale  in  Xorth  Carolina.  The  solution  containing  the  sulphates  is  treated 
according  to  the  metals  present.  If  cobalt  and  nickel  are  present  in  suf- 
ficient quantities,  the  operation  becomes  exceedingly  complicated.  The 
liquor  containing  the  sulphates  of  soda,  copper  and  silver  is  treated  as  fol- 
lows :  the  silver  is  first  precipitated  by  means  of  plates  of  copper,  and  sub- 
sequently this  added  copper,  as  well  as  thr.t  existing  in  the  ore,  is  re'moved 
from  the  solution  by  cast-iron,  after  which  it  is  evaporated  to  dryness  to 
recover  the  sulphate's  of  soda,  which  may  thus  be  repeatedly  used  for  the 
calcination  of  fresh  ore.  The  mctallic'copper  and  silver  so  obtained  are 
separately  worked  in  the  usual  way.  The  copper  is  so  pure  that  it  requires 
only  a  single  fusion  to  produce  ingots  of  the  first  quality.  The  precipitation 
is  made  in  a  reverberntory  furnace  of  peculiar  construction.  In  a  wooden 
trough  (54  feet  long,  10  feet  wide  and  2i  feet  deep)  is  a  leaden  pan  (of  10 
pounds  to  the  .square  foot)  of  the  same  dimensions,  the  bottom  of  which  is 
covered  by  a  two-inch  floor  of  wood,  and  the  sides  of  which  are  protected  by 
a  nine-inch  brick  wall,  extending  one  foot  above  the  sides  of  the  leaden  pan, 
and  the  whole  covered  with  a  low  arch  and  well  braced.  Along  one  side 
and  above  the  leaden  pan  is  placed  a  number  of  working  doors,  through 
which  the  conper  is  removed  after  precipitation  The  plates  of  cust-iron 
(2  feet  long,  1|  feet  wide  and  one  inch  thick)  are  placed  across  the  furnaca, 
at  intervals  of  one  foot,  so  as  to  form  partitions.  At  a  distance  of  two  feet 
irom  the  end  of  the  furnace  is  constructed  the  fire-box,  which  connects  by 
*n  arch  with  the  arch  of  the  precipitating  furnace,  and  the  gases  from  which 


BLOW-PIPE    ASSAY,    AC.  991 

are  discharged  from  a  stack  in  the  latter  arch.  The  liquid  to  be  precipitated 
is  then  introduced  into  the  furnace  to  the  height  of  the  leaden  pan,  and 
removed  after  the  precipitation  of  the  copper  by  means  of  a  large  plug  at 
the  bottom  of  the  furnace.  The  fire  is  very  moderate,  the  object  being  to  • 
create  a  reducing  atmosphere,  to  prevent  the  oxidation  of  the  protoxide  of 
viron,  the  presence  of  which  would  cause  a  loss  of  cast-iron.  The  evaporator 
is  of  similar  construction,  except  that  the  arch  is  close  to  the  upper  edge  of 
the  leaden  pan,  so  as  to  compel  the  heat  to  travel  as  close  as  possible  to  the 
surface  of  the  liquid  to  be  evaporated,  but  at  a  distance  of  ten  feet  from  the 
fire  box  commences  gradually  to  raise,  in  order  that  the  fire  may  be  admit- 
ted at  about  3  ft.  above  the  solution.  The  furnace  is  kept  constantly  full  of) 
•water,  in  order  that  the  leaden  sides  may  not  be  melted.  When  nearly  full', 
of  sulphate  of  soda,  the  fire  is  extinguished,  the  mother  liquid  removed,  and 
the  three  working  doors  nt  the  bottom  opened.  The  solid  and  semi-fluid 
sulphate  is  discharged  upon  a  wooden  floor,  and  as  soon  as  consolidated  is 
placed  upon  the  top  of  the  furnace  to  dry.  The  dry  sulphate,  as  above 
stated,  is  mixed  with  the  fresh  ore,  ground,  and  used  repeatedly  in  the  de- 
sul.phurization.  The  precipitating  and  evaporating  furnaces  might  be 
constructed  of  brick,  but  the  difficulty  in  preventing  leakage  through  the 
brick,  and  cost  of  material,  will  nearly  counterbalance  the  expense  of  the 
lead,  which  preserves  at  all  times  its  value.  In  the  old  method  of  manufac- 
turing sulphuric  acid  from  pyrites  containing  a  small  quantity,  the  residue 
has  been  submitted  to  a  smelting  process.  In  this  method  water  does  the 
work,  and  an  ore  containing  not  more  than  3  or  4  percent,  of  copper  (which 
has  hitherto  been  refused  by  smelting  works  in  this  country)  can  be  suc- 
cessfully and  profitably  treated.  A  residue,  with  no  greater  content  of  cop- 
per than  above  given,  and  perfectly  free  from  sulphur,  is  worthless  to  smelt- 
ing establishments  in  this  country^;  but  by  the  application  of  the  process 
we  have  described,  the  w^hole  is  e'xtracted  by  water  at  but  small  cost,  saving 
concentration  and  waste  of  ore,  and  enabling  mines  scattered  over  the  coun- 
try, now  considered  valueless,  to  become  profitable  and  di vidend  paying. - 
Abridged  from  Miner's  Hand-Book. 


BLOW-PIPE  ASSAY,  FLUXES,  HYDROSTATIC 
WEIGHING,  CUPELLATION,  &c. 

In  the  oxy-hydrogen  blowpipe,  2  volumes  of  hydrogen  to  1  of  pure  oxy- 
gen generates  the  greatest  heat  and  light  ever  produced.  The  most  refrac- 
tory substances  are  fused,  melted,  and  dissipated  immediately.  Before  it 
opal  and  flint  dissolve  into  enamel  ;  quartz  and  rock  crystal  are  reduced  to 
glass  ;  the  diamond  and  gold  are  volatilized  ;  brass  wire  and  platina  burn 
with  a  preen  flame  ;  emerald,  blue  sapphire,  lapi-s  lazuli,  and  talc  are  con- 
,vertecl  into  glass  ;  copper  melts  without  burning,  and  iron  evolves  a  brilliant 
light. 

The  common  blowpipe  is  simply  a  bent,  tapering  tube  of  brass,  from  7  to 
10  ins.  Ions,  with  a  very  minute  orifice  for  the  breath  to  escape.  Small  and 
simple  as  it  is,  however,  it  is  of  paramount  utility  to  every  miner  and  mill- 
man,  as  by  its  use  every  effect  of  the  most  intense  furnace  heat  may  be 
produced  'by  concentrating  to  a  point  the  flame  of  a  candle  or  lamp  by 
urging  it  with-the  breath  upon  a  small  particle  of  any  substance.  By  this 
means  the  identity  and  value  of  most  mineral  substances  may  be  ascertained 
and  established  by  an  operation  requiring  less  than  30  minutes  to  perform  it. 
A  blow-pipe  should  be  of  brass,  with  an  ivory  or  horn  mouth-piece  to  secnre 
ease  of  operation ;  a  chamber  to  retain  the  condensed  moisture  from  th« 


092  BLOW-PIPE  "ASSAY,    AC. 

, breath,  and  a  platinum  tip,  or  point,  to  withstand  immei>iOk  in  tne  acidi * 
tequired  to  ensure  cleanliness. 

Besides  the  blow-pipe,  the  assayer  requires  the  following  apparatus  :  1. 
An  assay  or  blow-pipe  balance.  2.*  A  small  hammer  with  slightly  rounded 
face  and  a  transverse  sharp  edge  at  the  other  extremity.  3.  A  square,  smooth 
piece  of  steel  to  use  as  an  anvil.  4.  A  small  porcelain  or  agate  mortar,  in 
which  to  pulverize  the  assay.  5.  A  mixing  scoop,  in  which  to  mix  ere  with 
fluxes.  6.  A  small  magnet'to  test  ores  for  iron,  &c.  7.  A  small  magnifying 
glass.  8.  A  small  drill  to  perforate  cavities  in  the  charcoal  in  which  i' 9-* 
paper  tubes  containing  the  ore  is  to  be  placed.  9.  A  small  cylinder  to  r...  .<£ 
paper  tubes  in  which  to  pack  and  melt  the  assay.  10.  Cupels  made  of  be :  rf 
ash.  11.  A  cupel  holder  made  of  copper  or  brass.  12.  A  variety  of  fluxe>, 
charcoal,  &c.  13.  A  steel  forceps,  or  cutting  pliers,  for  separating  small  frag- 
ments of  minerals.  14.  A  small  file,  and  glass  tubes  in  lengths  from  24  to 
36  ins. ,  with  apertures  about  three-sixteenths  of  an  in.  in  the  clear.  They 
are  cut  with  the  file  into  lengths  of  4  and  8  ins.,  of  which  the  shorter  are 
open  at  both  ends,  and  ready  for  use.  By  heating  the  8  in.  pieces  over  an 
alcohol  lamp,  with  the  fingers  over  each  end,  until  they  become  red-hot,  p-ud 
then  drawing  them,  they  will  part  in  two  pieces,  each  with  one  end  closed,, 
a  most  convenient  form  for  many  operations. 


Fig.  57.— REDUCING  FLAME.  Fig.  58.— OXIDIZING  FLAME. 

To  obtain  the  best  results  from  the  blow-pipe  in  treating  refractory 
minerals,  &c.,  it  is  necessary  that  the  blast  should  be  continuous.  To  effect 
this,  breathing  and  blowing  should  go  together.  This  may  be  difficult  to  a, 
beginner,  but  is  soon  perfected  by  practice  in  breathing  through  the  nostrils- 
and  blowing  through  the  instrument  with  the  mouth  at  the  same  time.  The 
mode  of  operating  with  the  blow-pipe  is  exhibited  by  Figs.  57  and  58. 

The  blow-pipe  flame  is  formed  of  two  cones  ;  an  inner,  of  a  blue  tint, 

producing  a  most  vehement  heat,  just  beyond  the  verge  of  the  blue  flame. 

This  is  called  the  reduction  flame,  and  should  entirely  envelope  the  assay,  as 

.  shown  in  Fis.  57.    The  outer,  called  the  oxidation  flame,  is  represented  by 

jFig.  58,  and  in  this  case  the  assay  should  be  placed  just  beyond  the  verge  of 

'the  outer  flame,  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  atmosphere.     To  produce  the 

former,  the  point  of  the  blow-pipe  must  just  touch  the  flame  as  shown  at  a, 

Fig.  57;  to  produce  the  last  noted,  the  point  of  the  blow-pipe  must  be  inserted 

a  little  into  the  flame,  as  shown  at  o,  Fig.  58.    The  exact  adjustment  of  the 

blow-pipe,  to  produce  the  desired  effect'in  each  case,  is  well  exhibited  in -the. 

(engravings.     The  flame  may  be  supplied  by  a  spirit  lamp  ;  a  candle  with 

/a  large  wick,  or  by  a  lamp  with  a  large  wick  fed  with  olive  oU. 

'       To  sustain  the  mineral  under  treatment  in  the  flame,  a  platinum  wire  or 

forceps  may  be  used,  or  a  piece  of  sound  charcoal  made  from  pine  wood, 

with  a  slight  cavity  for  the  assay  (to  prevent  it  from  blowing  away  by  the 

blast),  will  answer  every  purpos'e.     For  many  minerals  charcoal  is  the  best 

Support  obtainable,  as  the  carbon  of  the  coal  renders  great  assistance  to  the* 


BLOW-PIPE    ASSAY,   AC,  99S 

reducing  process.    Where  no  better  can  be  had,  mica,  and  the  mineral 
\yanite,  may  be  uged  as  supports  for  the  assay. 

The  specimens  of  minerals,  &c.,  selected  for  treatment  in  the  blow- 
pipe flame  should  be  very  little,  if  any,  larger  than  those  represented  in  th« 
auts.  With  many  kinds  of  a  refractory  character  very  thin  specimens  should 
be  selected,  as  thereby  fusion  is  greatly  promoted,  where  otherwise  it  would 
be  impossible.  The  size  of  the  whole  assay  should  be  less  than  the  bulk  of 
a  small  pea. 

Many  minerals  are  absolutely  infusible  without  a  flux  to  aid  red»ctior.« 
The  substances  in  common  use  as  fluxes,  are  :  carbonate  of  soda,  borax,  &,•» 
sulphate  ofpotassa,  and  salt  of  phosphorus  or  microcosmic  salt.  The  carbori. 
ate  of  soda  should  be  free  from  sulphuric  acid,  as  any  contamination  will 
induce  a  reddish  tint  in  the  glass  obtained  by  the  fusion  of  silica.  To  obtain 
the  full  energy  of  borax  it  should  be  vitrified  by  melting,  on  a  sheet  of  iron 
or  in  a  crucible,  common  borax  into  a  clear,  transparent  glass,  which  it- sub- 
sequently pulverized  and  set  away  in  glass  stoppered  bottles  for  use  as 
required.  This  must  be  kept  where  it  will  not  absorb  damp  or  moisture,  which 
ruins  it  for  use.  To  prepare  bi-sulphate  ofpotassa,  mix  in  a  porcelain  cup  2 
ozs.  pulv.  sulphate  of  potassa  and  1  oz.  sulphuric  acid  ;  heat  over  an  alcohol 
lamp  until  the  mixture  assumes  a  quiet,  clear,  transparent  appearance.  It 
is  then  removed  from  the  fire  and  poured  on  a  piece  of  sheet  iron.  It  is 
used  for  testing  ore  for  bromine  and  iodine.  To  prepare  salt  of  pfuifip/torns, 
dissolve  16  parts  of  sal-ammoniac  in  a  small  quantity  of  boiling  water,  then 
add  100  parts  of  crystallized  phosphate  of  soda,  boiling  gently  the  whole, 
then  set  off  to  cool.  The  salt  of  phosphorus  is  deposited  in  small  crystals. 
Too  much  heat  while  boiling  will  cause  decomposition. 

The  fluxes  should  be  carefully  pulverized  and  mixed  with  the  powdered 
mineral  in  the  mixing  scoop  previous  to  being  inserted  in  the  paper  tubes 
and  placed  on  the  charcoal.  Tough  silver  ore  maybe  treated  in  smaH 
pieces,  and  three  times  as  much  lead  as  silver  should  be  used.  Propoition 
of  borax  should  be  about  GO-lOOOths,  but  more  may  be  added  if  necessary, 
ftoda,  whew  used,  may  preferably  be  added  in  small  successive  quantities. 
The  paper  tubes  for  receiving  the  assay  are  formed  by  cutting  note  paper 
into  strips  l£  ins.  by  1,  and  winding  the  strips  around  the  small  wooden 
cylinder  (above  noted)  so  as  to  form  a  tube,  in  whicn  the  assay  is  packed 
previous  to  placing  it  on  the  charcoal.  One  part  of  the  tube  should  project 
a  little  over  the  cylinder,  and  this  projecting  part  should  be  turned  down  so 
as  to  close  one  e:;d. 

In  addition  to  the  apparatus  above  noted,  the  assayer  should  have  on 
hand  a  quantity  of  fine  platinum  wire  (bent  at  one  extremity  into  a  circle 
one  or  two  lines  in  diameter)  for  holding  the  assay  during  the  operation  ; 
also,  platinum  foil,  for  enveloping  minerals  that  decrepitate.  The  following 
chemicals,  etc.,  will  also  prove  useful  in  many  cases  as  reliable  tests  : 

1.  Tin-foil,  for  using  with  various  per-oxides  of  metals  to  reduce  them  tc 
protoxides.  By  touching  the  assay,  previously  heated  in  the  reducing-flanief 
with  the  extremity  of  the  tin-foil,  a  very  small  quantity  of  a  metallic  oxide 
may  at  once  be  detected.  2.  Anhydrous  bisulphate  of  potash,  used  for  de- 
tecting lithia.  It  should  be  kept  (well  pulverized)  in  a  bottle  where  it  wi.I 
not  absorb  moisture.  3.  Saltpetre  is  used  in  detecting  manganese.  It  devel- 
opes  the  peculiar  amethystine  color  when  the  amount  of  this  mineral  is  too 
small  to  color  glass  without  this  re-agent.  The  heated  globule  v  touched 
with  the  point  of  a  crystal,  just  at  the  instant  of  suspending  the  blast.  The 
fused  mass  swells,  foams,  and  either  turns  immediately  colored,  or  becomes 
so  soon,  upon  cooling.  4.  Boracic  acid  and  iron  wire  is  used  for  testing  for 
phosphoric  acid.  5.  Nitrate  of  Cobalt  (pure)  in  solution,  is  used  for  distin- 
guishing alumina  and  magnesia.  Use  a  platinum  wire  inserted  in  cork 
stopper  to  apply  a  drop  when  required  for  use.  6.  Gypsum  and  fluor,  as 
tests  of  each  other.  Two  parts  of  calcined  gypsum  and  one  of  fluor,  when 
intermixed  and  heated,  fuse  into  a  clear  class,  presenting  a  milk-white  en* 


994  TEST    TITBES,    CITPELLATIOX,    &C. 

amel  on  cooling.  7.  Oxalate  of  Nickel,  or  Nitrate  of  Nickel,  is  used  to  detect 
potash.  It  should  be  free  from  cobalt,  for  which  it  may  be  tested  by  treat- 
ing it  with  borax  ;  the  result  should  give  a  brown,  not  a  blue  bead.  ,* 
The  behavior  of  different  minerals  before  the  blow-pipe  is  various.  $ 
Some  are  so  refractory  as  to  be  wholly  infusible  ;  some  specimens  melt  onlyl 
at  the  edges  ;  others  are  easily  fused,  while  some  are  dissipated  wholly  or( 
in  part.  Kobell's  scale  for  representing  the  various  degrees  of  fusibility  by ' 
figures,  is  as  follows :  1.  Gray  Antimony.  2.  Natrolite.  3.  Cinnamon 
Stone  (Var.  of  garnet).  4.  Black  Hornblende.  5.  Feldspar.  G.  Chrondrv. 
dite.  The  fusibility,  when  equal  to  that  of  uatroline.  is  represented  by  2 1 
or  if  like  hornblende,  by  4,  etc. 


Fig.  59.  Fig.  60. 

The  test  tubes  above  noted  are  used  to  determine  the  presence  of  wateit 
and  other  volatile  components  of  various  ores.  The  mode  of  operation  if 
exhibited  by  Fig.  59,  in  which  A  represents  the  tube,  B  the  mineral  under 
treatment  in  the  flame  of  a  spirit  lamp,  and  C  the  aqueous  or  volatile  pro- 
ducts as  usually  condensed  on  the  upper  part  of  the  tube.  Acid  fumes 
may  be  detected  by  inserting  a  strip  of  litmus  or  other  test  paper  in  the  up- 
per part  of  the  tube  ;  the  fumes,  if  acid,  will  turn  the  paper  red. 

CUPELLATION.  The  object  of  this  process  is  to  separate  gold  and  silver 
from  lead,  by  absorbing  and  oxidizing  the  base  metal  while  the  other  is  left 
pure.  Fig.  60  represents  the  manner  in  which  this  process  is  performed 
by  the  blow-pipe.  A  is  the  assay  under  treatment,  C  is  the  cupel,  and  B  is 
the  cupel  holder.  A  circular  perforation,  about  £  in.  each  way.  is  made  in 
a  firm  piece  of  charcou! ;  in  this  cavity  place  some  moistened  bone-ashes, 
pressed  down  smooth;  dry,  and  on  this  place  the  assay,  and  submit  to  the  ac- 
tion of  the  outer  flame.  Under  this  treatment  fusion  takes  place  :  the  lead 
is  eliminated  as  an  oxide  find  is  absorbed  by  the  bone  ashes,  while  the 'sil- 
ver is  left  as  a  small  brilliant  globule  in  the  cavity. 

As  usually  performed,  the  assay  is  treated  in  a  cupel  made  of  bone-ashes 
(or  in  a  small  hollow  on  charcoal,  containing  bone-ashes,  as  above  noted), 
where  the  air  has  free  admission.     The  assay  being  melted,  the  action  of « 
the  atmosphere  effects  the  oxidation  of  the  lead,  which  disappears  in  &• 
porous  cupel,  being  absorbed  by  the  bone-ashes. 


HYDROSTATIC   BALANCE,    &C,  995 


The  specific  gravity  of  a  mineral  is  determined  by  the  blow-pipe  bafc 
Ance,  which  is  adapted  for  hydrostatic  weighings,  as  represented  by  Fig.  61, 
where  A  is  the  balance  who*e  scales  are  suspended  by  threads  of  unequal 
length.  To  obtain  a  density  by  the  balance,  the  mineral  a  must  be  placed 
in  a  sling  suspended  by  a  hair  or  a  filament  of  silk  from  the  small  hook 
below  the  scale  6.  The  ore,  thus  suspended  ou  the  thread,  is  weighed  and 


Fig.  61.— HYDROSTATIC  BALANCE,  &c. 

<;he  contents  noted.  The  mineral,  still  suspended,  is  next  immersed  about  J 
in.  below  the  surface  of  the  water,  in  the  glass  vessel  c.  All  adhereni 
"bubbles  of  air  are  carefully  wiped  away  from  the  ore  ;  it  is  now  weighed  a 
second  time,  and  the  loss  by  immersion  calculated.  By  the  specific  grav- 
ity, or  density  of  a  mineral,  is  understood  its  weight  as  compared  with  that 
of  an  equal  bulk  of  distilled  water,  at  the  temp,  of  60°  Fahr. 

The  preceding  instructions  cannot  fail  to  prove  of  immense  utility  to  the 
operator  in  proceeding  with  the  practical  tests  noted  in  the  following  elab- 
orate details  relating  to. minerals,  etc. 

HOW  TO  IDENTIFY  AND  TEST  METALLIC 
ORES  :  CONDENSED  SYNOPSIS  OF  THE 
CHEMISTRY,  GEOGNOSTIC  SITUATION, 
&C.,  OF  METALS. 

Characteristics  of  Metals. — Metals  are  distinguished  by  the  properties  of 
fusibility,  malleability,  ductility,  tenacity,  elasticity,  crystalline  texture,  and 
brilliancy,  combined  with  the  quality  of  conducting  heat  and  electricity. 

GOLD. — This  metal  is  seldom  found  in  its  native  purity;  it  is  found 
only  in  its  metallic  state  in  combination  with  other  metals,  generally  in 
veins  pervading  primary  and  secondary  rocks,  as  granite,  slate,  hornstone, 
quartz,  limestone,  sandstone,  gneiss,  mica-slate,  mica,  and  sometimes  in 
gruywacke  and  tertiary  strata  ;  also  in  veins  of  silver,  copper,  antimony^ 
zinc,  lead,  iron  ore,  barytes,  &c.  The  attrition  of  the  elements  operating  on 
the  containing  rocks  and  metallic  lodes  during  uncounted  nge*.  has  washed 
thousands  of  millions  into  the  beds  of  streams,  the  margins  of  rivers,  and' 
alluvium  or  drift  deposits.  In  the  primary  rocks  it  is  found  mainly  in 
schistose  or  slaty  fissures. 

.  In  external  appearance  gold  is  of  a  golden  or  orange  yellow  color,  pass- 
ing into  grayish  or  brass  yellow,  and  is  the  heaviest  of  metals  except  pla- 
tina.  It  is  the  most  ductile,  tenacious,  and  malleable  of  all  the  metals.  On 
being  struck  with  a  hammer  it  will  flatten  out  :  iron  and  copper  pyrites, 
and  yellow  mica,  which  resemble  it,  will  crumble  under  this  test,  'inter- 
nally it  is  bright  yellow,  shining,  glistening  and  metallic.  It  has  equal  axes 
like  the  cube,  has  no  cleavage,  has  a  hackly  fracture,  and  often  exists 
crystallized  in  cubes,  oc,tohedrons,  rhomboidal  dodecahedrons,  and  tetia* 
Wdrons. 


$96  SYNOPSIS    OF   METALLURGY,    AC. 

Gold  is  fusible  with  the  blow-pipe  (use  the  reducing  flame  with  carbctt* 
ate  of  soda  for  flux),  melts  at  2590°,  is  soluble  in  nitro-rauriatic  acid,  which, 
is  simply  2  parts  muriatic  acid  and  1  part  nitric  acid,  and  remains  unal- 
tered by  exposure  to  simple  acids,  air,  or  moisture.  Nitric  acid  (aqua- 
fortis) will  dissolve  any  suspected  brass  filings  in  gold  dust.  Specific  grav- 
ity 19.26  to  19.5. 

IN  SOLUTIONS  OF  GOLD  (Peroxide),  Ammonia  produces  a  yellow  precip- 
;  itate  (aurate  of  ammonia  or  fulminating  gold)  ;  Ferrocyanide  of  Potassium 
{  produces  an  emerald  green  color  ;  Oxalic  Acid  produces  a  precipitate  of 
/metallic  gold  ;  Protosulphate  of  Iron  produces  in  concentrated  solutions  an 
[instant  precipitate  of  metallic  gold.  In  dilute  solutions  a  blue  coloring  is 
first  perceived,  followed  by  a  brown-colored  precipitate  ;  Potassa  (in  heated 
solutions),  after  a  time  produces  a  trifling  reddish-brown  precipitate,  con- 
sisting of  teroxide  of  gold  mixed  with  terchlpride  of  gold  and  potassa. 
Protochloride  of  Tin,  to  which  a  drop  of  nitric  acid  has  been  added,  im- 
parts a  reddish  purple  color  to  very  dilute  solutions  ;  in  concentrated  solu- 
tions a  red-purple  precipitate  (purple  of  Cassius)  is  formed.  A  liar  of 
Metallic  Zinc  precipitates  metallic  gold  in  the  form  of  a  brown  coating. 

PLATINUM. — This  metal  is  mainly  found  in  alluvium  or  drift,  "some-- 
times in  granite,  syenite,  &c. ,  combined  with  gold,  silver,  copper,  iron,  ' 
lead,  &c.,  but  always  in  the  metallic  state  in  round  grains  and  rolled  pieces  * 
about  the  size  of  peas,  and  like  large  iron  filings. 

In  color  platinum  is  steel-gray,  nearly  resembling  silver,  but  not  quite 
so  bright.  In  lustre  it  is  shining  and  glistening  ;  in  structure  it  is  some- 
times lameller  ;  is  malleable  and  ductile  ;  with  hardness  almost  equal  to 
that  of  iron. 

Platinum  is  infusible  in  the  hottest  furnaces,  but  melts  readily  before- 
the  reducing  flame  of  the  compound  blow-pipe  at  a  temp,  of  3080°.  Dis- 
solves in  nitre-muriatic  acid,  and  is  unaffected  by  exposure  to  air,  mois- 
ture, or  simple  acids.  Specific  gravity  20. 98. 

IN  SOLUTIONS  OF  PLATINUM  (Peroxide),  Potassa  produces  a  yellow  crys- 
talline precipitate,  consisting  of  the  double  chloride  of  platinum  and  potas- 
sium ;  the  addition  of  hydrochloric  acid  favors  its  formation  ;  it  is  insolu- 
ble in  acids,  but  dissolves  in  potassa  with  the  aid  of  heat  ;  it  is  very  slightly- 
soluble  in  water,  and  insoluble  in  strong  alcohol  ;  Chloride  of  Tin,  in  pres- 
ence of  free  hydrochloric  acid,  imparts  to  solutions  of  bichloride  of  plati- 
num a  deep-brown  color  without  producing  any  precipitate  ;  Subnitrate  of 
Mercury  produces  a  ye-lowish  red  precipitate. 

SILVER. — This  metal  is  found  native,  as  also  combined  with  muriatic- 
acid  and  sulphur  in  primary  and  secondary  slates.  Great  quantities  exist 
in  the  metallic  state  combined  with  gold,  copper,  arsenic,  and  lead,  in. 
rock?  composed  of  mica-slate,  gneiss,  clay-slate,  graywacke. 

Native  Silver  occurs  in  primitive  and  secondary  rocks,  irregular  quartz, 
&c.,  with  the  ores  of  copper,  silver,  cobalt.  In  color  it  is  whit  a,  sometimes 
&  tarnished  gray,  or  reddish  shade.  It  occurs  in  plates  and  spangles,  ai*d 
crystallized  in  "tubes,  octohedrons,  rhomboidal  decahedrons  and  tetrahe- 
idrons,  dentiform,  capillary,  ramose,  reticulated,  rarely  large,  and  generally 
disseminated.  When  broken  it  appears  fine  and  hackly,  with  a  bright,, 
(shining  lustre.  Its  color  and  malleability  are  prominent  characteristics. 

It  is  composed  of  silver  with  a  little  'iron,  antimony,  copper,  or  arsenic, 
is  soluble  in  nitric  acid,  is  fusible  into  a  globule,  and  melts  at  187:i°  Fsihr. 
Oxide  of  silver  with  borax  in  oxidizing  flame,  before  the  blow-pipe,  forms  a 
white  opaque  glass  :  in  reducing  flame,  with  carbonate  of  soda,  readily  re- 
duces to  metal.  Specific  gravity  10  to  10.5. 

Antimonial  Silver,  composed  of  silver,  84  parts  ;  antimony,  14  parts  ;  oo 

*  curs  in  granite  und  clay-slate,  combined  with  the  other  ores  of  silver;  ia- 

found  in  curved  laminae,  also  in  grains,  in  cylinders.    Is  massive ;  yields  tc* 

the  knife  ;  has  a  couchoidal  fracture  ;  and* is  fusible  under  the  blow-pipe 


SYNOPSIS    OF    METALLUKGY.  997 

(evolving  antimonial  vapors)  into  a  button  of  silver.  The  characteristics 
are,  the  autimonial  vapor,  a  gilyer  or  tin-white  color,  the  want  of  ductility^ 
and  not  giving  a  bine  globule  with  borax. 

Sulphur et  of  Silver,  composed  of  silver,  85  parts  ;  sulphur,  15  parts  ;  a 
very  productive  ore  ;  occurs  in  the  primary  and  secondary  rocks  ;  is  of  a 
;dark,  lead-gray  color  ;  frequently  with  an  iridiscent  tinge,  and  exists  in' 
tubes  and  octohedrons  ;  also  ramose,  reticulated,  amorphous,  lamelliform, . 
iind  in  plates.     The  characteristics  are,  malleability  ;  imperfect  cleavage  ; 
flat,  conchoidal  fracture  ;  can  be  cut  with  a  knife  ;  has  less  specific  gravity  ' 
than  native  silver,  and  fuses  with  intumesence  and  a  sulphurous  odor  un- 
der the  blow-pipe.     Specific  gravity,  1.  i 

Brittle  Sulphuret  of  Silver,  composed  of  silver,  66. 5  parts  ;  antimony,  1» 
parts  ;  sulphur,  12  parts  ;  iron,  5  parts  ;  arsenic  and  sulphur,  5  parts  ;  is  a' 
very  rich  ore,  and  occurs  in  the  primary  rocks  with  other  ores  of  silver. 
It  exists  in  crystalline  structure  and  diffused  ;  also  in  hexahedral  prisms, 
and  is  of  a  dark,  lead-gray  hue,  or  bluish-gray,  passing  into  iron-black.  The 
structure  is  foliated  ;  crystals  mostly  intercept  each  other,  with  a  dull,  me- 
tallic lustre.  The  ore  is  soft  and  brittle  ;  the  fracture  is  conchoidal.  Solu- 
ble in  nitric  acid,  and  fusible,  with  the  emission  of  sulphur,  antimony  and 
arsenic,  into  a  globule  of  silver  surrounded  by  a  slag.  The  character- 
istics, compared  with  other  ores,  are  its  dark  color  and  brittleness  ;  from 
eulphuret  of  silver  it  differs  in  its  lack  of  malleability.  Specific  gravity,  7. 

Sulphureted  Antimonial  Silver  (Red  Silver),  composed  of  silver,  60  parts  ; 
antimony,  20.3  parts  ;  sulphur,  14.7  parts  ;  oxygen,  5  parts  ;  is  an  excellent 
ore,  and  is  found  in  primary  rocks,  mainly  in  mica-slate,  granite  and  por- 
phyry. It  possesses  a  metallic  adamantine  lustre  ;  structure  is  imperfectly 
foliated,  has  a  red  color  of  various  tints,  passing  into  lead-gray  and  grayish- 
black  ;  the  powder  is  crimson  red.  It  exists  in  masses  and  grains,  alsu 
dentritic,  capillary,  membranous,  and  crystallized  in  hexahedral  prisms,) 
terminated  by  hexahedral  prisms  ;  also  in  double  gix-sided  pyramids  ;  in 
translucent,  opaque. 

The  characteristics  are,  malleability,  differs  from  sulphuret  of  arsenic 
In  leaving  a  globule  of  silver,  and  in  possessing  greater  specific  gravity.  Is 
fusible,  with  emission  of  antimonial  fumes.  Sulphuret  of  mercury  volatil- 
izes under  the  blow-pipe.  The  red  oxids  of  copper  is  readily  reduced  to  the 
metallic  state  by  the  blow-pipe  ;  specular  oxide  of  iron  is  rendered  magnetic 
by  the  same  process.  Specific  gravity,  5.20  to  6.68. 

Muriate  of  Silver  (Horn  Silver),  composed  of  muriate  of  silver,  88.7 
parts:  oxide  of  iron,  6  parts  ;  alumine,  1.75  parts  ;  sulphuric  acid  (oil  of  vit- 
riol), 0.25  parts  ;  an  excellent  ore  ;  is  found  in  the  primary  rocks,  with  other 
ores.  In  color  is  pearl  gray,  greenish  or  reddish-blue,  yellowish  or  greenish- 
white  and  brown.  In  lustre  is  glistening  and  wavy.  Is  malleable  ;  feebly 
translucent  ;  becomes  brown  by  exposure.  Exists  massive,  investing  other 
minerals,  amorphous,  reniform,  and  crystallized  in  tubes,  octohedrons,  and 
acic'dar  prisms. 

The  characteristics  are,  the  emission  of  muriatic  acid  fumes  before 
the  blow-pipe  ;  fusibility  in  the  flame  of  a  candle  ;  softness  ;  yields  to  the 
knife  and  to  pressure.  Abraded  on  damp  or  wet  zinc  it  leaves  a  film  o£ 
silver.  Muriate  of  mercury  volatilizes  before  blow-pipe  without  leaving  a 
film  of  silver.  Specific  gravity,  5.5. 

MERCURY.— This  metal  rarely  occurs  in  its  native  state.  By  far  the 
greater  part  is  found  in  the  form  of 

Sulphuret  of  Mercury  (Cinnabar),  composed  of  mercury,  84.5  parts  ;  sul- 
phur, 14. 75  parts.  It  occurs  mainly  in  new  red  sandstone  ;  occasionally  in 
limestone,  mica-slate,  graywacke,  gneiss,  deposits  of  bituminous  shale,  com- 
bined with  black  mineral  resin,  alluvium,  clay,  gray  sandstone  and  limestone,  t 
and  in  rockg  of  the  coal  formation.  In  color  it  is  scarlet  or  carmine,  shading 
off  into  cochineal  red  and  lead-gray,  occasionally  with  a  yellow  tint.  It 
translucent  or  opaque.  Occurs  massive  and  crystallized  in  acute  rhomboids; 


998  SYNOPSIS    OF    METALLURGY,    «C. 

certain  kinds  with  a  yellow  tint;  is  sometimes  found  in  thin  plates  or  tubulai 
crystals.  Lustre  is  adamantine,  varying  to  metallic  ;  occasionally  shining 
silky.  The  fracture  is  granular  or  fibrous. 

The  characteristics  are,  the  emission  of  sulphur  vapors,  while  the  com- 
pound volatilizes  before  the  bio  \v-pipe.  This  test  determines  the  difference 
between  this  ore  and  red  silver  ore,  ars^uate  of  cobalt,  red  oxide  of  copper, 
and  sulphuret  of  arsenic.  Specific  gravity,  8. 

COPPER. — Copper  is  found  in  primary  and  transition  rocks,  syenite, 
eandstoiie,  coal  strata  and  alluvial  ground.  It  occurs  in  beds  and  large 
blocks.  The  ores  of  copper  are  the  following  : 

Native  Oopper  is  nearly  pure,  and  is  found  in  the  veins  of  primary  ar»d 
v  secondary  rocks.  In  color  is  copper-red,  brownish-black  ;  tarnished  exter- 
nally ;  is  malleable,  fusible  at  2o48°  Fahr.,  and  soluble  in  acids.  Occurs 
dentritic,  reuiform,  capillary,  amorphous  ;  also  crystallized  in  tubes  and 
octohedrons.  Specific  gravity,  8.5. 

Gray  Copper,  composed  of  copper,  5?  parts  ;  iron,  23  parts  ;  and  sulphur, 
14  parts ;  is  found  with  other  ores  of  copper.  In  color  is  steel-gray,  verging 
into  black,  with  brownish  streak.  Is  brittle,  with  metallic  lustre,  and  small 
crystals.  Specular  oxide  of  iron  gives  out  arsenical  fumes  when  heated  ;  is 
magnetic,  and  softer  than  arsenical  iron.  Gray  copper  ore  is  fusible  but 
very  refractory.  Specific  gravity,  5. 

Copper  Pyrites,  composed  of  copper,  40  to  35.3  ;  iron,  40  to  33;  sulphur,  20 
to  35 ;  a  very  valuable  ore ;  is  found  in  beds  and  veins  in  primary  and  second- 
ary rocks  as  well  as  in  other  prominent  formations.  The  color  is  brass- 
yellow,  with  metallic  lustre  ;  lamellar  structure  ;  tessular  cleavage,  and 
uneven  fracture.  Is  the  most  abundant  ore  of  copper  ;  yields  to  the  knife. 
.It  occurs  dendritic  ;  stalactical ;  amorphous  ;  in  concretions,  and  crystallized 
in  tetrahedrons  and  dodecahedrons.  Is  fusible,  and  tinges  borax  green. 
Iron  pyrites  does  not  tinge  borax  green.  Lacks  malleability.  Native  gold 
is  malleable  and  native  bismuth  is  lamellated.  Specific  gravity,  4.3. 

Sulphuret  of  Copper,  composed  of  copper,  76.50  parts  ;  sulphur  22,  ; 
iron,  0.50  ;  is  found  located  same  as  the  last  noted  ore.  Exterior  color  is* 
blackish  steel-gray,  occasionally  iridescent ;  internally  is  lead-gray.  Has 
lamellar  structure  ;  couchoidal  fracture  ;  is  easily  sectile,  with  brilliant 
laces  ;  crumbles  readily,  and  has  equal  axes  like  the  cube. 

The  characteristics 'are,  fusibility,  with  the  emission  of  sulphur  fumes; 
is  also  soluble  in  hot  nitric  acid.  Is  distinguished  from  gray  copper  ore> 
by  being  softer,  also  by  the  latter  decrepitating  before  the  blow-pipe.  A 
very  productive  ore.  Specific  gravity,  5. 

Blue  Carbonate  of  Copper,  composed  of  oxide  of  copper,  70  parts  ;  carbonic 
acid,  24  parts  ;  water,  6  parts  ;  is  found  in  the  primary  and  secondary  rocks. 
The  color  is  blue,  fracture  irregularly  foliated,  generally  showing  broad 
fibres,  Occurs  massive  ;  diffused  ;  stalactical  ;  incrusting,  and  crystal- 
lized. 

The  characteristics  are,  solubility  in  nitric  acid  with  effervescence,  is 
refractory  without  a  flux  ;  fused  with  borax  yields  a  green  glass  ;  does  not 
become  magnetic  under  the  blow-pipe,  and  is  insoluble  in  water.  Coppet 
melts  at  2548°. 

Red  Oxide  o/  Copper,  composed  of  copper,  88.5  to  91  parts  ;  oxygen, from 
11.5  to  9  parts ;  is  found  with  other  ores  of  copper.  Is  of  a  red  color,  lamel- 
lated structure,  metallic,  adamantine  lustre  ;  is  brittle,  translucent,  easily 
eectile  ;  has  irregular  and  conchoidal  fracture.  Is  found  amorphous  and 
crystallized  in  octahedrons  and  cubes. 

The  prominent  characteristics  are,  easy  reduction  and   solubility  ;  is 

soluble  in  nitric  acid  with  effervescence  and  in  muriatic  acid  without.  OxMe 

of  copper  fuses  in  the  oxidizing  flame,  before  the  blow-pipe  ;  in  the  reducing, 

"'  flame  forms  metal  ;  with  borax,  in  the  oxidizing  flame,  colors  the  glaeff 

green  ;  in  the  reducing  flame,  brown-red.     Specific  gravity,  4  tg  5.9. 


SYNOPSIS    OP    METALLURGY,    &C.  999 

IRON. — Occurs  both  in  primary  and  secondary  rocks.  The  principal 
ores  from  which  iron  is  extracted  are  the  following  : 

Broivn  Hematite. — This  ore  is  found  in  primary  rocks  and  occasionally 
'In  secondary  formations.  It  yields  a  superior  iron.  In  color  it  is  brown, 
yellowish,  or  blackish-brown  ;  on  the  outside  resembling  black  glazed  earth- 
en-ware. 'It  yields  to  the  knife  ;  is  fibrous  in  structure,  with  silky  and  res- 
inous lustre.  It  occurs  stalactical,  tuberous,  nodular,  and  amorphous.  A 
variety  of  this  ore  has  a  compact  structure,  devoid  of  lustre,  with  yellow- 
ish-brown streak,  and  conchoidal  or  earthy  fracture.  « 

Specular  Oxide  of  Iron  (Iron  Glance),  composed  of  iron,  69  parts } 
oxygen,  31  parts  ;  yields  an  excellent  malleable  iron,  and  occurs  mainly  ii* 
primary  rocks,  associated  with  magnetic  iron,  red  hematite,  quartz,  &c.  ; 
occurs  also  in  secondary  rocks.  In  color  is  steel-gray,  with  a  highly  polish- 
Ld  surface  ;  often  tarnished.  Occurs  crystallized  in  pyramidal  dodecahe- 
drons, hexahedral  tables  ;  also  massive,  disseminated,  in  concretions.  Haa 
a  cherry-red  streak,  lamellar  structure  ;  brilliant  lustre  ;  is  slightly  attracted 
by  the  magnet  ;  infusible  ;  and  insoluble  in  acids.  Affords  a  red  powder  on 
being  heated,  and  becomes  magnetic.  Specific  gravity,  5.52. 

Red  Hematite,  composed  of  oxide  of  iron,  90  parts;  silica,  2  parts;  lime, 
Ipart;  yields  a  first-class  iron  for  drawing  and  rolling;  is  found  mainly  ia 
primary  rocks  ;  frequently  in  lead  mines.  In  color  is  blood-red ;  also  steel- 
gray.  Yields  readily  to  the  knife  ;  occurs  massive,  and  in  plates;  also  re- 
niforra,  globular,  and  pulverulent  It  adheres  to  the  tongue;  the  fracture 
is  uneven  and  earthy.  Is  infusible,  but  becomes  magnetic.  Specific  gravity, 
4.75. 

Spathic  Iron  (Clay  Iron  Ore),  composed  of  oxide  of  iron,  58  part::;  car- 
bonic acid,  35  parts;  oxide  of  manganese,  4.25  parts  ;  magnesia,  0.75  parts; 
lime,  0.05  parts  ;  yields  an  iron  well  adapted  for  steel  making  ;  is  found 
principally  in  carboniferous  limestone,  arranged  in  thick  formations  ;  also 
in  veins  in  granite,  mica-slate,  clay-slate,  gneiss,  and  graywacke ;  associated 
with  ores  of  silver,  lead,  and  cobalt,  but  seldom  in  nickel  or  bismuth  ;  more 
frequently  with  galena,  iron  pyrites,  antimony  ore,  and  copper  ore.  In 
other  veins  it  is  Associated  with  brown,  red,  and  black  iron  ore,  quartz,  and 
calcareous  spar  ;  cecurs  also  filling  up  amygdaloidal  cavities  in  trap-rocks. 

The  colors  of  the  ore  are,  yellow,  brown,  white,  and  black.  It  yields 
to  the  knife,  is  easily  broken  ;  the  structure  is  foliated  or  lamellar,  with 
shining,  vitreous  lustre,  r.nd  white,  or  yellowish-brown  streak .  It  occurs 
massive,  disseminated  with  pyramidal  impressions;  also  in  granular  distinct 
concretions  ;  nodular  and  crystallized.  Crystals  are  usually  small,  and 
exist  in  groups. 

The  chemical  tests  are  :  effervescence  with  muriatic  acid  ;  is  infusible, 
blackens,  and  becomes  magnetic.  Heated  with  borax,  it  makes  an  olive- 
green  glass.  It  may  be  distinguished  from  earthy  minerals  by  its  weight, 
f ram  other  iron  ores  by  its  crystalline  foliated  cleavage,  and  from  blend* 
by  its  yielding  magnetic  iron.  Specific  gravity,  about  4. 

Magnetic  Oxide  of  Iron  (Iron  Sand),  composed  of  oxide  of  iron,  85.50 
parts  ;  oxide  of  titanium,  14  parts  ;  oxide  of  manganese,  0.50  parts ;  an  ex- 
cellent ore,  yielding  from  50  to  90  per  cent,  of  the  best  bar  iron,  is  generally 
found  imbedded  in  trap-rocks,  and  styled  mountain  ore.  The  color  is  iron- 
black  ;  is  found  in  octahedral  crystals,  also  in  minute  grains.  The  powder 
is  black  ;  the  fracture  conchoidal  ;  intensely  magnetic,  and  infusible  by  the 
blow-pipe. 

Peroxide  of  iron  remains  unchanged  in  the  oxidizing  flame  of  the  blow- 
pipe ;  in  the  reducing  flame,  blackens  and  becomes  magnetic  ;  with  borax, 
in  the  oxidizing  flame,  forms  glass  bright-red  while  hot,"pale  dirty-red  when 
cold  ;  in  the  reducing  flame,  forms  glass  varying  from  bottle-green  to  black- 
green  ;  with  carbonate  of  soda,  on  charcoal,  reduces  to  metal  as  a  dark 
magnetic  powder.  Specific  gravity,  6.22, 


1000  SYNOPSIS    OF   METALLURGY,    &C. 

Tests  for  Iron. — Prussiate  of  potash  added  to  iron  dissolved  in  an  acid 
causes  a  blue  precipitate,  and  an  infusion  of  galls  a  black  precipitate. 

LEAD.-  The  principal  ore  from  which  the  great  mass  of  the  lead  oi' 
commerce  is  obtained  is  the  sulphuret  of  lead,  or  galena.  It  is  com- 
posed of  lead,  sulphur,  lime,  and  silex,  and  is  often  combined  with  ores 
of  silver,  and  frequently  with  ores  of  zinc,  copper,  and  iron.  It  occurs  in 
beds,  veins,  and  imbedded  masses  in  primary  and  secondary  rocks  ;  fre- 
quently in  the  latter,  and  very  often  in  limestone  ;  also  in  alluvial  deposits^ 

The  shades  of  color  are  bluish-gray,  lead-gray,  and  on  the  outside  blackish- . 
gray.   Is  soft ;  yields  to  the  knife  ;  has  a  lamellated  structure  ;    metallic 
I'istre,  very  brittle,  and  opaque  Submitted  to  heat,  it  first  decrepitates,  with 
v  >e  emission  of  sulphur  fumes,  then  melts  into  a  globule  of  l*id  ;  blende, 
I  >lybdena  and  graphite,  which  resemble  this  ore,  are  infusible. 

Tests  for  Lead. — Oxalic  acid  produces  in  neutral  solutions  of  oxide  of 
lead  a  white  precipitate.  Glauber's  salts  and  an  infusion  of  galls,  give  to 
a  solution  of  this  metal  a  white  precipitate.  Oxide  of  lead,  in  oxidizing 
flame  before  the  blow-pipe,  turns  first  blue,  then  iises  to  a  glass  of  orange 
color  ;  with  carbonate  of  soda,  on  charcoal,  in  the  reducing  flame,  reduces 
to  metal  ;  with  borax,  forms  glass  yellow  while  hot,  colorless  while  cold. 

TIN. — The  regular  ore  from  which  this  metal  is  extracted  is  : 

Oxide  of  Tin  ( Tinstone),  composed  of  tin,  77.5  parts  ;  oxygen,  21.5  parts; 
oxide  of  iron,  0.25  part ;  silica,  0.75  part  ;  usually  occurs  in  primary  rocks 
in  veins,  traversing  gneiss,  granite,  mica-slate,  porphyry,  and  clay-slate, 
and  is  generally  found  with  iron  pyrites,  chlorite,  quartz,  topaz,  fluor,  &c. 
The  metal  obtained  from  ores  thus  located  is  called  block  tin.  The  grain 
tin  of  commerce  is  obtained  from  the  stream  tin  ore  found  in  alluvium  and 
drift. 

The  colors  are  black,  brown,  green,  red,  white,  and  yellow.  It  is  brittle, 
gives  sparks  with  steel  ;  has  a  lamellar  structure,  with  adamantine  or 
resinous  lustre,  and  grayish-white  streak.  Occurs  in  crystals,  and  in  masses 
from  the  size  of  grains  to  that  of  the  fist. 

On  a  chemical  test  it  decrepitates,  but  by  the  blow-pioe  it  may  be  reduced 
to  the  metallic  state  on  charcoal.  It  may  be  distinguished  from  spathic  iron 
by  the  latter  leaving  an  iron  button  under  the  blow-pipe.  Blende  cannot 
he  reduced,  and  is  not  so  hard.  Specific  gravity,  6.7  to  7. 
(  Tests  for  Tin. — In  solution  of  tin  oxide,  'phosphate  of  soda  produces  a 
white  precipitate.  A  bar  of  metallic  ziqc  precipitates  tin  in  small  grayish- 
white  metallic  spangles.  To  a  solution  Containing  the  metal,  present  a  per- 
fectly clean  sheet  of  iron,  the  result  is  metallic  tin.  Oxide  of  tin,  in  the 
oxidizing  flame,  before  the  blow-pipe,  presents  a  dirty-yellow  color  ;  with 
carbonate  of  soda,  in  reducing  flame,  on  charcoal,  reduces  to  metal;  with 
borax  forms  a  clear  glass. 

ZINC. — One  of  the  oi'es  of  zinc  is  : 

Blende  (Mock  Lead,  False  Galena,  Black  Jack),  composed  of  zinc,  sul- 
phur, iron,  and  silica  ;  is  found  in  veins  of  primary  and  secondary  rocks, 
iisually  united  with  iron  and  copper,  with  galena.  It  is  frequently  used 
after  roasting  in  th  e  preparation  of  brass,  but  is  usually  too  much  dissemi- 
nated in  its  gangue  to  make  its  extraction  profitable. 

The  colors  are  brown,  yellow,  and  black.  It  is  brittle,  yields  to  the 
knife,  has  a  foliated  structure,  with  sinning,  adamantine  lustre.  It  occurs 
massive,  disseminated,  lamelliform,  in  granular  concretions,  and  crystal* 
lized.  It  decrepitates  when  heated  ;  evolves  the  smell  of  rotten  eggs  when 
thrown  into  oil  of  vitriol  ;  is  infusible,  and  does  »ot  tinge  borax  green. 
Specific  gravity,  3.7  to  4. 

Calaminc,  composed  of  oxide  of  zinc  and  carbonic  acid,  is  found  in  veins, 
often  associated  with  oxide  of  iron,  and  occasionally  with  galena;  is  also 
found  in  beds,  nests,  filling  up  or  lining  hollow*-  iu  conglomerate  rook  and 
secondary  limestone. 


SYNOPSIS   OP  METALLURGY,   &C.  1001 

The  colors  are  sometimes  nearly  white,  at  others  gray,  greenish,  of 
ftrown-  yellowish.  Is  easily  sectile.  Occurs  compact,  amorphous,  pseudo* 
inorphous,  crystallized,  and  cupriferous.  In  chemical  tests  it  dissolve* 
with  effervesence  in  heated  nitric  acid,  or  muriatic  acid,  and  is  infusible. 
Dxide  of  zinc,  in  the  oxidizing  flame,  before  the  blow-pipe,  exhibit?  a 
lehitish-green  color ;  while  hot  this  oxide  is  slightly  yellow — when  cold  is 
tvhite :  with  borax  forms  glass,  which  in  an  intermittent  flame  become! 
milky  ;  in  the  reducing  flame,  on  charcoal,  reduced  to  metal,  which  readily 
publimes. 

Red  Ore  of  Zinc,  composed  of  oxide  of  manganese  and  oxide  of  zinc,  is 
i'eund  in  primary  and  transition  rocks,  limestone,  and  iron  mines.  It  ia| 
brittle  ;  yields  to  the  knife ;  has  a  foliated  structure  and  shining  lustre,' 
becoming  dull  by  exposure.  The  color  is  red  ;  it  occurs  massive  and  dis- 
seminated. In  chemical  tests  it  dissolves  with  effervescence  in  strong  acids. 
Is  distinguishable  by  its  weight  and  iniusibility.  Specific  gravity,  6.22. 

MANGANESE.— This  metal  in  ita  metallic  state  is  of  no  avail  in  th« 
•rts.  The  ore,  which  subserves  all  required  uses  without  preparation,  is 
called 

Black  Oxide  of  Manganese.— It  is  composed  of  manganese,  oxygen,  and 
water  ;  is  found  in  imbedded  masses  and  veins  in  primary  rocks,  and  often 
with  ores  of  iron.  The  color  is  of  a  dark  steel-gray,  with  metallic  lustre, 
black  streak,  and  conchoidal  earthy  fracture.  It  occurs  massive,  in  fibrou* 
concretions,  and  crystallized.  In  a  chemical  test  is  decomposed  by  being 
thrown  into  water,  and  turns  the  water  green.  On  exposure  to  the  air  ab- 
sorbs so  much  oxygen  that  it  falls  into  powder.  Is  infusible  alone,  but  with 
borax  yields  a  purple  globule  ;  becomes  brown  by  heat ;  with  borax,  in  the 
oxidizing  flame,  much  oxide  employed,  the  glass  is  black  ;  little  oxide  em- 
ployed, the  glass  is  of  an  amethyst  color  -  in  the  reducing  flame,  and  on 
charcoal,  this  latter  globule  becomes  colorless,  and  so  remains  if  quickly 
«ooled  ;  with  soda  in  the  oxidizing  flame,  and  on  platinum  foil,  forms  an 
opaque  green  g4ass. 

COBALT.—-This  metal  is  of  no  avail  in  its  metallic  state  for  use  in  the 
«r*.3  ;  is  in  use  mainly  by  painters  and  bronzers,  as  zaffre,  smalt,  &c.  The 
ore  producing  them  is, 

Arsenical  Cobalt,  composed  of  cobalt,  arsenic,  and  sulphur,  is  found 
combined  with  silver,  bismuth,  nickel,  arsenic,  and  copper,  in  veins  trav- 
ersing  primary  rocks.  The  color  is  silver-white,  with  a  reddish  copper  tint. 
Has  a  metallic  lustre  ;  is  brittle  ;  difficult  to  cut ;  with  conchoidal  fracture. 
Occurs  massive,  reticulated,  dendritic,  stalactical,  and  crystallized  in  cube* 
and  octahedrons.  Fused  with  borax  it  yields  a  blue  glass.  Turns  black, 
with  the  emission  of  garlic  fumes,  in  the  blaze  of  a  caudle.  The  oxide  'v 
Unchangeable  by  itself  (before  the  blow-pipe),  but  with  carbonate  of  soda, 
f>n  charcoal,  forms  a  gray  magnetic  powder  ;  with  borax,  both  in  oxidiaing 
»nd  reducing  flame,  gives  a  deep  blue  bead.  Specific  gravity,  6.30  to  7.30. 

For  full  directions  for  preparing  smalt,  see  page  283. 

NICKEL.— The  ore  from  which  this  metal  is  derived  is, 

Arsenical  Nickel  (Kupfer,  or  Copper  Nickel),  composed  of  nickel,  arsenic, 
Julphur,  lead,  iron,  and  cobalt,  is  found  associated  with -cobalt.  It  occurs 
massive,  reticulated,  and  botryoidal.  In  color  is  copper  red,  with  metallic 
lustre;  is  cut  with  difficulty ;  forms  a  green  solution  in  aqua  fortis,  and 
emits  garlic  fumes  when  heated.  Oxide  of  nickel  (before  tfe  blow-pij^)  i« 
Infusible  alone  ;  in  the  oxidizing  flame,  with  borax,  forms  an  orange-rwi 
globule  which  becomes  nearly  colorless  on  cooling  ;  in  the  reducing  HAHM, 
on  charcoal,  the  bead  becomes  gray  ;  in  the  reducing  flame,  with  soda,  o» 
•harcoal,  reduces  to  a  magnetic  powder.  Specific  gravity,  6.60  to  7.70. 

BISMUTH.— This  mineral  is  often  found  in  its  pure  state  fit  for  h 


use,  but  more  frequently  associated  with  cobalt,  iron  pyrites,  galena* 
pirsenic,  silver,  &c. .  in  the  primary  rocks,  especially  in  gneiss,  quartz,  ool 
la  color  is  silver-white,  with  a  reddish  tint.    Is  softer 


1002  SYNOPSIS    OF    METALLURGY,    &C. 

copper  ;  tarnishes  ;  has  a  metallic  lugtre,  lamellar  structure,  and  melts  al 
476°.  Before  the  blow-pipe,  bismuth  fuses  and  gives  off  inodorous  fumes. 
On  charcoal  it  becomes  surrounded  with  a  dark  brown  oxide,  which  is  pale- 
yellow  on  cooling  ;  the  flame  directed  on  the  coating  is  not  tinged  ;  ulti- 
mately the  metal  is  wholly  vaporized.  The  oxide  of  bismuth,  with  carbon- 
ate of' soda,  on  charcoal,  reduces  to  metal.  Specific  gravity,  9. 

ANTIMONY. — The  ore  from  which  commercial  antimony  is  obtained  is 
the, 

Sulphur ?t  of  Antimony,  composed  of  antimony,  74  parts  ;  sulphur,  26; 
parts  ;  and  found  chiefly  in  granite,  mica-slate,  and  gneiss,  associated  with 
ores  of  iron,  copper,  arsenic,  blende  and  galena.  It  occurs  crystallized  and 
massive,  composed  of  delicate  threads  or  needles.  Is  brittle  ;  yields  to  the 
knife  ;  has  fibrous  fracture  and  splendid  lustre.  Tested  in  a  candle-flame 
it  melts.  The  ores  of  antimony  afford  fumes  usually  white  on  charcoal, 
wkich  are  inodorous.  The  oxides  form,  with  soda  on  the  platinum  wire,  a 
clear,  colorless  bead,  which  becomes  white  on  cooling  ;  on  charcoal  they 
are  reduced.  In  an  open  tube,  antimony  gives  white  fumes,  which  coat 
the  glass  and  vaporize  easily  on  a  new  application  of  the  heat,  without 
fusion  to  globules.  Specific  gravity,  4  to  4.80. 

GRAPHITE  (Black  Lead,  Plumbago),  composed  of  carbon,  9  parts  ; 
iron,  1  part  ;  is  found  in  clay-slate,  also  in  the  coal  formation.  The  Dixon 
Crucible  Co.,  of  Jersey  City,  N.  J.,  obtain  their  graphite  from  the  "  Black 
Lead  Mountain,"  near  the  village  of  Ticonderoga,  Essex  Co.,  N.  Y.  The 
ore  is  chiefly  of  the  foliated  variety,  interspersed  in  gneiss  and  quartz  in 
veins.  Graphite  is  also  found  in  great  abundance  near  Ottawa,  Canada. 

ROCK  SALT  is  found  in  secondary  strata  ;  frequently  associated  with 

fypsum,  marl,  clay,  &c.  Near  Goderich,  in  Canada,  at  a  depth  of  about 
000  ft.,  there  is  a  bed  of  rock-salt  14  to  40  ft.  thick.  The  salt  of  Salina  and 
Syracuse,  N.  Y.,  is  obtained  from  wells  of  saltwater  150  ft.  and  upwards  in 
depth,  which  are  borings  in  suliferous  rocks,  which  here  are  from  700  to 
1000  ft.  thick.  From  35  to  45  gals,  of  the  water  yields  a  bushel  of  salt, 
•while  of  sea  water  it  takes  350  gals,  for  the  same  quantity. 

PRECIOUS  STONES.— Diamonds  are  found  in  association  with  sand  or 
alluvium  which  contain  grains  of  gold.  In  Brazil  the  diamond  district  is 
called  Minas  Geraes,  50  miles  by  25,  near  Tejuco.  The  emerald,  garnet, 
amethyst,  tourmaline,  chalcedony,  topaz,  chrysprase,  chrysoberyl,  sapphire, 
iolite,  spinel,  are  always  found  in  the  primary  rocks.  The  saVdonyx,  jas- 
per, carnelian,  cacholong,  are  often  found  in  secondary  strata,  principally  in 
the  trap  rocks.  Cairngorm  is  a  species  of  quartz.  The  exudations  which 
form  crystals  are  a  very  extensive  mode  of  rock  formation  in  all  varieties. 
For  hardness  of  precious  stones  see  page  925. 

C(kLL. — Among  the  varieties  of  coal  may  be  noted 

Anthracite  (Blind  or  Glance  Coal),  sometimes  called  stove  coal,  is  found 
in  imbedded  masses,  veins  and  beds  in  primary  and  secondary  rocks,  fre- 
quently in  trap-rocks,  graywacke,  slate,  sandstone,  &c. 

Black  or  Bituminous  Coal  occurs  chiefly  in  the  secondary  rocks,  some- 
Sines  in  sandstone,  limestone,  and  clay.  The  various  kinds  are  styled 
elate,  coarse,  foliated,  and  cannel  coal.  The  coal  beds  vary  in  thickness 
from  a  fraction  of  an  inch  to  30  or  40  ft.,  but  seldom  exceed  8  ft.,  and  are 
generally  much  thinner  ;  8  to  10  ft.  is  the  thickness  of  the  principal  bed  at 
Pittsburg,  Pa.  ;  29J  ft,  that  of  the  "  Mammoth  vein  "  at  Wilkesbarre,  Pa., 
37^  ft.  that  of  one  of  the  two  great  veins  at  Pictou,  in  Nova  Scotia.  The 
coal  beds,  taken  together,  make  up  not  more  than  one-fiftieth  part  of  the 
coal  formation  ;  that  is,  there  are  50  feet  or  more  of  barren  rock  to  1  foot  of 
",oal.  An  acre  of  coals  2  ft.  thick  yields  3000  tons,  3  ft.  thick,  4840  tons, 
and  5  ft.,  8000  tons. 

If^m'te  (Brown  Coal)  occurs  in  secondary  rocks,  and  occasionally  in., 
fcilnvium.  For  facts  relating  to  coal,  fuel  values,  &c.,  see  page  627. 

GYPSUM  occurs  in  the  new  red  sandstone  and  other  secondary  rocks. 


SYNOPSIS    OF   METALLURGY,    &C.  1003 

LIMESTONE,  composing  most  of  the  rocks  below  the  drift,  is  a  com- 
|*act  rock  of  grayish  and  other  dull  shades  of  color  to  black.     Consists  ee- 
)sentially  of  carbonate  of  lime.     When  Impure,  and  therefore  good  for 
;  making  hydraulic  lime  (lime  that  will  set  under  water),  it  is  called  hydraul- 
ic limestone.     When  composed  of  carbonate  of  lime  and  magnesia  it  is 
called  dolomite.     When  containing  fossils  it  is  called  fossiliferous  limestone. 
The  limestone  rocks  owe  their  origin  to  the  organic  remains  of  various 
species  that  have  lived  and  died  during  past  time.     The  best  marble  is 
found  in  the  upper  part  of  the  primary,  and  lower  parts  of  the  secondary 
Irocks. 

Lime  (oxide  of  calcium),  before  the  blow-pipe,  is  infusible  alone  ;  with 
borax,  effervesces  ;  with  a  comparatively  large  quantity  of  borax,  forms  a 
clear  glass  which  becomes  angular  on  cooling  ;  in  the  flame  of  the  oxyhy- 
drogen  blow-pipe  emits  a  dazzling  white  light,  and  fuses  at  the  edges. 

BORAX  (Biborate  of  Soda),  before  the  blow-pipe  intumeses  and  fuses 
to  borax-glass  ;  with  fluor-spar  and  bisulphate  of  potash,  colors  the  flame 
green  ;  soluble  in  water  ;  the  solution  changes  vegetable  blues  to  green. 

ALUMINA  (Sesquoxide  of  aluminum),  before  the  blow-pipe,  remains 
unaltered  both  alone  and  with  soda  ;  fuses  with  borax  with  great  diffi- 
culty, also  with  gait  of  phosphorus  ;  moistened  with  cobalt  solution  and 
"brought  to  a  high  heat,  becomes  blue  ;  is  not  attacked  by  acids. 

SULPHUR,  heated  in  an  open  glass  tube,  emits  fumes  of  sulphurous 
acid  ;  heated  with  soda,  the  compound,  moistened  with  water,  blackens  sil- 
ver. 

TELLURIUM  (Oxide),  before  the  blow-pipe,  colors  the  flame  green, 
fuses  and  sublimes  ;  with  borax,  in  the  oxidizing  flame,  forms  a  colorless 
glass  ;  in  the  reducing  flame  the  glass  becomes  gray  ;  its  behavior  with  car- 
bonate of  soda  is  similar  as  with  borax  ;  on  charcoal,  readily  reduces  to 
metal. 

QUARTZ  (Silicic  acid),  before  the  blow-pipe,  undergoes  no  change 
alone  ;  with  soda,  readily  fuses  to  a  transparent  glass. 

NITRE,  before  the  blow-pipe,  deflagrates  vividly  ;  detonates  with  com- 
bustible substances  :  dissolves  readily  in  water  ;  not  altered  by  exposure. 

FLUOR-SPAR  (Fluoride  of  Calcium),  before  the  blow-pipe,  decrepitates 
and  fuses  to  an  enamel ;  the  flame  continued,  the  specimen  assumes  a  cauli- 
flower ;  heated  with  salt  of  phosphorus  in  a  glass  tube,  it  etches  or  rough- 
ens the  inside  of  the  glass. 

PHOSPHORUS,  moistened  with  sulphuric  acid  and  heated,  gives  a  green, 
tinge  to  the  flame. 

CHLORINE.— A  substance  containing  chlorine,  combined  with  the  salt 
of  phosphorus  and  oxide  of  copper,  on  the  platinum  wire,  colors  the  flame 
deep  blue. 

SODA  ( Oxide  of  Sodium),  colors  the  flame  deep  yellow. 

ARSENIC  (Oxide),  before  the  blow-pipe,  volatilizes  in  white  fumes  of  a 
garlic  odor  ;  heated  to  redness  burns  with  a  pale  bluish  flame. 

The  following  additional  tests,  &c.,  for  the  determination  of  gold  and 
eilver  ores,  is  extracted  from  Mr.  Kustel's  incomparable  work. 

SEC.  10.  The  use  of  the  following  systematic  proceeding  can  be  under-  , 
etood  easily  by  an  example  : 

A  silver  mineral,  for  instance,  approved  as  such  by  an  examination  on 
gilver,  must  be  observed  first  as  to  what  lustre  it  shows,  or  whether  it  is 
dull.  Suppose,  then,  the  mineral  has  a  metallic  lustre.  (See  I.)  The  color 
must  be  observed  next,  and  compared  with  those  under  I.  The  ore  is  f  ur- 
ther  found  to  be  "  lead  gray."  We  have  then  to  proceed  from  the  indicated 
letter,  B,  on  the  right  side,  to  B  on  the  left,  and  examine  accordingly, 
•whether  the  mineral  gives  a  sublimate  or  not.  If.  for  instance,  no  sublimate 
has  been  obtained,  we  must  proceed  to  c,  as  indicated.  On  the  descrrbed 
examination  under  c,  the  mineral  appears  tough  ;  it  can  be  cut  with  »  knife 


1004  METALLURGY    OF    GOLD    AND    SILVER. 

We  go  over  to  Section  16,  and  see  the  numbers  2  and  20,  Silverglance  and 
Hessite.  The  description  of  both  will  lead  to  the  right  determination  of  the 
mineral. 

I. — Lustre  metallic  or  Sub-metallie. 

Color,  white,  greyish- white,  yellowish-white,  or  yellow,  see A  ' 

Color,  lead-gray,  blackish  leJL-gray,  or  iron-black, B 

Color,  light  steel-gray, 0 

Color,  reddish  lead-gray, D 

Color,  pinchbeck-brown, E 

II. — Lustre  Resinous  and  Adamantine. 

Color,  pearl-gray,  yellowish-green,  green,  olive-green,  lemon-yellow,  or 
light  yellow,  see P< 

m.—Dull 

Color,  red,  dark  red  (sometimes  externally  lead-gray), Gf 

Color,  blackish-blue, ' H 

Color,  greenish-black,  / 

A  It  can  be  cut  with  a  knife,  see « 

A  Cannot  be  cut ;  is  brittle, b 

B  In  a  closed  tube,  no  sublimate,  even  under  the  plow-pipe, c-. 

B  It  gives  a  sublimate,  with  or  without  the  blow-pipe, d 

C  In  a  closed  tube,  no  sublimate, e' 

C  It  gives  a  sublimate, f 

D  In  a  closed  tube,  dark-red,  sublimate.    See  Sec.  16  (8  or  9). 
E  lu  a  closed  or  open  tube,  no  sublimate.    See  Sec.  6  (4). 

F  In  a  closed  or  open  tube,  no  sublimate, a. 

F  Gives,  with  the  aid  of  the  blow-pipe,  a  slight  sublimate, h 

G  In  a  closed  tube,  red-brown  or  reddish-yellow  sublimate.     Sec.  16  (10). 

G  It  gives  three  sublimates — black,  yellow,  and  gray.     Sec.  16  (16). 

H  In  an  open  or  closed  tube,  no  sublimate.     Sec.  16  (3  a'). 

/  In  an  open  or  closed  tube,  no  sublimate.    Sec.  16  (11  a'). 

a  It  melts  on  charcoal  to  a  metallic  white  globule.    Sec.  16  (1). 

tr  It  melts  on  charcoal  to  a  metallic  yellow  or  yellowish  globule.     Sec.  15 ; 

d).  < 

b  It  melts  on  charcoal  to  a  globule  of  metallic  lustre,  coating  the  coal  white. 

Sec.  16  (17). 
f)  It  decrepitates  somewhat,  giving,  before  fusing,  a  slight,  very  volatile 

whitish  coating.    Sec.  15  (4),  or  Sec.  16  (22  or  23). 
t  It  can  be  cut  with  a  knife.     Sec.  16  (2  or  20). 
c  It  cannot  be  cut ;  is  brittle.     Sec.  16  (3  or  4  a  or  6),  or  Sec.  15  (2). 
d  In  a  closed  tube,  it  gives  a  reddish-yellow  sublimate.    Sec.  16  (6  a'). 
e  On  charcoal  it  fuses,  giving  a  yellow  and  white  coating.     Sec.  15  (3). 
/  In  a  closed  tube,  by  aid  of  the  blow-pipe,  a  dark  red  sublimate.      Sec.  16 

}       (ID- 

g  On  charcoal  it  fuses,  emits  an  acrid  odor,  and  leaves  globules  of  silver  ;  in 

a  closed  tube,  with  bisulphate  of  potassa,  emits  no  colored  vapors.  Sec. 

16  (12). 

g  It  gives,  with  bisulphate  of  potassa,  red-brown  vapors.  See.  16  (13  or  14). 
ft  lu  a  closed  tube,  with  bisulphate  of  potassa.  violet  vapors.  Sec.  16  (15). 
DESCRIPTION  OF  GOLD  AND  SILVER  ORES.  A.  Gold  Ore*.— 
SEC.  15.  Gold  appears  mostly  in  metallic  condition,  but  never  free  from  ' 
silver.  It  is  found  generally  in  the  form  of  grains,  scales,  dust,  also  in  the 
shape  of  leaves,  threads,  or  crystals.  It  is  not  ascertained  but  supposed  that 
a  part  of  the  gold  in  iron  pyrites  does  not  exist  in  metallic  state,  but  com. 


METALLURGY    OF    GOLD    AND    SILVER.  1005 

t»ined  with  sulphur,  or  -with  arsenic  in  the  arsenical  pyrites.    The  gold  if 
found  in  combination  with  the  following  metals  : 

1.  Silver.— In  different  proportions.    The  gold  of  Gold  Hill  lode,  X.  T., 
contains  forty-seven  to  fifty  per  cent,  of  silver;  that  of  the  Com  stock  lode,, 
thirty  to  forty-five  ;  Gila  River  and  Australian  gold,  three  to  five  per  cent. 
According  to  the  amount  of  silver,  the  gold  appears  more  or  less  whitish. 
Sixty  per  cent,  of  silver  renders  the  alloy  white. 

On  charcoal,  treated  with  the  oxidation  flame,  it  gives  sometimes  a 
bluibn-white  coating  of  antimony.  With  borax,  played  upon  with  reduction 
flame,  a  reaction  of  copper  may  be  observed.  ( 

2.  With  Tellurium.— It  contains  gold,   26;  silver,  14;    tellurium,   59;, 
xvitja  traces  of  lead,  copper,  and  antimony  ;  hardness,  1.5:  gravity,  5.7  to 
5,&  ;  lustre,  metallic  ;  color,  light  gray. 

In  an  open  tube  it  emits  white  fumes,  and  gives  a  gray  sublimate  of  tel- 
lurium. Directing  the  flame  on  the  sublimate,  it  melts  into  transparent, 
drops.  The  fumes  have  a  peculiar  sour  odor.  On  charcoal,  it  melts  to  a 
dark-gray  globule.  Played  upon  with  the  oxidation  flame,  it  gives  a  white 
coating,  which  disappears  with  a  bluish-green  color,  under  the  oxidation 
flame.  Continued  blowing  yields  a  yellow,  bright  gold  button. 

3.  With  Tellurium  and  Lead.— Gold,  9  ;  tellurium,  32  ;  lead,  54,  with 
traces  of  copper,   sulphur,  and  antimony  ;    H.  =  1.5  ;   Gr.  =  7.72  ;    color, 
dark  lead-gray. 

In  an  open  tube  it  fumes,  and  yields  a  gray  sublimate,  the  upper  part  of 
which,  formed  by  antimonious  acid,  can  be  driven  away  by  the  flame.  On 
charcoal  it  fumes  and  gives  two  coatings — a  white  one,  which  is  volatile,, 
consisting  of  tellurous  and  antimonious  acids  and  sulphate  of  lead  ;  the 
other  coating  is  yellow,  less  volatile,  and  consists  principally  of  oxide  of 
lead.  Continued  blowing  leaves  a  small  metallic  button,  showing  gold  color 
when  cupelled. 

4.  With  Mercury  and  Silver. — Gold,  36  ;  silver,  5  ;  mercury,  58.    Th* 
gold  is  found  also  alloyed  with  molybdenum,  platinum,  and  rhodium. 

B.— SILVER  ORES.  SEC.  16.  Silver  is  found  mostly  in  combination, 
•with  sulphur,  also  alloyed  with  other  metals  and  substances.  It  appears 
often  in  metallic  condition. 

1.  Native  Silver  is  found  crystallized,  in  threads  or  filaments.  It  oftea 
contains  a  small  amount  of  antimony,  arsenic,  iron,  gold,  or  copper.  The 
native  silver,  one  variety  of  the  Comstock  lode,  N.  T. ,  contains,  silver, 
60-85  ;  gold,  1.9  ;  lead,  8-30  ;  copper,  1-5  ;  H.=  2.7-3  ;  Gr.  =  10.6-11.3. 
Heated  on  charcoal,  it  becomes  covered  with  lead  globules,  disappearing: 
again  when  red  hot.  It  gives  a  yellow  coating  of  lead,  and  further  off,  a 
"bluish-white  of  autimonious  acid.  It  colors  the  borax  glass  green  with  the 
oxide  of  copper. 

a.  Combination  with  Sulphur. — 2.  Silver  glance  (Sulphuret  of  Silver). 
—Silver,  87  ;  sulphur,  12.9  ;  H.  =  2.5  ;  Gr.  =  6.9-7.2  ;  lustre,  metallic  ; 
color  and  streak,  blackish  lead-gray  ;  streak,  shining.  It  may  be  cut  liko 
lead.  On  charcoal,  it  melts  into  a  dark  blue  globule,  generally  emitting 
metallic  silver  on  the  surface  on  cooling,  especially  if  a  small  particle  of 
borax  glasB  is  added,  which  dissolves  impurities.  It  yields  a  silver  globule 
•when  melted  with  soda. 

3.  Stromcycrite  (Silver-Copper  glance). — Silver,  50-53  ;  copper,  31  ;  sul- 
phur, 15  ;  H.  =  2.5  ;  Gr.  =  6.2  ;  lustre,  metallic  ;  color,  blackish  lead-graj. 
In  a  closed  tube,  gives  sometimes  a  little  sulphur  sublimate  ;  in  an  open- 
tube,  sulphurous  acid.     On  charcoal,  it  fuses  to  a  steel-blue  globule,  emit- 
ting sometimes  metallic  silver  on  cooling.    Melted  with  soda,  it  gives  a  cop- 
per button,  which  yields  silver  when  refined.     It  occurs  inthfe  Heintzelmaa 
mine,  Arizona. 

a' .  A  variety  of  this  ore,  containing  40-33  per  cent,  of  silver,  with  a  dull 
blackish-blue  color  ;  streak,  shining  ;  can  be  cut ;  occurs  in  Arizona. 

4.  Sternbcryile  (Sulphuret  of  Silver  and  Iron). — Silver,  SO-33  ;  iroii,  36  j 


1006  METALLURGY   OF    GOLD    AND    SILVER. 

Sulphur,  30  ;  H.  =  1  ;  Gr.  =  4.2  ;  metallic  lustre  ;  color,  pinchbeck -brown  f 
gtreak,  black.  In  thin  laminae,  flexible,  resembling  grapnite.  In  an  open 
tube  it  gives  out  sulphurous  acid.  It  melts  to  a  globule  on  charcoal,  emit- 
ting silver,  and  follows  the  magnet. 

a'.  A  variety  of  this  ore  is  found  in  the  Gold  Hill  lode,  N.  T.  It  consists 
of  silver,  33.25  ;  iron,  34.05  ;  H.  =  2.8  ;  Gr.  =  5.2  ;  color,  dull  bluish-gray. 
The  fracture  has  a  metallic  lustre  and  dark  lead-gray  color.  The  powder  is 
"blackish-brown.  It  is  found  in  small  fragments  of  indistinct  cubic  shape. 
On  charcoal,  it  melts,  with  a  spongy  appearance,  to  a  dull  gray  globule, 
following  the  magnet.  A  slight  yellow  coating  indicates  a  trace  of  lead.  In 
melting,  it  gives  out  a  great  deal  of  sulphurous  acid.  Treated  with  soda,  a 
silver  globule  is  easily  obtained. 

6.  Combinations  with  Sulphur  and  Antimony,  or  Arsenic. — 5.  Brittle 
Silver  Ore.— Silver,  70  ;  antimony,  13.9  ;  sulphur,  15.7  ;  H.  =  2.5  ;  Gr.  = 
€.2  ;  lustre,  metallic  ;  color  and  streak,  iron-black,  or  blackish  lead-gray. 
In  a  close  tube,  it  decrepitates,  melts  to  a  globule,  and  gives  a  blackish  sub- 
limate, which  turns  red-brown  when  cold,  consisting  of  sulphide  of  anti- 
mony. In  an  open  tube  it  melts,  evolving  sulphurous  acid,  and  fumes. 
On  charcoal  it  fuses,  and  coats  the  coal  white  witli  antimonious  acid.  By 
continual  blast,  the  coating  assumes  a  pink  color,  derived  from  the  oxide  oi 
silver.  It  occurs  frequently  in  the  Comstock  lode. 

6.  Polybasite  (Eugen  Glance).— Silver,  64-72  ;  copper,  3-10  ;    sulphur, 
17  ;  H.  =  2.5  ;    Gr.  =  6.2.     It  contains  also  antimony,   arsenic,  iron,   and 
sometimes  zinc.     Lustre,  metallic  ;  cotor,  iron-black  ;  streak,  black.     In  a 
closed  tube  it  yields  nothing  volatile.    In  an  open  tube  it  gives  antimouial 
lumes  and  sulphurous  acid.    It  occurs  also  in  Gold  Hill  lode,  N.  T. 

a'.  The  polybasite  of  the  Comstock  lode  contains  64  per  cent,  of  silver. 
It  gives,  in  a  closed  tube,  with  the  aid  of  the  blow-pipe,  a  reddish-brown 
sublimate,  with  a  yellow  edge.  In  an  open  tube,  white  fumes  arise,  and 
some  white  sublimate  deposits.  On  charcoal,  with  the  reduction  flame,  it 
evolves  an  odor  of  garlic.  Played  upon  with  the  oxydaticn  flame,  it  gives 
out  sulphurous  acid  and  a  white  coating  of  antimonious  acid.  It  meits  to  a 
globule  with  a  metallic  lustre.  If  the  hot  blast  is  changed  suddenly  to  a 
v-old  one,  and  directed  on  the  globule,  holding  the  blow-pipe  point  close  to 
it,  metallic  silver  is  emitted.  If  the  cold  blast  is  stopped  too  soon,  the  silver 
•will  disappear  again. 

7.  Miarayrite.—  Silver,   35.8;  antimony,  42.8  ;  sulphur,  21;   H.  =  2.5  ; 
Gr.  =5.2-5.4  ;  lustre,  metallic  adamantine  ;  color,  iron-black  ;  streak,  dark 
eherry-red.    In  a  closed  tube  it  decrepitates,  melts  easily,  and  gives  out  a 
sublimate  of  sulphide  of  antimony.    In  an  open  tube,  sulphurous  acid  and 
antimonial  fumes  are  emitted,  depositing  a  white  sublimate  of  antimonious 
acid.     On  charcoal  it  melts  quietly,  emitting  sulphurous  acid  and  antimouial 
fumes.     It  covers  the  coal  with  a  "white  coating,  which  becomes  pink-o^lor^d 
by  continual  blast.    Melted  with  soda,  a  silver  button  is  obtained,  which, 
treated  with  borax  and  tin,  reacts  on  copper. 

8.  Dark  red  Silver  Ore  (Pyraryyrite,  Antimonial  Blend). — Silver,  58.9  ; 
antimony,  23.4  ;  sulphur,  17.5  ;  H.  =2.5  ;  Gr.  =  5.7.    Lustre,  metalMc-like 
fidmuntine  ;  color,  dark-red  ;  powder,  cochineal-red.    In  a  closed  tube,  by 
the  aid  of  the  blow-pipe,  it  yields  a  sublimate  of  sulphide  of  antimony,  black 
•while  hot,  but  varying  from  red  to  reddish-yellow  when  cold.      In  an  open 
tube  it  gives  antimonial  fumes  and  sulphurous  acid.     On  charcoal  it  melts 
easily,  and  deposits  a  white  coating  of  antimonious  acid.      With  soda  It 
gives  a  silver  globule.     It  occurs  also  in  the  Gold  Hill  lode,  N.  T. 

9.  Lif/ht-red  Silver   Ore    (Prottstite,  Arsenical    Blend).— Silver,    65.4; 
arsenic. '  15.1  ;*  sulphur,    19.4  ;    H.  =  2.5  ;  Gr.  =  5.5-5.6  ;    color,  similar  to 
dark  reel  silver  ore,  but  lighter.     Behaves  like  the  preceding,  except  th$ 
arsenical  fumes. 

10.  Xanthocone.-  Silver,  64  ;  arsenic,  13.4  ;  sulphur,  21.3  ;  H.=2  ;  Gr. 

color,  dull  red  to  clove  brown  ;  powder,  yellow.     When  heated  la 


METALLURGY    OF    GOLD    AXD    SILVER.  1007 

»  closed  tube  it  becomes  dark  red,  melts,  and  gives  some  sublimate  of  sul- 
phide of  arsenic.  While  hot,  it  is  dark,  brownish-red,  and  red  to  reddish- 
yellow  when  cold.  In  an  open  tube  and  on  charcoal,  it  behaves  like  tha 
preceding. 

11.  Silver  Fahlerz  (Argentiferous   Gray   Copper  Ore).— Silver,    17.71- 
31.29  ;  antimony,  26.63-24.63  ;    sulphur,  23.*52-21.17  ;    copper,  25.23-1-1.81  ; 

,  iron,  3.72-5.98  ;  zinc,  3.10-0.99  ;  lustre,  metallic  ;  color,  light  steel-gray.  In 
'  a  closed  tube  it  sometimes  decrepitates,  melts,  and  gives,  by  aid  of  the 
blow-pipe,  a  dark  red  sublimate  of  tersulphide  of  antimony,  with  antimo- 
nious  acid.  In  an  open  tube  it  fuses,  gives  autimonial  fumes  and  sulphur- 
ous acid.  On  charcoal  it  fuses  easily,  and  gives  a  bluish-white  coating  of 
autimonious  acid  and  antimonial  fumes.  There  is  also  a  yellowish  coating 
close  to  the  test,  which  appears  white  on  cooling.  This  coating  is  created 
by  oxide  of  zinc. 

a'.  The  Reese  River  ore,  from  the  Comet  lode,  seems  to  be  a  metamor- 
phosed silver  fahlerz.  The  sulphur  is  represented  by  carbonic  acid,  so  that 
almost  all  copper  and  silver  is  a  carbonate.  It  contains  silver,  22. 35,  cop- 
per, 17,  antimony,  and  some  lead.  It  has  a  dull  greenish-black  or  black 
color  ;  streak,  sliming  ;  powder,  greenish-gray.  In  a  closed  tube  it  yields 
nothing  volatile.  In  an  open  tube  some  sulphurous  acid  can  be  observed. 
On  charcoal,  fuses  slowly,  but  boils  up  suddenly  in  contact  with  glowing 
coal,  leaving  a  button  of  silver  and  copper.  This  button,  when  played 
upon  with  the  oxidation  flame  on  another  spot  of  the  charcoal,  gives  first  a 
bluish  coating  of  antimonious  acid,  then  a  yellow  one,  nearer  to  the  assay 
of  the  oxide  of  lead.  The  silver  can  be  separated  from  copper  by  cupella- 
tion  with.  lead. 

&'.  The  silver  fahlerz  of  Sheba  lode  (Humboldt)  contains,  silver,  8.20, 
goid,  0.008,  some  antimony  and  lead,  but  very  little  copper.  It  has  a  light 
gray  metallic  lustre.  It  is  also  called  gray  silver  ore. 

c.     Combination  with  Chlorine,  Bromine  and  Iodine. 

12.  Horn  Silver  (Chloride  of  Silver}.— Silver,  75.2  ;  chlorine,  24.6  ;  H.=* 
1.5  ;  Gr.=5.5-5.6  ;  lustre,  adamantine  ;  color,  gray,  greenish  or  blackish  ; 
streak,  shining.     It  looks  like  horn  or  wax.     It  is'  translucent,  and  may  be 
cut  like  wax.     Occurs  frequently  in  the  Comstock  and  Gold  Hill  lodes,  also 
in  California.     It  fuses  in  a  candle  flame.     On  charcoal  it  is  easily  reduced, 
and  gives  an  odor  of  chlorine.     If  treated  under  the  reduction  flame,  with 
an  addition  of  copper,  it  forms  a  chloride  of  copper,  and  colors  the  flame 
azure-blue. 

13.  Embolite  ( Chlorobromide  of  Silver).—  Silver,  66.9  to  75  ;  H.=l-1.5  ; 
Gr.  =5  3-5.4  ;  lustre,  resinous  ;  color,  yellowish-green  or  green.     On  char- 
coal it  fuses  easily,  evolves  vapors  of  bromine,  and  gives  metallic  silver. 
Mixed  with  oxide  of  copper,  it  colors  the  flame  greenish-blue. 

I  14.  Bromi/rite  (Bromic  Silver). — Silver,  57.56  ;  bromine,  42.44  ;  H.= 
1-1.5  ;  Gr.=5.8-5.6.  In  a  closed  tube,  treated  with  bisulphate  of  potassa, 
it  emits  brown  vapors.  On  charcoal  it  fuses  easily  and  yields  a  globule  ott 
silver  It  is  yellow  or  greenish,  and  may  be  cut  like  chloride  of  silver. 

15.  Jodyrite  (Iodide  of  Silver).— Silver,  46  ;  iodine,  54  ;  H.=1.5  ;  Gr.=  ' 
5.5  ;  lustre,  adamantine  ;  color,  yellow,  also  greenish.    It  is  translucent, 
lu  scale  shape  it  is  always  lemon-yellow.     When  heated  in  a  closed  tube  it 
becomes  fire-red,  but  assumes  its  former  color  when  cold.     It  fuses  easily, 
and  gives,  by  the  aid  of  the  blow-pipe,  a  reddish-yellow  sublimate,  getting 
lemon-yellow  on  cooling.    With  bisulphate  of  potassa,  it  emits  beautiful 
violet  vapors.    In  an  open  tube  it  gives  an  orange  sublimate,  lemon-yellow 
on  cooling.     On  charcoal  it  assumes  a  fire-red  color  before  it  fuses,  and 
spreads  on  the  coal  and  yields  many  minute  silver  globules.     With  an  addi- 
tion of  oxide  of  copper,  it  makes 'an  intensely  green  flame  with  a  bluish 
tinge. 

16.  Iodide  of  Silver  and  Mercury.— Silver,  40-42  ;  iodine,   quicksilver, 
and  sulphur  (chlorine  ?),  color,  dull,  dark  red  ;  streak,  shining  ;  powde»t 


1008  METALLURGY    OF    GOLD    AND    SILVER. 

dark  red,  but  changes  soon  into  lead-gray,  if  exposed  to  the  light  In  a 
closed  tube  it  gives  three  sublimates,  separated  in  ri»gs.  The  nearest  t« 
the  assay  is  black  (sulphide  of  mercury),  the  second,  yellow  (subchloride 
of  mercury  ?),  the  third  is  gray  (metallic  mercury).  An  addition  of  bisul- 
phate  of  potassa  causes  it  to  yield  violet  vapors,  which  come  from  th« 
iodine.  In  an  open  tube  it  gives  the  same  sublimate,  but  the  black  is  very 
slight ;  it  gives  also  yellow  fumes.  A  gold  particle  in  the  tube  becomes 
amalgamated.  Litmus  paper  at  the  upper  end  is  colored  red  by  the  sul 
phur.  Heated  on  charcoal  it  turns  black,  fuses  easily,  and  yields  silvei- 
(globules.  Melted  with  soda,  it  draws  partly  into  the  coal.  If  this  crust  is 
\rbroken  out  and  laid  on  a  blank  piece  of  silver,  with  a  drop  of  water,  the 
Vulphur  in  it  will  cause  a  black  spot  on  the  silver.  Heated  with  a  small 
piece  of  pure  lead,  it  gives  a  beautiful  green  coating,  with  a  yellow  border, 
nearest  the  assay.  This  coating  (iodine  and  lead)  is  far  off  from  the  test* 
"With  copper  oxide,  like  the  iodyrite. 

This  mineral  occurs,  to  acknowledge,  only  in  the  Heintzelman  mine, 
Arizona. 

d.  Combination  with  Antimony. — 17.  Antimonial  Silver. — Silver,  77.84; 
antimony,    23-16  ;    H.=3.5  ;    Gr.=9.4-9.8  ;    lustre,    metallic  ;    color    and 
streak,  silver-white.     On  charcoal  it  iuses  easily  to  a  globule,  coating  the 
coal  white.     A  continual  blast  renders  the  white  coating  reddish. 

e.  Combination  ivith  Selenium. — 18.  Naumannite  (Selenid  of  Silver). — 
Silver,  73  ;  selenium,  26  ;   H.=2.5  ;  Gr.=8  ;  lustre,  metallic  ;  color,  iron- 
black.     It  melts  easily  on  charcoal,  but  with  intumescence  in  the  reduction 
flame.     It  emits  the  selenium  odor  of  rotten  radish.    With  soda  it  yields 
metallic  silver. 

19.  Eucairite  (Selenid  of  Silver  and  Copper). — Silver,  43.1  ;  selenium, 
31.G  ;  copper,  25.3  ;  lustre,  metallic  ;  color,  lead-gray.  On  charcoal  it  melts 
to  a  gray  metallic  globule,  fumes,  and  re-acts  on  borax  with  copper.  This 
mineral' is  soft,  and  can  be  cut  with  a  knife. 

/.  With  Tellurium— W.  Hessite  (Tellurid  of  Silver).— Silver,  62.42; 
tellurium,  36.96  ;  iron,  0.24  ;  Gr.=8.4-8.6  ;  lustre,  metallic  ;  color,  lead- 
gray  or  steel-gray.  It  is  soft,  and  can  be  cut  like  lead.  According  to  Mr. 
Blake,  this  mineral  is  found  in  California  also.  He  describes  the  re-action 
as  follows  : 

"  In  an  open  tube  the  mineral  fuses  quietly,  coloring  the  glass  a  bright 
yellow  under  assay.  A  white  or  gray  sublimate  is  deposited  at  a  short  dis- 
tance, immediately  over  it,  which,  on  being  heated,  fuses  into  transparent 
drops  resembling  oil.  On  charcoal  it  fuses  to  a  leaden-colored  globule, 
"/which,  on  cooling,  becomes  covered  with  dendrites.  This  globule  flattens 
under  the  hammer.  With  the  addition  of  soda,  a  silver  globule  is  ob- 
tained." 

/.     With  Bismuth.— 21.  Bismiith  Silver.— Silver,  60  ;  bismuth,  10  ;  cop- 
per, 7.8,  and  some  arsenic  ;  lustre,  metallic  ;  color,  tin-white  or  grayish. 
On  charcoal  it  melts  easily,  covering  the  coal  dark  orange.     It  is  yellow 
while  hot,  and  lemon-yellow  when  cold.     The  oxide  of  copper  in  it  colors 
the  borax  green,  when  melted  on  charcoal. 

g.  With  Mercury.— 22.  Silver  Amalgam..— Silver,  34.8-26.2  ;  quicksil- 
/Ter,  65.2-73.7  ;  H.=3.5  ;  Gr.=13.7-14  ;  lustre,  metallic  ;  color,  silver-white; 
"brittle.  In  a  closed  tube  the  mercury  sublimates. 

23.  Arqwrite.— Silver,  86.49  ;   quicksilver,   13.51.     It  behaves  like  tht 


FIRE    ASSAY    OF    GOLD    AND    SILVKR    ORES. 

DRY  AND  HUMID  ASSAY  OF  MINERALS. 

ASSAY  or  ORES  BY  THE  DRY  AND  HUMID  PROCESSES.— In  the  chry, 
or  fire  assay  of  gold  and  silver  ores,  the  apparatus  required  is,  1.  A  re- 
liable assay  balance,  as  previously  noted.  2.  A  pair  of  less  delicate 
balances,  with  the  capacity  of  weighing  3  ozs.,  *he  weights  to  be  troy 
ounces  ;  each  ounce  to  be  divided  into  i§§.  3.  An  iron  mortar.  4.  A  lot 
of  French  clay  No.  7  crucibles,  glass  mattresses,  and  small  crucibles  o,' 
(dry  cups)  pipe  clay.  5.  Crucible  tongs.  6.  A  fine  wire  cloth  sieve  (.10 
holes  to  the  inch  T2500  to  a  sq.  in.),  extended  on  a  wooden  frame. 
Cupel  tongs.  8.  Two  or  3  muffles,  10  ins.  long,  4  ins.  wide,  and  3  in:'.  1  .. 
9.  A  very  small,  stiff  brush.  10.  A  fine  sieve  with  about  40  holes  to 
inch.  11.  A  brass  mould,  and  bone  ashes  for  making  cupels. 

The  formation  of  the  cupels  requires  bones  to  be  burned  perfect: 
•white,  then  pulverized  and  sifted  through  the  last-noted  sieve.  These' 
ashes  are  mixed  with  Avater  and  worked  with  the  hands  to  a  putty-like  con- 
sistence, then  placed  in  the  mould  and  beaten  with  the  pestle  by  a  wooden, 
mallet.  The  pestle  is  finally  withdrawn  by  a  twisting  movement  and  tho- 
cupel  is  forced  out  of  the  mould  by  the  ball  of  the  hand . 

In  addition  to  the  above  noted,  the  following  materials  will  be  required. 
1.  Wheat  flour  ;  to  use  as  a  substitute  for  charcoal  in  reducing  a  portion  of 
the  litharge  to  lead.  A  compound  of  12  parts  of  wheat  flour  with  100  parts 
of  soda  is  an  excellent  flux  for  lead  assays.  2.  Litharge  ,-  is  of  great  utility 
in  promoting  fusion.  It  should  be  thoroughly  mixed,  sifted,  and  kept  from 
damp.  With  silver  ore,  in  a  crucible,  1^  ozs.,  with  10  grs.  of  wheat  flour,, 
will  produce  a  button,  which  is  to  be  cupeled,  and  the  weight  of  silver 
product  noted.  This  weight  is  to  be  deducted  from  the  assays  where  th::  - 
amount  of  litharge  is  used.  3.  Iron;  is  used  to  desulphurize  the  sulphr.- 
r2ts.  Should  be  supplied  in  small  pieces  of  wire  %  or  fv  of  an  invh  thick,, 
and  from  |  tcy  |  in.  in  length.  4.  Carbonate  of  soda ;  for  use  expose  the 
crystals  to  the  air  until  it  forms  a  dry  white  powder.  Soda-ash  or  Bicar- 
bonate of  soda  may  be  substituted  for  it  with  good  results.  5.  Common 
table  salt ;  to  use,  the  water  of  crystallization  must  be  expelled,  by  melt- 
ing the  salt  on  a  sheet-iron  plate  until  intumescence  ceases.  The  early 
fusion  of  the  salt  in  the  assay  mixture  prevents  the  injurious  contact  of 
air  with  the  latter  during  the  process.  6.  Glass,  serves  as  an  excellent 
flux  ;  for  use  it  must  be  well  pulverized  in  the  iron  inortar,  and  afterwards; 
sifted. 

The  sample  of  ore  to  be  treated  being  thoroughly  pulverized,  it  is,  with' 
the  fluxes,  weighed  out  in  the  following  proportion  : 

a.  Ores  or  Tailings  containing  but  little  Sulphurets. — Ore,  250 grs. ;  glass,. 
125  grs.  ;  flour,  8  grs.  ;  litharge.  l£  ozs.  ;  soda,  1  oz. 

6.  Ores  containing  about  50 per  cent,  of  Sulphurets —Ore,  250  grs.;  glawj. 
125  grs.  ;  iron,  50  grs.  ;  litharge,  l£  ozs.  ;  soda,  1  oz. 

c.  Ores  being  nearly  all  Sulphurets. — The  mixture  is  like  the  preceding;. 
but  double  the  amount  of  iron,  100  grs.  must  be  used.  The  foregoing  pro- 
portions are  given  on  the  high  authority  of  Mr.  Kustel. 

The  soda  and  litharge  are  first  placed  in  the  crucible,  over  a  sheet  of 
paper  ;  then  the  rest  of  the  mixture  ;  all  are  carefully  mixed  together 
(making  sure  that  no  portion  is  lost  or  spilled),  tap  the  crucible  in  order  to 
settle  the  mixture  ;  strew  over  the  whole  a  layer  of  salt  one-fourth  of  an 
inch  deep,  cover,  and  place  the  crucible  on  the  muffle  in  the  middle  of  tne 
furnace  ;  if  there  are  several  assays  place  them  in  a  row  touching  each' 
other,  but  apart  from  the  walls  of  the  furnace,  and  pile  the  fuel  (charcoal)1 
around  them,  but  no*  higher  than  the  tops  of  the  crucibles.  Ignite  the  chsir- 
coal  and  maintain  the  fire  as  it  burns  down,  by  means  of  fresh  fuel,  so  :is  t's- 
keep  the  fire  nearly  level  with  the  tops  of  the  crucibles.  The  latter  should 


1010  FIEE    ASSAY    OF    GOLD    AND    SILVER    ORES. 

"be  lajge  enough  to  prevent  the  assay  seething  over  into  the  fire.  As  the 
melting  proceeds  the  bone-ash  cupels  are  placed  on  the  muffle  and  brought 
to  a  red  heat. 

The  melting  will  occupy  about  one  hour  ;  when  accomplished,  remove* 
first,  the  crucible  covers,  and  then  the  crucibles  themselves,  by  grasping 
them  with  the  long  crucible  tongs  provided  for  that  purpose  ;  remove  from 
the  furnace,  and  pour  the  contents  into  the  iron  moulds,  which  are  formed 
with  small  cavities  or  depressions,  about  f  in.  deep,  for  receiving  the  melted 
assay.  The  metallic  button  in  the  mould,  after  being  cooled,  is  freed  from 
adhering  slag  by  being  hammered  into  a  square  shape,  and,  by  means  of 
the  cupel  tongs  above  noted,  is  transferred  into  the  red-hot,  bone-ash  cupels, 
where  it  fuses  in  a  short  time  and  the  lead  in  the  mixture  assumes  a  bright, 
agitated  appearance,  fumes,  works  up  to  the  surface,  and  draws  off  to  the 
sides  of  the  cupel,  where  it  is  absorbed  and  disappears  in  the  porous  mass. 
By  a  proper  application  of  heat  this  activity  continues  until  a  bright  dazzling 
play  of  rainbow  colors  announces  the  final  disappearance  of  all  the  lead, 
leaving  the  button  of  silver  behind. 

The  silver  button  is  freed  from  any  adherert  bone-ash  by  hammering 
on  the  edge  ;  it  is  then  weighed,  and  the  weight  noted,  then  transferred  to 
a  glass  tube  containing  about  ^  oz.  of  pure  nitric  acid,  and  submitted  to  the 
flame  of  an  alcohol  lamp,  where  it  soon  boils,  emitting  reddish-brown 
vapors,  and  separates  from  any  gold  that  may  be  present,  leaving  the  latter 
as  a  blackish  sediment,  undissolved  in  the  tube.  The  silver  being  dissolved, 
the  acid  solution  is  carefully  poured  off,  leaving  the  gold  behind,  and  the 
tube  is  then  filled  with  distilled  water.  When  the  auriferous  sediment  has 
settled,  the  water  is  poured  off  carefully,  and  it  is  again  filled  with  all  the 
water  it  will  contain.  The  tube  is  then  covered  with  a  dry  cup,  or  pipe-clay 
crucible,  and  suddenly  turned  upside  down  so  as  to  deposit  the  sediment  on 
the  bottom  of  the  cup.  The  tube  is  very  carefully  withdrawn  from  the 
water  so  as  to  leave  every  particle  of  the  gold  in  the  fluid,  and  after  the  gold 
lias  completely  subsided  the  water  is  slowly  drained  off,  and  the  sediment 
dried  in  the  cup  over  an  alcohol  flame  until  the  gold  assumes  a  yellow 
color.  This  gold  is  weighed  and  the  weight  noted. 

The  utility  of  this  manipulation  will  be  manifest  from  the  important  re- 
sults obtained,  as  shown  by  the  following  calculations,  transcribed  from 
Kustel  : 

"The  gold  was  found  to  weigh,  for  instance,  iSSn,  and  the  silver  button 
before  dissolving  i^rfo.  If  the  gold  is  subtracted  from  the  silver  which  con- 
tained this  gold,  we  find  thus  the  pure  silver — 

356—35  =  321  silver  x  116  =  372'3  ounces  per  ton. 
and  35  gold   x  1  16  =  40'6        " 

To  find  the  value,  the  ounces  of  gold  must  be  multiplied  with  20.67  and 
those  of  silver  with  1.30.     These  numbers  in  their  fractions  are  not  perfectly 
correct,  but  will  serve  our  purpose.     Continuing  the  calculation  we  find 
Silver  =  372  "3  ounces  x    1'30  =  $483.99 
Gold    =    40-6       "       x  20-67  =  6839.20  / 

Total  value $1,323.19  per  ton. 

In  case  the  ore  for  the  assay  has  been  weighed  out  by  half  an  ounce,  equal 
to  240  grains,  the  calculation  is  made  ti.e  same  way  as  before,  with  the  ex- 
ception that  the  number  1.215  must  be  substituted  for  1.16.  The  procedure 
of  the  preceding  example  would  be  as  follows : 

The  weight  of  the  button  was  321.  Ik  is  multiplied  with  1.215  will  give 
the  amount  of  ounces  per  ton  of  ore  of  2000  Ibs. 

32  (321)  x  T215  =  390 ounces.  The  quantity  of  fluxes  used  for  250graini 
'  of  ore  will  also  serve  for  half  ounce  assays. 


FIBE    ASSAY   OF   MINERALS.  1011 

In  gold  assays,  the  resulting  button  being  insoluble  in  nitric  acid,  it  mart 
be  weighed,  melted  on  charcoal  before  the  blowpipe  w,ith  three  timers  ira 
weight  of  pure  silver,  then  dissolved  and  tieated  as  above  noted." 

The  assay  of  gold  or  silver  ores  may  also  be  effected  by  fusing  in  a 
crucible  the  following  mixture  : 

Ore  finely  pulverized 4  parts. 

Litharge 4     " 

Black  Flux 3    " 

If  much  oxide  of  lead  be  present  in  the  ore  use  the  black  flux  only.  li 
pyrites  are  abundant  in  the  sample  under  treatment  use  saltpetre  and  nitre. 
If  the  resultant  button  be  an  alloy  of  gold,  silver,  copper  and  lead,  add  to 
it  silver  and  lead,  so  that  the  sample  will  approximately  consist  of  gold,  1 
part :  silver,  3  parts  ;  and  lead,  from  12  to  10  parts.  Place  the  lead  within 
a  bone-ash  cupel  within  a  muffle,  melt,  then  add  the  gold  and  silver  wrap- 
ped iu  paper,  maintain  the  heat  until  the  play  of  colors  comes  over  the  but- 
ton as  it  brightens  and  becomes  tranquil  ;  then  cool,  and  weigh  it.  To 
"  part ,"  the  gold  from  the  silver,  anneal  the  button,  hammer  it  thin,  and 
twist  it  into  a  roll  (called  a  "  cornet")  and  submit  to  heat  ia  dilute  nitric 
acid  as  long  as  action  continues,  then  in  concentrated  nitric  acid  until  the 
silver  is  wholly  dissolved.  Next,  well  wash,  dry,  and  ignite  the  "  cornet"; 
the  weight  of  silver  is  equivalent  to  the  weight  of  the  button  before  parting, 
less  that  of  the  refined  cornet 

Note. — Chloride  of  silver  (Honi  silver\  composed  of  silver,  75.2  part*  , 
chlorine,  24.6  parts,  cannot  be  decomposed  by  heat  alone.  It  melts  at  500* 
Fahr.  At  a  temperature  of  212°  Fahr.,  it  is  decomposed  by  caustic  potassa 
and  soda,  and  may  be  reduced  to  the  metallic  state  by  the  addition  of  :i 
little  cane  sugar.  It  may  also  be  reduced  to  the  metallic  state  by  fusing  1 
.part  of  the  chloride  with  2  parts  carbonate  of  soda,  or  1  part  of  the  chloride 
with  2  parts  of  chalk  and  2  parts  of  charcoal. 

Assay  of  Copper  Ores,  containing  Sulphur,  but  otherwise  same  as  the  last. 
— Pulverize  well,  and  melt  in  an  earthen  crucible,  at  a  dull  red  heat,  equal 
parts  of  ore  and  vitrified  borax,  remove  from  the  slag  the  matte  (crude 
copper)  button.  Pulverize  it  well  and  slowly,  roast  in  an  earthen  crucible, 
stirring  meanwhile  with  a  steel  rod  to  promote  the  emission  of  sulphurous 
acid  fumes.  When  no  more  vapors  are  evolved  raise  and  maintain  the  tem- 
perature at  a  white  heat  for  several  minutes  ;  then  introduce  into  the  sam« 
crucible- 
Roasted  matte 1  part. 

Black  flux 3  to  4  parts. 

Cover  the  compound  with  a.  layer  of  vitrified  borax  and  submit  it  to  a 
cherry-red  heat  for  20  minutes  iu  a  wind  furnace  ;  then  remove  and  weigh 
the  res ul tout  copper  button. 

Assay  of  Copper  Ores  containing  Arsenic  and  various  other  Metals. — Treaf 
the  pulverized  matte  as  in  the  previous  case,  then  roast  it  with  pulverized 
charcoal  until  the  emission  of  arsenical  fumes  cea?es.  Melt  the  resultant 
matte  with  black  flux  and  borax  as  above  noted ,  and  cupel  the  button  in  ^ 
bone-:ish  cupel  with  pure  lead.  After  the  metallic  globule  becomes  trat 
quil.  and  the  brightening  takes  place,  cool,  extract,  and  weigh  the  meta^i? 
battou. 

Assay  of  Silver  Ores  by  the  Humid  Process.— Direst  the  pulverized  ore  h 
nitric  acid,  then  add  a  solution  of  common  salt  or  muriatic  acid  to 
the  silver  solution  as  long  as  any  precipitate  is  thrown  down.  Next, 
filter  and  dry  the  residuum,  then  melt  the  dry  residuum  with  carbonate 
of  soda  iu  an  earthen  crucible  ;  when  cool,  extract  and  weigh  the  metallic 
Button.  Chloride  of  silver  (Horn  silver)  is  not  adapted  for  this  treatment, 


10X3  DRY    AND   HUMID    ASSAY    OF   OREO, 

being  insoluble  in  nitric  acid,  but  it  can  be  dissolved  in  ammonia.,  or  III 
boiling  solutions  of  the  chloride  of  potassium,  barium,  sodium,  strontium 
and  calcium.  Cyanide  of  potassium,  in  solution,  will  also  dissolve  chloride 
of  silver  ;  strong  sulphuric  acid  gradually  decomposes  it  ;  iron  and  zinc 
will  likewise  effect  its  decomposition,  especially  in  presence  of  free  muriatic 
acid.  The  behavior  of  Bromide  of  silver  is  nearly  identical  with  the  chloride. 
Assay  of  Gold  Oresby  the  Humid  Process.  —Digest  the  ore(weil  pulverized) 
in  1  part  of  nitric  and  4  parts  of  hydrochloric  acid,  then  dilute,  filter  and, 
evaporate  nearly  to  dryness  to  expel  excess  of  acid.  Next,  dilute  the  dried'^ 
filtrate  in  pure  water,  and  boil  the  solution  with  a  solution  of  sulphate  of 
;?on,  which  precipitates  the  gold  as  a  dark  pnrple  powder.  Next,  filter  and 
heat  the  residuum  with  hydrochloric  acid,  then  filter,  wash,  and  dry  the  gol& 
powder.  Oxalic  acid,  substituted  for  the  su'phate  of  iron,  precipitates  the 
gold  in  large  flakes. — Quartz  Operator's  Hand-Book. 

Assay  of  Iron. — Melt  ill  a  covered  crucibU  a  well-pulverbed  mixture 
of: 

Powdered  and  roasted  ore 4  parts. 

Fluor-spar 2    " 

Charcoal .   2    " 

Common  salt  strewed  over  the  whole 8    " 

After  fusion  remove  and  weigh  the  resultant  button  of  cast  iron.    A 
rariety  of  fluxes,  as  clay,  lime,  &c.,  may  be  employed,  according  as  tht 
**•  nature  of  the  ore  may  require. 

Assay  of  Galena,  or  Ores  of  Lead  containing  Sulphur. — Place  the  follow* 
*ng  in  an  earthen  crucible  in  the  order  of  mention  : 

Well  pulverized  ore 10  parts. 

Iron  in  strips  or  plates 1  to  3     " 

Blackflux 30     " 

Common  salt,  a  thick  layer  over  all,  with  a  piece  of  charcoal  on  to^ 
Cover  the  crucible,  melt  the  assay,  gradually  increasing  the  temperature* 
from  a  low  heat  to  a  bright  red,  continuing  the  latter  about  30  minutes. 
Next,  tap  the  crucible  to  consolidate  the  contents,  cool,  and  remove  the 
metallic  button. 

Assay  of  Oxidized  Ores  ofLead.—P\a.ce  the  following  in  an  earthfta  cru- 
cible in  the  order  of  mention  : 

Well  pulverized  ore 10  parti. 

Carbonate  of  soda 30to40    ' 

Granulated  charcoai 3    ' 

Iron,  in  strips  or  plates,  if  sulphur  be  present.     1    " 
Common  salt,  a  thick  layer  over  all. 
Treat  as  in  preceding  manipulation. 

Assay  of  Copper  Ores  where  no  other  Metals  are  present  but  Iron  on* 
Cbpper.— Place  in  a  crucible  the  following  : 

Well  pulverized  ore. parts. 

Blackflux 6    '  ^ 

Begin  with  a  gradual  heat,  increasing  to  a  bright  red,  continuing  15 
minutes,  then  extract  the  button  from  the  slag,  and  note  the  weight. 

To  recover  Gold  and  Silver  Residues  in  Photographic  Wastes. — A  large  list 
of  fluxes  for  reducing  these  wastes  will  be  found  on  page  981.  To  precipi- 
tate the  precious  metal  from  rejected  solutions  of  nitrate  of  silver,  add  the 
following  as  long  as  it  causes  a  precipitate  ;  carbonate  of  soda,  4  ozs.  ; 
water,  6  ozs. 

Add  water,  and  then  thoroughly  wash  the  precipitate  in  plenty  of  trarrn 

\  fater;  lastly,  dry,  and  put  up  the  precipitate  in  well-stoppered  bottles,  if 

J  not  to  be  reduced  forthwith.    Lime  water  is  also  a  first-class  precipitating 

•olution  for  silver.    To  obtain  it  place  some  pieces  of  lime  in  a  wide-mouth  «w 


^PROCESSES,  HTa,  IN  VARIOUS    TRADES.  10IS 

Ibottl*  or  covered  vessel ;  fill  up  with  wa^M*,  shake  well  and  allow  the  mixture 
to  subside  for  several  daya,  then  pour  off  the  clear  for  use. 

Among  other  precipitating  solutions  for  photographer's  use  the  following 
may  be  noted:  1.  For  Developer  Washings.  Common  salt,  4  ozs.,  water 
10  ozs.  2.  For  Toning  Bath.  Sulphate  of  iron,  4  ozs.,  water,  16  ozs.  3.  For 
Hyposulphite  Fixing  Bath*.  Sulphide  of  potash,  4  ozs.,  water,  16  ozs.  4.  The 
yjntric  Acid  Plate-Solution,  Hydrochloric  acid,  4  ozs.,  water,  8  ozs.  5.  For 
'  Nitrate  of  Silver  Solution,  old  Baths,  etc.  Hydrochloric  acid,  4  ozs.,  water, 
4  ozs.  The  above  are  used  for  promoting  the  separation  of  valuable  ingre-. 
dients  in  a  solid  state  from  chemical  solutions.  The  process  is  assisted  bv[ 
previously  heating  the  solution  ;  then  add  the  reagent  gradually,  and  stir  well^ 
to  effect  a  thorough  intermixture.  The  solution  is  then  allowed  to  rest  until 
,the  precipitate  subsides.  Then  add  a  few  drops  more  of  the  reagent  to  the 
liquid,  and  if  no  additional  precipitation  is  effected  the  process  is  complete, 

{VALUABLE  PROCESSES,  ETC.,  IN  VARIOUS' 
TRADES. 

THE  following  items,  selected  from  the  Watchmaker,  having  been  crowded 
(put  of  the  appropriate  department,  are  inserted  here,  being  deemed  too  valua- 
fible  to  omit. 

MAIN  SPRINGS. — When  amain  spring  is  cleaned,  most  inexperienced  work- 
men  will  take  hold  of  one  end  and  pull  the  spring  about  half  its  length  straight 
out,  to  save  time.  This  practice  will  break  springs  when  nothing  else  will ; 
and  springs  treated  thus  generally  break  after  the  watch  has  been  delivered  to 
the  customer  onl/  a  few  days.  Breaking  into  many  pieces  is  owing  to  the  acid 
in  the  oil  which  is  used.  We  will  suppose  the  main  spring  is  a  fane  one,  and 
has  been  evenly  tempered  and  properly  cleaned ;  if,  now,  old  oil  is  used,  or 
that  of  an  inferior  quality  if  fresh,  the  acid  it  contains  will  eat  into  the  spring, 
and  will  finally  destroy  its  texture.  The  coil  nearest  the  centre  breaks  first, 
and  as  it  recoils  it  breaks  every  coil  in  the  barrel,  and  sometimes  each  coil  is 
broken  twice.  The  spring  has  become  so  impregnated  with  acid  that  it  has 
no  life  left. 

TO  PURIFY  OIL.— To  make  the  oil  pure,  take  a  good  sized  bullet  or 
other  piece  of  lead  which  has  a  thick  coating  of  lead  rust,  cut  it  up  fine,  put  it 
into  the  oil,  and  let  it  stand  for  two  weeks.  This  causes  the  acid  to  settle, 
and  it  then  resembles  milk  at  the  bottom.  Now  pour  off  the  top,  and  your  oil 
is  pure.  Common  clock  oil  can  be  treated  in  this  manner  and  made  better 
than  some  watch  oil. 

TO  RESTORE  LUSTRE.— If  not  too  much  darkened  it  may  be  restored 
by  dipping  the  wheel  in  pure  muriatic  acid.  Test  your  acid  "by  dipping  a 
piece  of  polished  steel  in  it ;  if  it  destroys  the  polish,  reduce  the  acid  with 
tain  water  until  it  will  not.  Rinse  the  wheels  well  in  water.  This  will  also 
restore  the  polish  to  steel  that  has  been  blued  by  heat. 

.  GRINDING  GLASSES.— Provide  two  pieces  of  cork,  one  concave  and  one 
•onvex  (which  may  be  cut  to  shape  after  fitting  to  lathe).  Take  a  copper  cent, 
or  other  suitable  article,  and  soft  solder  a  screw  to  fit  the  lathe  and  then  wux 
kt  to  the  cork  ;  then  get  a  twenty-five  cent  emery  wheel,  such  as  is  used  o.i 
•ewing  machines,  and  you  have  a  complete  outfit  for  cutting  your  watcfr 
glasses.  Polish  the  edge  on  the  zinc  collar  of  the  emery  wheel,  or  use  a  piece 
of  tine  to  do  it.  The  other  cork  should  be  waxed  to  a  penny  and  centred. 
The  upBctacle  lenses  may  be  cut  on  the  same  emery  wheel,  if  the  wheel  is 
attached  to  the  lathe  so  as  to  revolve. 

Another  method  is  to  take  a  common  piece  of  window  glass  (green  glass  is 
the  best)  and  make  a  grindstone  of  that,  using  the  flat  surface  to  grind  on. 
Cement  it  on  a  iarge  chuck,  the  glass  being  from  2  to  2.5  inches  in  diameter. . 

Any  one  not  familiar  with  this  method  would  b^  surprised  to  see  how  fast'1, 
tiye  glass  is  cut  away,  for  either  spectacles  or  watches.     In  grinding  wattiil 
f  JM»«3  put  tlwin  fiat  on  the  chuck  «Luft~-uot  on  the  edge. 


1014  PROCESSES,  ETC.,  IN   VARIOUS   TRADES. 

Some  watchmakers  are  excusable  for  not  keeping  a  full  supply  of  watcfc 
glasses  on  hand  all  the  time,  when  it  is  remembered  that  there  are  over  four 
thousand  different  sizes. 

COMPOSITION  OF  BRONZE  FOR  MACHINERY.— Below  will  be 
found  the  composition  of  alloys  approved  of  and  used  by  prominent  French 
mechanics  in  government  and  railway  work. 

FBENCH  MARINE.  Copper.       Tin.          ZlttC. 

Tough  bronze  for  rods,  valves,  cooks,  etc 88  12  2 

Very  tough  bronze  for  eccentric  straps,  etc 90  10  2 

Bronze  for  plummet  blocks 86  14  2 

Hard  bronze 84  16  2 

Very  hard  bronze  for  steam  brass-cocks 82  18  2 

2ell  bronze 78  22  0 

Anti-friction  bronze,  with  8  parts  antimony 4  96  0 

PBENCH   RAILROADS. 

Carpillows 82  18  2 

Locomotive  and  tender  oil  boxes. 84  16  2 

slidevalves 82  18  2 

Cocks 88  12  2 

The  bronze  composed  of  86  copper,  14  tin,  and  2  zinc,  is  least  porous,  and 
therefore  i&  most  suitable  when  pressure  is  to  be  resisted. 

PARAFFINE  AS  A  LUBRICANT.— According  to  a  correspondent  of 
the  Railroad  Gazette,  the  Erie  Railway  has  reduced  its  oiling  expenses  from 
$5,000  to  $1,000  a  year,  by  using  paraffine  on  passenger  car  journals,  and  has 
reduced  the  number  of  hot  journals  from  635  to  832.  During  the  winter 
months  it  is  used  without  the  addition  of  any  other  oil,  but  during  the  summer 
it  is  mixed  with  some  other  lubricant  to  give  it  bod? ,  as  owing  to  its  limpidity 
it  is  difficult  to  retain  in  the  axle  boxes.  A  lubricant  of  notable  power  for 
cooling  hot  journal  boxes  is  composed  of  a  mixture  of  sulphur  with  oil  or 
grease.  Used  on  the  hot  bearings  of  steamships,  etc.,  it  is  unequalled. 

WOODS  HEAVIER  THAN  WATER.— These  are  French  box,  Irish 
bog  oak,  pomegranate,  vine  lignumvitee,  Indian  cedar,  ebony,  mahogany, 
and  heart  of  oak.  Lignumvitae  is  one-third  heavier  than  water,  pomegranate 
rather  more.  Cork  and  poplar  are  the  lightest  woody  products. 

A  COMSTOCK  LODE  MINING  PUMP.— The  new  Chollar  Potpsi 
mining  pump  consists  of  double  columns  of  15  in.  plungers.  The  rods  with, 
which  these  are  worked  are  14  x  14,  each  stick  being  of  Oregon  pine  and  100  ft.  ia 
iength.  They  are  locked  together  and  held  by  iron  plates  10  ins.  wide  and  1  in. 
thick.  The  motive  power  is  a  compound,  condensing,  direct  acting  engine,  of; 
700  H.  P.,  the  initial  cylinder  being  10  ft.  10  ins.  long,  by  32  iaa.  diam.  ;  th« 
expansion  cylinder  being  8  ft.  long  and  65  ins.  diam. 

THE  DEEP  MINES  OF  THE  WORLD.— T 
deepest  mine  on  the  Comstock  Lode,  being  now  (March,  1879)  2,500  ft.  below 
the  mouth  of  the  main  shaft,  and  2,933  ft.  below  the  Gould  &  Curry  crop- 
pings,  the  datum  line  of  the  Comstock  Mines,  The  highest  heat  known  in 
these  mines  is,  for  air  154°,  in  a  closed  drift  in  the  Crown  Point  Mine,  and  for 
water  154°,  in  the  Savage,  Hale  &  Norcross  Mines.  The  Adalbert,  a  lead- 
silver  mine,  in  Austria,  is  probably  the  deepest  mine  in  the  world,  the  per  pen- 
dicular  shaft  being  3,280  ft.  deep.  The  next  deepest  on  the  Continent  of 
Europe  is  the  Viviers  coal  mine  in  Belgium,  2,847  ft.  deep  This  mine 
penetrated  to  a  depth  of  3,586  ft.,  but  no  coal  being  found,  all  below  the 
2,847  ft.  level  has  been  abandoned.  In  England  the  Dunkirk  Colliery,  Lan~ 
cashire,  has  been  opened  to  a  depth  of  2,824  ft,  and  the  Rosebridge  Colliery, 
same  locality,  to  a  depth  of  2,458  ft.,  these  being  the  deepest  mines  in  Great 
Britain. 

INSIDE  SURFACE  COATING  TO  PREVENT  SCALE  IN  STEAM 
BOILERS— Beuttgen'>acVs  Procest.—  Gradually  dissolve  5  Ibs.  of  a  mix- 
t-ire  of  35  parts  of  oolophonium,  2V£  part*  graphite,  and  2^  parts  of  lamp- 
black, in  40  Ibs.  of  boiling  gas-tar,  addic?  about  1  Ib.  of  tallow.  The  sol-xtk«v 


PROCESSES,  ETC.,  IN   YARIOUS    TRADES.  1015 

with  about  50  per  cent  of  petrol eum?  is  applied  in  a  warm  stat*.  It  Las  a  pun- 
gent smell,  and  should  be  put  on  rapidly,  taking  the  precaution  of  using  closed 
lanterns  Its  effect  is  to  cause  the  scale  to  come  off  in  large  flakes  when  picked. 

PLUMBAGO  AS  A  LUBRICANT  FOR  STEAM  CYLINDERS.— A 
practical  engineer,  in  a  communication  to  th?  American  Machinist,  gives  tha 
result  of  his  remarkable  experience  with  dry  plumbago  as  a  lubricant  for 
steam  cylinders,  which  fully  ostablish.es  its  vast  superiority  over  the  oil,  tal- 
jiow  etc.,  generally  used  for  that  purpose.  The  engine  upon  which  the  experi-' 
mcnts  were  carried  on  was  an  11  x  30  horizontal  engine,  with  a  piston  speed  of 
f  COJ  ft.  per  minute,  and  was  worked  to  its  full  capacity.  To  obtain  the  best 
9e?ults,  the  common  oil-cup  was  exchanged  for  a  goblet-shaped  tallow-cup 
Iwith  a  lid,  aft3r  which  the  piston-follower  and  springs  were  taken  out  and 
'  cleaned.  Before  starting  the  engine,  one-third  of  an  ounce  of  finely  pulverized 
plumbago  was  placed  in  the  cup.  When  fairly  under  way  the  valve  of  the 
tallow-cup  was  opened  half  way,  and  a  little  later  it  was  opened  to  its  utmost 
extent.  The  piston-rod  became  coated  with  the  plumbago  soon  after  starting, 
and  by  noon  the  whole  had  passed  from  the  tallow-cup  into  the  cylinder.  On 
starting  up  in  the  afternoon,  one-third  ounce  more  was  placed  in  the  cup,  and 
v,he  engine  ran  till  six  o'clock  with  a  like  result.  There  was  no  noise  in  the  cyl- 
inder, either  in  the  starting,  running,  or  stopping  of  the  engine,  and  after 
eighteen  months'  use,  with  the  above-named  quantity  applied  twice  a  day,  n<P 
noise  had  been  heard  in  the  cylinder,  except  when  the  steam,  was  shut  off  for 
the  purpose  of  stopping  the  engine,  when  it  would  be  heard  during  ono  ot 
two  strokes  of  the  piston  just  b afore  the  engine  stopped.  This  occurred  not 
m^re  frequently  than  would  have  taken  place  if  tallow  or  oil  had  been  used. 
Soon  after  beginning  to  use  it,  a  portion  of  the  plumbago  would  be  found  re 
maining  iu  the  cup.  To  obviate  this,  about  one  ounce  of  water  was  poured 
into  the  cup,  after  the  plumbago  had  been  put  in,  when  a  decided  improve- 
ment was  observed,  in  that  it  could  be  fed  into  the  cylinder  as  readily  as  oil 
or  tallow.  After  four  weeks'  use,  the  cylinder-head  was  taken  off,  and  the 
working  part  of  the  cylinder  was  found  coated  with  plumbago,  which  could 
not  b&  easily  rubbed  off  with  the  fingers.  The  interior  of  the  piston  was  found 
as  clean  as  when  it  left  the  lathe,  so  far  as  dirt  of  any  kind  was  concerned,  and 
such  v/as  the  condition  at  the  time  of  writing. 

Th  :ie  was  an  absolute  freedom  from  all  choking  in  the  steam  passages.  Tha 
gum  joints,  six  in,  number,  had  been  renewed  a  few  days  before  the  new  lubri- 
canf,  was  applied,  and  at  the  latest  advices  all  were  in  perfect  condition,  show- 
ing no  signs  of  leakage,  whereas,  if  oils  or  tallow  had  been  used,  they  would 
hare  required  two  renewals  during  that  time. 

SILVER  POLISH  STARCH  ENAMEL.— licit  2>£  Ibs.  of  the  very  bos* 
A  1  paraffine  wax  over  a  slow  fire.  When  liquified,  remove  from  the  fire  and 
f.tlr  in  100  drops  o'.l  of  citronella.  Have  a  lot  of  round  new  pie-tins,  clean 
.jindnice;  place  them  0:1  a  level  table  and  coat  them  slightly  with  sweet-oil, 
ifcid  pour  r bout  6  tablespoon^ ula  of  the  enamel  into  each  tin.  The  pan  inay 
jf>e  floated  in  water  to  cool  the  contents  sufficiently  to  permit  the  mixture  to 
'foe  cut  or  stamped,  out  with  a  tin  cutter  into  small  cakes  about  the  size  of  b. 
fcnppermint  lozenge.  Two  of  these  cal:es  added  to  each  pint  of  starch  wi!J 
'cause  the  smoothing-iron  to  impart  the  finest  possible  finish  to  muslin  or  linen, 
besides  perfuming  tb.3  clothes  in  first-class  style.  Thousands  of  dollars  have 
been  made  by  manufacturers  and  dealers  out  of  this  one  article,  for,  when  well 
.made  and  attractively  put  up  in  boxes,  etc.,  the  sale  is  great  and  the  profits 
mmensei 

SUPERIOR  BAKING  POWDER.— Take  2  Ibs.  best  tartaric  acid  in  crys- 
ials,  3  Ibs.  bi-carbonate  of  soda,  and  3  Ibs.  potato  starch.  Each  article  must 
be  pulverized  separately  and  slowly  dried  by  a  gradual  heat,  and  afterwards 
thoroughly  mixed  by  being  passed  through  a  fine  sieve.  In  quality  this  arti- 
'•  cle  has  no  superior,  and,  when  attractively  packed  in  tins,  lead  foil,  or  paper 
glazed  on  the  outside  (it  must  be  kept  free  from  damp),  it  commands  a  most 
profitable  sale. 


1016 


PKOCESSEB,  ETC.,  IN   VARIOUS    TRADB8. 


VIOLET  WRITING  INK— For  2  gals.,  heat  2  gills  of  alcohol  in  a  watei 
|>ath ;  add  to  the  alcohol  2  ozs.  of  violet  aniline,  and  stir  till  dissolved,  then 
add  the  mixture  to  two  gals,  of  boiling  water  ;  mix  well,  and  it  is  ready  for 
Use.  Smaller  quantities  in  proportion.  This  is  the  secret,  from  the  sale  of 
•which,  together  with  the  products  of  manufacture,  so  many  fortunes  are  said 
to  have  been  made.  Some  parties  assert  that  it  is  worth  to  an  active  man, 
more  than  $1,000,  on  account  of  the  large  profits  obtainable  from  possible 
sales. 

MANIFOLD  PAPER,  sometimes  called  copying-paper,  is  produced  by> 
mixing  finely  pulverized  plumbago  or  lampblack  into  a  putty -like  paste.  Pass  . 
the  substance  over  tissue  paper  with  flannel,  and  remove  the  surplus  matter 
with  a  soft  rag.     In  use,  these  sheets  are  alternated  with  black  carbon  paper, 
and  when  written  on  with  a  hard  graphite  pencil  the  product  will  be  several 
copies  of  a  letter  with  one  writing. 

DUNCAN,  FLOCKHART  &  CO.'S  BLUE-BLACK  AND  COPYING 
INKS. — Blue  Aleppo  galls  (free  from  insect  perforations),  4%  ozs. ;  bruised 
cloves,  1  dr.,  cold  water,  40  ozs.,  purified  sulphate  of  iron,  1%  ozs.,  pure 
sulphuric  acid  (by  -neasure),  35  minims,  sulphate  of  indigo  (in  the  form  of  a 
jpaate)  and  which  should  be  neutral,  or  nearly  so,  1  oz.  The  weights  used  are 
.avoirdupois,  and  the  measures  apothecaries'  measures.  Place  the  galls,  when 
bruised,  with  the  cloves,  in  a  50  oz.  bottle,  pour  upon  them  the  water,  and 
-digest,  often  daily  shaking  for  a  fortnight.  Then  filter  through  paper  in 
another  50  oz.  bottle.  Get  out  also  the  refuse  of  the  galls,  and  wring  out  of  it 
the  remaining  liquid  through  a  strong  clean  linen  or  cotton  cloth,  into  the 
filter,  in  order  that  as  little  as  possible  may  be  lost.  Next  put  in  the  iron, 
dissolve  completely,  and  filter  through  paper.  Then  the  acid,  and  agitaU 
tmskly.  Lastly  the  indigo,  and  thoroughly  mix  by  shaking.  Pass  the  whole 
through  paper;  just  filter  out  of  one  bottle  into  another  until  the  operation  is 
finished.  Note.  — No  gum  or  sugar  is  proper  and  on  no  account  must  the  acid 
l>e  omitted.  When  intended  for  copying,  5^  °zs-  of  galls  is  the  quantity.  On 
*he  large  scale  this  fine  ink  is  made  W  percolation. 

GLAZE  FOR  ROAST  COFFEE.— In  one  patented  process  the  roasted 
•coffee  is  coated  with  a  preparation  composed  of  Irish  moss,  ^  oz.,  gelatin,  ^ 
oz.,  isinglass,  %  oz.,  white  sugar,  1  oz.,  eggs,  24.  The  first  three  arc  boiled  in 
-water  and  the  mosa  strained  clear.  Another  recipe  is  1  oz.  French  isinglass 
and  4  ozs.  water,  the  moss  mixed  and  molded  to  form.  — American  Grocer. 

VALUE  OF  FOREIGN  COINS.— By  a  recent  official  statement  of  the 
Secretary  of  the  U.  S.  Treasury,  the  value  of  foreign  coins  in  U.  S.  money  ii 
a-ated  as  here  shown,  and  the  values  of  all  foreign  merchandise  made  put  in  any 
of  these  currencies,  imported  on  or  after  Jan.  1,  1879,  will  be  estimated  oa 
t~.e  following  basis : 


Belgium,  franc,  gold  and  silver,  19.5  cents. 
Bolivia,  dollar,  gold  and  silver,  96.5  cents. 
Brazil,  milreis  of  1000  reis,  gold,  54.5  cents. 
British  Possessions  in  N.  A.,  dollar,  gold, 

ft 

Bogota,  peso,  gold,  96.5  cents. 
Central  America,  dollar,  silver,  96.5  cents. 
Cb.flt  peso,  gold,  91.2  cents. 
DeMEirk,  crown,  gold,  26.8  cents. 
Ecuador,  dollar,  silver,  93.5  cents. 
Zgypt,  pound  of  100  piasters,  gold,  $4,97.  4. 
Fraaoe,  franc,  gold  and  silver,  19.3  cents. 
Great  Britain,  pound  sterling,  gold,  $4  86 

drackma,    gold    and    silver,    19.3 


Empire,  mark,  gold,  83.8  cents. 
Indi»,  rupee  of  16  annas,  silver,  44.4  cents. 
lira,  gold  and  silver,  19.3  cents. 


Japan,  yen,  gold,  99.7  cents. 
Liberia,  dollar,  gold,  $1. 
Mexico,  dollar,  silver,  $1.015. 
Netherlands,  florin,  gold  &  ailver,58.5  cent*. 
Norway,  crown,  gold,  26.8  cents. 
Peru,  dollar,  silver,  93.5  cents. 
Portugal,  milreis  of  1000  reis,  gold, '$1.08. 
Russia,  ruble   of  100  copecks,  silver,  74.8 

cents. 

Sandwich  Islands,  dollar,  gold,  $1. 
Spain,  peseta  of  100  centimes,  silver,  IV.  3 

cents. 

Sweden,  crown,  gold,  26.8  cents. 
Switzerland,   franc,  gold  and  silver,  19.3 

cents. 
Tripoli,  mahub  of  25  piasters,  alive  .  84.  * 

cents. 

Turkey,  piaster,  gold,  4.3  cents. 
U.  S.  of  Columbia,  peso,  silver,  93.i  < 


1920  CENSUS 

• 


OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 


following  list  names  in  alphabetical  order  approximately  all  cities  in  the  United  States  blv? 
ing  five  thousand  or  more  inhabitants.    The  numerals  at  extreme  right  of  column 
are  the  latest  available  census  figures  or  recent  official  estimates  of  population. 


Anacorie*.  wa»a.... 
Aiiaheim,  Cal 

Anderson!  S.  C...;.. 

Andover,  Mass 

Annapolis,  Md...... 

Ann  Arbor,  Mich.... 

Snniston,  Ala. 

Ansonia,  Conn- 

Antigo,  Wb 

Appleton,  Wls...... 

Archbald,  Pa. 

Ardmore.Okta...;. 

Anre»ta,  Ark 

Arkansas  City,  Kas. 
Arlington,  Mass..... 
Arnold.  Pa.  


J4.537      Augusta,  Oa. 52,548 

Augusta.  M« 14,114 

Aurora,  111 36,265 

Austin,  Minn 10,118. 

Austin,  Tex 34,876 

Avalon.Pa. 5,277 

Baker  City,  Ore. 7,729' 

Bakersfieid,  Cal 18,638 

Baltimore,  Md 733,826 

Bangor,  Me 25,948 

r.Pa. 5.402 

oo,  Wis 5,538 

arberton,  Ohio 18,811 

Barre.  Vt : 10.008 

Bartlesville,  Okla 14,4 17 

Batavia.N.Y 13,541 

Bath,  Me. .14,731 

Baton  Rouge,  La 21,782 

Battle  Creek.  Mich. .  .36,164 

Bay  City,  Mich 47,554 

Bayonne,  N.  J...:  ...76,754 

-Beacon.  N.Y ....10.996 

Beardstown,  111 7,111 

Beatrice,  Neb 9,664 

Beaumont,  Tex 40,422 

Beaverdam,  Wis 7.992 

Beaver  Falls,  Pa 12,802 

Bedford,  Indi 8.963 

Belfast.  Me 5.083 

ellaire.Ohio 15.061 

iellefontaine.Ohio....  9,336 

Jelleville.Ill 24,741 

Jelkville,  N.  J ,15,696 

BeUevue.Ky, 7,37.9 

ielUvue,  Ohio 5.776 

lellevue.Pa. 8,198 

letlinsrmm.Wash 25,570 

Belmont,  Mass. ......  10.744 

Befclt,  Wfc 21,284 

Befton.  Tex 5,098 

Belvidere,  111 7,760 

Bemidfi.Minn 7.086 

Bend.  Ore '. 5,415 

BenmniJton,  Vt 9.982 

Benton".  111.    . . .  .* 7.201 

Benton  Harbor,  Mich. .  12.227 

Berkeley.  Cal 55,886 

Berlin,  N.  H 16.104 

Berwkk,  Pa. 12,181 

Berwyn,  111 14M50 


.  7,489 
.11.214 
.19.SM 
.17,734 
.17,643 
..  8,451 
. .  19.561 
,.  8.603 


WythevUIe.  Ark 6,447 

Bogalusa,  La. 8,245 

Boise,  Idaho , .  .21.393 

Bonham.Tex. 6,008 

Boone,  la 12,451 

Boonton,  N.  J... 5.381 

Boston,  Mass...  i 747923 

Boulder,  Col.... 10,989 

Bound  Brook,  N.  J....  5,906 


Ashland,  K*...,... 

Ashland,  Ohio 

Ashland,  Ore 

Ashland,  Pa % 

Ashland.  Wb. 

Ashley,  Pa 

Ashtabula,  OMo. . . . 

Astoria,  Ore 

Atchison.Kas 

Athens,  Ga> ', 

Athens,  Ohio. t, 

Athol,  Mass........ 

Atlanta,  Ga. 

Atlantic,  la.- 

Atlantic  City,  N.  I.; 
Attleboro,  Mass. . . , 

Auburn,  Me.. 

Auburn,  N.Y , 


.1U5J 
.18,646 
.  6.UO 
,.12.400 
.28,504 
.14,779 
,.  9.24.9 
,.  5.200 
, .  «,666 
,.11.334 
, .  6,520 
,.22.082 
..14.027- 
, .  12,630 
. .  16,748 
,'.  6.418 
, .  9,792 
.  200,6  f6 
,.  5.329. 
..50,682 
.,  19,731 
..16.98$ 
..36,142 


essemer,  Ala .18  674 

essemer,  Mich 5,482 


50,358 

22,561 

7,635 


Bowling  Green,  Ohk 
Bozeman,  Mont.... 

Braddock.Pa 

Bradford,  Pa 

Brainerd,  Minn 

Braintree,  Mass. . . , 


Brenham,  Tex 

Brewer,  Me 

Bridgeport,  Conn. . 
Bridgetown,  N.  J.. 
Brignam.Utah.... 

Bristol,  Conn 

Bristol,  Pa. . . . :... 

Bristol.  R.I 

Bristol,  Tenn...... 

Bristol.  Va 

Brockton.  Mass.... 
Brookfield.  Mo.... 
Brookline.Mass... 
Brownsville.  Tex... 
Brownwood,  Tex. . 

Erunswick.  Ga.... 
runswick,  Me. ... 


rus,  Ohio 


Bryan,  T 
Bucy 

Buffalo,  N.  Y 
Burkburnett.  Tex 
Burley.  Idaho 
Burlington,  la 
Burlington.  N.  C 
Burlington,  N.  J 
Burlington.  Vt 
Burrillville,  R.  1 
"Butler.  Pa.... 
Butte,  Mont 


..  6.183 
..20.879 
..15,525 
..  9,591 
, .  10,554 
..  7.324 
..  5,192 
..  9.293 
..  8.918 
..  5,066 

'.143!  152 
1.14,323 
..  s!282 
..20.620 
..10,273 
..11.375 
. .  8,047 
..  6.729 
..66.138 
. .  6,304 
..37.748 
..11.791 
. .  8.223 
..14.413 
..  7,261 
..  6.295 
..10,42$ 
.505875 
..  5.300 
..  5,408 
..24.057 
..  S;9S2 
. .  9.049 
..22.779 
..  8.606 
..23.778 
..41.611 


Catasauqua,Pa.... 

Catskili,  N.  Y 

Cedar  Falls,  la 

Cedar  Rapids,  la... 

Centerville,  la 

Central  Falls,  R.I.. 

Centralia.  Ill   

Centralia,  Wash   . . 

Ssssa*: 

Chanute,  Kas. 

Chariton.  I*.....'.. 

Charleroi,  Pa. 

Charles  City,  la.... 

Charleston,  111 

Charleston,  S.  C... 
Charleston,  W.  Va.. 
Charlotte,  Mich,.. 

Charlotte,  N-C 

Charlottesville.Va. 
Chattanooga .  Tenn. 

f.Mich.. 

I.Mass.. 


. 

Cheltenham,  P». 
Chester.  Pa. 
Chester,  SC 


..10,05* 
..11,44? 

..  8,600 
..  5,400 

..  6,316 
..45,566 
..  8,486 
..24,17* 
.  .12,49 f 
. .  7,549 
..13,17* 
. .  15,871 
. .  10.286 
..  5.175 
..11,516 
..  7,350 
..  6,600 
,.67,957 
..39.608 
..  5,126 
..46,31* 

::$?$ 
tf& 

..43,184 
..11,015 
.  .58,030 
..  5.557 


hicopee,  Mass. 36.21* 

:  Falls, Mass..  1 1. 500 

.Tex J.00> 

Ilicothe.Mo ;.  6,525 

IlicotheiOhio sis!83t 

wa Falls, Wis...  9,130 


adillac.  Mich 


.....15,100 

Biloxf,  Miss... .......  10.937 

Binghamton,  N.  Y.. .  .66,800 

Birmingham,  Ala....  178,270 

Bisbee,  Ariz 9.205 

Bismarck,  N.  DM 6,951 

iS&kjr:::::;»:ou 

Bloomington,  111 28,638 


Blue  Island,  IB. ......  il  ',424 

BlugtOD.lod. ..$,391. 


Calais,  Me ,, 

Caldwell,  Idaho , 

"       7k 

Cambridge.  Mass..., 

Cambridge.  Md , 

Cambridge,  Ohio...., 

Camden,  N.  J. ...... 

Canal  Dover,  Ohio. . , 
Canand^igua,  N.  Y. 
Canon  City, -Col,. i. 
Canonsburg,  Pa..-. . . 

Canton,  HI 

Canton,  Mass....... 

Canton.  Ohio...1.... 

Cape  Glrardeau,  Mo. 


,  9,734 
.15,20.1 
.  6.084 
.  5.106 
.  6.223 
.38,000 
109.456 
.  7,467 
.13.104 
116.309 
.  5.300 
.  7356 
.  5,250 
.10.632 

:'8i$ 

.87,091 
.10,252 


lairton.  Pa  .........  '  6,26* 

aremont.N.H  .....  7,650> 

Clarksburg,  W.V»....  27  ^69 

ksdale.  Miss  ......  7^52 

larksville,  Term  .....  8.1H> 

learfield,  Pa  .....  ....  8,529- 

ne,  Tex.  ...'....  12,820 

and,  Ohio  ......  796.836 


Clinton,  111....  .......  S.89» 

Clinton,  Ind..  .  .  ,  .....  10,962 

Clinton,  Mass........  12,96* 

Clinton.  Mo  ..........  S.09S 

Cloquet,  Minn  .....  .  .  ;  7,209 

Coaldale.Pa.........  6,336 

Coatesville,  Pa.  .  .  ;  .',  .14.51$ 
Caur  d'Alene.  Idaho..  6,473 
- 


POPULATION  OF  THE  PRINCIPAL  CITIES  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES—  Continued 


:Conoes,N.  Y 22,987 

Coidwater.Mich......  6,114 

Collingswood,  N.J....  8,714 

Collinsville,  IU 9,753      Dover,  Ohio 

Colorado  Springs,  Col..29,572 
ColumbU,Mo.... ....10,681 


Columbia,  Pa. , 

Columbia,  S..C 3  7 ,5  24 

Columbia,  Term 5,526 

Columbus,  Ga 31,125 

Columbus,  Ind 8,990 

Columbus,  Miss. 10,501 

Columbus,  Neb 5,410 

Columbus,  Ohio. 237,031 

Concord,  Mass 6,461 

Concord,  N.C 9,903 

Concord,  N.H 22,167 

Conneaut,  Ohio 9.J43 


Douglas,  Ariz 

er;N:  J;:::::::: 


Dowagiac.Mich...... 

Dracut,  Mass 

Drumright.  Okla. 

Dublin,  Ga ,. 

Dubois,  Pa...... 

Dubuque,  la 
Duluth,  Mini 
Dunkirk,  N.Y....... 

Dunmore,  Pa. .-.-.:....' 

Duquesne,  Pa 

Duquoin.Ill 


Conneltsville,  Pa 

Connersville,  Ind.. . , 
Conshohocken.Pa... 
'Coraopolis,  Pa. . . . ; . 

Cordele.Ca 

Corning.  N.  Y 

Corpus  Chris ti,  Tex. 
Corry,  Pa. 


Corsicana,  Tex.. .  . 
Cortland.N.Y.:. 
Corvallis,  Ore. ... 
Coshocton,0hio....>.!0;847 
Council  BluSs,  la 36,162 


.13,801 
,  9,901 
,  8,481 
.  6,162 
.  6,538 
.  15,820 
.10,522 
.  7,228 
.11,356 
.13,294 
5,752 


f,R.l 5,670 

i.Ky : 

•ington.  Va 5,623 


Durham,  N.  C... . 

^Duryea,  Pa.  ......... 

Dyersbury,  Tenn 

Eagle  Pass, Tex  .".... 

East  Chicago,  Ind 

East  Cleveland,  Ohio. . 
East  Conemaugh,  Pa.  . 
Easthampton,  Mass. . . 
East  Hartford,  Conn. . 

Eastland,  Tex '... 

East  Liverpool,  Ohio... 

East  Moline,  I1L 

Easton,  Pa 

East  Orange,  N.J 

East  Palestine,  Oh' 


9,916 
13,029 
.9,817 
8,101 
5,440 
5,280 
6,460 
7,707 
13,681 
39.141 
98,917 
19,336 
20,250 
9,011 
7,285 
7,340 
21,719 
7,776 
6.441 


27  292 
5256 
8300 
5100 
9368 

2M11 
' 


50,587 

on,  Ky.. ..... .5U21      £a^  pftubu^hTpT."'. '.  6^27 

5,241 
21,793 
.  5,463 


Crawfordsvile  Ind.. .  lo,  U9 
Creston.  la 8,034 


East  Providence,  R.  I. . 
East  Rutherford,  N.  J 
East  St.  Louis,  III.... 

>;•—-—•—••. ricn     East  Youngstown.Ohi 

Crookston,  Minn 6,650     Eau-Claire  Wis 

Crowley,  La 6408      Edwardsville.  Ill 

Cudahy  Wis. 6,725      Edwardsville.  Pa 

Cumberland.  Md 29,837 

jland,  R.  I 10.077 


Flat  River,  Mo..... 

Flint.  Mich 

Florence,  Ala 
'Florence,  S.C 

Fond  du  Lac,  Wis..  . 

Ford  City,  Pa 
;  Forest  City,  Pa. 

Forest  Park,  111 

Fort  Collins.  Col 

Fort  Dodge,  la 

FortLee.N.J  ..... 

Fort  Madison,  la  ... 

Fort  Scott,  Kas 

Fort  Smith,  Ark 

Fort  Thomas,  Ky  .  .  . 

Fort  Wayne,  Ind 

Fort  Worth,  Tex 

Fostoria,  Ohio 

Frackville.Pa.-. 
.  Framingham,  Mass... 

Frankfort,  Ind 

Frankfort,  Ky 

Franklin,  Mass 

Franklin,  N.H 

Frederick,  Md 

Fredericksburg,  Va.. 

Fredonia.N.  Y 

Freeland,  Pa 


Fremont,  Neb 
Fremont,  Ohio 
Fresno,  Cal.  ....'.. 
Frostburp   Md 
Fulton,  Mo 
Fulton,  N.Y 


,.  5,250 
,.91,599 
,.10,529 

.  10,968 

.23,427 
,.  5,605 
, .  6,004 
..10,768 

.  8,734 
,.19,333 

.  5,761 
,,12,066 
, .  10,693 
,.28,811 
, .  5,061 
..86,549 
.106,482 
..  9,987 
..5.590 
..16,785 
..11,585 
. .  9,805 
..  6,497 
..  6,318 
..11,066 
. .  5,882 
..  6.051 
. .  6,666 
..19,669- 
..  8,599 
..  9,570 
..12.468 
..44,616 
..  6.017 
..  5,595 
..13.043 


Greenville,  S.  C.".; 23,127 

Greenville,  Tex 12,384 

Greenwich.  Conn " 

Greenwood,  Miss. . . 
Greenwood,  S.  C.... 

Gretna,  La 

Griffin,  Ga. . , 8,240 

Grinned,  la 


r.r.W 


7,197 


Gulf  port,  Miss, 
uthrie, 


Hackensack,  N..J 17,6 

Haddonfield,  N.  J 5,6 

Hagerstown,  Md 28,0 


-  -  ,5,362 

Guthrie,  Okla......:'.  n;;'" 

Guttenberg,  N.  J 6,726 

.17,667 

5,646 

Hamilton"  Ohio"' '.'.'.'.  '.3.9,675. 

Hammond,  Ind.: 36,004 

Hammonton,  N.  J.  . . .  6,417 

Hampton,  Va 6,138 

Hamtramck.  Mich 48.61S 

Hancock,  Mich 7,527 

Hanford,  Cal 5,888 

Hannibal,  Mo 18,950 

Hanover,  Pa 8,664 

Harrisburg,  01 7.125 

Harrisburg,  Pa 75,917 

Harrison,  N  J 15,721 

Harrisonburg,  Va. ....  5.875     i 
Hartford,  Cone  


, 

Hartford  City,  Ind. 
Harvey,  111 


. 
138,036 


9,216 


83  k 
16  I 


Cashing,  Okla        ....  6,32 
Cuyahoga  Falls,  Ohio  . 


Dallas,  Tex 

Dal  ton,  Ga 

Danbury,  Conn... 
Danvers,  Mass. . . 

Danville,  III 

Danville,  Ky...., 

Danville,  Pa 

Danville,  Va 

Darby.  Pa.. 


Dartmouth,  Mass 6.493 

Davenport.  la. 56,727 

Dayton,  Ky 7,646 

Dayton!  Ohio 153.83D 


Elberton.  Ga  

El  Centre,  Cal 

Eldorado,  III 

Eldorado  .Kas.. 

ElKin,  III 

Elieabeth,  N.J 

Elizabeth  City,  N.C. 

Elkins,  W.  Va. 

Elkhart.Ind 

Ellwood,  Pa 

.  Elmira.  N.  Y 

6,952  El  Paso,  Tex 

:  1,539  El  Reno.  Okla. 

Elwood,  Ind 


.  9,800 

.33.750 

',034 


Daytona,  Fla.. 

Decatur,  Ga 

Decatut,  III 

Dedham.Mass... 
Defiance,  Ohio... . 

DeKalb,  IU 

Delaware,  Ohio.., 
Delphos,  Ohio 


5,445 
6,150 
43.818 
10,783 
8.876 
7.871 
8,756 
5.745 


Del  Rio.  Tex 10589 

..17.065 
..  5.524 
..  7,626 
.256.369 
..  5.165 


Penmson.  Otuo..  . 
Denton,  Tex  ...... 

Denver.  Col  ...... 

DePere.Wis  .....  .... 

Depew,  N.  Y  .........  5.850 

tierby.Conn  .........  11.238 

Derry.  N.  H  .........  5.300 

Des  Moines.  la.  ......  126.468 

De  Sola.  Mo  .....  .....  5.003 

Detroit.  Mich  .......  993,739 

Devil's  Lake.  N.D  .....  5.140 


Dickson,  Pa..  .  .. 
Dixon,  111 

Dodge  City,  Kas... 
Donora.  Pa 
Dormont.  Pa 
Dorianceton,  Pa. 


lt.049 
8.191 
..  5.061 
14.1.11 
6.455 
6.134 


, 
Cotban.AU.....  7....  10,034 


Emooria,  Kas 

Endicott,  N.  Y 

Enfield.Conn 

Englewood.  N.  J 

Enfd.Okla..... 

Enms.  Tex. 

Escanaba,'Mich '.'.'.'.'. 

Etna,  Pa 

Eugene,  Ore 

Eureka,  Cal 

Evanston,  III 

Evansville,  Ind 

Eveleth,  Minn 

Everett,  Mass 

Everett,  Wash 

Fairbtirv.  Neb 

Fairfield,  la , 

Fairmont,  W.  Va.... 
Faribault,  Minn.... 
Fall  River.  Mass.... 

Fargo.  N.D 

Farrell.Pa 

Fayetteville,  Ark.... 
Fayetteville,  N  C... 
Fergus  Falls,  Minn.. 
Fernandina.  Fla. . .. 

Findlay,  Ohio 

Fitchburs.Mass.... 
Fitzgerald.  Ga. 


l  1,237 
20,880 

S.3J6 
.9,027 
.  6,475 
.  5,464 
.  5,004 
.10.995 
.27,431 
.95.682 
.  8,925 
.6.788 
.24.277 
.•8,958 
.45,305 
.77,543 
.  7.737 
.10,790 
.20,474 
.11.273 
.  9500 
.11,708 
.11.617 
.16,576 
.  7,224 
.93,372 
.  13,103 
.  6,341 
.10,593 
.13,312 
.37,215 
.85.264 
.  7,205 

40,109 
.27,614 

..  5,400 
..  5.948 
..17.851 
.  1  1  0^9 
.  120.485 
..21,961 
..15,115 
.  .  5.362 
..  8.877 
..  7.581 
..  5,457 
..17,015 
..41.013 
..  6,870 


Gai 
Gai 


Gadsden,  Ala 

Gaffney,  S.  C 

Gainesville,  Fla 

lie,  Ga 

__inesville,  Tex 

Galesburg,  111 

Gallon,  Ohio 

Gallipolis,  Ohio 

Galveston,  Tex 

Gardiner,  Me , 

Gardner,  Mass 

Garfield,  N.J 

Gary.Ind 

Gastonia,N.  C 

Geneva,  N.Y 

Georgetown,  S.  C.... 

Gilberton,  Pa 

Girard,  Ohio 

Glassport,  Pa 

Glen  Cove,  N.Y 

Hlendale.  Cal 
lens  Falls,  N.  Y 

Globe.  Ariz 

Gloucester,  Mass. . . . 

Gloucester,  N.  J 

Gloversville,  N.  Y.... 

Goldsboro.  N.  C 

Goshen,  Ind 

Srafton,  Mast 
ration.  W.  Va 

Grand  Forks,  N.  D.., 
Grand  Haven,  Mich.. 
Grand  Island,  Neb.  . 
'  Grand  Junction,  Col.. 
Grand  Rapids,  Mich. 
Grand  Ranids,  Wis.., 
Granite  City.  in.... 
Great  Barrington, 

Mass 

Great  Falls,  Mont... 

Grecley,  Col   

Green  Bay.  Wis 

Greenfield,  Mass.... 
Greensboro,  N.  C.-. 
Greensburg,  Ind.. . . 
Greensburg,  Pa. . . . » 
GreenvHle?Miss.... 
Greenville,  N.  C.... 

Greenville,  Ohio 

Greenville,  Pa. 


,14.737 
,  5  010 
.  .5.2S6 
.  6,272 
.  8,648 
,23,834 
.  7,374 
;  6,070 
.44.255 
.  5,475 
.  16,960 
.19,381 
.56,178 
.12,871 
.14,648 
.  5.700 
.  5,550 
.  6,556 
.  6.959 
.  8.664 
.13  536 
.16.591 
.  7.044 
.22.947 
.12.162 
.22,026 
.11.296 
.  9.525 
.  6.886 
..8,517 
.13.950 
.  7,224 
.13.960 
.  8,665 
137,634 
.  7,243 
.14,750 

..  6,315 
..24,121 
..10,883 
..31,017 
..15.462 
.19  746 
..  5,345 
..15,033 
..11,560 
..  5,772 
..  7,104 
..  8,101 


, 
Hastings,  Mich  .......  5,132 

Hastings,  Neb  ........  11,647 

Hastings-on-HudsoQ, 

N.Y  .....  .........  5,52* 

Hattiesburg,  Miss  .....  13.270 

HaverhUI,  Mass.  ......  53,884 

Haverstraw.  N.  Y  .....  5.226 

Havre,  Mont  ........  5,429 

Hawthorne,  N.  J  ......  5.135 


.32,267 
.  9.112 
.12,037 
.   6,382 
..12,169 
5.267 
5,889 


Hazleton,  Pa 
Helena,  Ark. 
Helena,  Mont.... 
Hempstead,  N.  Y. 
Henderson,  Ky     . 
Henderson.  N.  C.. 

$efe^.:...,0,53 

Herrin,  III 10,<)86> 

•  Hibbing,  Minn 15,089 

Hickory.  N.C 5,076 

Highland  Park,  III   ...  6,167 
Highland  Park,  Mich.  46.599 

High  Point,  N.C 14,302 

Hillsboro,  III 5,074 

Hillsboro,  Tex 6.95Z 

Hilbdale,  Mich 5.476 

Hik>.  Hawaii 10,431 

Hingham,  Mass 5.599 

Hoboken.N.  J 68.166 

Holland,  Mich 12.16* 

Holyoke.Mass 60.203 

Homestead.  Pa 20.452 

Honolulu,  Hawaii 83.327 

Hoopeston,  111 5.451 

Hoosick  Fails.  N.Y...   5.700 

Hopkinsville,  Ky 9/>96 

Hoquiam.Wash 10,058 

Hornell.N.  Y 15.025 

Hot  Springs.  Ark 11.695 

Houghton,  Mich 5,350 

Houlton.Me 6,191 

Hounia.La   5.160 

Houston,  Tex 138,076 

Houston  Heights,  Tex.  7.100 

Hudson.  Mass 7,607 

Hudson.  N.Y 11,745 

Hudson  Falls,  N.Y....  5,761 

Hugo,  Okla.. 6.368 

Huntingdon.  Pa 7,051 

Huntington.  Conn....  °.47S 

Huntington,  Ind 14.00* 

Huntington,  W.Va;.. 50,177 

Huntsville,  Ala 8,018 

Huron  S.  D 8,302 

Hutchinson.  Kas. 2.1,298 

Hyde  Park,  Mass 44,800 


POPULATION  OF  THE  PRINCIPAL  CITIES  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES -Continuea 


. 

Independence,  Kas. 
Independence,  Mo. 

Indiana,  Pa 

Indianapolis,  Ind  . 
Indian  Orchard,  Ui 

lola.Kas 

Ionia,  Mich 

lowaCitv.  la 

Ipswich,  Mass 

Iron  Mountain,  Mic 

Ironton,  Ohio 

Ironwood,  Mich... 
Irvington,  N.  T  . . . 
Ishpemin*.  Mkh... 
Ithaca, U. Y 


...  K.064 
...10,169 
...11,920 
...11,686 
7,043 


..314,194 

iss.   6,900 

8,513 


Lansford,  Pa 

Lansing,  Mich. ~.. 

Laporte.Ind 

Laramie,  Wyo. 

Laredo.  Te 


...  6.935 
...11.267 
...  6,300 
:h..  8.251 
..  .14,007 
...15,7.19 
^..25,466 

0,500 

7,004 


LarksviUe,  Pa 

LaSalle;lll :. 

Las  Vegas,  N.  M.. 

Latrobe,  Pa 

Laurel,  Miss 

Laurens,  S.  C 

Laurium,  Mich.... 

Lawrence,  Kos 

Lawrence,  Mass... , 
Lawrenceville,  111. . 

Lawton,  Okla 

Lead,  S.  D. 


ackson,  Mich 

ackson.  Miss 

ckson,  Ohio , 

ckson.  Tenn , 

ckson  ville  Fla 

acksonville.il! 

amestown,  N.  TX. . . 

amestown.  N.  Y 

anesville.Wis...... 

eannette.  Pa 

efferson  City.  Mo... 

effersonville  Tnd..., 
Jersey  City.  N  J..... 

ersey  Shore,  Pa 

ohnsonCity,  N.  Y.. 

.ihns.ii  City,  Tenn.. 

ohnston,  111 

ohnston,  K.  1 

ohnstown,  N. -Y 

ohnstown,  Pa ,. 

oliet.lll 

'  'onesboro,  Ark 

opIin.Mo 

net  ion  City,  Kas... 

uniala,  Pa. 


.48,374 
.2>.?)79 
.  5.842 
..18.860 
.91  543 
.15,713 
6627 
.38.898 
.18.293 
.10.627 
14  067 
.10.098 
297.864 
.  6.103 
.  8,587 
.12,442 
.  7,137 
.  0,455. 
.  lo.vOS 
.67,327 
.38,372 
.  9,384 
.29,855 
.  J.516 
.  .7 ,660 


Kalamazoo,  Mich 


Kane   Pa 
Kankakee,  111 
Kansas  City,  Kas.. 
Kansas  City,  Mo.  . 
Kaukauna,  Wis. 
Kearney,  Neb 
Kearny.N.  J  ...... 

•Keene.N.  H 
Kenrnore,  Ohio 


Kenton.Ohio 
Keokuk,  la 
Kewanee.IH 
Keyser,  W.  Va_ 
Key  West.  Fla. 
Kingsport,  fcna 
Kingston,  N.  Y 
Kingston,  Pa. 
Kinston.N.  C 
KirksviUe,  Mo..  . 
Kittanning,  Pa 
Knoxvitte,  Pa 
Knoxville,  Tenn 
'Kokomo.lad. 


Laconia, 

La  Crosse,  Wis. . . . 

Lafayette,  Ind 

Lafayette,  La 

La  Grande,  Ore,... 

Lagrange,  Ga 

Lagrange  III 

Lake  Charles,  La. . 

Lakeland,  Fla 

Lakewood,  Ohio. .. 
Lancaster,  N.  Y... 
Lancaster,  Ohio-.. 

Lancaster,  Pa 

r.Va 


..48,487 
..  5,147 
. .  7,283 
..16J21 
.101.078 
.324,410 

'.'.  7J702 
..26,724 
..11.210 
..12.682 
..40,472 
..  7.070 
..  7.690 
..14.423 
..16,026 
..  6,003 
. .  19.039 
. .  5,692 
.  .26,688 
..  8,952 
..  9,771 
..  7,213 
..  7,153 
..  7,201 
..77,818 
..30,067 

..17,918 
. .  10,897 
..30,363 
..22,456 
..  7.855 
..  6,913 
..17,038 
..  0.525 
..13,088 
..  7,062. 
..41.732 
..  6,059 
..14,706 
..53,150 
..  9,757 


Leavenworth,  Kas. . 

Lebanon, Ind 

Lebanon,  N.  H 

Lebanon.  Pa 

Lehighton,  Pa 

Leominster,  Mass. . . 
Lewiston,  Idaho. . . . 

Lewiston,  Me 

Lewistown,  Mont... 
Lewistown,  Pa. 

Lexington,  Ky 

Lexington,  Mass.. .. 

Lexington,  Mo 

Lexington,  N.  C..... 

Lima,  Ohio 

Lincoln,  111 

Lincoln.  Neb 

Lincoln,  R.I 

Linton,  Ind 

Litchfield.  Ill 

Little  Falls,  Minn... 
Little  Falls,  N.  Y... 
Little  Rock,  Ark.... 
Livingston,  Mont... 

Lockhaven,  Pa 

Lockport.  N.  Y 

Lodi.N.J 

Logan.  Ohio 

'Logan,  Utah 

Logansport,  Ind 
Long  Beach,  Cat . . . 
Long  Branch,  N.  J... 

Longmont,  Col 

Longvicw,  Tex 

Lorain,  Ohio 

Los  Angeles.  Cat... 

Louisville,  Ky 

Loveland.  Col.'. 

Lowell.  Mass 

Ludington,  Mich™. 

Ludlow.Mass 

•  Luzerne,  Pa 

'Lynchburg,  Va 

.Lynn,  Mass. 

'  McAlester.  Okla 

McAllen,  Tex 

McComb.Miss..... 

McKeesport,  Pa. . .. 

McKees  Rocks,  Pa.. 

McKinney.Tei 

Macomb.Ill. 

Macon,  Ga.... 

Madison.  Ill 

Madison,  Ind 

Madison,  Wis 

Madisonville.Ohio.. 

Mahanoy  City.  Pa. . 

Maiden,  Mass 

M  alone,  N.  Y 

Mamaroneck,  N  Y. 

Manchester,  Conn... 

Manchester.  N.  H... 
.Manhattan.  Kas.... 

Manistee,  Mich 

Manistique,  Mich... 

Manitowoc.Wis.... 


...  9,625 
,..57,327 
...15,158 
,.-.  6,301 
,..22,710 
..  9,438 
,..13,050 
..  8,000 
...  9,484 
...13,037 
...  4,629 
.-'.  6,696 
...12,456 
...94,270- 
...  5.080 
...  8.939 
..  8,550 
. .  16,901 
..  6,257 
..  5.S50 
..24,643 
..  6.102 
..19,745 
..  6.574 
..31,707 
..  6.120 
. .,  9,849 
..'41,534 
..  6,340 
..  5,350 
..  5,254 
..41,306 
..11.832 
..54,934 
..  9,543 
..  5,845 
..  6.215 
..  5.500 
. . 13,029 
..64.997 
..  6,326 
..  8,557 
..2U08 
..  8,175 


. .  9,439 
..21,626 
..55,593 
..1.1.521 
..  5.848 
..  5,713 
.  .37.295 
.575.480 
.234,891 
..  5,279 
.112,479 
..  «,810 
..  7.470 
..  5,998 
..29.956 
..99.148 

..12,095 
..  5,331 
..  7,775 
..45,975 
..16.713 
,.  6,677 
..  6.714 
..52,995 
..  5,150 
..  6,711 
..38.378 
..  5,300 
, .  15,599 
..49.103 
, .  7,556 
, .  6.276 
..18,370 
..78.200 
. .  7  989 
..  9,690 
..  6.380 
..17,563 
..12.469 
..  6.255 
,.27,824 


MapJewood.  Mo 7,431 

Marblehead.Mass. .  '..  7,324 

Marcus  Hook,  Pa 5,324 

Marietta,  Ga 6,190 

Marietta,  Ohio 15,100 

Marinette,  Wis 13,610 

Marion,  111 9.582 

Marion,  Ind 23.747 

•Marion,  Ohio 27,891 

Marlboro,  Mass 15,01 7 

Marquette.Mich 12,718 

Marshall,  Mo 5,200 

Marshall, Tex .'.14,271 

Marshalltown,  la 15,731 

Marshfield.Wk. 7,394 

Martinsburg.  W.  Va..-.  12.515 
Martins  Ferry,  Ohio..  .  11,634 
Marysville,  Cal. ......  5,461 

Mason  City,  la 20,065 

Massena.  N.  Y 

Massillon,  Ohio.... 
Matteawan.  N.  Y.. 

Mattoon,  111 , 

Mavfield,  Ky 

Maynard,  Mass... . 
Maysville,  Ky 

•    Maywood,  111. 12,072 

"Mead ville,  Pa 14,568 

Mechanicsville.N.Y..   8,166 

Medford,  Mass 38,687 

Medford,  Ore 5.756 

Medina,  N.  Y 6.237 

Melrose.  Mass ...18204 

.  Melrose  Pafk,  111 7,147 

•Memphis.  Tenn 162.35 1 

Menasha,  Wis 7,214 

Menominee,  Mich 10,700 

Menomonie,  Wis. 5,104 

Meriden.'Conn 29.S42 

Meridian.  Miss 23.436 

Merrill,  Wis ..,  8,068 

Methuen.  Mass 15.189 

Metropolis,  IlL 5.055 

Mexico.  Mo 6,013 

Miami,  Ariz. 6.689 

Miami.  Fla 29.549 

Miami,  Okla. .'6.802 


5,993 
.17,428 
.  6,850 
.13,449 
.  6.583 
.  7,086 

6.107 


Michigan  City.  Ind. . '.  19,457 
Middleboro.Mass.....  7.200 

Middlesboro,  Ky 8,041 

Middletown,  Conn. ..  .13,638 

Middletown.  N.  Y 18.420 

Middletown,  Ohio 23.594 

Middletown,  Pa ..  5.920 

Midland,  Mich 5.483 

Midland.  Pa ,  5.469 

Maes  City,  Mont 7.937 

Milford.  Conn 10.193 

Mi'ford,  Mass '. .  13,350 

Millbury,  Mass. 5,652 

•  Millvale,  Pa. 8.031 

Millville.N.J.: 14.691 

Milton,  Mass. 9.382 

Milton,  Pa. S.638 

•Milwaukee.  Wis. 457.147 

Minden,  La 6.105 

Minersville,  Pa  .. 7.845 

Minneapolis.  Minn..  .380.498 
Minot,  N.  D 10.476 

•  Mishawaka,  Ind 15.195 

.  Missoula,  Mont 12.668 

Mitchell,  S.  D: 8.478 

Moberly,  Mo 12.8"8 

Mohile.  Ala 60.777 

Modesto.  Calif. 9.241 

Moline.Ill 30,709 

Monessen.  Pa 18.179 

Monmouth,  111 8.116 

Monongahela.  Pa 8.688 

Monroe,  La 12.675 

Monroe.  Mich 11,573 

Monrovia,  Cal 5,480 

'  Montague,  Mass 7.675 

Montclair.  N.  J 28.810 

Monterey,  Cal. .......  5.479 

Montgomery.  Ala. ...  .43.464 

Moatpelier,  Vt 7,12$. 


Moorhead.  Minn 5./20 

Morenci,  Ariz 6,100 

Morgan  City,  La 5,429 

Morgantown.  W.  Va. .  12,117 

Morristown,  N.  J 12,505 

Morristown.Tenn... ..  5,881 

Moultrie,  Ga 6,789 

Moundsville,  W  Va...  10,66* 
•Mount  Carmel,  111....  7,456 
Mount  Carmel,  Pa  .  .  .17.469. 
Mount  Clemens,  Mich.  9,488 

Mount  Oliver,  Pa 5,575 

Mount  Pleasant,  Pa.. .  5,862 
Mount  Vernon.  111....  9,815 
Mount  Vernon,  InJ...  5,284' 
Mount  Vernon,  N.  Y.: 42,7 26 
•Mount  Vernon,  Ohio. .  9.237 

Muncie,  Ind 36,524 

Munhall.  Pa. 6,418 

Mum-sing,  Mich    5,037 

Murfreesboro,  Tenn...   5,367 

Murphysboro,  111 10.411 

Muscatine,  la 16.068 

Muskegon,  Mich 36,57f 

Muskegon  Heights, 

Mich. ......  9.514.- 

Muskosee.OUla 30,277. 

Nampa.  Idaho ,..  7,621 

Namicoke,  Pa 22.014 

Nantyglo.Pa i...  5,028 

Napa,  Cal 6,757 

Nashua,  N.  H 28,379    I 

Nashville,  Tenn 118,342 

Natchez,  Miss .12,608 

Natick.  Mass -. : .  10,200 

Natick,  R.I 5,480 

Naugatuck,  Conn 15,051 

Navasota,  Tex 5,060 

Nebraska  City,  Neb.. .  6,279 

Ntedham,  Mass 7,012 

Neenah,  Wis.. 7,171 

Negaunee,  Mich 7,419 

Nelsonville,  Ohio. 6,440 

Nevada,  Mo 7,300 

-New  Albany.  Ind 22.992 

'-Newark.  N.J...:. ...414.216 

Newark.  N  Y 6.964 

Newark.  Ohio 26.71& 

New  Bedford.  Mass. .  121.217 

Newbern,  N.  C 12,19$ 

Newberrv,S.C 5,894 

New  Brighton,  Pa.....  9,361 
New  Britain.  Conn. . .  .59.316 
New  Brunswick.  N.J.  32,779 

Newburgh.N.Y 30,272 

Newburyport.  Mass. .  .15,609 

Newcastle,  Ind 14,458 

Newcastle.  Pa 44 ,938 

New  Decatur.  Ala 6.250 

New  Haven,  Conn... .  162,519 

New  Iberia.  La 6,278 

'New  Kensington,  Pa..  .11,987 
New  London,  Conn.. .  .25,688 

Newman. Ga. 7,037 

New  Orleans.  La  .  ...387,21» 

.  New  Philadelphia,  Ohio 

1 0.7  IS 

Newport,  Ky 29.317 

Newport.  R.I... 30,255 

.•Newport  News,  Va. . . . 35.196 
New  Rochelle.N.Y... 36.213 

Newton,  la 6.627 

Newton,  Kas 9,781 

Newton,  Mass 46.038 

Newton  Center,  Mass.   7.000 

Ncwtonville.  Mass 7.900 

New  Ulm.  Minn 6,745 


Niles.0hio 13.080 

Nogales,  Ariz 5.199 

.Norfolk.  Neb 8,634 

Norfolk,  Va 115.777 

Norman,  Okla. 5,004. 


OLD-TIME    SONGS. 

This  volume  contains  the  words  a.id  music  of  choicest  gems 
f>£  the  old  and  familiar  songs  we  used  to  sing  when  we  wese 
voung.  It  ha&  been  ?  Banged  with  great  care  and  we  have  no 
Citation  in  saying  i  .at  it  is  the  best  book  of  the  kind  pub- 
tisixdd.  Bead  the  following  partial  table  of  Contents.  The 
book  contains  130  songs  besides  the  ones  mentioned  here  an4  » 
cos*  $50  in  sheet  music  form.  jf 

Willie,  We  Have  Missed  YOI&  f 
Wait  for  the  Wagon.  \ 

Oh  Dear  !  What  Can  the  Ma*.  ' 

ter  be. 

Oh  Why  do  you  Tease  Me. 
Oh,  Would  I  Were  a  Bird.       ,< 
cfh,  Would  I  Were  a  Boy  Again, 
Over  the  Garden  Wall. 
Pilgrim  Fathers,  The. 


Pat  Malloy. 

Pauper's  Drive,  The. 

Paddle  Youi-  Own  Canoei, 

Bobin  Adair. 

Bobinson  Crusoe. 

Bose  of  Allan  dale. 

Star  Spangled  Banner,  The. 

Saint  Tatrick  Was  a  Geatle- 

man. 

See  Saw,  Margery  Daw. 
Sing  a  Song  of  Sixpence. 
See,    the   Conquering    Hero 

Comes. 

Stop  Dat  Knockin*. 
Sally  in  Our  Alley. 
Scots.  What  Ha'e  Wi*  Wallace 

Bled. 

Sword  of  Bunker  Hill,  The. 
Spider  and  the  Ply,  The. 
Shells  of  Ocean. 
Steal  Away. 
Take  Back  the  Heart. 
Three  Fishers  Went  Sailing. 
Ten  Little  Niggers. 
'Tis  the  Last  Bose  of  Summer/ 
Ta-Ba-Ka-  Boom-De-Ay.  '•, 

Thou  Art  Gone  From  My  Gazai 
There  is  a  Green  Hill  far  Away»> 


JDoB>t  You  Go,  Tommy. 
£3ee  as  a  Bird. 
In  the  Gloaming. 
John  Anderson,  My  Joe. 
Katie's  Letter. 
Little  Annie  Booney. 
Larboard  Watch. 
Life  on  the  Ocean  Wave,  A. 
Low  Backed  Car,  The. 
Mollie,  Put  the  Kettle  On. 
Meet  Me  by  Moonlight. 
Nancy  Lee. 

0.  Boys  Carry  Me  'Long. 
On!  Susannah. 

Our  Flag  is  There. 

§Had  I  Wings  Like  a  Dove. 
Id  Oaken  Bucket,  The. 
Come,  Come  Away. 
Eocked  in  tLe  Cradle  of  the 
<       Deep. 

Bock  Me  to  Sieep?  Mother. 
Sparkling  and  Bright. 
There  was  an  Old  Woman. 
'Tis  the  Last  Bose  of  Summer.There  was  a  Jolly  Miller. 

This  book  of  176  pages  containing  the  above  entire  list  ot 
Bongs  and  many  others,  words  and  music,  will  be  sent  by  mail 
postpaid  upon  receipt  of  price.  Paper  Covsr,  35  cents.  Ad« 
aress  all  orders  to 

1.  a  OGILVIE  PUBLISHING  CO,,  57  Rose  Street,  New  York. 


THE  SCIENCE 
OF  A  NEW  LIFE 

4  JD»M  CD*  AH  H  ft 

.A  BOOK  FOR  ggffljg 


THE  SCIENCE  OF 
A   NEW   LIFE 

By  JOHN  COWAN,  M.D. 


Revised  and   largely    rewritten   by 

ARTHUR  ROSE  GUERARD,  M.A.,  B.Sc.,  M.D. 


A  Boo^  for 

BRIDES   and   WIVES 
GROOMS   and   HUSBANDS 


Contains  information  that  is  worth, 
hundreds  of  dollars  to  any  married 
couple  or  those  contemplating'  mar- 
riage. Endorsed  and  recommended  by  the  leading  medical 
and  religious  critics  throughout  the  United  States.  Unfolds 
the  secrets  of  a  happy  married  life,  which  are  in  many  cases 
learned  too  late. 


NOTE  A  FEW  OP  THE  CHAPTERS: 

Marriage  and  Its  Advantages; — 'Age  at  Which  to  Marry. — • 
Making  a  Choice, — .Love  Analyzed^ — -Qualities  the  Man  Should 
Avoid  in  Choosing. — Qualities  the  Woman  Should  Avoid  in 
Marrying. — The  Anatomy  and  Physiology  of  Generation  in. 
Woman.' — The  Anatomy  and  Physiology  of  Generation  in 
Man.. — 'Sexual  Love,  Its  Use  and  Abuse.- — Continence,  a  Reason- 
able Sex  Life  for  a  Man, — Children.  Their  Desirability.- — 
Eugenics  or  the  Science  of  Being  WdH-Born^ — -Birth  Control 
or  the  Limitation  of  Offspring. — The  Physiology  of  Intra- 
Uterine  Growth.— -Pregnancy  and  Prenatal  Care. — Complica- 
tions of  Pregnancy^ — (Confinement. — Management  of  the 
Mother  and  Child  After  Delivery.— Diseases  Peculiar  to 
Women. — -The  Menace  of  the  Sex  Diseases. — 6ex  Hygiene. — 
The  Venereal  Diseases. — False  Ideas  and  Traditions  About 
Sex. — The  Prophylaxis  and  Control  of  the  Venereal  Diseases. 
— Subjects  About  Which  More  Might  Be  Said. — Undesirable 
Child  Habits  and  Their  Correction.— ^A  Perfect  Married  Life. — 
A  Healthy  and  Happy  Home.— Conclusion, 


This  book  is  printed  on  good  quality  of  book  paper,  con- 
taining 310  pages,  illustrated,  bound  in  cloth  and  will  be 
sent  by  mail  securely  wrapped  for  $2.50  postpaid. 

J.  S.  OGILVIE  PUBLISHING  COMPANY 
57  Rose  Street  New  York,  N.  Y, 


Common  Sense 
In  Chess. 

By  ENAINUEL  LASKER 

If  you  desire  to  become  proficient  in  the 
game  of  chess,  and  to  learn  how  to  beat  your 
opponent,  you  should  not  fail  to  get  this  com- 
prehensive and  instructive  book  written  by  the 
master  mind  of  the  chess  world.  The  infor- 
mation contained  therein  is  invaluable  to  chess 
players  and  is  worth  many  times  the  price  of 
the  book.  It  deals  with  all  the  points  of  a  game 
of  chess  by  the  aid  of  general  principles,  de- 
duced from  considerations  concerning  the  nature 
of  chess  as  a  fight  between  two  brains,  and 
their  conception  is  b'ased  on  simple  facts.  It 
gives  openings  and  methods  of  play,  all  fully 
illustrated.  The  book  contains  140  pages, 
printed  on  best  quality  book  paper,  substantially 
bound  in  cloth  with  lithograph  linings. 

Price,  Sent  by  Hail,  Postpaid,  75  Cents 
Ask  your  bookdealer  for  it,  or  send  your  order  direct  to  us 


.1.  S.  OQILVIE  PUBLISHING 

57  Rose  Street.  New  York 


YB  23993 

ivl. 


6881 


Engineering 
Library 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


